Building a Better World for Transpeople: Reed Erickson and the Erickson Educational Foundation

Aaron Devor Nicholas Matte

ABSTRACT. This article argues that through its role as a national clearing house and funding agency, Reed Erickson and the Erickson Educational Foundation (EEF) actively directed the course of trans research and contemporary social services and policies effecting trans people. We structure this article around the EEF’s three key areas of work in the field of transsexualism: sup- port and referral, advocacy and education, and research and professional development. We show how these three main efforts lead to widespread medical and social change for trans people during the years of EEF operation. doi:10.1300/J485v10n01_07 [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: Website: © 2007 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Erickson Educational Foundation, Reed Erickson, Harry Benjamin, Zelda Suplee, history, transsexualism, activism, funding

BUILDING A BETTER WORLD funded entirely by Erickson himself,2 focused FOR TRANS PEOPLE: on three main areas over the next twenty years: REED ERICKSON AND THE ERICKSON homosexuality, transsexualism, and new age EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION spirituality. For example, one of its earliest and PART ONE1 longest running recipients of financial support was ONE Inc. of Los Angeles, the early homo- In 1964, wealthy Louisiana businessman phile organizationfounded in 1952 and still op- Reed Erickson launched the Erickson Educa- erating today, which received over $2 million tional Foundation (EEF) as a philanthropic or- dollars from Erickson.3 In its later years, ganization “to provide assistance and support Erickson and the EEF concentrated on what in areas where human potential seems limited have come to be called New Age Movements, by adverse physical, mental or social condi- funding, for example, the $60,000 first hard- tions, or where the scope of research was too cover edition publication of A Course in Mira- new, controversial or imaginative to receive cles, a spiritual text that Psychology Today,in traditionally oriented support.”1 The EEF, 1980, ranked “among the most widely read of

Aaron H. Devor, PhD, is Professor of Sociology, Dean, Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Victoria, Vic- toria, BC, Canada (E-mail: [email protected]). Nicholas Matte, MA, is doctoral student in the History Department and the Collaborative Graduate Program in Women’s Studies and Gender Studies at the University of Toronto (E-mail: [email protected]). This research was, in part, funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada and by the University of Victoria. This article would not have been possible without the assistance of many trans people, pro- fessionals, associates, and friends and family of Erickson who shared their memories, and sometimes their private collections with us. Monica Erickson and the Erickson family have been particularly generous in this regard. International Journal of Transgenderism, Vol. 10(1) 2007 Available online at http://ijt.haworthpress.com © 2007 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1300/J485v10n01_07 47 48 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM the new spiritually oriented literature”4 and contributions to research and professional de- continues to be used around the world.5 velopment.Weshowhow,together,thesethree Erickson’s money also funded many other maineffortsleadtowidespreadmedicalandso- prominent researchers in this area, including cial policy and attitude changes affecting trans Robert Masters and Jean Houston’s research people during the years the EEF was actively into non-drug-induced altered states of con- operating. sciousness, Stanley Krippner’s dream research, andJohnLilly’s earlyresearchintodolphinand computer communications systems.6 The bulk REED ERICKSON of the EEF’s projects during its most active years of operation, however, focused on trans- Reed Erickson was born as Rita Alma sexualism, and this was the area in which Erickson in El Paso, Texas on October 13, Erickson’s interest and support would come to 1917. Growing up, Erickson lived in the Olney be most influential. neighborhood of Philadelphia, and graduated The work that Erickson and the EEF did to from the Philadelphia High School for Girls. bring attention to and disseminate information Erickson studied secretarial and commerce about transsexualism was instrumental in mak- courses at Temple University from 1937-1940. ing tremendous improvements to the provision In 1938, Erickson’s mother, Ruth died and two of health care and other services for trans peo- years later, when Erickson had finished taking ple;7 it built a solid groundwork which fostered courses at Temple University, Erickson’s fa- the growth of diverse advocacy and support ther, Robert B. Erickson, moved the family to groups and was foundational to the develop- Baton Rouge, Louisiana where he had trans- ment of worldwide networks of transsexual re- ferred his lead smelting business. In Baton searchers. Recent scholarship has recognized Rouge, Erickson attended Louisiana State Uni- the important contributions of Erickson and the versity and became the first woman graduate EEF, but none have had the opportunity to fully from LSU’s school of mechanical engineering. explorethesubstanceofitswork.8 Thus,thisar- Erickson then spent two years in Mexico, where ticlelooks at the many ways thatReed Erickson the family also owned property, before moving and the EEF influenced contemporary social back to Philadelphiato work as an engineer and and medical policies, the lives of trans people, live with a woman partner in a lesbian relation- and the future development of trans research. ship. Together they were active in the Wallace Part one considers Erickson’s own vision and campaign of 1948, and took part in various role in the organization, as well as that of other left-wing social and political activities. As key actors, including Zelda Suplee and Harry Erickson was unable to find work in Philadel- Benjamin, among others. We argue that Erickson phia as a female engineer, in 1953 they moved and the EEF provided essential financial and to Baton Rouge where Erickson worked in the structural support to a fledgling movement, as family business and started an independent in the case of the many grants it provided to re- company making stadium bleachers. Through- searchers, and that through its role as a national out the 1950s Erickson “looked masculine,” clearing house and funding agency, Erickson with short hair, tailored clothes, and no make- and the EEF actively directed the course of up, apparently cross-dressing more when trav- trans research and contemporary social ser- eling outside Baton Rouge.9 In the mid- to vices and policies effecting trans people. Thus, late-1950sEricksonclaimedtohavetraveledto after briefly looking at Erickson’s own life and Casablanca and Tijuana for surgical proce- socio-historical context, we structure this arti- dures, and began taking testosterone.10 By the cle around the EEF’s three key areas of work in endofthedecade,thelesbianromanticrelation- the field of transsexualism: support and refer- ship had become an ongoing family-like in- ral, advocacy and education, and research and volvement which continued for many years. professional development. The article is di- Erickson was a very private person considered vided into two parts. Part one looks at both the by business associates and employees to be EEF’s support and referral and its education somewhatdistant.One person who had worked and advocacy work, and part two looks at its withEricksonatthetimerememberedthegrad- Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 49 ual transition from Rita to Reed as relatively the media initially represented Jorgensen as an well-accepted, likely because Erickson was a anomaly, a “medical miracle of modern sci- manager/owner.11 After the elder Erickson’s ence,” but when it was “discovered” that her death in 1962, Erickson and a sister inherited feminizingproceduresdidn’tactuallyincludea the family business, ran it successfully until the vaginoplasty or the ability to reproduce, she end of the decade, and then sold it to Arrow wasdeemedafraud,andtheproceduresshehad Electronics for several million dollars. In undergone were seriously questioned.13 1963, Erickson became a patient of Dr. Harry But the news of Christine Jorgensen’s sex- Benjamin, the most well-known medical advo- change was perhaps most important to so many cate of sex reassignment in the U.S., and the people precisely because Jorgensen repre- widely heralded “father of transsexualism.”12 sented a sign that there were others out there Erickson lived a colourful personal life and like them. Indeed, right after her initial media was very financially successful, eventually amass- appearance, her endocrinologist in Denmark, ing a fortune estimated at over $40 million. He Christian Hamburger, received 765 letters from earnedthisfortunelargelyfromtheoilrevenues people who wanted to know if they, too, could of properties he had acquired throughout the ar- have such medical procedures performed on eas surrounding Baton Rouge and was very them.14 For many people, Jorgensen repre- proud of his fiscal acumen. Over the next thirty sented a new possibility for gender expressions yearshelivedalternatelyinMexicoandtheLos and the possibility that modern medical tech- Angeles area, marrying a totalof four times and nologies could allow them to re-make them- becoming the father of two children with his selves physically for social rehabilitation, a second wife Aileen. He was devoted to his pet commonthemeinthepost-warperiodinAmer- leopard of twenty years, Henry, and lived for a ica.15 decade in an opulent home, dubbed the “Love And while the lengths to which Jorgensen Joy Palace Ashram,” which he had designed went to undergo feminizing treatments were and had custom built in Mazatlan, Mexico. Al- simply impossible for many who may have though a reclusive person, his interests and wantedtofollowinherfootsteps,theycertainly wealth brought him into contact with a tremen- weren’t beyond the scope of Reed Erickson in dous range of people who would themselves his quest for masculinization. So unlike so become historically significant in a number of many, who were disappointed to find out that fields, and its clear that Erickson sought out in- they would not be able to undergo the process novative people and projects in which he saw the media had popularized through its depic- great potential.He encouraged such projects fi- tions of Jorgensen, Erickson was able to seek nancially and seemed to take a great deal of out, travel to, and afford the few possibilities pleasure in the social power that his personal thenexisting.Moreimportantly,healsohadthe wealth allowed. He was a strong believer in de- resources and ability to actually increase the veloping social conditions that enabled indi- number and quality of services available to vidual self-sufficiency, and this vision framed transpeople,aprocesshebeganshortlyafterhis his EEF grants, which he saw as “seed money” own transition. invested in the future of human society. Erickson’s personal experience trying to lo- In the early 1950s, when Erickson began cate and obtain masculinizing procedures thinking about changing from female to male, would have made him aware of the many barri- the social realities for trans people were very ers facing such attempts, especially for those different from what they are today. Despite the without the financial resources to maintain em- overwhelming media attention given to Chris- ployment, travel, or pay high medical bills. tine Jorgensen’s male-to-female transition in Thus, in light of his generosity, creativity, vi- 1952, changing one’s sex was not a very feasi- sion, and interest in social issues, it may be no ble possibility. Jorgensen certainly wasn’t in- surprise that shortly after his own transition be- dicative of widespread acceptance for trans- gan, he formed the EEF, which would go on to sexualism or of the presence of medical encourage and provide many of the support systems which would allow people to easily structures now available, such as peer support change their sex. As David Serlin has shown, and professional networks, research publica- 50 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM tions, and international conferences, all of Benjamin was the first, and for some time the which were previously simply non-existent. only one in the U.S. experimenting with hor- Having already provided funding to ONE, monetherapyfortranspeople,takingthestance Erickson was aware of the importance and im- that it seemed to have a positive effect on what pact of large, open, easily-found organizations he saw as a group of desperate people. But his for sexual minorities, and he created the EEF to approach was extremely unique at the time. act as a central hub for transsexuals and the Mostdoctors,iftheyhadevenheardoftheword researchers and clinicians who would work transsexual,17 refused to treat trans patients, with them. other than to institutionalize them in psychiat- At the time of the EEF’s creation, however, ric facilities.18 Others, who were more open- mostgendervariantpeoplewereextremelyiso- minded,wouldagreeonlytorefillprescriptions lated and marginalized, as trans-positive medi- cal services were virtually non-existent, long- thatBenjaminhadbegun.Sodespitesignificant distance telephone calls and travel were very interest by people wanting to undergo “sex costly,andtobeknownasgendervariantwasto change” procedures and scattered interest by be extremely marginalized. Homosexuality various individual researchers and clinicians was still considered a mental illness and gender during the first half of the twentieth century,19 variance was considered both a sign of homo- there was almost nowhere for people to access sexuality and a serious pathology. Those who suchservicesintheU.S.,particularlybeforethe were willing to risk violence, imprisonment, mid-1960s. loss of family, friends, and livelihood might try In 1963, Erickson became a patient of Harry to find their way to small secretive communi- Benjamin, and their meeting would prove piv- tiesinmajorurbancentreswheretheycould“be otaltothefutureoftranssexualism.Benjamin’s themselves” for brief periods of time or write willingness and interest in helping trans people fearful letters to people like Jorgensen or fitwellwithErickson’svision,drive,andfinan- Benjamin, but most simply closed that part of cial resources. Together they imagined a future themselves off or furtively lived double lives. in which trans people were recognized, under- Only the most privileged and determined stood, respected, and could access medical ser- among those who wanted to change their gen- vices and social support. Perhaps most impor- der or sex were able to find their way to the few tantly, they each had access to a significant set doctors in the world who might be able to help of resources that could make such a vision a re- them. For others, their lot was isolation, se- ality: Benjamin, the medical expertise and au- crecy, and shame, or worse, suicide, addiction, thority, and Erickson, the commitment and fi- mental illness, poverty, incarceration, and nancial resources to fund research programs abuse at the hands of those who purported to be andsocialandmedicalservicesfortranspeople. official “helpers.” For example, one trans- Atthetimeoftheirmeeting,therewasnorec- woman who wrote to Benjaminin 1972 relayed the story of having told her parents about her ognized professional group familiar with or gender identity: “my father threatened to beat supportive of trans people, and individuals me within and inch of my life. My mother told such as Benjamin were fairly marginal in terms me that if I didn’t ‘straighten myself out,’ I of medical legitimacy and recognition. The would be institutionalized. The family doctor ability of people like Reed Erickson and Chris- and our minister agreed.”16 tine Jorgensen, then, to change their sex, rested Clearly, resources for trans people were ex- on their being able to locate and access individ- tremely rare. Despite the fact that Jorgensen’s ual practitioners, like Hamburg and Benjamin, “sex change” was widely publicized by the who were willing to experiment. But Erickson American media, there were still no surgeons and Benjamin both saw a need for what we who would perform sex reassignment surgery wouldnow callatrans-positivemedicalandso- in the United States, nor were there many doc- cial system, and together they advocated and tors who were willing to administer cross-gen- developedanumberofprojectsthatwouldreal- der hormones to their transsexual patients. ize that vision. Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 51

THE ERICKSON EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT AND REFERRAL FOUNDATION Recognizing the lack of accessible and ade- Erickson incorporated the Erickson Educa- quate social resources facing trans people, the tionalFoundation(EEF)inBatonRouge,Loui- EEF provided a front-line safety net through siana in 1964, only a year after his first meeting their support and referral systems. At their pub- with Benjamin. Over the next twenty years, he lic offices in Baton Rouge and New York, they put a significant amount of his personal wealth providedone-on-oneemotionalsupportandin- towards his goal of providing seed money to formal counseling for the many transsexuals projects which had the possibility of liberating who came to their offices. Many trans people the “human potential” in which he had such would remember the EEF support system as a great faith. The EEF was active between 1964 life-line that kept them alive through times and 1984 and had public offices in New York whensuicideseemedtobetheonlywayout.For and Baton Rouge, as well as private offices in example, one trans woman, after having swal- Ojai and Los Angeles, California;Phoenix, Ar- lowedabottleof sleepingpills,phonedtheEEF izona; Mazatlan, Mexico and Panama City, to “say good-bye to a woman there who had Panama. The Foundation was always under the given me some literature” (presumably Zelda), close direction of Erickson himself, although who then had the police trace the call and send he preferred to remain a behind-the-scenes ac- an ambulance; as the woman would later re- tor, leaving its day-to-day operations to Zelda member: “I was alone and if not for that sweet Suplee, the EEF’s Assistant Director (and later woman on the other end of the phone line at the Erickson Educational Foundation ...Iwould Director), with whom he was always in close 20 contact. Suplee was a plump, enthusiastic and not be here.” Clearly, then, the direct one- on-one support offered by the EEF was essen- dynamic woman with steel-gray hair and a tial, and Suplee’s personal skills and commit- strong interest in spirituality, alternative heal- ment were crucial for many trans people. ing and nudism. She was exuberant and enthu- Their support and referral system, was then siastic about her work with trans people and did theEEF’s mostimportantfunctiontotranspeo- most of the EEF’s public relations work. She ple in crisis. One woman, for example, a Bel- alsoactedasofficemanager,directingadminis- gian immigrant to the United States in 1976, re- tration staff in the maintenance of the EEF’s memberedlooking for informationand support public offices which acted as resource centers in the United States. She found it through an- on transsexualism. other transwoman she had met in a pub, who The EEF engaged in a wide variety of pro- connected her to the EEF. She would later de- jects and approaches to address both the needs scribe herself as “a lonely, 22-year-old trans- of trans people and professionals who wanted womanwhichhadjuststartedhormonetherapy to work with them, as well as to fund research from a doctor which didn’t particularly know abouttranssexualism.TheEEF’sapproachwas what he was doing nor care about my health” interdisciplinary and multi-pronged, and the [sic].21 At the EEF, she, like many others, not bulk of the EEF’s work in transsexualism fo- only found the spiritual support she needed, but cused on three main areas: (1) support and re- was also given advice, an information packet, ferrals, (2) advocacy and education, and (3) re- and connected with trans pen-friends for social search and professional development. A more support. in-depth look at each of these aspects of the In addition to providing individual personal EEF’s work shows how Erickson’s general vi- supportfortranspeople,theEEFworkedonde- sion,combinedwithhisabilitytoputthisvision veloping more broad networks of social sup- intopracticehadamajorimpactontranshistory port and also clearlyrecognizedtheimportance and has significantlyinfluenced our present so- of peer-support networks. Especially in major cialcircumstances,especiallyinitsfocusonde- urban centers such as San Francisco and New veloping professional expertise and improving York City, it could and did refer people to theprovisionof medicalservicesfor transsexu- peer-supportgroupsandhighlightedtheforma- als. tion of new groups in its newsletter. For exam- 52 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM ple, in 1972, it noted that St. Luke’s Hospital and any other professionals who would be Mental Health Clinic in New York City was willing to work with trans people. planning to establish a weekly group therapy In compiling this referral list, the EEF not session “to help individuals find more comfort- only made existing resources available, it also able ways of relating to themselves and to oth- encouraged the development of new resources. ers while living in their chosen gender identi- The EEF sought out new contact information ties.”22 They announced the formation of a for its referral list from a variety of sources. For group of transvestites and transsexuals in Los example, Dr. Harold Lief, Director of the Cen- Angeles“intoaformal,non-profitorganization terfor SexualStudiesattheUniversityof Penn- for mutual help and companionship,” and pub- sylvania gave the EEF access to the 56 medical lished the contact information for the group.23 schools associated with the Centre, which, as Likewise, in 1976, the EEF advertized that stated in the EEF newsletter “helped to add readers could contact the EEF to access its “list many names to our list.”27 The EEF also sought of the growing number of transvestite-trans- new contact information for the referral list sexual social and self-help groups and periodi- from itsnewsletterreaders, asking themtosend cals.”24 in the names of their own physicians as recom- The EEF also maintained lists of the few mendationsforothersandsothattheEEFcould trans community newsletters being produced approachthemintheinterestsofthewidertrans by small local movements or through individ- community. If a physician was interested in ual efforts. It kept file copies of these newslet- working with trans patients, the EEF would ters and made contact information available to send them educational information that would inquirers about how to receive copies. For ex- give them some of the background necessary to ample, the EEF kept in touch with newsletter potentially treat these patients with hormone editors such as Rupert Raj, who published therapy, “in an attempt to help build compe- Metamorphosis in Canada (first in Calgary and tence in this new area.”28 Likewise, they could then Toronto). It was through such connections also connect such practitioners to other that the EEF was able to respond to inquiries specialists with whom they could confer. from all over the world and encourage the de- Bybringingtranspeople’sneedstotheatten- velopment of what would become an interna- tion of medical professionals, the EEF encour- tional trans movement. Whereas Jorgensen’s aged physicians who might never have ven- surgeons, Jorgensen herself, and Benjamin had tured to investigate transsexualism to develop all received hundreds of letters requesting as- the expertise they needed in order to be able to sistance,therehadbeenverylittletheycoulddo fulfill the health care needs of the trans people to respond to the majority of such requests. But who came to the EEF so desperate for help. bythe1970s,theEEFhadbecometheorganiza- Thus, the referral system fulfilled two impor- tion to which one could turn for support and it tant sets of needs that the EEF always saw as acted as a central hub of information. complimentary:those of trans people and those One of the key resources the EEF created to of the medical profession. By the Fall of 1969, provide for the needs of trans people was its re- the EEF had been able to contact and list physi- ferral list of sympathetic and knowledgeable cians in 21 states, and their goal was to eventu- professionals.Duringthe1960sand1970s,this ally have referral information for every state resource proved invaluable to trans people who and province in North America.29 Throughout were unableto access trans-positivehealthcare 1970, the EEF assured newsletter readers of its ontheirown.TheEEFproudlyadvertisedthatit continuedprogress inthedevelopmentofitsre- had developed and maintained the only “refer- ferral network,30 and by 1971, its list included ral service with national listings”25 and that it 250 names nationwide.31 The EEF also devel- could provide trans people with “referral to a oped and maintained a less extensive, but nev- professional network for treatment.”26 The re- ertheless important referral list of legal and ferral list was an ongoing project and the EEF religious professionals to whom it could like- encouraged many professionals to become a wise refer inquirers. part of its referral network, including general The referral list project was particularly im- practitioners, medical specialists, counselors, portant because of the high volume of diverse Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 53 requests the EEF received from across the U.S. system that the EEF developed was so impor- and around the world. That the EEF could re- tant to so many, it was perhaps its role as an spond to such requests with accurate and sup- organization that could intervene in social, portive information was essential to the many medical,andlegalaffairsonbehalfoftranspeo- people who contacted it. When trans people plethatwasmoresignificantincreatingasocial wrote to the EEF, they would get a response shifttowardstranspeoplebeingconsideredasa from Suplee, who provided encouragement, distinct minority group deserving of social outlinedcurrenttreatmentpossibilitiesandsent respect, medical recognition, and legal rights. referrals to three physicians in their area with whom they could make an appointment. As Sa- rah Santana, a former EEF staff member re- ADVOCACY AND EDUCATION called, the EEF’s responses were “basically holding their hand and telling them that they During the 1960s and 1970s individual trans weren’taloneintheworld,”32 andthephysician people often had to deal with institutions or in- referral list was a key part of that message. dividuals who simply had no knowledge of Whereas Jorgensen had only had Benjamin to trans issues. On an individuallevel,this created refer people to,33 and Benjamin had to turn many problems for trans people, and on a sys- down many requests because the writers were temiclevel,itmeanttheirerasureandmarginal- unable to come to one of his practices in New ization. The EEF worked towards social solu- York or San Francisco, the EEF had developed tions on both these levels and its advocacy and an important network of individuals to whom education work was an important part of this. they could refer otherwise isolated trans peo- The EEF was able to intervene in specific indi- ple. The EEF’s centralized referral system was vidual cases by providing medical and legal in- a place to which trans people could turn and formation, referrals to sympathetic clergy, re- know that they could get reliable information cent research publications and information on and have their questions answered. It provided surgicalprocedures,aswellasothersupporting some cohesion to the scattered individual documentation. For example, the EEF pro- efforts of local activists, individual medical vided identification cards for trans people who practitioners, or legal or social service provid- were being administered hormone treatment to ers. carry with them as official verification in case By bringing together existing contact infor- of police harassment; the cards included such mation, creating a system of support and refer- identifying features as name, height, weight, rals, and contacting various professionals (in- and date of birth, as well as a statementthat “the cluding many physicians) to encourage them to undersigned is required to live in the gender of considertheissues facingtrans people,theEEF his/her choice for six months or more as a was able to take up the work of supporting trans pre-requisite to sex-reassignment surgery.”35 people on a broad social scale, thus providing a Similarly, the EEF advocated for individual base of security for what would become the trans people in circumstances where social trans social movement. Its emphasis on profes- structures were not in place. For example, in sional co-operation and the fact that it was fully 1973, it intervened in the “interrogation of a fundedbyoneverypowerfulandinvolvedindi- postoperative applicant at the Naturalization vidual greatly influenced and shaped how trans Dept. to give relevant information on tran- people, and transsexuals in particular, would sexualism and the sex reassignment operation cometoberecognizedandtreated.Moreimme- as well as on the character of the individual,” diately, the referral system provided trans peo- and eventually, citizenship was granted to this ple with information that was vital to them, and individual.36 many felt that the EEF had saved their lives. As Erickson also recognized the importance of one transwoman remembered, “the EEF was broad social education to increase awareness life-saving for me in those very dark and seem- and support for trans people, which would, in ingly hopeless days . . . and I continueto be very theory, eventually diminish the need for direct grateful for their support and concrete help.”34 advocacy on behalf of trans people. This ap- And while the individual support and referral proach, of wider social education, fit with his 54 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM overall vision of creating the social conditions 1971SupleetookpartintheFirstNationalCon- in which individuals could be self-sufficient ference on Religion and the Homosexual in and free from social oppression. A large part of New York City.37 Likewise, in 1974, the EEF the EEF’s advocacy for trans people, then, in- attended the 5th Annual Workshop Seminar of volved general education on transsexualism, the National Association of Police Community and the EEF worked with a broad range of so- Relations Officers with Elliot Blackstone, the cial institutions in an attempt to ensure that its Police Community Relations Officer in San message of understanding and acceptance for Francisco who worked closely with the EEF transpeoplewouldbeheardthroughoutsociety. and trans people in the Bay area.38 At this na- The EEF’s education and advocacy work in- tional workshop, the EEF co-hosted a “hospi- volved three main forms of public outreach. tality hour,” including a screening of the film First, the EEF conducted speaking engage- “I’m SomethingElse,” which was an important ments at colleges and universities and profes- part of the EEF public outreach campaigns. At sional schools and conferences. Through these talks, it specifically encouraged and supported thisvenue,theEEFalsomadeitspamphletsand the development of expertise on trans issues in resources accessible to law enforcement offi- the areas of law, religion, higher education, cers from around the U.S. Suplee was almost psychology, social services, and medicine. always the one to represent the EEF at such Second, it developed its own print resources, events, and as such was well-known as the including, most importantly, the EEF newslet- public face of the EEF. ter and EEF information pamphlets. Finally, it The EEF kept a busy schedule of speaking used traditionalmediasuch as television,radio, engagements, reporting, for example, that in magazine and newspapers to self-consciously April1974alone,theEEFwasinvolvedineight construct its educationand advocacy campaign different presentations throughout the Eastern for the wider public, and it saw positive media United States.39 The EEF also publicized other attention as proof of the public acceptance it educational efforts, especially of those to sought. whom it had granted funding, since it saw them All of these projects were somewhat sepa- as part of its wider vision and representative of rate, but they were also designed to respond to a the shared social goals between trans people variety of needs in a co-ordinated fashion, so and the professionals who worked with them. they also clearly overlapped as well. For exam- Like its support and referral system, the EEF ple, audio-visual and print resources were used saw its advocacy and education work as na- at speaking engagements, while discussions tional,ifnotinternational,inscope,andworked and questions raised at such speaking engage- to foster a network of potential speakers across mentswereinturnusedtodevelopnewprintre- the United States, often co-operating with re- sources. And yet the EEF developed each of gional or local groups to ensure national cover- these separate education and advocacy efforts age.Likewise,itspoketomanycollegeanduni- distinctly, and as such, its speaking engage- versity classes in addition to professional ments, print resources, and media involvement groups. The EEF always included trans people each warrant particular attention. EEF speaking engagements were an impor- themselves in its speaking engagements, and in tant part of the public outreach work central to 1972 it advertised an ongoing and increased its education and advocacy focus. Presenta- need for volunteer trans people who were will- 40 tions were free of charge and were generally ing to participate in such presentations. The provided to professional organizations or uni- centrality of transsexuals to the EEF talks was versity and college classes. Usually organized an important part of their public outreach by Suplee, they were sometimes in response to speakers’ series. Wendy McKenna and Suzanne requests,andsometimesinitiatedbytheEEFit- Kessler, sexuality researchers and authors of self in an attempt to educate groups believed to the influential 1985 text Gender: An Enthno- be in need of such information, such as medical methodological Approach, like many others, students, lawyers, law enforcement officers, used the EEF to introduce their classes to social workers, and clergy. For example, in transsexualism. McKenna surmised Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 55

they must have hand picked the people and Children with Gender Identity Distur- who got to speak at these colleges ...ev- bances(1971),LegalAspectsofTranssexualism ery single one was attractive, credible, ar- andInformationonAdministrativeProcedures ticulate and somebody who was able to (1971 and 1973), Religious Aspects of Trans- get the students to sympathize with them, sexualism (1972 and 1978), Counseling the with their story. They were people it was Transexual: Five Conversations with Profes- impossible to see as any other gender than sionals in Transexual Therapy (1973), An Out- they presented themselves.41 line of the Medical Management of the Tran- sexual (1973), Information on Transexualism McKenna and Kessler also recalled the useful for Law Enforcement Officers (1974), Guide- print literature that the EEF brought to their lines for Transexuals (1974 and 1976), and classrooms, to leave with both themselves and Transsexualism: Information for the Family interested students.42 (1977). The second aspect of the EEF’s education The pamphlets were used as part of the gen- andadvocacypublicoutreachcampaignwasits eral information packages sent out to trans peo- print literature, which included an original ple,professionals,andotherswhorequestedin- newsletter and pamphlet series as well as re- formation, and they were also used as reference prints of popular and professional articles on material. The information compiled in these relevant subjects. The newsletter and pamphlet booklets was also used in a variety of more for- series were especially important in that they mal publications, including journal articles, couldbecraftedforandusedinavarietyofsitu- book chapters, and in the curricula of various ations and purposes; they could be distributed higher education institutions. At the time, these at speaking engagements and through the mail, publicationswere of tremendous importanceto andwereeasilykept,reproducedandcirculated many people because there were so few re- for years to come. sources available to trans people or profession- The EEF newsletter was published quarterly als working in the field, and because they were between 1969 and 1976 and again briefly in written in a straight-forward, accessible man- 1983. In it the EEF reported an ongoing dia- ner. Well-known sexuality researcher and au- logue between the EEF, trans people, and the thor Leonore Tiefer, for example, who worked professionals who worked with them. It also in the sexuality program at New York City’s provided a general “progress report” on both Bellevue Hospital in the mid-1970s, remem- trans issues in general and the work of the EEF bers Suplee and the EEF pamphlets as one of specifically. The newsletter, although com- the only reliable sources of information about piled by Suplee (and proofread by Erickson), transsexualism then available.44 Teifer, like was a venue for networking, the distribution of many others, valued these resources so highly information, research announcements and re- that she retained them for over 30 years. They quests, and legal updates. It also announced were reprinted well into the 1980s by successor new grant recipients and congratulated trans organizations to the EEF, Janus Information people and professionals on their various per- Services and J2CP, and can today be found re- sonal accomplishments.43 The newsletter was produced on the internet with endorsements as free, but the EEF occasionally requested dona- to their continuing relevance.45 tions to help with production costs. Recipients The pamphlets were written by Harriet rarely actually made such donations, and the Slavitz, a free-lance writer in New York with newsletter was nevertheless widely distributed whom the EEF contracted for this work. Their free of charge. contents, however, were developed by various The newsletters provided dynamic, and con- advisory boards the EEF had convened for that cise,up-to-datenews, buttheEEF“pamphlets” purpose.46 The advisory boards, which in- (small booklets, averaging 15-30 pages in length), cluded medical, religious and legal advisory which it published throughout the 1970s, of- boards, were an important part of the EEF’s fered specific in-depth information on various public image, and the presence of respectable aspects of transsexualism. The series included professionals on these boards was clearly in Information for the Family of the Transexual keeping with Erickson’s vision of respectabil- 56 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM ity for transsexualism. Members of the advi- formation on civil rights, employment and job sory boards over the years included Rev. Ted training, how to manage identification docu- McIllvenna, director of the Glide Foundation ments such as birth certificates, social security UrbanCentreatGlideMethodistChurchinSan cards, and driver’s licenses, as well as what to Francisco, Dr. Evelyn Hooker, chair of the Na- do in case of arrest. Dedicated “to those tran- tional Institute of Mental Health Task Force on sexuals who so generously provided informa- Homosexuality, Dr. Marie Mehl, consultant tion from their personal experiences with legal and criminologist, and Dr. Benito Rish, a plas- and administrative procedures,”51 it spoke di- tic surgeon in New York City, and well-known rectly from and to the legal experiences of trans sexuality researcher Dr. John Money, among people, and was developed in conjunction with others. the legal professionals who may have other- The pamphlets generally dealt with one par- wise been inaccessible to many trans people ticular social institution or group’s relationship facing such legal problems. to transsexualism, attempting in the process to The second legal booklet, Information on meet the needs of both trans people and mem- Transsexualism for Law Enforcement Officers bers of that profession or group. For example, (1974), was designed “to put law enforcement for Religious Aspects of Transexualism (1972) officers abreast of the latest medical findings the EEF had “canvassed a number of distin- with regard to gender-disturbed persons ...in guished clergymen of various faiths who [had] the hope that this information may be useful in generously agreed to share with us their consci- assisting in the current progressive review of entious reflections on the religious and ethical police policies and practices.”52 This booklet aspectsofthisquestion.”47 Asnotedinthepam- answered commonly-asked questions about phlet, this project was based on the “vital con- transsexualism and responded to the needs and cern [of many transexuals] as to the views of inquiries of law enforcement professionals, theirclergyonthetransexualcondition.”48 And complimenting and reflecting other work the while the text stressed that no churches had EEF had done with policedepartmentsand pro- formed official opinions on the matter of fessional organizations across the United States, transsexualism, and that the individual clergy and it was based on questions the EEF had been contacted by the EEF represented only their asked by law enforcement professionals.53 own personal individual views rather than offi- In addition to providing trans people and cial church interpretations, their trans-positive professionals who encountered them with in- perspectives were nevertheless significant. That formation, the pamphlet series also allowed the theseindividualviewpointshadbeen“enriched EEF to demonstrate the supposed support for by personal experience in counseling tran- trans people of many well-respected profes- sexuals or members of other sexual minori- sionals groups. But this focus on establishing ties”49 was particularly important in keeping respectability for trans people was perhaps with the EEF’s vision that education and advo- most evident in its third form of education and cacy could end the social oppression of trans advocacy work: public outreach through the people. Likewise, the pamphlet was also de- media. Indeed, the EEF saw the media as a cen- signed to educate other clergy who had not had tral component of social change, and when previous experience with trans people and who dealing with radio, television, magazine or may have otherwise had a more negative reac- newspaper, the EEF drew on its connections tion to trans people in their congregations. with medical professionals, lawyers and law Similarly, the EEF also published two legal enforcementofficers,religiousleaders,univer- booklets in association with its legal advisory sities, colleges and professional schools to board,whichithadconvenedin1970atthesug- show that trans people could thrive and be gestion of one of its lawyers and as a result of respected in all aspects of social life. having received so many legal inquiries.50 The Through its third form of education and ad- first pamphlet, Legal Aspects of Transsexualism vocacy work the EEF engaged the media and Information on Administrative Procedures, though newspaper and magazine articles, tele- printedin1971andreprintedin1973,dealtwith vision and radio programs and documentary legal issues facing transsexuals, including in- films. Pieces over which the EEF had some Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 57 measureofcontrolwereclearlycraftedtobein- sionals in the helping disciplines were formative both for trans people and the general featured.60 public. Articles such as “My Daughter Changed Sex”54 which appeared in Good Housekeeping It also announced that the series was scheduled in 1973 with assistance from the EEF, could tobedistributedlaterthatyearinNewYorkand have a huge impact on the general public, and Los Angeles. Similarly, in 1970, the EEF had the EEF saw such pieces as a huge opportunity announced that the Wendy Kohler, of the Na- to sway public opinion and advance its goals. tional Transexual Counseling Unit (NTCU) in TheEEFalsoalwaysmadeapointofencour- San Francisco, which was partially funded by aging reporters to include its contact informa- the EEF, was hosting a live one-hour bi-weekly tion in every article. For example, one particu- radio broadcast from Crown-Zellerbach Square larly influential article in nationally-circulated thatwouldfeaturein-depthdiscussionsontrans LOOK magazine in January 1970 called “The topics with trans people and professionals who Transsexuals: Male or female?”55 essentially worked with them.61 “introduced transsexualism to the nation,” as Kohler and the NTCU were particularly physician and EEF advisor James Lorio re- good at organizing public outreach events that called.56 Importantly, it included contact infor- also took full advantage and recognized the im- mationfortheEEF.SarahSantanaremembered portance of media. For example, also in 1970 that “the letters were raining after that. When- shehostedapaneldiscussionwithElliotBlack- ever there was something in a major publica- stone that brought together speakers from a tion, you know, that people could get the ad- variety of social services and media outlets, in- dress of the Foundation from, we got this flood cluding the San Francisco Chronicle and KQED-TV, where both media representatives of letters.”57 In fact, the Spring 1970 newsletter gave their perspective on the importance of even advised readers that the EEF had had to positive media representations of trans people employ additional secretaries to help respond (as well as, of course, reporting on the event it- to the mass inquiries it was receiving as a result 62 58 self). of the article. Like other aspects of its work, The EEF also reported on a variety of radio theEEFsawsucharticlesasparticularlyimpor- and television appearances that it hadn’t neces- tant in providing social legitimacy for trans sarily organized directly, seeing all positive people, and it encouraged trans people to use media representations as a step in the right di- the LOOK article as a tool to initiate and sup- rection and seeing itself as playing a role in al- port discussions about transsexualism with most anything to do with transsexualism. In- their families. Indeed, in its Letter from a deed,becausetheEEFwas involvedinso many Brother pamphlet, “Brad” wrote about how his projects, most media representations could in then-brotherhad writtenhima letterexplaining fact be traced back in some way to the EEF, thatshewasnowhissister,andhadincludedthe whether or not the connection was made ex- LOOK article to help him better understand plicit. For example, Vicki Maymon, who had whatthatmeant.59 This was yetanother example originally appeared in the LOOK magazine ar- of how various EEF efforts built upon each ticle,was subsequently interviewedin a variety other. of prominent media outlets, including on The EEF also encouraged and assisted in the NBC’s Radio Monitor program with Barbara development of television and radio programs Walters.63 Clearly, the EEF saw the media as that interviewed trans people or professionals important collaborators in shifting public opin- who worked with them. For example, it 1973 it ion towards trans people, and it frequently announced that in Washington, D.C. gaugeditsabilitytoeffectivelyusethemediaas a sign of success. For example, in the Spring of A series of 10-minute segments on tran- 1975, the EEF newsletter proclaimed sexualism was presented by Metromedia News, Channel 5-TV [from] March 5-9, When a subject like transexualism reaches on the 10 PM News program nightly. In- two episodes of national television, then terviews with transexuals [and] profes- we know it has become part of the na- 58 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM

tional medical-social topical scene. We ing Suplee and several transsexuals. For exam- have come a long way from the pioneer- ple, in 1971 the film was presented to students ing days of Dr. Harry Benjamin’s early in the psychology department of Farleigh lectures when many of his colleagues Dickinson University in New Jersey as part of considered him foolhardy to be con- such a panel.66 Likewise, it was shown at the cerned in research and treatment of tran- State University of New York at Stony Brook, sexualism [sic].64 Long Island in several departments: the Uni- versity Health Services Department, the Col- Indeed, the EEF saw the media as so important lege of Medicine and Allied Health Profes- to its work, that in 1980 it awarded Dr. Richard sions, and also to a class of paramedics.67 The Sabatino of the University of Rhode Island a followingyear,itwasusedinagraduateclassin $35,000 grant for a project called“A Social and Human Sexuality at the University of Connect- Economic Analysis of the Activities of the icut.68 In April of 1972, it was also shown to ap- Erickson Educational Foundation,” which was proximately 135 people at a presentation on to be based on the scrapbooks of national and transexualism led by EEF grantee and crimi- international media clippings that Suplee and nologist Dr. Marie Mehl, who had by then be- the EEF office staff had collected over the come the EEF Director of Education and Re- years, as an assessment of the EEF’s success. search, at the Midwestern Regional Conference The EEF also participated in and promoted of theAmericanHumanisticPsychology Asso- several films, which, like so many of its other ciationinChicago.69 Thefilmwas alsoselected coordinatedefforts,couldthenbeusedinavari- to be screened at the Brooklyn Arts & Culture ety of ways, in this case mainly at professional Association’s Annual Film Festival in October and public speaking engagements, where such of 1971.70 films could be screened. In 1971 the EEF spon- But “I Am Not This Body” wasn’t the only sored production of a 28-minute documentary film the EEF used in its presentations. For ex- film called “I am Not This Body,” which fea- ample, it also used a research film produced by tured a group discussion in the EEF’s New Colin Markland at the University of Minnesota York office between Pamela Lincoln, de- that had been awarded the National American scribed as “a famous television and movie ac- Urological Association Meeting film award in tress,” Zelda Suplee, Dr. Leo Wollman (a gen- 1971 in Chicago.71 The EEF used it in a presen- eral practitioner trained by Harry Benjamin, tation that included “Vocational Rehabilita- then-president of the American Society of Psy- tion, Federal and State Parole and Probation of- chosomatic Dentistry and Medicine, and an fice representatives as well as members of the avidmedicalspokespersonontranssexualism), medical, psychiatric and psychological profes- and two transwomen, one of whom was intro- sions,” among other places.72 In 1972, it was ducedaspre-operativeandtheotheraspost-op- also screened at the American College of Sur- erative.65 In the film, Lincoln was ostensibly geons Annual MeetinginAtlanticCity.73 Simi- seeking out information on transsexualism larly, in 1973, the EEF advertised the film “I’m from the perspective of someone who knew SomethingElse,”producedbyDeborahPecker nothing about it, and her inclusion in the film for Canadian CTV Television Network, which was presumably in part to add celebrity appeal featured both American and Canadian medical and to encourage transsexualism as a topic of specialists as well as an electrologist and three interest to the mainstream public. The pretense male-to-femaletranssexuals,andsubsequently of this film was importantly consistent with the announced that the office had since been inun- EEF’s overall perspective, demonstrating the dated with requests for the film.74 The EEF also interchange between medical experts, trans worked with a number of smaller audio-visual people themselves, the uneducated public, the projects, including, for example, “a color-slide media, and the EEF, whose role was to negotiate and interview presentation” at the Stanford this exchange. Gender Dysphoria Clinic in 1976.75 The film was available to be rented from the The EEF’s work in advocacy and education EEF office for a moderate fee and could also be through public outreach illustrates one of its requestedaspartofaneducationalpanelfeatur- key values and goals: the improvement of the Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 59 lives of trans people through the dissemination cialchangefortranspeopleinvolvedtwomajor of information about transsexualism between areas of activity: its support and referral net- andamongvariousprofessionalsandtranspeo- work, and its education and advocacy work. ple as well as throughout mainstream society. The EEF developed communication networks TheEEFworkedtoinformandeducatethegen- andinformationservicesthatdirectlybenefited eral public in an attempt to reduce the mar- trans people, and it also created and dissemi- ginalizationof individualtrans peopleand their nated general, introductory information about families on a personal level, and it also focused transsexualism to the mainstream public and to intently on educating professionals and the professionals who might deal with trans peo- wider public. ple. The EEF also saw a clear need for more The EEF developed key strategies to meet in-depthinvestigationandresearchexploration their goal of encouraging increased acceptance oftransissues,andsawvariousprofessionalsas of trans people. Firstly, it established support keyplayersinsolvingthelegal,socialandmed- and referral systems to build networks and pro- ical issues facing trans people, such as lack of vide essential support to trans people. Secondly, adequate health care services, discrimination, it used advocacy and education strategies to and legal problems. Erickson clearly felt that fight for broader social awareness and to change professional development and expertise on public perceptions of trans people, including trans issues was key to meeting the needs of professional attitudes towards trans people in trans people. Through its newsletter and pam- the arenas of law, religion, and medicine. The phlet series, and to a certain extent through its EEF’s involvementwith so many collaborative advisory boards, the EEF had brought together ventures was central to its strategy of promot- individual professionals interested in trans is- ing, coordinating and, where needed, creating sues, and felt that further support of such work networks which could strategically educate was necessary for broader social change. Thus, those in positions of power and social legiti- the EEF provided major financial support for macy about trans people and issues–those who research and professional development con- couldeitherpositively(ornegatively)effectthe cerning transsexualism in two major forms: its lives of trans people on a broad, social level. granting program and its sponsorship of inter- The EEF also worked extensively with pro- national symposia, both of which will be the fessionals to encourage and guide new re- focus of part two of this article. search. Part two of this article will look at the The EEF provided grants to both individuals EEF’s role in developing the research and pro- and institutions working in the provision of fessional infrastructure that would come to in- medical and social services for trans people. It fluence much of the medical, legal, and social also provided funding for those doing research treatment of trans people. in areas it was thought would benefit trans peo- ple (such as law, etiology, and history, among others). Many of the professionals who would BUILDING A BETTER WORLD come to play important roles in the field of FOR TRANS PEOPLE: transsexual medicine in particular were ini- REED ERICKSON AND THE ERICKSON tially funded in part (if not wholly) by the EEF, EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION including Harry Benjamin, John Money, Rich- PART TWO ard Green, Milton Diamond, Roger Gorski, Don Laub, Ira Pauly, Anke Erhardt, and June Part one of this article looked at the forma- Reinisch, among others. Likewise, the EEF tion of Reed Erickson’s Erickson Educational funded many non-medical research grants, in- Foundation and its goal “to provide assistance cluding to social scientists such as historian of and support in areas where human potential sexuality Vern Bullough, sociologist Harold T. seems limited by adverse physical, mental or Christenson, and criminologist Marie Mehl. social conditions, or where the scope of re- Similarly, the EEF funded a wide variety of so- search was too new, controversial or imagina- cial services through its grant program. For ex- tivetoreceivetraditionallyorientedsupport.”76 ample,itfundedtheNationalTransexualCoun- In part one we noted that the EEF’s focus on so- seling Unit’s walk-in “non-profit counseling 60 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM and referral service aiding individuals with with trans people.Many of his grants builton or gender identity problems” at 243 Turk Street in encouraged the development of new collabora- San Francisco (which was operated by Black- tions or institutions. One of the first projects re- stone and Kohler),77 as wellas smallerprojects, lated to transsexualism in which Erickson in- such as vocal training for trans people in New vested, for example, was the Harry Benjamin York.78 Foundation.Asearlyas1964theEEFhadgiven While the EEF did fund a variety of projects, Benjamin a grant of $18,000 annually for three from major group research endeavors to indi- years “to investigate the nature, causes and vidual research fellows to smaller, self-con- treatment of Transvestism and particularly tained projects, one of the main goals in its Transsexualism.”81 Benjamin intended to un- granting program was to develop a network of dertakethisinvestigationwithcolleaguesusing individuals, a series of collaborations, and to his own extensive patient files. The Harry contribute to projects that would move beyond Benjamin Foundation met in Benjamin’s New the specific work covered by the grant, advanc- York offices, where attendees discussed spe- ing Erickson’s overall social goals. For exam- cificpatients’casesaswellasmoregeneralissues ple, in 1975, it announced that “in accordance related to trans research. Participants varied with [its] policy to contribute support in a way over time and included medical professionals to provide the widest benefit rather than di- such as Harry Benjamin, John Money, Richard rectly to individuals, the EEF has given a small Green, Leo Wollman, Ruth Doorbar, Henry grant to the American Civil Liberties Union Guze, and Wardell Pomeroy, as well as the oc- Sexual Privacy Project.”79 casional legal professional or patient (for con- The strategic importance of EEF grants is sultation/treatment). Erickson himself also particularly poignant, given the social and pro- usually attended or sent a representative. fessionalcontextof thetime.In aclimatewhere The Harry Benjamin Foundation contrib- veryfew(ifany)otheravenuesoffinancialsup- uted to transsexual medicine in a variety of im- port existed, Anke Ehrhardt, who worked with portant ways. For example,in 1967 it presented John Money at the Johns Hopkins Clinic and a series of eight papers to the New York Acad- wentontobecomeprofessorofmedicalpsychi- emy of Science on transsexualism.82 Likewise, atry at the New York State Psychiatry Institute, thediscussionsthattookplaceattheHBFmeet- publish numerous works in thefield,and sit as a ings also acted as the incubator for the estab- Director on the Board of Trustees for the Ford lishment of the Johns Hopkins University Gen- Foundation, remembers Erickson’s funding as der Identity Clinic, and for Richard Green and “critical” to the development of the field.80 John Money’s ground-breaking influential Erickson himself was the adjudicator in the 1969 edited collection Transsexualism and Sex granting process, in contrast, for example, to Reassignment.83 some of the other aspects of the EEF’s work, In 1969, Harry Benjamin wrote that the over which Suplee had more influence. Poten- opening of the Johns Hopkins Clinic (in 1966) tial grantees had to discuss their ideas with had been a great sign of progress in transsexual Erickson before he would authorize staff to medicine.84 The Johns Hopkins Clinic was per- send them a formal application. When they had haps the most famous of the Gender Identity returned the application, which included a de- Clinicsbecauseitwasthefirstuniversity-based tailed account of their plans, a budget, curricu- provider of sex reassignment surgery in North lumvitae,andinformationaboutthedurationof America and because its opening was heralded theproposedprojectanditsinstitutionalaffilia- with a highly publicized announcement in the tions, Erickson would review their application New York Times in 1966.85 The EEF provided and decide whether or not to fund the project. theentiretyoftheinitialfundingfortheclinic,86 Because one of the major problems facing as well as funding for the research John Money, trans people in accessing services was the fact one of the clinic’s chief advocates, and a post- thatspecialistswerebothfewandfarbetweenand doctoral fellowship for Anke Erhardt. tended to work in relative isolation, Erickson Thus, Erickson and the EEF, like Benjamin, wanted to encourage the development of pro- saw the establishment of Gender Identity Clin- fessional networks among those who worked ics as evidence of the achievement of one of the Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 61 primary goals they had been working towards The gender identity clinics frequently as- for years: growing professional expertise and sociatedwithauniversityareengagedina support from the mainstream medical estab- variety of research projects in the field of lishment to meets the needs of trans people. In gender identity. If the individual applying 1970, the EEF newsletter reported that does not meet the precise requirements of the work in progress at the clinic of his Only two years ago we were glad to enu- choice, he may be refused treatment there merate six Gender Identity research and solely on these grounds. This does not treatment teams in the United States and necessarilymeanthatheisnotagoodcan- Canada. While there is still enormous didate for sex reassignment, and should room for expansion, we are more than not discourage him from applying to an- happy to report that there are at present other clinic where help may be available twelve units that are endeavoring to ame- to him.92 liorate the suffering of individuals with the transsexual condition. 87 The EEF was highly aware of public opinion in this aspect of its work as well; it wrote in its The EEF had encouraged the development 1973 pamphlet. An Outline of Medical Man- of many Gender Identity Clinics by providing agement of the Transexual that gender identity both individual research grants to those who clinics were in an extremely vulnerable posi- tion “if unsuccessful treatment or mistaken di- later establishedsuch Clinics, as well as by pro- 93 viding initial funding for many of the Clinics agnosisproducesadversepublicity.” Thus,in much the same way as the EEF focused on pre- themselves. The EEF also provided the initial senting “passable” transsexuals in its speaking funding to many of the smaller clinical services engagements, the Gender Identity Clinics sought centres, such as the Boston Gender Identity to treat only the most socially respectable trans 88 Service, and the Seattle Counseling Center people in their attempts to establish the legiti- for Sexual Minorities,89 among others. It proudly macy of their programs. As such, the EEF rec- announced the formation of new clinics in its ognized that Gender Identity Clinics were not a newsletter and updated readers and clinicians complete solution to what it saw as the prob- on progress towards establishingand maintain- lems of transsexualism, but it did see them as a ing various clinics. For example, in 1976 it an- positive shift, especiallyin terms of developing nounced that the Boston Gender Identity Ser- a professional climatein which researchers and vice had seen 250 individuals between 1974 clinicians could develop appropriate health and 1976.90 Likewise, it frequently pointed out care, or “treatment methods” for trans people that the demand for treatment far exceeded while increasing their own social legitimacy. availableresources,91 and itworked to alleviate The clinics represented an important formaliz- this situation through its funding program and ing of the process Benjamin had begun on his by promoting wider social awareness about the own when he met informallywith colleaguesto needs of trans people in hopes that such clinics discuss patient cases, and when he began refer- would be able to find more traditional means of ring patients for psychiatric assessment before treatingthemwithhormones,andthismorefor- financial support. mal,legitimatesystemwas certainlyinkeeping TheEEFclearlysawGenderIdentityClinics with both Erickson and Benjamin’s visions. asanimportantstepinmakingmedicalservices By the 1970s, the professional climate had for trans people legitimate and accessible, but changed significantly since the early days of in its front-line support and referral work with Benjamin’s practice with trans people, in part trans people it was also being confronted with because of the tremendous amount of money their limitations. The EEF encouraged readers and energy Erickson and the EEF had put into not to be dismayed if these new clinics were not the movement. The EEF had encouraged indi- yet able to meet their needs, explaining in its vidual practitioners to work together and de- 1977 Transexualism: Information for the Fam- velop research, institutions and social services, ily pamphlet that and they were beginning to meet the needs of 62 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM some trans people. Together, they had built a funded and co-ordinated solely by the EEF. Its strong foundationfor the professional develop- aim was to “focus attention on the problem of ment of those working with trans people, and gender identity disorientation, not only as a particularlythoseworkingintranssexualmedi- psychiatric entity but as an area of ongoing spe- cine. But the gender identity clinics weren’t the cialized medical study and treatment as well as only places that the EEF was encouraging the a social undertaking.”97 Citing the fact that building of such foundations. Perhaps one of there were then 15 Gender Identity Clinics in thegreatestsuccessesoftheEEF’sprofessional the U.S. and approximately 1000 people using development work was its sponsorship of a se- hormone therapy to treat Gender Identity ries of international and interdisciplinary sym- Disorder, the EEF saw the congress as an oppor- posia. These symposia would later lead to the tunity for formationofbothlargerandsmalleroff-shoots, most notably, the formation of the Harry the international co-operation of scien- Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria As- tists, researchers, teachers and social sociation at the 1979 Symposia.94 workers,aswellastheactiveassistanceof The first of such symposia was called “The socially concerned citizens and the use of First International Congress on Gender Iden- every medium of communication . . . tity: Aims, Function and Clinical Problems of a needed to make the public aware of the Gender Identity Unit,” and, as its name indi- scope of this problem, and of the need to cates, it focused on the development of medical reducethesocialwasteandmiseryassoci- centers for research into, and treatment of gen- ated with it.98 der identity. It took place in London in July of 1969,andwassponsoredjointlybytheEEFand The second symposium, like the first, spanned the Albany Trust (of London), but funded en- three days, and featured papers clustered around tirely by the EEF and co-ordinated by Suplee.95 the themes of the psychological, hormonal and Its program spanned the course of three days, surgical management of transsexualism, as and featured speakers from London, Los An- well as its sociological and legal aspects, and geles, Baltimore, Manchester, and New York, possible etiological factors. It also featured a including Richard Green (from U.C.L.A.), screening of Markland’s University of Minne- John Money (from Johns Hopkins), and John sota Gender Identity Clinic research film.99 Randell (of Charing Cross Hospital in Lon- This congress featured a wider range of speak- don). It dealt with topics ranging from indica- ers from around the world, including Japan, tionsforsexreassignmentsurgeryanditssurgi- England, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, caldetails,tosocialaspectsandlegalproblems, England, Canada, and Holland, clearly making to the sexual orientation of transsexuals’ part- it a more international endeavor than the first. ners. In keeping with the high value the EEF Likewise,therewasawiderrangeofdiscussion placed on media coverage, the congress also topics.Forexample,onefulldayofpanelsdealt featured a press conference scheduled at its with “Sociological and Legal Aspects of closing so as to invite publicity for trans- Transsexualism,” including papers discussing sexualism without disrupting the proceedings the legal problems of transsexuals in Sweden of the congress itself. Reporters from the Gen- andJapan,andfeaturedonepapercalled“Inter- eral Practitioner, the Press Association wire national Plea for National Treatment of Trans- service, the Daily Telegraph, the Sun, The Mir- sexuals,” by P. Fogh-Anderson of Copenha- ror, Nature, Science Journal and The Times gen.100 asked questions about success rates, potential In 1973, two international conferences took demographic increases in the number of trans- place.Thefirst,inFebruaryof1973,hadgrown sexuals, legal problems, and differences be- out of a previous, smaller meeting of Gender tween transsexualism in America and Britain, IdentityCentreprofessionalsinNewOrleans,101 for example.96 and was designated as the “Second Interdisci- The Second International Symposium on plinarySymposiumon Gender Dysphoria Syn- Gender Identity, which took place in Elsinore, drome.” It took place at Stanford University’s Denmark, was modeled after the first, and School of Medicine, and was sponsored by the Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 63

Divisions of Urology and Plastic and Recon- areas, which, again, was consistent with his vi- structive Surgery, with a much more strictly sion of providing seed money rather than medicalapproach.OrganizedlargelyDonLaub, ongoing financial support. Thus, future con- EEF grantee and Chief of Plastic and Recon- gresses were funded through more traditional structive Surgery, with assistance from Ira medical means and took place at various medi- Dushoff and Zelda Suplee, it brought together calcentres:inPaloAlto,CAin1975attheChil- 105 medical professionals from the U.S., Can- dren’s Hospital at Stanford; in Norfolk, VA in ada, Mexico, Morocco and Australia to “pro- 1977 through Eastern Virginia Medical School; vide a forum for the exchange of scientific in- in Coronado, CA in 1979 through UC-San formation about the patient who desires and is Diego School of Medicine,Departmentsof Re- considered for gender re-identification.”102 productiveMedicineandPsychiatry,Divisions Erickson penned the forward to the proceed- of Urology and Plastic Surgery, and the Office ings of the conference, in which he heralded the of Continuing Education; in Lake Tahoe in occasion as a sign of social progress: 1981 through the University of Nevada–Reno, and in Bordeaux, France in 1983 through the Now that transsexualism is an open sub- Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria ject, and doctors and other professionals Association,whichhadformedatthe1979con- have come to know or have contact with ference in San Diego. Several of these medi- transsexuals, understanding has grown. cally-focused conferences were also able to be Furthermore, now that we have all seen usedbyattendeestoqualifyforcoursecreditto- the hopeless, depressed person with the wards professional development.105 All this ‘unsolvable’ gender identity problem bloom marked an important shift away from the origi- forth happily and fit into the more normal nal EEF congresses’ equal focus on social issues matrix of society, professionals are en- facing trans people towards the professional- couraged to lend the helping hand which ization of transsexual medicine. Indeed, the will relieve society of a dependent, alien- programs for these conferences lacked the ated segment. The transsexual, thus, not strong interdisciplinary and reform-activist only may fulfill himself, but also contrib- tone of the original, EEF-sponsored confer- ute to society.How we may best aid in this ences. But the EEF certainly did support this transformation is considered in what fol- lows.103 professionalization; it applauded the formation of HBIGDA, and funded the publication of the 106 The other major conference of 1973 was HBIGDA newsletter for its first year. The moreinkeepingwiththeoriginalEEFcongress feelings were mutual; in 1981, at the 7th Inter- traditions. The “Third International Sympo- national Gender Dysphoria Symposium, for ex- sium on Gender Identity,” again fully spon- ample,HBIGDApresentedlifetimeachievement 107 sored by theEEF,tookplaceinDubrovnik, Yu- awards to Erickson, Suplee, and Benjamin. goslavia. Also consistent with the previous two original EEF symposia, it took place over three days and focused on a wide range of social as THE END OF THE EEF well as medical issues, including transsexuals’ families, transsexualism in the past, and sexual By the late 1970s, several importantchanges responses of transsexuals. Featured speakers had occurred in the life of Reed Erickson that included Americans John Money, Vern Bullough, contributed to the eventual demise of the EEF. Ira Pauly, Anke Ehrhardt, Leo Wollman, Don He had become interested in new projects, and Laub, as well as speakers from Japan, Austra- shifted the focus of his funding to the fields of lia, Canada, the Netherlands.104 new age spirituality, psychedelics, and animal Thus, 1973 represented both a split and a communications and protection. In its 1974 shifttowardsmoremedicalizedsymposia.Asit newsletter, the EEF announced that “the Foun- becamepossibleforinternationalcongressesto dation continue[d] to see its role as coordinator be funded through established medical pro- and catalyst in the field of psychosexual re- grams, Erickson shifted EEF funding to other search” but that although “the service to tran- 64 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM sexuals and professionals [would] continue, forts.112 Unfortunately, Walker himself was the publication of pamphlets and the newslet- having personal and health problems and ter,distributionof informationtoorganizations eventually died in the early 1990s. and institutions, as well as the role of clearing In 1983, the EEF produced one newsletter, house for speakers, research library, guidance” mainly updating readers of “progress” since its would no longer be offered.108 This was in part last newsletter, without explanation of the facts because it had always been Erickson’s inten- surrounding its official closing or apparent tion to provide only the initial funding for new re-opening.Itseemedtoimplythatthenewslet- and creative social projects and investigations; ter itself had simply been on hiatus, and indeed, research on transsexualism and the accessibil- Suplee was clearly working with Erickson ity of services for trans people had ostensibly again. This newsletter detailed Erickson’s new moved beyond this stage. Similarly, his atten- interests in the California Marine Mammal tion had turned to more spiritual and existential Center and John Lilly’s human-dolphin com- questions, and he was having serious personal munication systems research, both of which and health problems, which negatively im- Erickson was providing substantial funding for pacted his ability to effectively run the Founda- by that time.113 Erickson had also continued tion. Finally, his personal wealth was rapidly to provide significant grants in the field of diminishing and he simply had to be more se- transsexualism, including $20,000 to the De- lective in his funding. Sadly, by the time of his partment of Psychology and Behavioral Sci- death in 1992 at the age of 74, he had become ences at the University of Nevada, $3,300 to addicted to illegal drugs and died alone and in the Gender Dysphoria Program in Palo Alto squalor in Mexico as a fugitive from U.S. drug (which had previously been the Stanford indictments. Clinic), $1,600 to the Johns Hopkins clinic,114 Luckily, when it became necessary for the and $32,000 to surgeon Robert Farino, profes- EEF to close down altogether, it was able to sor of the Urology Department at the Escola draw on the network it had built. On February Paulisat de Medicina in Sao Paolo, Brazil, to 28, 1977, the EEF offices closed their doors, to pay for translation of his monograph on trans- the dismay of many who had worked with the sexualism into English.115 But the EEF’s direct Foundation over the years.109 Most of its pro- support and referral, education and advocacy grams were transferred to the newly-founded work had ended, and Erickson’s finances were Janus Information Facility, headed by Dr. Paul being quickly depleted. Walker, a long-time EEF grantee who had been In 1986, Janus, too, closed and it transferred formerly involved with the Johns Hopkins some aspects of its work to J2CP services, run Clinic and was then Director of the Gender by Sister Mary Elizabeth (then Joanna Clark) Clinic in Galveston, Texas. Walker was able to and Jude Patton, both of whom were transsexu- arrange the transfer of remaining EEF opera- als themselves and had been associated with tions, including Suplee herself, to Galveston, and previously funded by the EEF. Neither had with Erickson agreeing to continue funding her thekindofpersonalresourcesthatEricksonhad position. In 1980, though, Walker ended his af- been able to invest, but J2CP continued to re- filiation with the University of Texas and, with print and update many of the booklets the EEF the help of a $30,000 loan from Erickson, had originally compiled. moved to San Francisco to open a private prac- TheEEF’sworkastheonlynationalclearing tice, taking the Janus Information Facility with house for information and support for trans him.110 Erickson, although by that time largely people had meant the development of social re- disengaged from the field of transsexualism, sources unlike anything that had previously continued to provide funding to Walker in the been available. This was especially important form of a $15,000 grant so that he could still in meeting the immediate needs of contempo- “advise lawyers, church officials, doctors, li- rary trans people, many of whom were in crisis brarians, school and college teachers and stu- or near-crisis situations. Likewise, its work in dents on the subject of gender dysphoria,”111 education and advocacy meant widespread so- produce and distribute the pamphlets, and con- cial awareness and change through its relation- tinue to engage in some public outreach ef- ships with the media and other social institu- Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 65 tions such as law, religion, academia and 4. Psychology Today, September 1980, “The Gos- medicine. It clearly saw and used these institu- pel According to Helen,” 74-90: 77. tions as a means to garner support, legitimacy, 5. Several editions of A Course in Miracles has been published and it is now available around the world and respectability for transsexuals. Further- in 13 languages; for more information, see the Founda- more, by providing key initial funding for the tion for Inner Peace web site at http://www.acim.org. newly emerging field of transsexual research 6. Each of these authors have made extensive and the EEF had a majorinternationalimpacton the considerable contributions to their fields; for more infor- social status of trans people between the 1960s mation, see their personal web sites at www.jeanhouston. org, www.robertmasters.org, www.stanleykrippner.org and the 1980s. Because of its funding and sup- and www.johnclilly.org. port, individuals researching transsexualism, 7. In many places we refer to trans people in gen- especiallyintheU.S.,wereabletodevelopboth eral, but it should be noted that the EEF’s focus was (in a systematic professional network and organi- terms of trans issues) specifically directed at trans- zation (HBIGDA) with widespread medical sexualism. This focus also had an impact on trans people recognition and authority, and to increase the in general, though, and reflected then medical thinking about which types of trans people could most success- volume and rigor of research into various fully be integrated into society, themselves “helped,” aspects of gender identity and expression. and how this could occur. The significance of the EEF’s diverse, far- 8. Other works which discuss or mention the EEF sighted and far-reaching contributions, then, are include Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte, “ONE Inc. difficult to over-estimate. Because of its histor- and Reed Erickson: The Uneasy Collaboration of Gay ically crucial role, the ways in which the EEF, and Trans Activism, 1964-2003,” GLQ 10.2 (2004): 179-209; Holly Devor, “Reed Erickson (1917-1992): and Erickson himself, interacted with other How One Transsexed Man Supported ONE,” in Before groups and institutions and imagined the prob- Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in His- lems, solutions, and composition of trans peo- torical Context, ed. Vern Bullough (London and New ple as a group were extremely significant. That York: Harrington Park Press, 2002): 383-392; Janice M. he chose to work so closely with socially legiti- Irvine, Disorders of Desire: Sex and Gender in Modern American Sexology (Philadelphia: Temple University mate and powerful groups such as medical pro- Press, 1990); Members of the Gay and Lesbian Histori- fessionals, legal experts, clergy and the media cal Society of Northern California, “MTF Transgender to bring respectability to trans people in gen- Activism in the Tenderloin and Beyond, 1966-1975: eral, but transsexuals in particular, had a major Commentary and Interview with Elliot Blackstone,” impact on the ways in which trans people in the GLQ 4.2 (1998): 349-372; Joanne Meyerowitz, How future would be able to access services, be un- Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States (Cambridge and London: Harvard University derstood, and organize socially. Press, 2002); Susan Stryker, “Portrait of a Transfag Drag Hag as A Young Man: The Activist Career of Louis G. Sullivan,” in Reclaiming Genders: Transsex- NOTES ual Grammars at the Fin de Siecle, ed. Stephen Whittle and Kate More (London: Cassell, 1999): 62-82; 1. Concerning the EEF (pamphlet), Erickson Edu- Deborah Rudacille, The Riddle of Gender: Science, Ac- cational Foundation, n.d., 2. tivism, and transgender Rights (New York: Pantheon, 2. There were sporadic efforts over the years to per- 2005). haps solicit donations, but this was never successfully 9. Interview with Jody Carrigan, 7/12/1997. developed. The EEF newsletter welcomed contributions 10. Interview with James Lorio, 7/23/1997; Erickson towards printing costs, but very few (if any) seem to underwent chest surgery in Tijuana in 1957 or 1958. He have been made. The Spring 1972 EEF newsletter did also underwent further surgeries in New York and Balti- announce that one transwoman had willed her estate to more in 1965; his medical records do not indicate that the foundation to support their work on transsexualism, any surgeries took place in Casablanca. although she likely didn’t die before the EEF dissolved, 11. Confidential Interview (7/26/1997) and this announcement was the only one of its kind and 12. Leah Cahan Schaefer and Connie Christine Wheeler, an anomaly rather than the norm. “Harry Benjamin’s First Ten Cases (1938-1953): A Clin- 3. Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte, “ONE Inc. and ical Historical Note,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 24.1 Reed Erickson: The Uneasy Collaboration of Gay and (1995), 73-93: 74. Trans Activism, 1964-2003,” GLQ 10.2, 2004: 179-209; 13. Serlin, David. Replaceable You: Engineering the also see ONE National Gay & Lesbian and Archives at Body in Postwar America (University of Chicago Press, www.oneinstitute.org. 2004): 186. 66 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM

14. Hamburger, Christian. The Desire for Change of ders.”; Christine Jorgensen, “Memorial for Harry Sex as Shown by Personal Letters From 465 Men and Benjamin,” Archives of Sexual Behavior 17.6 (Decem- Women, Acta Endocrinologica 14 (1953), 361-375. ber 1988): 24-26. 15. Serlin, David. Replaceable You: Engineering the 34. Confidential email from M.M., 3/20/2004. Body in Postwar America (University of Chicago Press, 35. “Identification for Cross-Dressing,” EEF News- 2004) letter 3.2 (Fall 1970):3. 16. D.B. to Harry Benjamin (1/9/1972), Kinsey Insti- 36. “On Citizenship,” EEF Newsletter 5.4 (Winter tute Archives, Harry Benjamin Collection: Box 3. 1972):1. 17. Many early medical and activist efforts centered 37. “Religious Conferences,” EEF Newsletter 4.2 around distinguishing between homosexuality, transves- (Summer 1971): 1. tism and transsexualism. See, for example, C.V. Prince, 38. “In Little Rock,” EEF Newsletter 7.1 (Spring “Homosexuality, Transvestism and Transsexualism: Re- 1974): 2. flections on their Etiology and Differentiation,” Ameri- 39. “On the Agenda,” EEF Newsletter 7.1 (Spring can Journal of Psychotherapy (November 1957): 80-85. 1974): 4. Indeed, most of Harry Benjamin’s early work focused 40. “College Class Presentations,” EEF Newsletter entirely on this question. For a discussion of the history 5.2 (Summer 1972); 3. of the term “transsexual,” see Joanne Meyerowitz, How 41. Interview with Wendy McKenna and Suzanne Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United Kessler, 12/28/1997 States (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 42. Interview with Wendy McKenna and Suzanne 2002). Kessler, 12/28/1997 18. Benjamin, Harry. “Introduction,” in Transsexual- 43. For example, in 1971, the EEF congratulated ism and Sex Reassignment Surgery, ed. by Richard Green Wendy Kohler on her recent sex reassignment surgery, and John Money (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University and in 1975 it wished Harry Benjamin a Happy 90th Press, 1969): 5. birthday. 19. A few individuals had experimented with various 44. Interview with Leonore Tiefer, 7/24/1997. types of procedures to modify a person’s sex over the 45. See, for example, www.the-sisterhood.net/id22. course of the twentieth century, most notably at Magnus html, www.susans.org/reference/gfam6.html, www. Hirschfeld’s Institute for Sexual Science in Berlin in the sexuality.org/l/incoming/eetrans.htm, www.genderweb. early Twentieth Century; see Joanne Meyerowitz, How org/general/ts-inf.phtml. Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United 46. Zelda Suplee to Reed Erickson, 1/27/71, Erickson States. Family Collection. 20. Confidential email from D.L., 6/4/2004. 47. “Religious Pamphlets,” EEF Newsletter 4.4 (Win- 21. Confidential email from F.G., 1/19/2004. Religious Aspects of Transsexualism 22. “In Manhattan,” EEF Newsletter 5.4 (Winter ter 1971): 2; ,Erickson 1972), 4. Educational Foundation (1972 and 1978), 1. 23. “New L.A. Association,” EEF newsletter 6.1 48. Religious Aspects of Transexualism, 1. (Spring 1973): 5. 49. Religious Aspects of Transexualism, 1. 24. “TS-TV Organizations,” EEF Newsletter 9.1 50. “On the Legal Front,” EEF Newsletter, 3.1 (Spring (Summer 1976): 3. 1970): 2. 25. Concerning the Erickson Educational Founda- 51. Legal Aspects of Transsexualism . . ., Erickson tion Pamphlet, n.d. Educational Foundation, p#? to those transexuals who 26. The Erickson Educational Foundation, Pam- so generously provided information from their personal phlet, n.d. experiences with legal and administrative procedures" 27. “Progress,” EEF Newsletter 4.3 (Fall 1971): 2. from Legal Aspects and Admin procedures 28. “Gratifying Progress–and Help Wanted,” EEF 52. Information on Transexualism for Law Enforce- Newsletter 3.2 (Fall 1970): 2. ment Officers, Erickson Educational Foundation (1974): 29. “Medical Network for Transsexuals,” EEF 4. Newsletter 2.2 (Fall 1969): 1. 53. Information on Transsexualism for Law Enforce- 30. “Gratifying Progress–and Help Wanted,” EEF ment Officers, 4. Newsletter 3.2 (Fall 1970): 2. 54. Anonymous, “My Daughter Changed Sex,” Good 31. “Progress,” EEF Newsletter 4.3 (Fall 1971): 2. Housekeeping, May 1973, n.p. 32. Interview with Sarah Santana, 12/11/1997. 55. Roland H. Berg, “The Transsexuals: Male or fe- 33. In her memorial for Harry Benjamin, Jorgensen male?” LOOK (January 27, 1970): 29. said “I encountered a mountain of mail and I do mean a 56. Interview with James Lorio, 7/23/1997. mountain–thousands and thousands of letters, many of 57. Interview with Sarah Santana, 12/11/1997. which were from people who had problems that were 58. “Mail Response to LOOK Article,” EEF News- similar to mine . . . needless to say, I could recommend letter, 3.1 (Spring 1970): 1. Harry to all these thousands of people who contacted 59. Letter from a Brother, Erickson Educational me. So suddenly the deluge fell onto poor Harry’s shoul- Foundation, n.d., 1. Aaron Devor and Nicholas Matte 67

60. “In Washington, D.C.”, EEF Newsletter, 6.1 84. Harry Benjamin, “Introduction” in Transsexual- (Spring 1973): 4. ism and Sex Reassignment Surgery, ed. by Richard 61. The program was to air every second Friday at Green and John Money (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni- 2pm on KQED-FM; “On-the-Street Radio Series,” EEF versity Press, 1969), 1-10: 8. Newsletter, 3.1 (Spring 1970): 2. 85. Thomas Buckley, “Change of Sex Surgery Be- 62. “Pioneer Seminar on Transsexualism,” EEF gun at Hopkins,” New York Times, November 21, Newsletter, 3.1 (Spring 1970): 1. 1966: 1. 63. “A Pretty Girl not Always a Melody,” EEF 86. Johns Hopkins University Office of Institutional Newsletter, 3.1 (Spring 1970): 1. Public Relations, “Statement on the Establishment of a 64. “Thank you MGM-TV,” EEF Newsletter, 8.2 Clinic for Transsexuals at the Johns Hopkins Medical (Winter 1975): 1. Also note that throughout the 1960s Institutions,” November 21, 1966 in Transsexualism and 1970s there were two widely-used spellings of the and Sex Reassignment Surgery, ed. Richard Green and word “transsexual,” which could be spelled with either John Money (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, one “s” or two. The EEF newsletter even addressed this 1969): 267-269. situation for confused readers in its Fall 1971 edition in 87. “Gratifying Progress and Help Wanted,” EEF an article called “What’s in an S?”; EEF Newsletter, 4.3 Newsletter 3.2 (Fall 1970): 2. (Fall 1971): 2. 88. Boston Gender Identity Service: “Boston Also 56. “I am not this Body,” EEF Newsletter, 3.2 (Fall Serves,” EEF Newsletter 9.1 (Summer 1976): 5. 1970): 2. 89. Interview with Bryant Vehrs, (8/18/99); Robert 66. “New Jersey Next,” EEF Newsletter, 4.2 (Sum- W. Deisher, M.D. to RE and the Staff of the Erickson mer 1972): 1. Educational Foundation (2/10/77), Erickson Family 67. “An EEF First at SUNY,” EEF Newsletter, 4.4 Collection; “Seattle Counseling Service Expands,” EEF (Winter 1971): 2. Newsletter 3.2 (Fall 1970): 4; “Johns Hopkins Jottings,” 68. “Connecticut Presentation,” EEF Newsletter, 5.1 EEF Newsletter 4.4 (Winter 1971): 3. (Spring 1972): 1. 90. “Boston Also Serves,” EEF Newsletter 9.1 69.“In Chicago,” 5.2 (Summer 1972): 1. (Summer 1976): 5. 70. “Film Honored,” EEF Newsletter, 5.1 (Spring 91. For example, in the EEF’s 1973 pamphlet An 1972): 2. Outline of Medical Management of the Transexual,it 71. “Minnesota Film Honored,” EEF Newsletter, 5.2 wrote that “the most prestigious of these clinics is cur- (Summer 1972): 3. rently accepting only ten to twelve patients a year, and 72. “In Sarasota,” EEF Newsletter, 5.2 (Summer has a waiting list of some 600. At this rate, it would be 1972): 2. fifty years before all those now waiting could be accom- 73. “Minnesota Film Honored,” EEF Newsletter, 5.2 modated!” (3). (Summer 1972): 3. 92. Information for the Family of the Transexual, 74. “New Film Available,” EEF Newsletter, 6.2 (Fall Erickson Educational Foundation (1971), 7. 1973): 3. 93. It wrote in its 1973 pamphlet An Outline of Medi- 75. “Audio-Visual Aids,” EEF Newsletter, 9.1 cal Management of the Transexual that gender identity (Summer 1976), 2. clinics were in an extremely vulnerable position “if un- 76. Concerning the EEF (pamphlet), Erickson Edu- successful treatment or mistaken diagnosis produces ad- cational Foundation, n.d., 2. verse publicity.” (3) 77. “In San Francisco,” EEF Newsletter 5.2 (Sum- 94. The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dys- mer 1972): 2. phoria Association was formed for “improved care of 78. “And Then There’s The Voice...,” EEF Newslet- the patient, education and increased, perhaps lifetime, ter, 3.1 (Spring 1970): 4. contacts among [members of the organization]”; Donald 79. “Recent Grants,” EEF Newsletter, 8.1 (Spring Laub, “From the Association President,” Harry Benjamin 1975): 6. International Gender Dysphoria Association Newsletter 80. Interview with Anke Ehrhardt, 7/24/1997. 1.1 (Spring 1983): 1. HBIGDA today remains the main 81. Harry Benjamin to Frances Khan, December 3, professional organization for people who work with 1964: Erickson Family Collection; EEF Minutes, Au- trans people. It also sets the HBIGDA Standards of Care gust 27, 1964: Erickson Family Collection. for Gender Identity Disorders, which guide the treat- 82. See, for example, Harry Benjamin, “The Trans- ment of many gender dysphoric patients. See http:// sexual Phenomenon,” Transactions of the New York www.hbigda.org/soc.cfm. Academy of Sciences, Series II, 29.4 (February 1967): 95. An alliance had been made between the Erickson 428-30. Educational Foundation and the Albany Trust through 83. Richard Green and John Money, “Preface,” in Dorr Legg of ONE inc., a homophile group in Los An- Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment Surgery ed. by geles that was funded by the EEF. The Albany Trust was Richard Green and John Money (Baltimore: Johns a British group founded in 1954 “to promote psycholog- Hopkins University Press, 1969): xv. ical health through research, education and social ac- 68 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TRANSGENDERISM tion,” in response to the Wolfenden report; interview Award of the American Medical Association”; nurses with Antony Grey, 08/23/1999. from California and Nevada could use it to count to- 96. “Transcript of Press Conference following First wards 20 hours of their relicensing requirements, and International Symposium on Gender Identity (Sunday, other health care professionals would be issued certifi- 27 July 1969),” 1-25. cates. Participants could also opt to pay $23 for one aca- 97. Second International Symposium on Gender Iden- demic credit in either undergraduate or graduate course tity (Pamphlet), n.d., 6. work, with the completion of additional work. 98. Second International Symposium on Gender Iden- 106. “Association Newsletter,” EEF Newsletter 10.1 tity (Pamphlet), n.d., 6. (Spring 1983), 2; “Deep Appreciation, HBIGDA News- 99. Second International Symposium on Gender Iden- letter 1.1 (Spring 1983), 1. tity Programme, n.d., 2. 107. Paul Walker (as president of HBIGDA) to Reed 100. Second International Symposium on Gender Iden- Erickson, January 9, 1981; Erickson Family Collection. tity (Pamphlet), n.d., 3. 108. “Foundation Future,” EEF Newsletter 7.1 (Spring 101. Edgerton, Milton. “Introduction” in Proceed- 1974): 1. ings of the Second Interdisciplinary Symposium on Gen- 109. Suplee sent out a mass announcement of the der Dysphoria Syndrome, ed. by Donald Laub and EEF’s closing to members of its mailing list, and re- Patrick Gandy (Stanford: Division of Reconstructive ceived many letters of condolence. and Rehabilitative Surgery), 1974: 3 110. Paul Walker to Reed Erickson, “Project Pro- 102. “The Symposium,” in Proceedings of the Sec- posal,” March 28, 1980, and Walker to RE, July 24, ond Interdisciplinary Symposium on Gender Dysphoria 1980; Erickson Family Collection. Syndrome, ed. by Donald Laub and Patrick Gandy (Stan- 111. “Now in San Francisco,” EEF Newsletter 10.1 ford: Division of Reconstructive and Rehabilitative Sur- gery), 1974: 247. (Spring 1983): 5. 103. Reed Erickson, “Foreword” in Proceedings of 112. Paul Walker to Reed Erickson, April 24, 1980, the Second Interdisciplinary Symposium on Gender Erickson Family Collection; Paul Walker to Dorr Legg, Dysphoria Syndrome, ed. by Donald Laub and Patrick February 12, 1981, Erickson Family Collection. Gandy (Stanford: Division of Reconstructive and Reha- 113. In 1983, the EEF gave at least $29,878 to Lilly’s bilitative Surgery), 1974: i. Human/Dolphin Foundation at Marine World in San 104. Third International Symposium on Gender Francisco and $15,000 to the Marine Mammal Center. Identity Program, Erickson Educational Foundation, 114. All financial figures come from the Erickson n.d. Educational Foundation Financial Ledger (1983); Erickson 105. For example, the 7th International Gender Family Collection. Dysphoria Symposium, which took place in Lake 115. Robert Farino, Erickson Educational Foundation Tahoe, March 4-8, 1981, and was sponsored by the Uni- Grant Application (approved, October 1983); Erickson versity of Nevada-Reno (Department of Psychiatry and Family Collection; Erickson was also involved in help- Behavioral Sciences and Division of Continuing Educa- ing Dr. Farino’s with legal troubles when Farino was ar- tion) and HBIGDA offered participants several accredi- rested for having performed Sex Reassignment Surgeries tation options: physicians could use it to count towards in Brazil; see HBIGDA Newsletter 1.2 (Summer 1983): “20 hours in Category 1 of the Physician’s Recognition 2.

doi:10.1300/J485v10n01_07