University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository University of Calgary Press University of Calgary Press Open Access Books 2020-10 OTHERS OF MY KIND: Transatlantic Transgender Histories Bakker, Alex; Herrn, Rainer; Taylor, Michael Thomas; Timm, Annette F. University of Calgary Press Bakker, A., Herrn, R., Taylor, M. T., & Timm, A. F. (2020). OTHERS OF MY KIND: Transatlantic Transgender Histories. University of Calgary Press, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/112845 book https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca The print and ebook versions of this book feature full-color, high-resolution images. This Open Access version of the book includes low-resolution images in black and white only. press.ucalgary.ca OTHERS OF MY KIND: Transatlantic Transgender Histories by Alex Bakker, Rainer Herrn, Michael Thomas Taylor, and Annette F. Timm ISBN 978-1-77385-122-8 THIS BOOK IS AN OPEN ACCESS E-BOOK. 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Acknowledgement: We acknowledge the wording around open access used by Australian publisher, re.press, and thank them for giving us permission to adapt their wording to our policy http://www.re-press.org 4 In the Shadows of Society: Trans People in the Netherlands in the 1950s Alex Bakker When Christine Jorgensen’s 1952 transition gave hope to hundreds of trans people around the world seeking a similar way to become their true selves, it seemed that the near future for trans persons looked bright, especially in the Western European countries of Denmark and the Netherlands. Harry Benjamin thought of the Netherlands as a country with “more enlightened attitudes in matters of sex” and hoped that gender-affirmation surgery could take place there.1 In reality, Dutch society at that time offered transgender people very little space, as I explain below. Trans men remained invisible, as they were in other Western societies, because they were hidden or not distinguishable. Indeed there are hardly any sources on trans men in the Netherlands dating before 1959. As a result, the unfolding of transgender history in this time frame largely focuses on the lives of trans women. Trans women did have some sort of recognized existence, Figure 4.1: Aaïcha Bergamin, Dutch trans woman, around though they often worked under precarious economic 1960 [private collection]. 133 conditions in nightclubs and on the streets trans women had operations in Holland. of red-light districts. Adult entertainment How did these pioneering trans women was often the only way of making a living experience their medical treatments; how for trans women who expressed their were they treated by the doctors? What identity – and by becoming part of the medical and personal views did these night life, a trans individual was ostracized Dutch doctors develop? How did they from the larger society and categorized as understand or even explain the “transsexual morally depraved and/or psychiatrically phenomenon,” and how did they diagnose disturbed. Trans women who did not feel and screen trans persons seeking gender- they were up for this life stayed in the closet. affirmation surgery? Later in this chapter Some of them looked for help, talking I will explore the archival evidence about about their feelings with a family doctor or surgical options available to trans women in a psychiatrist. Almost all medical doctors the 1950s. lacked understanding of and knowledge Due to a lack of support from medical about transgender identities and interpreted authorities, the route to the Netherlands the cry for help as a sign of a specific mental stopped in 1955, to be followed by disorder – that is, the delusion of being of Casablanca as the new destination for the opposite sex. trans women who wanted surgery. In This description of the social situation the penultimate section of this chapter I for trans people will sound familiar to describe the service Dr. Burou provided readers of the works of trans historians there, as well as the possibilities, limitations, such as Susan Stryker, Joanne Meyerowitz, and significance of this treatment for trans Aaron Devor, and Christine Burns about people around the world. Did Burou’s clinic the realities of North America and the for gender-affirmation surgery, which lasted United Kingdom. So in which ways until the mid-1970s, qualify as an ideal did the Netherlands stand out? Was solution? The last section deals with the Harry Benjamin right in his optimistic first case of trans surgery performed within assessment? general, public health care in 1959 in the Through archival research in the Netherlands. Remarkably, this surgery was collections of Harry Benjamin and the openly presented to the public. How did Dutch psychiatrist Coen van Emde Boas, I this come about, and what was the response traced a network that was formed between to it? these two key figures – the latter in cooperation with Frederik Hartsuiker, who Transgender People in was the first Dutch psychiatrist involved. the Twilight In the mid-1950s, for a year and a half, the Netherlands replaced Denmark as the We know far less about transgender men place of refuge for trans women (mostly from the 1950s and 1960s than we do of American) seeking gender-affirmation trans women. Possibly this is because surgery. My guess is that around ten foreign trans men did not stand out, or possibly 134 4 | IN THE SHADOWS OF SOCIETY it is because they remained in the closet.2 seeking surgery. After having performed Transgender women could escape to defeminizing surgeries in Berlin in 1912, society’s shadows. Joining this subculture Richard Mühsam noted that trans men was not an option for transgender men, were also more likely to seek surgery whose freedom of movement was limited than trans women in the early twentieth by the gender designation on their official century. Unlike trans women, who could identification. People assigned female surgically self-castrate with a reasonable at birth were dependent on men in all chance of survival, trans men required a sorts of ways. Until 1956, Dutch married doctor’s assistance to remove breasts or the women were prohibited from buying a uterus.4 Despite these complications, it is car or a house, opening a bank account, certain that there were transgender men or undertaking any other legal action in the 1950s and 1960s who underwent without written permission from their a physical transition. In 1956, Van Emde husbands. Breaking out of this coercive Boas asked the pharmaceutical company mould required enormous fortitude. How Organon to please send him a supply of the far could one go? One common assumption new medicine “sustanon,” a brand name is that trans men tried to establish their for testosterone: “In connection with the gender identity by behaving in the most specific make-up of my practice, I deal with masculine ways possible. Perhaps even some patients who require treatment with an of those who – openly or not – identified androgen relatively frequently.”5 We know as lesbians were in fact transgender men. that the trans man who was operated on in This could include someone like the Dutch 1959 in Arnhem (see the final section of this novelist Andreas Burnier, who wrote about chapter) had been on hormonal treatment androgyny and the struggle with gender for some years.