WINGS ESSAYS ON INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION

THE XERCES SOCIETY SPRING 2018 CONTENTS

Grasslands are among the most threatened habitats; easy to build upon or plow up, they are often the first to go. This issue ofWings looks at the beautiful wildlife that grasslands support, and some of the management problems faced by conservationists.

Can Robobees Solve the Pollination Crisis? Eric Lee-Mäder and Scott Hoffman Black Page 3.

Keeping the Lights Burning: The Status of Fireflies in the United States and Canada Candace Fallon Fireflies, longtime sources of nighttime delight for children, seem to be gradually slipping away as their habitats, particularly wet grasslands, disappear. Page 5.

The Striking Beauty of Oklahoma’s Butterflies Ray Moranz The state of Oklahoma sits near the center of the continental United States, and consequently its ­prairies and woodlands host a diverse range of butterflies.Page 11.

Ups and Downs of English Chalk Grasslands Matthew Shepherd Think of England, and you may picture rounded hills dotted with sheep. Centu- ries of grazing have resulted in grasslands that support a great array of plants and butterflies.­ Page 17.

Conservation Spotlight Iowa’s Living Roadway Trust Fund helps to conserve the state’s prairie habitat. Page 22.

Invertebrate Notes A roundup of new books and recent research. Page 23.

Staff Profile Meet Candace Fallon, an endangered species conservation biologist. Page 25.

Xerces News Updates on Xerces Society projects and successes. Page 26.

2 WINGS Can Robobees Solve the Pollination Crisis?

Eric Lee-Mäder and Scott Hoffman Black

Recently, Walmart filed a patent appli- long way from having technology that cation for drones that are designed to will accomplish the task that bees al- pollinate crops by carrying pollen from ready perform. one plant to another, detecting flower And the problem is more complex locations with sensors and cameras. than just crops. At least 85 percent of all Although Walmart is not the first or- terrestrial plant species either require ganization to explore such an idea as a or strongly benefit from some form of way to address the alarming decline in animal pollination, and the idea of ro- honey-bee populations, it seems highly botic pollinators ignores the many wild unlikely that “robobees” could actually plants in meadows, prairies, hedgerows, provide a solution. and forests. Focusing solely on crop pol- First, in crop plants alone there are lination and failing to take the pollina- myriad varieties of flower shapes, sizes, tion of native plants into account may and arrangements. For a sense of this well lead to a deterioration in the plant diversity, just think of squash flowers, communities that make up the very fab- sunflowers, apple blossoms, and tomato ric of our environment. flowers. Bees have coevolved with plants A further issue is that the western to collect and transport pollen efficient- honey bee is just one of the thousands ly. How many different types of drones of species of bees—not to mention the would one farmer need? We are a very flies, beetles, butterflies, and many

How many robotic drones would it take to replace the honey bees in just this almond orchard alone? Photograph by the Xerces Society / Matthew Shepherd.

SPRING 2018 3 other species that make up the com- panies to restore habitat for pollinators munity of pollinators. Developing a and beneficial insects, protected from technological substitute for honey-bee pesticides, on large-scale farms. The pollination barely scratches the surface results are farm operations that increas- of global plant–pollinator interactions. ingly produce and sustain their own In fact, a recent study, published in Sci- wild resident pollinator populations. ence by a team led by Dr. Rachel Winfree The second opportunity, provid- of Rutgers University found that to pro- ing a broader diversity of food choices, vide pollination of crops alone we need would also be a powerful model for re- a large diversity of bees, both common engineering our overly simplified food species and less common ones. system. Products made from buckwheat, An essay by Dr. Claire Kremen of flax, carob, lentils, jackfruit, grain ama- the University of California Berkeley in ranth, and countless other less common the same issue of Science underscores the crop species typically require few pesti- changes we need to make to ensure that cides, and many are highly productive our landscapes can support the diversity food sources for bees and other benefi- and numbers of bees our crops require. cial wildlife. A food system designed for Kremen points out that it is vital that such choices would inherently be built we move away from monocultures and upon a biologically diverse and resilient fencerow–to-fencerow cultivation to- landscape. These ecologically beneficial ward regenerative farming that incor- models are already proven in agrofor- porates hedgerows, flowering strips, and estry, alley cropping, silvopasture, and other conservation practices to build other diversified farm systems. More- soil fertility and support much-needed over, such models arguably provide pest control and pollination services. people with delightful food that is both Another aspect of this discussion healthier and more interesting. should focus on the cost, and whether The flower-rich meadows that sup- robotic bees are the best investment— port bees, butterflies, and most other or even a reasonably effective one—at a pollinators bring benefits beyond crop time when the threats are real and seem pollination. If we consider the fact that to be growing. What could be achieved an aesthetically beautiful wildflower by funding sustainable solutions rather habitat that supports wildlife, seques- than pursuing technological approach- ters carbon, and produces oxygen can be es? As one of the world’s largest retailers, established in most parts of the United Walmart has global procurement power States for around ten cents per square that could provide incredible opportu- foot, then the best return on investment nities, both to restore pollinator popu- is clear. Rather than build drones that lations by encouraging biologically di- don’t do any of those things, we should verse and regenerative agriculture prac- plant meadows. tices of its suppliers, and to promote a more diverse range of food choices. The first of these has an existing Scott Hoffman Black is Xerces’ executive precedent. The Xerces Society works director. Eric Lee-Mäder is co-director of closely with several major food com- the pollinator conservation program.

4 WINGS Keeping the Lights Burning: The Status Of Fireflies in the United States and Canada

Candace Fallon

Fireflies. If you spent any time as a child the garden. They have an almost magi- in the eastern United States, it is likely cal quality of lighting up the dark. that the word immediately conjures up Fireflies are not flies but are actually memories of dusky summer nights, soft beetles, in the family Lampyridae. They flashes in the understory, bare feet on use bioluminescent light to communi- warm grass. Fireflies are celebrated all cate with each other, primarily to attract over the world. They are found in art, mates, but sometimes to signal alarm, or literature, and cultural origin stories. send a warning, or even to attract food— To some, they merely signal the start in the form of other fireflies! The light of summer. To others, they symbolize comes from an organ on the underside the souls of the departed, or bad luck, of the abdomen, in which oxygen reacts or hope in the darkness. Unlike many with a light-emitting biological pigment other insects, fireflies give off a friendly called luciferin in the presence of an en- vibe. They do not sting or bite. They will zyme called luciferase to emit photons, not eat your crops or become a pest in elementary particles of light.

Fireflies create light in a pair of abdominal segments. They flash with distinctive patterns to attract a mate of the right species. Photograph of common eastern fireflyPhotinus ( pyralis) by ivkuzmin / iStock.

SPRING 2018 5 Fireflies are found in many coun- firefly, it is probably because many of tries, but particularly in tropical cli- our western species are active during the mates. More than two thousand species day, potentially communicating with have been described, over 160 of which pheromones rather than light. In other can be found in the United States and species, the larvae or adult females may Canada. More species are being discov- glow, but adult males do not produce ered and described each year. Here in light. Take, for example, the Douglas the United States, Florida and Georgia fir glowworm (Pterotus obscuripennis), are our most species-rich states, boast- whose larvae and flightless females can ing more than fifty each. As someone be found casting a soft, greenish light who grew up in Florida, this was news in its namesake forests. Flashing species to me. I do not have a single memory of may be rare west of the Rockies, but they fireflies until my family moved to South can still be found in some pockets. Only Carolina, where fireflies gathered in our a few years ago, researchers in Utah were yard every summer evening at dusk. excited to find populations of flashing Where were those Florida fireflies? Did fireflies in marshy areas of the desert— I live in places that were too urbanized? living confirmation after a thirty-year Were our resident fireflies more active search. late at night, when I was tucked away in Fireflies live in a wide variety of bed? How could I have missed them? habitats, although many of these tend If you have similarly thought that to have one particular feature in com- you live in a place devoid of fireflies, you mon: moisture. They can be found in may be surprised to learn that fireflies wetlands, swamps, riparian areas, aban- actually occur in all of the lower forty- doned fields, forests, chaparral, and eight states and in many Canadian prov- scrublands. Some species, such as those inces. If you live in the West (as I do now) Utah flashers, are even found in deserts and wonder why you have never seen a where the microhabitat is just right.

Larval fireflies hunt through soil and leaf litter for slugs, snails, and other soft-bodied invertebrates. ­Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

6 WINGS Photographed just as it was taking flight, this female clearly shows its one pair of wings and the pair of hardened wing covers that iden- tify fireflies as beetles, not flies. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

Life histories of fireflies are varied. are females of the genus Photuris, which The females of many species are flight- flash not only for their own males but less—they do not have wings and ac- also for those of another species. When tually look more like grubs than true an unsuspecting male arrives expect- adults. They live in burrows in the ing to mate, he is instead eaten by the fe- ground and emerge at night to glow male; this behavior has earned Photuris softly, waiting for males. Most larvae females the nickname femmes fatales. also live underground. In some species, Fireflies are well loved, but they such as those in the genus Pleotomodes, may be in trouble. Across the globe, this subterranean lifestyle is taken to people are reporting that fireflies ap- the extreme— both larvae and female pear to be less common than they used adults live in ant nests. In contrast, the to be, and some researchers have docu- larvae of some species of Pyractomena mented local extirpations at their field forgo underground living and instead sites. Unfortunately, there has been pupate on the bark of trees. This allows little systematic monitoring of species some of them to emerge much earlier in population sizes and trends, making the year, but also makes them more at it difficult to determine quantitatively risk from temperature fluctuations, des- whether and to what extent popula- iccation, and predation. tions are in decline. Even so, we know The diet of firefly larvae is com- that some of the habitats that fireflies posed primarily of soft-bodied inverte- depend on are disappearing, and sev- brates such as snails, slugs, and earth- eral other threats have been identified, worms. Many species do not eat during including light pollution, pesticides, their short time as adults, but there are poor water quality, drought, over- exceptions. Among the most notable collection for the medical trade, and

SPRING 2018 7 Females in the genus Photuris are unusual in that they eat as adults—and they dine on other fireflies. Mimicking flash patterns of other species, they lure un- suspecting males for a surprising dinner date. Photograph by wplynn / Flickr. invasive species. Climate change and studies have been published on firefly associated droughts, as well as rising reproduction, behavior, and physiol- sea levels for some species that occur in ogy, relatively little information exists coastal areas, are of particular concern. on the status of populations and the life Because fireflies live as adults for only histories of individual species. As with a few weeks and spend most of their so many invertebrates, firefly taxonomy lives— sometimes up to two years—in is in flux, with a number of well-known the larval stage, impacts on larval habi- groups awaiting reassessment and newly tat can be especially critical. discovered but undescribed species not In some parts of the world, fireflies yet named. may be loved too much, with dramatic Compounding the difficulty, fire- increases in firefly tourism negatively flies are tricky to identify and many affecting populations. The lights from species are active only at night. Firefly cameras, cell phones, and vehicle head- fieldwork, while seemingly romantic, lights can interfere with their mating often involves long, dark nights en- signals. Wetland firefly habitats are during humidity, rain, poison ivy, and highly sensitive to trampling, and in mosquitoes— sometimes even alliga- very crowded areas fireflies themselves tors. Add to this the fact that some spe- can be crushed underfoot. cies may flash for just a few minutes at a Prompted by such anecdotal re- time and only during a two-week period ports, the Xerces Society has embarked each year, making them easy to miss. on an effort to evaluate the current state Decoding each species’ unique flash and of knowledge on the conservation sta- glow patterns takes time, and, although tus and extinction risk of fireflies in the such recent books as Lynn Faust’s Fire- United States and Canada. While many flies, Glow-Worms, and Lightning Bugs

8 WINGS are making this information consider- described species in the genus) is known ably more accessible, there is still no only from salt marshes and mangroves single guide for species identification along coastal regions of Florida and in the United States and Canada. As we some northern islands of the Baha- piece together what is known from the mas. This medium-size flashing firefly literature and what we can learn direct- is threatened by coastal development, ly from firefly researchers, enthusiasts, light pollution, agricultural activities and citizen scientists, we are beginning (including introduction of a nonnative to identify a list of species that may be of nematode), and pesticides. Hurricanes conservation concern. also pose a threat, although the larvae The species on this list tend to share are able to float like little boats, which certain traits, such as female flightless- may aid in their survival. Researchers ness. The Pleotomodes fireflies, for in- believe that some populations are now stance, comprise just three known spe- extirpated, including those near Sara- cies, all associated with ants; the adult sota. Like the Florida intertidal firefly, females do not fly but instead live with the tropic traveler (Tenaspis angularis) their larvae in ant nests underground. is the only species known in its genus. The anthill fireflyP. ( knulli) is a small, It appears to be very rare, observed just rare species reported from Florida and once or twice every ten years, although Arizona; both the larvae and females it is possible that this species has been glow, but the males rarely produce light. overlooked because it does not flash or The ant-loving scrub firefly (P. need- glow. Until recently it was thought to be hami) is associated with scrub habitat a tropical species found only in Florida and is known only from Archbold Bio- and Texas, but it has now been tenta- logical Station in Florida. Adult females tively reported from Missouri. and larvae live in the nests of two spe- The relatively large genus Photuris, cies of ants, one of which cultivates un- with fifty-seven described species, in- derground fungus gardens. The ants ap- cludes at least eight species or subspecies pear to ignore the fireflies, and the fire- that may be at risk of extinction. These flies have not been observed to feed on flashing fireflies are primarily known the ants or their brood. Both larvae and from freshwater marshy areas, sand adults glow, even when underground dunes, hammocks, floodplains, and al- in the ant colonies. A third species, P. luvial banks. Specific threats include ris- pulsator, is known from Arizona and ing sea levels, increased light pollution, Mexico. These species and others with exotic plants, spraying to control adult flightless females cannot easily disperse mosquitoes, and forest succession. One from an area and may therefore be par- such species, the Bethany Beach firefly ticularly susceptible to threats. (P. bethaniensis), is known only from Other species of concern include threatened interdunal wetlands that those that emit light only during true occur along Delaware’s Atlantic coast. dark, or that have restricted ranges or Another species, P. potomaca, may now strict habitat requirements. For exam- be extirpated from the Potomac Valley ple, the dark-active Florida intertidal above Washington, D.C., where it was firefly (Micronapsis floridana, the sole once abundant.

SPRING 2018 9 the amount of area that is lit, as well as the number of hours that lights are kept on. Eliminating pesticide uses that can directly kill fireflies or alter their habi- tat is also important. Keep some areas of your yard unkempt and remember that different species will use different habitats, including water sources, un- disturbed soil, and native vegetation of different heights. If you or people you know catch fire- flies as generations have before, handle them in a way that will help ensure that they can survive and find a mate once they are released. Do not put them in direct sun or in cold conditions. Release them as soon as possible— less than Mason jars filled with magical light have twenty-four hours from capture— in enchanted countless generations of chil- the same place they were caught. If you dren. Care should be taken to avoid harm- ing captured fireflies, and it is important keep them overnight in a jar or other to release them after a short time. Photo- container, add some moistened tissue graph by Ben­jamin Lehman / Flickr. to provide the humidity they need. You can also use these interactions to help Much more research and monitor- advance our understanding by making ing are needed to understand fully the such occasions into more than just a causes and extent of firefly declines and nocturnal encounter. Keep notes on the to know which species—rare, broadly fireflies you see, and share this informa- distributed, or somewhere in between— tion with citizen-science efforts such as may be most at risk. Protecting their Firefly Watch. habitat, whether woodland or prairie or If there is one thing we have dis- marsh, is essential to conserve fireflies. covered during our assessment effort, it These entrancing insects aren’t limited is that there is still much to be learned to wild places, however, and there are about the world of fireflies. Xerces will some simple steps you can take to help continue to seek a better understanding them in your neighborhood. One of the of these enchanting animals and how easiest actions is to reduce or eliminate best to protect them. May their lights outdoor lighting. Light pollution direct- shine on for their sakes, and for ours. ly competes with and often outshines firefly signals, making it challenging for fireflies to find each other and to -com Candace Fallon is a senior conservation municate. Shield any outdoor lights that biologist in Xerces’ endangered species pro- must remain on, or consider changing gram. She recently had the honor of hav- your bulbs to provide more firefly- ing a butterfly named after her, Candace’s friendly lighting. When possible, limit copper (Lycaena mariposa candia).

10 WINGS The Striking Beauty of Oklahoma’s Butterflies

Ray Moranz

I grew up near the foothills of the Appa- lower forty-eight brings us butterfly spe- lachian Mountains, amid tall forests of cies from most regions of the country— beech, maple, and oak. If you had asked the Northeast, the Southeast, and the me back then to describe Oklahoma, Southwest, as well as the Rocky Moun- I would have guessed that it was flat, tains—to complement those that are brown, and dusty. (Cincinnati was the most at home in Oklahoma’s climate, farthest west I traveled in those days.) which is sunny and warm much of the Now that I’ve lived here for fourteen year and conducive to supporting pop- years, I know how wrong I was. Much of ulations of many butterfly species. We the state is hilly—some areas are down- even get the occasional subtropical but- right mountainous— and most of the terfly from southern Texas and northern state is verdant during spring, summer, and early fall. Rather than being full of dust, Oklahoma skies are often full of butterflies. Of the twenty-seven states I’ve visited or lived in, this is one of the best for butterfly watching, blessed with a great diversity and a particularly high abundance. Oklahoma’s impressive butterfly fauna of more than 170 species includes the nation’s largest (the giant swal- lowtail) and the smallest (the western pygmy blue), and representatives of all six major butterfly families: Papil- ionidae (swallowtails), Pieridae (whites and sulphurs), Lycaenidae (gossamer- wings), Hesperiidae (skippers), Riodini- dae (metalmarks), and Nymphalidae (brush-foots). Such variety is primarily a result of the state’s range of ecosys- tems and vegetation types—from the shortgrass prairie of the Panhandle in the northwest corner of the state to the Oklahoma plays host to the largest but- terfly in the United States, the giant swal- towering forests of shortleaf pines that lowtail (Papilio cresphontes), shown here — drape the Ouachita Mountains in the and to the smallest, the western pygmy southeast. In addition, Oklahoma’s geo- blue (Brephidium exilis). Photograph by graphic position near the center of the Bryan E. Reynolds.

SPRING 2018 11 Mexico. In 2006, one of these, the com- cant southward migration each fall. mon mestra (Mestra amymone), showed The blues, coppers, and hairstreaks up in my Stillwater backyard, quite an of the gossamer-wing family (Lycae- unexpected treat! nidae) tend to be small, but they often Eight swallowtail species have been have striking colors—iridescent blues, recorded in Oklahoma, including our greens, or coppery oranges— and in- state butterfly, the black swallowtail Pa( - tricate color patterns. Most of the hair- pilio polyxenes). We have four widespread streaks lay eggs on oak trees and most of species (black, tiger, giant, and pipe- the blues lay on legumes, particularly lu- vine), two that are limited to the eastern pines, but host plants also include dock forests (spicebush and zebra), and two for gray coppers and bronze coppers, vagrants (two-tailed and Thoas). and eastern redcedar for juniper hair- At least twenty-two species in the streaks. In addition to the United States’ family Pieridae occur in Oklahoma. smallest butterfly, the western pygmy Three of the most widespread are the blue, this family includes the country’s orange sulphur, the dainty sulphur, and only carnivorous one, the harvester the checkered white. But sleepy oranges (Feniseca tarquinius), whose caterpillar and little yellows come to my garden host “plants” are woolly aphids! each year to lay eggs on wild senna, and The most species-rich butterfly fam- the large and brightly colored cloudless ily in Oklahoma is the Hesperiidae (skip- sulphur shows up each year to lay eggs pers), with nearly seventy species. The on partridge pea. Cloudless sulphurs are majority of them are tiny, barely larger very strong flyers, and exhibit a signifi- than your thumbnail, and extremely

The common mestra (Mestra amymone) is a subtropical butterfly that puts in an occasional appearance in Oklahoma, including in the author’s backyard. The mix of species from different regions makes the state a great place to watch butterflies. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

12 WINGS If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, the soldier (Danaus eresimus) must admire the monarch (D. plexippus) a lot! Caterpillars of both species feed on milkweed. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds. quick, flitting from flower to flower to lay their eggs on passionflower. Our pas- flower in a second or two. They can be sionflowers, though, are most often fed very difficult to identify. I once watched upon by larvae of another longwing, the two butterfly experts debate the identity gulf fritillary (Agraulis vanillae). Any gar- of a skipper that was kind enough to stay den in Oklahoma that has healthy, na- perched on a flower twelve inches from tive passionflower vines is likely to host their faces. After half an hour, they still gulf fritillaries and, last summer and weren’t sure what it was. fall, my two vines helped to feed hun- In contrast, we have only three spe- dreds of their larvae. cies of metalmarks (Riodinidae): the The family Nymphalidae includes little metalmark (Calephelis virginiensis), what is likely the most popular butter- the northern metalmark (C. borealis), fly genus,Danaus , the milkweed butter- and the swamp metalmark (C. muticum). flies: the monarch D.( plexippus) and two All are restricted to the eastern edge of close relatives, the queen (D. gilippus), the state. which typically breeds in scattered loca- The brush-footed butterfly fam- tions across the state, and the soldier (D. ily (Nymphalidae) is loaded with big, eresimus), a few of which have wandered brightly colored species. Painted ladies up from the subtropical climes of south (Vanessa cardui) and American ladies (V. Texas. We have monarchs in abundance virginiensis) can be found in great abun- every year, although old-timers have dance, particularly during migration. told me that they used to see many, Oklahoma is far enough south for us many more when they were young. to be blessed with rare visits from zebra Oklahoma and other southern states longwings (Heliconius charithonia) and are where monarchs returning from julias (Dryas iulia), tropical species that their winter sojourn in the mountains

SPRING 2018 13 the advantage of our central location, even though only four species have been recorded in the state. The great spangled fritillary (S. cybele) occurs from coast to coast in the United States, but Oklahoma is about as far south as it is found. Edwards’ fritillary (S. edwardsii), is a species of the Rocky Mountain states that has been recorded in the far west- ern Panhandle. The other side of Okla- homa lies on the western frontier of two eastern species, the Diana fritillary (S. diana) and the regal fritillary (S. idalia). Adult Diana fritillaries are colossal (although not as large as giant swallow- tails), and they exhibit striking sexual dimorphism: the males are brilliant or- ange and brown, whereas the females are metallic blue and black. Regal fritil- Skippers can be difficult to identify with laries are also special— orange and pur- certainty, as with this individual nectar- ing on narrow-leaved purple coneflower plish-blue above, while the undersides (Echinacea angustifolia). Photograph by of the wings are orange and copper Bryan E. Reynolds. punctuated by bright white spots. Cer- tainly deserving of the name “regal”! of central Mexico first arrive in spring to The Diana and regal have intrigu- search for milkweeds, lay eggs, and die. ing natural histories. Like many fritil- By June, monarchs move northward and laries, both require violets as their host become sparse here. They show up again plants, but these two differ greatly in in August, and breed prolifically again their habitat requirements. Dianas oc- where milkweed is available to produce cupy moist woodlands and forests, and a “fifth” generation. For a few weeks be- those within Oklahoma are thus re- ginning in late September, Oklahoma stricted to the tree-covered Ozark and becomes one of the most exciting places Ouachita mountains, in the eastern part for a monarch watcher to be, as waves of the state— or at least so we thought. of millions of monarchs pour through One surprising development in the last from the Northern Plains, the Midwest, decade is the appearance of Dianas west and the Great Lakes. of these mountain ranges, first in the But, for me, the most fascinating Tulsa metro area, but later at the edge butterflies are the fritillaries of the genus of the Flint Hills in Osage County, and Speyeria. These large, showy brush-foots even on occasion in central Oklahoma. are among the most beautiful butterflies Unlike the Diana, the regal fritillary is in North America—many have shining a true grassland specialist and, unfor- silver spots on their underwings—and tunately, it is in trouble. Once found in perhaps no other genus demonstrates thirty-two states, it has been extirpated

14 WINGS from fourteen and is secure in only a thousand-acre preserve, when I saw a handful. Famed lepidopterist Lincoln beautiful butterfly zoom by. That was Brower once told me that he chased after my first regal, and I was so impressed regal fritillaries during his boyhood in with it that I decided to conduct re- New Jersey. Sadly, today’s New Jerseyans search on that species for my PhD. Even- cannot replicate that experience. tually, I followed regals to research sites The main cause of the regal fritil- in Missouri, Kansas, and Iowa; I’ve never lary’s decline is loss of grasslands, due tired of hiking through shade-free prai- to urban development, conversion to ries on hot summer days to see them. agriculture, or succession to forest. In One critical issue is the effect of Oklahoma, the regal fritillary is criti- grassland management on regal fritil- cally imperiled, and in the last five years lary populations. Multiple earlier stud- it has been recorded in just a couple of ies had indicated that the prescribed counties in the northeastern part of the fires commonly set to kill young trees state. It appears that the Nature Con- that try to invade prairie country likely servancy’s Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in also kill the fritillaries’ immature stages. Osage County is the best place to find Although my research did not address them, and that is where they first en- that question directly, I found that adult chanted me. In 2004, during my first regal fritillaries were more abundant in summer in Oklahoma, I was conducting areas that had been recently burned, plant-community research at this forty-­ and that this was likely due to the stim-

A chance encounter with a regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia)—like the one shown here between two pearl crescents (Phyciodes tharos) —moved the author toward a career focused on butter- flies. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

SPRING 2018 15 This juniper hairstreak (Callophrys gryneus) shows many features of the family Lycaenidae: small size, intricate pat- terns and shapes, and striking (often iridescent) colors. ­Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds. ulative effects of fire on the blooming Despite the threats that many spe- of nectar-rich native wildflowers—pale cies face, butterfly watching in Okla- purple coneflower, butterfly milkweed, homa is still superb, and if you’ve never prairie blazing star, and others— on been, I urge you to come. A good time which adult regals love to feed. Alterna- to visit is in June, for the emergence of tives to burning include haying, mow- the Diana and regal fritillaries. Another ing, and grazing, each of which have is during the first half of October, when different effects on the grassland struc- strong winds from the south (which are ture and suitability for regal fritillaries. common) cause populations of migra- Given the impact that management has tory butterflies to build up and you have on regals in their different life stages, a good chance of seeing huge numbers care must be taken not to treat an entire of monarchs, as well as sulphurs, skip- site in a single year and to extend the ro- pers, common buckeyes, and gulf fritil- tation over a long period—in the case of laries, before the southerlies die away, fire, five or more years between burns. releasing the migrants to continue their There is a great need to identify the journeys. For me, the peak of fall butter- habitat that remains for regal fritillar- fly migration in Oklahoma is a source of ies, to preserve it, and to figure out what bliss, annually renewed. other circumstances are contributing to the declines in abundance. Without a concerted effort, the state is likely to Ray Moranz is a grazing lands pollina- become the fifteenth from which the tor ecologist for the Xerces Society, and is butterfly has disappeared. based in Oklahoma.

16 WINGS Ups and Downs of English Chalk Grasslands

Matthew Shepherd

“Lack of concentration inhibits stan- learning multiplication tables be ex- dard and rate of work.” Schoolteach- pected to compete with that? ers in Britain didn’t mince their words One of the more obvious features in 1970 — or at least mine didn’t! In my of a geology map of Britain is the broad defense, they shouldn’t have had a ge- bands of color that sweep across the ology map on the classroom wall. The southeastern portion of the country, in bold colors and intriguing patterns were contrast with the disjointed and frag- much more interesting than math and mented patterns to the north and west. spelling to an easily distracted seven- One of these bands, often colored green, year-old. I didn’t know much about ge- stretches nearly half the length of the is- ology back then, but I did know that the land, forking and then forking again to red patches were where volcanoes had reach the sea in at least four places, rep- erupted and that dinosaurs had been resenting the chalk that underlies some walking around when the rocks in the of the country’s most iconic landscapes: big blue area were forming. How could the mystical settings of Stonehenge

Chalk downlands are one of southern Britain’s classic landscapes. The short grass and open conditions result from centuries of grazing, and support a great diversity of wild- flowers and associated butterflies. Photograph by Natural England / Chris Gomersall.

SPRING 2018 17 and Avebury, which contain millennia or tallgrass prairie. Because the grass is of human history; the rounded hills of so short, flowers face less competition, southern England, dotted with sheep; and these grasslands support a remark- and the White Cliffs of Dover, which able diversity of plants, upwards of stood as a symbolic bulwark against Hit- forty species in a square yard. And the ler during the Second World War. wild­flowers are such beauties: meadow Geologically speaking, chalk is a clary, bell flower, cowslip, kidney vetch, very soft limestone, almost pure calcium devil’s-bit scabious, salad burnet, round- carbonate. It was created at the bottom headed rampion, burnet saxifrage, and of warm tropical seas, the accumulated several orchids, including bee, spider, remains of billions of marine plankton, man, fragrant, and pyramidal. Sitting “coccoliths,” that died and settled on on a sun-drenched slope surrounded by the seabed over a period of thirty mil- such diversity is always a treat, but the lion years. After Africa bumped into major delight of any summer’s day on Europe about sixty-five million years the downs is the butterflies. ago —an event that created the Alps— About a third of Britain’s sixty resi- this layer slowly bent and rose upward, dent butterfly species may be encoun- dispersing the sea and becoming the tered on chalk grasslands, including hills that form the skeleton for what is small skipper, green hairstreak, small now southern Britain. A bit confusingly, copper, meadow brown, Duke of Bur- these uplands are known as downs (de- gundy, and marbled white, but it is a rived from du¯n, the Old English for hill). handful of blues— common, chalkhill, Although the English downlands small, and Adonis—that may be most contain several characteristic habitats— the beech woods of the Chiltern Hills, for example — the grasslands are the most distinctive. From afar, downs typi- cally look bare and rounded. The chalk is porous, so rainwater percolates quick- ly, leaving the hills dry. In addition, the soils are shallow and infertile, partly from that percolating water leeching out nutrients. Add a layer of human his- tory— centuries of sheep grazing, assist- ed by wild rabbits established after being brought to Britain by the Romans—and the overall result is a landscape in which trees struggle and grassland dominates. Chalk grassland is short due to the grazing. The sward is seldom more The vibrant colors of the Adonis blue than four inches high and in places (Polyommatus bellargus) light up chalk less than an inch, very different from grasslands, the only place in Britain the image of grasslands that one might where they can be enjoyed. Photograph have formed based upon hay meadows by gailhampshire­ / Flickr.

18 WINGS characteristic of this habitat, the latter ment. Many of those duties involved two in particular, as in Britain they are clearing scrub from chalk grassland, ex- found only on chalk or limestone grass- perience that helped in one of my first lands. In a good year on a good site there jobs out of college at the National Trust’s may be thousands of them in a blue haze estate on White Horse Hill in the south- above the sward. west corner of Oxfordshire. This site is For a landscape whose character home to the world-famous Uffington was so determined by human activity, White Horse, a three-thousand-year- it should be no surprise that the loss of old chalk figure carved into the hillside, chalk grasslands has also been caused which is topped with Iron Age fortifi- by human enterprise. Beginning in cation. By the late twentieth century, the late 1700s, the changing econom- White Horse Hill had been hemmed in ics of farming led to a transition on the by arable fields, leaving less than three downs from sheep pasture to cropland. hundred acres of ancient grassland. For- This conversion continued into the tunately, because of the horse and the twentieth century, accelerating after hillfort, this land had not been aban- the Second World War with the advent doned and the slopes were still carpeted of more-powerful machinery and the with flowers. In recognition of its rich introduction of chemical fertilizers. flora, the hill had been declared a Site of Cumulatively over the past two Special Scientific Interest SSSI( , a nation- centuries more than 80 percent of chalk al designation). My daily responsibilities grassland has been lost. Where it once included ensuring that the sheep were stretched from horizon to horizon it grazing the proper areas of grassland to has been reduced to increasingly iso- maintain the short sward without dam- lated patches, frequently on hillsides aging it, controlling problematic weeds too steep for the plows, and neglect has such as invasive thistles, and containing thus allowed the grass to grow taller, the spread of hawthorn scrub. smothering the flowers. In the county Some years later, after working in of Wiltshire, for example, which in the Essex and then overseas in Kenya, I re- region around Stonehenge formerly turned to the English chalklands, this contained some of Britain’s largest areas time in Kent, where they meet the sea. of downland, nearly half disappeared in There I helped with managing surviving the three decades prior to 1970, around grasslands on the Folkestone Downs, on the time when I was staring at that class- Dover’s Western Heights, and at the top room map. I didn’t realize it then, but I of the White Cliffs, as well as with the would come to spend significant parts of creation of new grasslands along the my career on chalk grasslands, working foot of the White Cliffs, at Samphire on sites whose recent history illustrate Hoe. Unlike White Horse Hill, these the threats these habitats face. places had not had a conservation- By the mid-1980s I was studying minded landowner, and the grasslands land management as a post-graduate had suffered the declines that were typi- student, and my weekends were spent cal for postwar Britain. Where it was flat volunteering with a conservation group enough, the land was now covered with doing practical tasks of habitat manage- crops, and any remaining grassland had

SPRING 2018 19 been “improved” with fertilizer and her- Downs. This meant that Eurotunnel bicides. Because they were at the edges became the benevolent landowner that of urban areas, housing bit chunks out the hills needed and, in partnership of their lower levels and unstructured with the city councils of Folkestone recreation intruded everywhere, mak- and Dover, it launched the White Cliffs ing it increasingly difficult to keep live- Countryside Project, with the inten- stock. Grazing had stopped in the years tion of conserving the disappearing after the Second World War and scrub grasslands. By the mid-1990s, weekly gradually encroached. Compounding volunteer efforts were dedicated to res- this, the myxomatosis virus reached toration, including removing the scrub. Britain in the 1950s, killing some 95 per- Carefully managed grazing by cattle cent of the rabbit population over the and sheep helped provide long-term next decade and a half, leaving nothing management, with project staff working to keep the remaining grass short. Even in close cooperation with local farmers so, the steeper slopes still supported sig- to ensure that grazing was done at the nificant areas of unimproved grassland appropriate interval and intensity. This and, maybe more remarkably, colonies was often accomplished employing rare of chalkhill and Adonis blues. As a re- livestock such as Dexter cattle, a par- sult, the Folkestone Downs had been ticularly small breed that could better designated an SSSI. thrive on the relatively poor forage and Luckily for these hills, the Brit- needed little more than a bush for shel- ish terminus of the Channel Tunnel ter during bad weather. was built at the foot of the Folkestone This is also the place where I be-

Attentive management has pushed back encroaching scrub and reintroduced grazing, returning the Folkestone Downs to their former glory after years of ­neglect. Photograph by residents_parking / Flickr.

20 WINGS came a pollinator nerd. The Folkestone Downs are among the few places where one of Britain’s rarest plants, the late spider orchid (Ophrys fuciflora), grows. In 1990, when the White Cliffs Coun- tryside Project reintroduced grazing, there were only six such plants. By the time I worked there the number had increased, thanks to habitat restora- tion work done up until then, but we were still spending time pollinating orchids by hand. Spider orchids have a pollination method known as “pseu- docopulation.” The lower petal on each flower resembles a bee closely enough to entice a male bee to try to mate with it. During the attempt, packets of pol- len, “pollinia,” get attached to the bee, which transfers them to another flower. Discovering that the late spider orchid (Apparently, one failed effort to mate (Ophrys fuciflora) was pollinated by male isn’t enough to deter the bee from try- solitary bees was a revelation that in- ing its luck multiple times!) At the Sam- spired the author to become a pollinator phire Hoe site, I had the chance to watch nerd. Photograph­ by Björn S / Flickr. bees in action on a closely related plant, the early spider orchid (O. sphecodes). I stopping the encroachment of scrub or soon came to learn that both those bees woods, preventing the grass from be- (genus Andrena) and their counterparts coming overgrown, and keeping nutri- (genus Eucera) that were no longer pres- ent levels low, but the reward is some ent to pollinate the late spider orchids of the most strikingly beautiful land- on the Folkestone Downs are solitary, scapes, awash with color from flowers ground-nesting bees. For me, who at the and insects. time thought bees lived only in hives, And my school reports? Despite my this was a revelation, and one that led poor showing in math, I rated much bet- indirectly to a career shift and a focus ter in geography (“an intelligent inter- on pollinator conservation. est taken”) and nature study or science Chalk downland is just one ex- (“good”), so, in the end, I guess that ample of declining grassland habitat. green band on the geology map did lead Wherever they occur, whatever they me in the right direction. are called—meadows, prairies, savan- nahs, heaths— grasslands are among the most threatened habitats, prone to Matthew Shepherd has enjoyed opportuni- plowing, “improvement,” development, ties to work in and manage beautiful plac- and loss of diversity through simple ne- es on three continents. He is currently the glect. Maintaining them often relies on Xer­ces Society’s communications director.

SPRING 2018 21 CONSERVATION SPOTLIGHT

Iowa’s Living Roadway Trust Fund The sea of tallgrass prairie that once to city and county agencies as well as to dominated Iowa’s landscape has been universities and nonprofits. Almost fif- converted to farmland or built on. Less teen hundred grants—more than $17 than 0.1 percent of the prairie remains, million in total—have been disbursed and Iowa now leads the nation as the since 1990. Many of the grants fund state with the most altered landscape. vegetation management activities, in- A surprising champion of prairie cluding research into habitat restoration restoration is the Living Roadway Trust techniques and seed and plant selec- Fund of the Iowa Department of Trans- tion, but they also support demonstra- portation. The Iowa Legislature created tion projects and conferences to share this fund in 1988, for “the vegetation of knowledge between roadside and con- Iowa’s roadsides to be preserved, plant- servation professionals. ed, and maintained to be safe, visually In addition, the trust fund supports interesting, ecologically integrated, and production of education and outreach useful for many purposes.” The result is materials targeted at audiences from a vibrant program of roadside habitat school students to adults. This has in- management and restoration, and ef- cluded working with Xerces staff to forts to educate the public about the im- develop a series of posters that are avail- portance of this work and prairie habitat. able for free from Iowa DOT’s website, The trust fund offers annual grants www.iowadot.gov/lrtf.

22 WINGS INVERTEBRATE NOTES

Bees in Urban Parks and Gardens It’s been known for a long time that abundance of bees from each site. parks and other greenspaces in towns When the researchers looked more and cities can support bees, sometimes closely at the species represented, how- in surprising diversity. New research ever, they found distinct differences from Poland, published in Urban Eco­ between urban and rural. The urban systems, shows not only that urban locations had a greater abundance and parks can provide a home for bees but diversity of social species than the na- that their diversity of species may rival tional park, perhaps because these bees that of natural areas. are better adapted to forage from a wide A team of researchers led by Weron- range of flowers and thus able to cope ika Banaszak-Cibicka, of Poznan´ Uni- with disturbed conditions. A second dif- versity of Life Sciences, surveyed bees ference was that the city park and gar- at two sites in the city of Poznan´ — a den had fewer bee species in late spring large park and a botanical garden­—and and summer than did the national park. compared those with records previous- This likely reflects the seasonal shift in ly gathered at Wielkopolska National flower availability; the urban sites had Park, about ten miles outside the city. many spring-flowering trees and shrubs, The total number of species was 118 but fewer flowers overall later in the year from the city park (almost a quarter of due to mowing. The number of rare spe- Poland’s bee diversity), 101 from the bo- cies was similar between the three sites, tanical garden, and 110 from the nation- although there were fewer individuals al park. The surveys recorded a similar from those species in the urban ones.

Indiana Adopts a State Insect In March, Governor Eric Holcomb of In- a geography lesson, when research on diana signed a bill declaring Say’s firefly other states sparked the question: A lot (Pyractomena angulata) to be the state’s of these states have state insects; why official insect. This came about as the can’t we have one? The class soon dis- result of a four-year effort by a group covered that in the 1990s entomologist of second-graders from Cumberland Tom Turpin of Purdue University had Elementary School in West Lafayette. proposed Say’s firefly as the state insect. Remarkably, this was not the work of This species had a strong connection to a single group of students but several Indiana—it was named by Posey Coun- “generations” of determined seven- and ty naturalist Thomas Say in 1824 —and eight-year-olds in Mrs. Samudio’s class. the students decided to push for it again. The students didn’t set out to pur- Their letter-writing campaign sue a state insect. Their quest began in gained the support of state senators and

SPRING 2018 23 representatives, but the bills got stuck in this extra encouragement, a bill finally committee. cleared the state assembly. A new class of media-savvy second- In recognition of the students’ ef- graders launched a social-media cam- forts, Governor Holcomb held the of- paign and sent another round of let- ficial bill-signing ceremony at Cumber- ters. This time they caught the interest land Elementary. With the school gym in of the governor, who promised to share darkness, everyone waved flashing green their letters with lawmakers. Thanks to lights in celebration!

Book Review Luckily for butterfly enthusiasts in Ore­ Butterflies of the Pacific Northwest be- gon and Washington, Butterflies of the gins with an introduction covering sub- Pacific Northwest (Timber Press, 2018) jects as diverse as the structure of butter- reached the bookstores just in time for flies and their distinguishing features; this year’s butterfly season. This is a suc- their ecology and conservation; how cessor to The Butterflies of Cascadia, a the region’s varied geography and cli- much-loved volume that has been out mate affect butterfly distributions (and of print for several years. The two books thus what to expect in different areas); share an author, Robert Michael Pyle, how to understand butterfly names; and who was joined by coauthor Caitlyn C. enjoying butterflies through watching, LaBar for the new guide. gardening, photography, and citizen sci- ence. It’s well worth reading before div- ing into the field guide proper. The species treatments include the detailed information about each butter- fly that you’d expect from a field guide: how to identify it, its preferred habitat and caterpillar host plants, distribution, and when it can be seen. There are ex- cellent photographs for each of the more than two hundred butterflies, as well as a series of side-by-side comparisons of similar species—­ an aid in differentiat- ing potentially confusing butterflies. What makes this volume a special pleasure are the narrative paragraphs, sometimes extensive, that accompany each description. These include anec- dotes from the field, hints on when or where to find particular butterflies, who they were named for, and similar tidbits. Butterfly lovers will not be disappointed with this useful and entertaining book.

24 WINGS STAFF PROFILE

Candace Fallon, Endangered Species Conservation Biologist What got you interested in insects? I grew up in the South, where insects are every- where. My two younger brothers and I would spend hours climbing trees, col- lecting insects, planting gardens, and roaming through the woods. My child- hood memories are peppered with in- sect encounters, from evading giant palmetto bugs to chasing fireflies, pet- ting my first bumble bee, and coaxing ants into homemade ant farms. I was ­obsessed with plants and the insects that visited them, and would stalk but- terflies with nets my mom made out of hangers and pillowcases. What made you want to work at the Xerces Society? I knew I wanted to work for a through blackbrush while horned liz- mission-driven, small conservation or- ards dart about, licking up ants. Prong- ganization that focused on my two great horn, jackrabbits, and coyotes make loves: plants and insects. At the time, I guest appearances. There are very few could find no other group that blended other people, and miles of desert to ex- invertebrate research with applied con- plore. I’ve spent weeks at a time camp- servation practices. One summer I was ing in this place, slowly becoming one able to volunteer with Xerces for some with the dust and the rocks, and it will butterfly surveys, and when a position always feel like a piece of home to me. opened on the endangered species team a few months later, I applied. Who’s in your family? My partner Corey, our two somewhat neurotic cats Marvin What’s your favorite place to visit? There and Salix, and a number of houseplants are too many incredible places to pick that have somehow survived the ages. a single favorite, but I’ll tell you about one of them: a small valley in south- What book are you currently reading? central Nevada called Tikaboo. In this Fredrik Sjöberg’s The Fly Trap. It is a valley, the skies stretch on for days. You memoir by a Swedish entomologist who can watch the arrival of every storm has dedicated his life to studying hover- and sunrise. The landscape is a mosaic flies. It’s a short, charming book, and I of Joshua trees and fossil deposits and find some of the passages hilarious and cholla forests. Darkling beetles amble reflective of my own life as a biologist.

SPRING 2018 25 XERCES NEWS

Bee City USA Adds Strength to Xerces’ Conservation Efforts We are very happy to share the news also draw pollinators into their service- that the Xerces Society is joining forces learning program and courses. with Bee City USA. Beginning in June, Bee City and Bee Bee City USA, together with its Campus will be a project of the Xerces sister initiative, Bee Campus USA, has Society. By becoming part of Xerces, Bee achieved remarkable things over the last City acquires the capacity to continue six years. What began as a spark ignited its growth and to maintain the momen- by a single individual has grown into a tum of the Bee City movement. Phyl- nationwide network of communities lis will become a Xerces staff member, and college campuses dedicated to pro- ensuring continuity through this tran- moting and protecting pollinators. sition and allowing her to focus on co­ Bee City USA, run by Phyllis Stiles ordinating and expanding the network with the support of a small group of of affiliates. generous donors, has become an estab- The strength of Bee City and Bee lished organization that now boasts Campus comes from a grassroots desire more than 115 affiliate cities and cam- to make the world safer for pollinators. puses, with new ones coming on board The involvement of every affiliate is every month. Each city affiliate agrees to driven by its local members, who orga- a set of commitments that include rais- nize events and celebrations, make hab- ing awareness of pollinators, creating itat improvements, and engage friends habitat, and reducing pesticide risks. and neighbors. We are thrilled to enter Affiliates adopt a resolution, a public into this new partnership and to be able statement of what they stand for and to engage directly with and provide sup- what they will do. College campuses port for this network of activists.

Conservation Guidelines for Freshwater Mussels and Monarchs Xerces Society scientists recently com- In the West, however, freshwater mus- pleted two major reports to help guide sels have been largely ignored, despite conservation efforts in western North their importance to such high-profile America. wildlife as salmon. These mussels face Freshwater mussels are an impor- many threats, and they are declining tant component of our natural heritage, from Alaska to Mexico due to habitat improving water quality for wildlife and degradation, lower water quality and people. The declines of mussels in rivers quantity, and, perhaps surprisingly, and lakes of eastern North America is the effects of construction activities widely known, and there are many ef- and dewatering associated with river-­ forts to protect them and their habitat. restoration projects.

26 WINGS To improve things for mussels, the Xerces Society has published Conserving Managing for Monarchs in the West the Gems of Our Waters: Best Management Best Management Practices for Conserving the Monarch Butterfly and its Habitat Practices for Protecting Native Western Freshwater Mussels During Aquatic and Riparian Restoration, Construction, and Land Management Projects and Activities. This publication provides guidance and resources for a range of topics, including incorporating freshwater mussels into project planning, surveying for mus- sels, implementing best management practices, and performing salvages and relocations at restoration sites. We are grateful to the members of the Pacific Northwest Native Freshwater Mussel Workgroup, western restoration practitioners, and aquatic biologists who shared their expertise and time in assisting with these guidelines. The monarch butterfly also faces overwintering sites in coastal California threats throughout its range in western has fallen by more than 95 percent since North America. What was once a huge the 1980s, with declines also observed number of monarchs that converged on in breeding populations during the spring and summer. To guide conservation efforts, the Conserving the Gems of Our Waters Xerces Society has published Managing

Best Management Practices for Protecting Native Western Freshwater Mussels During Aquatic and Riparian Restoration, Construction, and Land Management Projects and Activities for Monarchs in the West: Best Manage- ment Practices for Conserving the Mon-

Emilie Blevins, Laura McMullen, Sarina Jepsen, Michele Blackburn, arch Butterfly and its Habitat. This report Aimée Code, and Scott Hoffman Black combines the best available science with accumulated knowledge from land managers to provide recommendations for managing monarch breeding and migratory habitat. Invasive nonnative and noxious plant species are addressed, as are the impacts of recreation and cli- mate change. If land managers follow these guidelines they can mow, burn, graze, or otherwise manage land, confi- dent that they are minimizing the nega- tive effects on monarch populations. Both documents are available from our website, xerces.org.

SPRING 2018 27 Northern metalmark (Calephelis borealis), photographed by Bryan E. Reynolds.

Gifts Through Your IRA If you are seventy and a half years of age or older, and looking for a “tax- wise” way to support the work that matters most to you, you can make a tax-free distribution from your Individual Retirement Arrangement (IRA) directly to the Xerces Society. The maximum total amount of Qualified Charitable Distributions is $100,000 per person each year without incur- ring income tax on the withdrawal. Please reach out to your personal tax or legal professional for more infor- mation and advice about your situation before making a charitable gift. The Xerces Society does not render tax or legal advice. To notify us of a legacy gift you have planned, please email us at [email protected]. Thank you for your support!

The First Bee Better Certified Farm: Sran Family Orchards Last November, Sran Family Orchards, within their almond orchards in Cali- the world’s largest grower of organic al- fornia’s Central Valley. With 23.5 acres monds, became the first Bee Better Cer- of permanent pollinator habitat and tified farm. The Sran family has long 116 acres of flowering cover crops spread had a commitment to sustainable farm- strategically across ten locations, it was ing, and for years has been working to an easy additional step to fulfill the re- establish flower-rich pollinator habitat quirements of Bee Better Certified.

28 WINGS Bee Better Certified is the only management strategies to protect crop third-party food and farming certifi- pollinators. cation program in the world that is fo- Although Bee Better Certified’s cused specifically on pollinator conser- focus on habitat is unique among farm vation. The Xerces Society launched the certification programs, it is compatible program in collaboration with national with any farming operation. Growers nonprofit organic certifier Oregon Tilth who want to be certified are required in June 2017, with the goal of giving bees to dedicate part of their land to flower- a healthy place to live. ing habitat, and to mitigate exposure Oregon Tilth evaluates farms to pesticides through a combination of against strict production standards preventive techniques for pest manage- and certifies them based upon habitat ment and the elimination of high-risk created and an assessment of their pest pesticide chemicals.

Pacific Northwest Bumble Bee Atlas If you live in Washington, Idaho, or We hope that this project will lead Ore­gon— or visit those states frequent- to a better understanding of where ly enough—you can contribute to a bumble bees occur in remote locales. new citizen-science project, the Pacific Much of what we currently know about Northwest Bumble Bee Atlas. Over a ­bumble-bee distributions is focused three-year period, the project will cre- on places where people live or travel— ate a detailed picture of the diversity towns, cities and near to roads—as well and distributions of bumble bees in the as in such key conservation areas as three-state region. national parks. Getting better informa- While this project will gather data tion about which species of bumble bees on all of the region’s nearly thirty spe- occur in other areas will help research- cies of bumble bees, there are three ers to see more clearly what types of hab- whose population declines are of par- itat different species are associated with, ticular concern: the western bumble ultimately supporting the conservation bee (Bombus occidentalis), Morrison’s of those most at risk. bumble bee (B. morrisoni) and the Suck- It could take a small army of volun- ley cuckoo bumble bee (B. suckleyi). teers to reach all corners of these three

SPRING 2018 29 states, which is why the participation of is no need to scour the entire area of a local residents (and visitors) is so impor- partiular cell. Just having observations tant. The minimum involvement is to from as many of them as possible means take photographs of bumble bees wher- a good geographic spread across the re- ever you are and whenever you can, and gion. You can find more information then to submit them to Bumble Bee and learn how to sign up to adopt a cell Watch. This will help to build the data- at pnwbumblebeeatlas.org. base of observations. The Pacific Northwest Bumble For people with more time avail- Bee Atlas is a partnership between the able, we encourage you to adopt one Idaho Department of Fish and Game, of the grid cells in the project area and the Washington Department of Fish then visit it at least twice each year to and Wildlife, Oregon State University, look for and record bumble bees. There and the Xerces Society.

With fewer than two hundred surviving adults, the island mar- ble (Euchloe ausonides insulanus) is one of the most imperiled butterflies in the world. Photograph by Karen Reagan /USFWS .

The USFWS Proposes Protection for the Island Marble Proving that species protection requires The new decision comes as the result of a dogged determination, the U.S. Fish second Endangered Species Act petition and Wildlife Service announced in submitted in 2012, which the USFWS April that it was proposing endangered declined at the time, saying that listing species protection for the island marble was “warranted, but precluded by high- butterfly—more than fifteen years after er priority listing actions.” We applaud the Xerces Society first submitted a pe- the USFWS for now acting on the need tition. In the intervening years, Xerces for protection, but we are disappointed scientists continued to monitor this but- that the delay may have led to fewer op- terfly and to advocate for its protection. tions for recovery of this species.

30 WINGS The island marble (Euchloe ausonides to maturity, sea rocket is not considered insulanus) is among the most imperiled a potential host. The island marble is re- animals in the world. Fewer than two stricted to open habitat, which includes hundred adults were observed dur- a range of disturbed places such as shel- ing surveys in 2017, and the butterfly’s tered shorelines, sand dunes, roadsides, habitat faces continued threats. It is re- and agricultural land. All three of its stricted to a cluster of islands in the Sal- host plants are annuals, and require soil ish Sea, a coastal waterway that straddles disturbance to reseed. the border between British Columbia Significant threats to this butterfly and Washington state and includes the are habitat loss due to development, Strait of Georgia, the Strait of Juan de road maintenance, and invasive spe- Fuca, and Puget Sound. In recent years, cies; damage to remaining habitat from the butterfly has been extirpated from deer browsing, mowing, or insecticide Vancouver and Gabriola islands in Brit- use; and agricultural practices. Because ish Columbia and from Lopez Island in island marbles use weedy mustards as Washington. It is now found only on host plants, they lay eggs in farm fields, Washington’s San Juan Island. and eggs and caterpillars may be de- Host plants for the island marble stroyed during harvest or plowing. are the native tall peppergrass and two It is imperative that the USFWS related weedy nonnatives, field mustard moves quickly to finalize protection and and tall tumble mustard. Eggs and lar- implement a recovery plan, which must vae have also been observed on sea rock- include adequate areas of designated et, but because none of those developed critical habitat.

WINGS, Spring 2018 Volume 41, Number 1 Wings is published twice a year by the Xerces Society, an international, non- profit or­ganization dedicated to protecting the diversity of life through the ­conservation of invertebrates and their habitat. A Xerces Society membership costs $35 per year (tax-deductible) and in­cludes a subscription to Wings; the magazine can also be downloaded from our website as a PDF. Copyright © 2018 by the Xerces Society. All rights reserved. Xerces Society Executive­ Director: Scott Hoffman Black. Editors: Scott Hoffman Black, John Laursen,­ and Matthew Shepherd. Design and Production­ : John Laursen. Printed on recycled paper. For information about membership and to learn about our conser­va­tion programs for native pollinators, endangered species, and aquatic inverte- brates, as well as our efforts to reduce the impacts of pesticides,­ contact us: THE XERCES SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 628 Northeast Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 toll-free 855-232-6639 fax 503-233-6794 www.xerces.org

SPRING 2018 31 By tucking in their heads when threatened, caterpillars of the east- ern tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus) can make their eyespots prom- inent to startle an attacker. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.

THE XERCES SOCIETY FOR INVERTEBRATE CONSERVATION 628 Northeast Broadway, Suite 200, Portland, OR 97232 Board of Directors Scientific Advisors David Frazee Johnson May R. Berenbaum Karen Oberhauser President Paul R. Ehrlich Paul A. Opler Logan Lauvray Wendell Gilgert Dennis Paulson Vice President Boris Kondratieff Robert Michael Pyle Linda Craig Claire Kremen Michael Samways Treasurer John Losey Cheryl Schultz Sacha Spector Secretary Thomas Lovejoy Robbin Thorp Beth Robertson-Martin Scott E. Miller Paul Williams Casey Sclar Gary Paul Nabhan E. O. Wilson Marla Spivak Piotr Naskrecki Rachael Winfree

A $35 per year Xerces Society membership includes a subscription to Wings.

On the cover: The intricately patterned American lady (Vanessa virginiensis) can be found in most regions of the United States, although it is most commonly encountered in the eastern states. Photograph by Bryan E. Reynolds.