Guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in schools in Cameroon
Calvain Raoul NANGUE
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Magister Technologiae
in
Information Technology
in the
School of Information and Communication Technology
Faculty of Engineering , the Built Environment and Information Technology
of the
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Supervisor : Prof D. Van Greunen Co-Supervisor: Ms Karen Church
January 2011
DECLARATION BY STUDENT
FULL NAME: CALVAIN RAOUL NANGUE
STUDENT NUMBER: 209080431
QUALIFICATION: M.TECH. IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
DECLARATION
In accordance with Rule G4.6.3, I hereby declare that the above-mentioned dissertation is my own work, and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment to another University or for another qualification.
SIGNATURE: ______
DATE: 21st March 2011
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ANTIC Agence Nationale des Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication
CMS Content Management System
FS Free Software
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNI Gross National Income
ICT Information and Communication Technology
LDC Least developed country
LMS Learning Management System
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MINESEC Ministry of Secondary Education
MoE Ministry of Education
MRC Multimedia Resources Centres
NICI National Information and Communication Infrastructure
NRI Networked Readiness Index
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
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ABSTRACT
ICT integration in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is still at an early stage and already faces several setbacks that may undermine the various initiatives undertaken by governments and the private sector to promote the use of computers in schools. Based on literature and other research, this may be attributed to the fact that no guidelines for proper ICT adoption in secondary schools exist; and furthermore, most integration cases were done haphazardly with no systematic approach based on the existing frameworks or tailored towards the real context in the schools concerned.
The present study aimed to provide guidelines for the successful integration of ICT into schools in Cameroon. A review of some existing frameworks for ICT integrations in schools, as well as the innovative pathways that some developing countries have taken to ensure the successful integration of ICT into schools were explored through a literature review, revealing the trends and challenges of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon being at an introductory stage was established from the available literature. This led to the use of a single case study from the Western Region of Cameroon, where four secondary schools were selected from the most advanced schools in terms of ICT integration. Participants consisting of principals, ICT co-ordinators, teachers, and students were interviewed, in order to establish the current status of ICT in each school, as well as those factors affecting or promoting the adoption of ICT.
Teachers’ and students’ surveys, as well as existing documentation were used to triangulate the data gathered from interviews with school principals and ICT co-ordinators. Data were descriptively analysed – and the findings revealed that ICT is at the introductory stage of integration in the Fluck’s Model of ICT development in schools. At school level, the lack of infrastructure and an ICT adoption plan were found to be the key opposing factors to ICT integration, whereas several enablers were identified, such as the positive attitude of teachers towards ICT, the existence of a minimum recurring budget for ICT adoption through parents’ funding, as well as the continually decreasing cost of ICT infrastructure in the market.
Based on the findings and experiences from successfully proven projects, a set of guidelines were derived for schools’ decision-makers. It is critical to put in place a well-structured policy for ICT in the school and to recognise all the ICT-related costs.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, my profound gratitude and love are here addressed to God Almighty for making this a reality and for being on my side throughout the course of this study.
This work would not have been possible without the contribution of the following:
My supervisor, Prof. D. Van Greunen for her professional support and competence in
providing guidance to achieve this work.
To the co-supervisor of this research work Ms K. Church for making my research
experience as enjoyable as I never expected it to be and for providing support all the
way to its completion.
To the entire team of the Information and Communication Technology Advancement
unit for providing all it takes to achieve the best in this research: namely Prof. R. Von
Solms, Prof. R. Botha, Prof. D. Pottas. I thank you all for this opportunity.
The NMMU Research Capacity Development Department for their financial support in
the completion of my research;
My dear parents and grandparents, brothers and sisters, for their constant moral
support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ...... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... III
ABSTRACT ...... IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... VI
LIST OF TABLES ...... IX
LIST OF FIGURES ...... XI CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 3
1.3 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES ...... 3 1.3.1 Research Questions ...... 3 1.3.1.1 Main Research question ...... 3 1.3.1.2 Secondary research questions ...... 3 1.3.2 Research Objectives ...... 4
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 4 1.4.1 Philosophy ...... 4 1.4.2 Strategies of inquiry ...... 5 1.4.3 Data Collection Methods ...... 5
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...... 6
1.6 LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS ...... 7 CHAPTER 2 ICT IN SCHOOLS - RATIONALE, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES ...... 9
2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 9
2.2 CONCEPTS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS ...... 9 2.2.1 History of Computers in schools ...... 9 2.2.2 What is ICT Integration into Schools? ...... 10 2.2.3 Requirements for a successful ICT Integration in schools ...... 11 2.2.3.1 The Curriculum ...... 11 2.2.3.2 ICT Infrastructure ...... 12 2.2.3.3 Staff development and support ...... 12 2.2.3.4 Organisational change and leadership ...... 13 2.2.3.5 Educational policies and ICT implementation strategies ...... 13
2.3 ICT IN EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ...... 15 2.3.1 Developed and Developing countries ...... 15 2.3.2 The focus on ICT integration into schools: moving towards a knowledge society ...... 16 2.3.3 Justifying ICT Integration in Education...... 17 2.3.4 Trends on ICT in Education in developing countries ...... 18 2.3.5 Major issues and challenges in developing nations ...... 19 2.3.6 Common factors affecting ICT integration in schools ...... 21 2.3.6.1 Driving Factors ...... 22 2.3.6.2 Opposing Factors ...... 22
2.4 INTEGRATING ICT IN SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES...... 23
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2.4.1 Components of a conceptual framework for ICT in schools ...... 23 2.4.2 Sub-Saharan African countries ICT Readiness measurement ...... 26 2.4.3 Level of ICT Integration in selected countries ...... 28 2.4.3.1 ICT Integration in schools at the Top Level: Lessons from Singapore ...... 29 2.4.3.2 ICT Integration in schools at the middle - level: case of South Africa ...... 31 2.4.3.3 Integration at the bottom - level: most Sub-Saharan African Countries ...... 34
2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION...... 35 CHAPTER 3 THE CURRENT STATUS OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON ...... 37
3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 37
3.2 CAMEROON: A COUNTRY OVERVIEW ...... 37 3.2.1 Cameroon: a country profile: ...... 37 3.2.2 The Cameroon Educational System ...... 38 3.2.3 How Networked-Ready is Cameroon?: basic indicators ...... 39 3.3 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON ...... 40 3.3.1 Legal Framework and Policies ...... 41 3.3.2 ICT infrastructure in schools ...... 42 3.3.3 ICT curriculum and professional development ...... 44
3.4 ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON: WHAT CONTRIBUTES TO THE INERTIA? ...... 45
3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...... 47 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 49
4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 49
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 49 4.2.1 Overview of research questions and objectives ...... 49 4.2.2 Philosophical approach ...... 50 4.3 STRATEGIC METHODOLOGY: CASE STUDY ...... 51 4.3.1 Introduction ...... 51 4.3.2 Single vs multiple case studies ...... 52 4.3.3 An exploratory case study ...... 53 4.3.4 Case study design ...... 53 4.3.4.1 The Research Questions ...... 54 4.3.4.2 Stated purpose of the study ...... 54 4.3.4.3 Unit of analysis and selection of cases ...... 55 4.3.4.4 Sampling ...... 55 4.3.5 Data gathering methods ...... 57 4.3.5.1 Survey ...... 58 4.3.5.2 Designing Interview instruments ...... 58 4.3.6 Reliability and validity ...... 60 4.3.7 Data triangulation ...... 61
4.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...... 63 CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND FINDINGS ...... 64
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 64
5.2 CODING DATA SOURCES ...... 64
5.3 EXPECTATIONS ...... 65
5. 4 RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS ...... 66 5.4.1 Teacher’s professional development ...... 66
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5.4.1.1 Teachers ICT literacy ...... 67 5.4.1.2 Teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption for teaching and learning...... 68 5.4.1.3 Teachers’ willingness to use ICT in teaching or learning...... 74 5.4.2 Infrastructure: Provision and sustainability ...... 77 5.4.3 Access and use ...... 81 5.4.3.1 Students' access to ICT ...... 81 5.4.3.2 Teachers' access to ICT ...... 83 5.4.3.3 Teacher’s use of ICT ...... 85 5.4.4 Curriculum ...... 85 5.4.5 School Policies and organization ...... 86
5.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ...... 88 CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS ...... 89
6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 89
6.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 89 6.2.1 What is the current status of ICT Integration in schools in Cameroon? (RQ2) ...... 90 6.2.1.1 The curriculum ...... 90 6.2.1.2 School policies and organisation ...... 91 6.2.1.3 Infrastructure and access ...... 92 6.3.1.4 Staff professional development ...... 93 6.2.1.5 Summary of findings relating to RQ1 ...... 94 6.2.2 What factors enable or prevent ICT integration in schools? (RQ3) ...... 94 6.2.2.1 Factors relating to the curriculum ...... 95 6.2.2.2 Infrastructure and access ...... 96 6.2.2.3 Factors from Teachers' Professional Development ...... 96 6.2.2.4 School policies, vision and organisation ...... 98
6.3 GUIDELINES FOR ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON ...... 98 6.3.1 ICT Policies ...... 99 6.3.2 Teachers' training...... 103 6.3.3 Infrastructure plan ...... 104 6.3.4 Costing ...... 105 6.3.5 Funding ...... 107
6.4 DATA TRIANGULATION ...... 108
6.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION...... 109 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION ...... 111 7.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 111
7.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES ...... 111
7.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...... 118
7.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY ...... 119
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 122 APPENDIX 3.A Indicators for the country of Cameroon ...... 127 APPENDIX 4.A Preliminary survey of schools ...... 128 APPENDIX 4.B PRINCIPALS’ INTERVIEWS ...... 129 APPENDIX 4.C ICT COORDINATORS' INTERVIEWS ...... 131 APPENDIX 4.D TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 135 APPENDIX 4.E STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 141
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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Driving factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Fisser, 2001), ...... 22 Table 2.2 Opposing factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Webb, 2007) ...... 23 Table 2.3: summary of the key phases of ICT in school development (Fluck, 2003) ...... 26 Table 2.4: Network Readiness Index and Environment sun Index in Sub-Saharan African Countries. (World Economic Forum, 2010) ...... 28 Table 2.5: Singapore: stages of ICT integration in education (National University of Singapore, 2008) ...... 31 Table 2.6: Computer summary grid for schools in South Africa ...... 34 Table 2.7: South Africa current stages of ICT integration in education ...... 34 Table 2.8: Current Status of ICT Integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa ...... 35 Table 3.1: Socio-economic Indicators: Cameroon (UNDATA, 2010) ...... 38 Table 3.2: Cameroon: current level of ICT integration in education ...... 45 Table 4.1: Selected schools in Western region of Cameroon ...... 56 Table 4.2: Respondents and roles in each school ...... 58 Table 4.3: Data collection methods summary ...... 60 Table 4.4: Summary of research questions and methodology ...... 63 Table 5.1: Gender distribution of respondents ...... 64 Table 5.2: Data source coding ...... 64 Table 5.3: Initial expectations ...... 65 Table 5.4 Teachers' ICT literacy status ...... 67 Table 5.5 Number of teachers who have once used ICT to prepare lessons ...... 67 Table 5.6 Reasons for not using ICT ...... 68 Table 5.7: Computers could ease my teaching Job (TQ4.1) ...... 68 Table 5.8: ICT allows finding useful online resources for my teaching (TQ4.2) ...... 69 Table 5.9: Teachers' lack of access (TQ4.4) ...... 69 Table 5.10: ICT creating additional workload for teachers (TQ4.7) ...... 69 Table 5.11: Not knowing what using ICT implies (TQ5.6) ...... 70 Table 5.12: Reduced daily charges (TQ5.9) ...... 70 Table 5.13: Students will learn better using ICTs (TQ4.5) ...... 70 Table 5.14: Not skilled enough to use ICTs (TQ4.6) ...... 70 Table 5.15: A new pedagogical approach (TQ4.9) ...... 71 Table 5.16: Lack of support to use ICT in teaching (TQ4.11) ...... 71 Table 5.17: Feeling aggressive towards computers (TQ4.13) ...... 71 Table 5.18: Cannot work with computers (TQ4.14) ...... 72 Table 5.19: Not interested in problem-solving using computers (TQ4.15) ...... 72 Table 5.20: ICT as a distraction for students (TQ4.10) ...... 73 Table 5.21: A mastery of computers needed for jobs' future (TQ4.17) ...... 73 Table 5.22: Learning to use computers will be difficult (TQ4.16) ...... 73 Table 5.23: Too old to learn about computers (TQ4.18) ...... 73 Table 5.24: Age distribution of respondents (TQ1.4) ...... 74 Table 5.25: Feeling uncomfortable when talking about ICT (TQ4.20) ...... 74 Table 5.26: Not enough computers for the number of students (TQ5.1) ...... 74 Table 5.27: Lack of proper training to use ICT (TQ5.2) ...... 75 Table 5.28: Lack of adequate equipment to use ICT (TQ5.3)...... 75 Table 5.29 Lack of administrative support to use ICT (TQ5.4) ...... 75 Table 5.30: Lack of technical support to use ICT (TQ5.5) ...... 75 Table 5.31: Lack of official and adequate teaching resources from the ministry of education (TQ5.7) ...... 76 Table 5.32: Lack of ready-made digital content (TQ5.8) ...... 76 Table 5.33: Using ICT more easily in other subjects (TQ5.11) ...... 76
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Table 5.34 Distribution of respondents according to type of subject taught. (TQ1.5) ...... 76 Table 5.35: Lack of commitments from schools' authorities (TQ5.13) ...... 77 Table 5.36: Lack of rewards from the ministry of education (TQ5.15) ...... 77 Table 5.37: ICT Procurement in schools ...... 78 Table 5.38: ICT infrastructure plan ...... 78 Table 5.39: Computer specifications in schools (CQ2.5) ...... 78 Table 5.40: Type of Internet connectivity (CQ2.13, CQ2.14) ...... 79 Table 5.41: Hardware infrastructure in schools (CQ2.6, CQ2.8)...... 79 Table 5.42: Software resources in schools (CQ2.10) ...... 79 Table 5.43: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.5) ...... 80 Table 5.44: Computer Labs ...... 80 Table 5.45: Primary users of ICT resources (CQ2.11) ...... 81 Table 5.46: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.9) ...... 81 Table 5.47: Student access to ICT in schools (SQ2.1) ...... 81 Table 5.48: Students’ frequency of access to ICT in school (SQ2.2) ...... 81 Table 5.49: Other Students' access to ICT? ...... 82 Table 5.50: Access to ICT outside school or home (SQ2.6) ...... 82 Table 5.51: Reason for limited or no access to ICT by students in school (SQ2.3) ...... 82 Table 5.52: Students' shared access to computers (SQ3.5) ...... 82 Table 5.53: Number of students sharing a computer during classes (SQ3.6)...... 83 Table 5.54: Students with email account...... 83 Table 5.55: Places of access to email or the Internet? (SQ2.9) ...... 83 Table 5.56: Teachers’ access to ICT ...... 83 Table 5.57: Frequency of teachers’ access to ICT in schools (TQ2.6) ...... 84 Table 5.58 Reason for teachers' limited access to ICT in School. (TQ2.10) ...... 84 Table 5.59: Place of access to the Internet (TQ3.2) ...... 84 Table 5.60: Reasons for accessing the Internet (TQ3.3) ...... 85 Table 5.61: Computer literacy (TQ2.1, TQ6.2) ...... 85 Table 5.62: Computer training (TQ6.3)? ...... 85 Table 5.63: Number of years of using computers (TQ2.3) ...... 85 Table 5.64: Use of computer lab ...... 86 Table 5.65: Top reasons for not using computers in teaching (TQ5.1, TQ5.2, TQ5.7)...... 86 Table 5.66: Existence of policy document for ICT in school (PQ3.1) ...... 87 Table 5.67: What prompted ICT integration in schools? (PQ3.3) ...... 87 Table 5.68: Sources of funding for ICT (PQ3.4) ...... 87 Table 5.69: Schools' ICT priorities (PQ3.2, PQ3.5) ...... 88 Table 5.70: Major concerns when integrating ICT in school (PQ3.6) ...... 88 Table 5.71: ICT integration plan and literacy ...... 88 Table 6.1: Status of curriculum at each stage of ICT development in schools ...... 90 Table 6.2: Status of policies and organisations at each stage of ICT development in schools ...... 91 Table 6.3: Status of infrastructure and access at each stage of ICT development in schools ...... 92 Table 6.4: Teachers' professional development at each stage of ICT integration in schools ...... 93 Table 6.5: Quick summary of status of components ...... 94 Table 6.6: Guidelines for ICT integration in schools ...... 110 Table 7.1: Enabling and opposing factors for ICT development in schools ...... 116
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2-1 MODEL DEPICTING A CONTINUUM OF APPROACHES TO ICT DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOLS (UNESCO, 2002) ...... 23
FIGURE 2-2 A GENERAL MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ICT POLICIES IN SCHOOLS (FLUCK, 2003) ...... 23
FIGURE 2-3: THE NETWORKED READINESS INDEX 2009 – 2010: THE FRAMEWORK (WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2010) ...... 27
FIGURE 4-1: DATA TRIANGULATION ...... 62
FIGURE 7-1 GUIDELINES FOR ICT ADOPTION IN SCHOOLS AT THE INTRODUCTORY STAGE ...... 118
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CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
In the educational sector, ICT is shaping the future of education and learning (Khan, 2008). ICT will largely contribute to achieving universal education through the delivery of education and the training of teachers, as well as the offering of improved conditions for lifelong learning. Such lifelong learning involves people that are outside the formal education process, and thus also their improving professional skills (UNESCO, 2005).
ICT can improve critical thinking, information handling skills, the level of conceptualization, and problem-solving capacity (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). When used appropriately, different ICTs are said to help extend the access to education, strengthen the relevance of education to the increasingly digital workspace, and raise educational quality by, among others, helping make teaching and learning into an engaging, active process connected to real life (Tinio, 2003; Whitworth & Berson, 2003).
The focus today is no longer on whether technology should be integrated into the school setting, but on how this integration should be done to benefit all parties in a typical school setting. ICT integration in education – or, in other words, the adoption of computer usage – has in recent years become the key term in most national policies (Vallance, 2008). Several cases of successful ICT integration into the classroom are reported, but most of these have been in technologically advanced countries (Jhurree, 2005). On the contrary, little or no statistics are available from developing countries to ascertain the level of ICT integration into education in these countries.
The limited research reports that are available on developing countries, and in Sub-Saharan Africa in particular, indicate that the implementation of ICT is currently increasing, and has been introduced in varying degrees at all levels from preschools to university (ERNWACA, 2006).
In a developing country such as Cameroon, President Biya promised the introduction of computing in schools and the endowment of computer rooms to schools (Mbangwana, 2009). This promise was followed by public and private initiatives, such as the creation of an official computer curriculum outline for secondary schools, the donation of some computer labs by government (National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008) and private bodies (MTN Foundation, 2005). Some ICT-related policies were formulated, strategies were adopted and legal frameworks were put in place to ensure a step into the “Information Society era”. The most prominent of these was the Cameroon National Information and Communication Infrastructure (NICI) policy and plan drafted in 2004.
This policy clearly outlined the government’s resolve to modernise the educational system through the introduction of ICTs in schools, preparing a sectoral ICT policy for the educational sector, training teachers in the use of ICTs, equipping all schools with ICT facilities, multiplying pedagogic resource centres for teachers and students, and providing support for the production of ICT teaching materials (Tchinda, 2007).
However, a recent report released by the National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies – a body established to monitor and promote the integration of ICT in the society – concluded that despite the substantial efforts undertaken so far in the educational sector, the level of ICT mastery in an emerging knowledge-based society like Cameroon vis-à-vis other countries at the same level of growth still remained very low; and that it may not be able to guarantee an adequate training in the mastery and usage of ICTs by the citizens of that country (National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008).
In developing countries, the perception of ICT integration in schools still remains the outdated empirical view that "wiring schools, buying hardware and software, and distributing the equipment throughout will lead to abundant classroom use by teachers and students and improved teaching and learning” (Lary, Heather, & Peck, 2001). A view, according to which policy-makers only could imagine the adoption of ICT into the framework of a school system as they knew it; the children followed a predetermined curriculum mapped out year by year and lesson by lesson (Yelland, Neal, & Dakich, 2008).
The effective integration of ICT is a complex, multifaceted process that involves not just technology, but also a curriculum and a pedagogy, institutional readiness, teacher competencies, and long-term financing among others (Tinio, 2003) (Fluck, 2003); it is a dynamic process involving interacting factors over time. (Tondeur, Valcke, & van Braak, 2007). Frameworks and models have been put in place to ease the numerous aspects of ICT integration, such as ICT and its uses, teaching, the curriculum and schooling (Robertson, Webb, & Fluck, 2007).
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Some very successful cases of ICT Integration in developing countries were based on frameworks, guided by research, and done by means of a scientific approach. Most of these cases were based on careful planning and how policy-makers understood and appreciated the dynamics of such integration (Kok, 2006).
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
ICT integration in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is still at an early stage, and already faces several setbacks that may undermine the various initiatives undertaken by governments and the private sector to promote the use of computers in schools. Based on literature and other research, this may be attributed to the fact that no guidelines for proper ICT adoption in secondary schools exist, and most integration cases were done haphazardly with no systematic approach based on existing frameworks or tailored towards the real context in the schools concerned.
This research reviews some existing frameworks for ICT integrations in schools – in order to understand the various approaches in using ICT to improve teaching and learning. The research explores the innovative pathways some developing countries have taken to ensure successful integration of ICT into schools. It then establishes the current status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon, highlighting the barriers and enablers that hinder or facilitate the integration into a typical secondary schools; and finally, it proposes – from a close analysis of ICT in selected schools in the Western region of Cameroon – a set of guidelines and requirements for a successful integration of ICT into schools.
1.3 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1.3.1.1 Main research question
Which guidelines should be followed to ensure a successful integration of ICT in Cameroonian secondary schools?
1.3.1.2 Secondary research questions
Three sub-questions related to the main study will be addressed:
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What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?
What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
What factors promote or hinder ICT integration in Schools in Cameroon?
1.3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
On the basis of the general research questions, the overall objective of the research is to suggest guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in secondary schools in the Western region of Cameroon.
To achieve the above primary objective, the following secondary objectives also need to be determined:
To understand the trends of ICT integration in schools from Sub-Saharan Africa; To establish the current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon; To determine the possible barriers and enablers of ICT Integration in selected secondary schools from Cameroon.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.4.1 PHILOSOPHY
The epistemological position regarding the study is based on the following stance: Data are contained within the perspectives of people that are involved with ICT integration and its adoption into schools – either in a decision-making capacity or as participants. Based on this, the researcher needed to engage with the participants in collecting the data. The phenomenological methodology is best suited for this type of study.
The intention of this research, since its preliminary stage, was to gather data regarding the perspectives of the research participants (stakeholders in schools) on the phenomenon of ICT integration in schools and the factors that promote or hinder this process.
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1.4.2 STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY
Based on the above research objectives, a thorough literature review combined with a case study was used to identify the requirements for a successful ICT integration into schools with a focus on the challenges from developing countries, and to also establish the status of ICT integration in the schools in Cameroon.
A case study was defined as an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context. This was to be done by using multiple sources of evidence (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007). This strategy could be a single case – in which the phenomenon under study had not been observed by many before – or a multiple-case study – used when the findings from a particular case are found to occur in other cases – with a view to generalising them.
The case study was a representative case, intending to show how ICT integration in schools should be done in a typical region, and with the final aim of suggesting guidelines for ICT integration into schools in the entire Cameroon. A single case study in a typical region was used in this study to investigate the factors affecting ICT integration in participating secondary schools, in which the basic ICT infrastructure exists and an ongoing resolve from policy-makers to integrate ICT into the entire school system.
1.4.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
The nature of the study was mainly exploratory and cross-sectional. The methods used for data gathering were a combination of the quantitative and qualitative methods. Data were gathered from three selected sources: interviews with schools principals, ICT coordinators and teachers; students’ surveys; and finally, from documentation available in the country, from the Ministry of Secondary Education, and from within the schools themselves.
Sample: The purposive sampling technique was used in the selection of schools with basic ICT infrastructure as a key criterion. The selection of the schools in the chosen region was further influenced by the availability of ICT resources, the school readiness to support the research conducted – by granting access to resources and information, and the limited funds available to cover schools in regions far apart. Fifteen schools were short-listed from within the case study – the Western Region. This was carried out by the Regional Department of Education. These
5 schools were recognised as the most advanced schools in the region in terms of ICT infrastructure. A further assessment was then made to reduce the number of participating schools to four, based on criteria, such as the accessibility and the willingness of leaders to adopt the ICT in education change, as well as to be representative of each of the departments of the region.
Interviews: Interviews may be defined as purposeful discussions between two or more people (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2007). This was the method used for primary data collection. In this research, four components made up the interviews: Interviews with principals aimed at appraising their willingness to embark on ICT in schools, as well as the institutional policies and challenges that could possibly be faced; interviews with ICT coordinators, aimed at gaining a better understanding of the challenges and barriers facing ICT integration into schools. The teachers’ interviews were administered in the form of questionnaires – to obtain their opinions and views on the potential challenges and expectations from using ICT in teaching.
Students’ interviews – also administered in the form of questionnaires with closed-ended questions – aimed at establishing students’ access to and the use of ICT in schools.
A literature review was used to gather secondary data. Data collected by other researchers in some secondary schools were re-analysed, or simply used, in order to obtain useful insights into the state of ICT literacy in those schools and in the related countries.
These various methods and analyses conducted will be discussed in more detail in the Research Design and Methodology chapter of this dissertation.
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It was assumed that the schools selected for the study had a basic ICT laboratory in place with at least the minimum of hardware and resources required.
The study focuses on how ICT integration in schools can be properly planned; and little emphasis is to be placed on the implementation phase of ICT integration. That could be done in a more contextual study.
The result from this study will be of value to principals in schools struggling with the challenge of ICT integration – especially those with little or no knowledge of the possible outcomes.
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The significance of this study lies in the fact that the guidelines suggested can have a bearing on how policy-makers and decision-makers view ICT integration. It could even receive a nationwide acceptance, with subsequent adoption, in secondary schools where the need for ICT integration is recognised. If proper guidelines for ICT Integration are suggested, then decision-makers will find it a valuable tool to overcome the setbacks they have so far encountered in strengthening the quality of education through ICT. With no previous integration process being based on research, this study could help stakeholders in schools to clearly identify the areas of concern – many of which were initially ignored.
Ethical considerations
The case studies applicable in this research are government public schools. As such, it was necessary to obtain the approval of the department of education covering the research area. This was sought and obtained.
Participants’ rights (not to participate, to withdraw from the project at any given time, not to answer questions) and their privacy (anonymity, confidentiality) were preserved at all times throughout the study.
1.6 LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS
Chapter 1: General introduction
This chapter has highlighted the background to the study, and specified the research problems, as well as the objectives, the research philosophy and the approach used.
Chapter 2: ICT in schools: rationale, trends, and challenges
This chapter will seek to understand the requirements for an effective ICT integration, the various challenges faced by developing countries, and some successful cases of ICT integration in schools. A general overview of the current level of ICT integration into schools in the Sub- Saharan Africa region was investigated.
Chapter 3: Current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon
In this chapter, a cross examination of the context of ICT integration in schools in a Sub-Saharan Africa country at the initial stages of the process will be made. Cameroon is one of the countries
7 at an early level of ICT integration. It displays a typical status of inertia, as may be observed in the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa.
Chapter 4: Research Design and Methodology
This chapter will describe the research design, data collection and analysis methods, as well as the process of data validation and triangulation.
Chapter 5: Results and Findings
The results of the investigation will be provided in this chapter. These will serve as a basis for the subsequent analysis that will follow thereafter.
Chapter 6: Analysis
In this chapter, analysis of the data collected will be performed – with the aim of formulating answers to the research questions.
Chapter 7: Conclusion
The major ideas emerging from the study will here be explored further. An overall summary of the achievement of the objectives and goals will be made, as well as the prescribed guidelines for an effective ICT integration into classrooms will be suggested. The chapter concludes with some recommendations for future research.
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CHAPTER 2 ICT IN SCHOOLS - RATIONALE, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the concept of ICT in schools, its rationale and specific components. A review of ICT in education in developing countries is made in the second section with a view to identifying current trends, issues and challenges, as well as common enabling and opposing factors. A close look at the Networked Readiness Index (NRI) framework and its components suggests a relationship between countries and their level of ICT integration in schools. The cases of an NRI top-ranked (Singapore) and middle-ranked (South Africa) countries were investigated – as well as an overview of the situation in most Sub-Saharan countries.
2.2 CONCEPTS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS
2.2.1 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS
The issue of ‘computers in education’ started to become popular in educational policy-making in the early 1980s, when relatively cheap microcomputers became available for the consumer market. Stimulated by governmental policies and quite often led by the fear of losing the technology race, many countries started to build their own brand of microcomputers (BBC, Acorn, Tomson) and distributed these to schools. At the end of the 1980s, the term “computers” was replaced by ‘IT’ (Information Technology). IT came about in the 1970s to describe technologies that give the user direct access to a wide range of diverse information types (Tondeur, Valcke, & van Braak, 2007).
This signifies a shift of the focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information. This was followed by the introduction of the term ‘ICT’ (Information and Communication Technologies) around 1992, when e-mail started to become available to the general public. The term ‘ICT’ reflected the common understanding that a computer’s potential is significantly enhanced by connection to a local network, and even more so by connection to the Internet. (Fluck, 2003)
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With regard to the early introduction of microcomputers in education, there were high expectations that it would make education more effective and motivating. However, when many surveys had shown that computers were used mainly as a supplement to the existing curriculum, and much less as tools that were fully integrated into the learning of traditional subject matter, the general feeling among many policy-makers was one of great disappointment.
Between 1992 and about 1995, the investments in hardware, staff development and research programmes on ICT decreased (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). With the advent of the World Wide Web, the political interest in ICT was quickly boosted for a second time. Many have seen ICT as a formidable tool to close the gap between the developing world and the developed world – by skipping certain stages of industrial development and leapfrogging into the Information Economy (Osterwalder, 2007).
This interest was accompanied by a commonly accepted rhetoric that education systems would need to prepare citizens for lifelong learning in an ‘information society’ (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). As a result, an information society was to be changed by ICT; citizens in these information societies would need new competencies that had not yet been sufficiently attained in the traditional education systems; educational innovations would need to be implemented – with the aid of ICT – to attain these new skills.
These related but semantically different interests have stirred up the way ICT in education is perceived in developing nations – preparing students for employment in a globally competitive environment predicated on the widespread use of ICT, or using ICT to improve educational outcomes.
2.2.2 WHAT IS ICT INTEGRATION INTO SCHOOLS?
A useful definition of ICT is that which relates to those technologies that are used for accessing, gathering, manipulating and presenting or communicating information. The technologies could include hardware (e.g. computers and other devices); software applications; and connectivity (e.g. access to the Internet, local networking infrastructure, videoconferencing, etc). While the term ICT effectively refers to a broader domain, in developing nations, ICT still tends to mean computers and their peripheral devices.
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These computers could refer to anything from high-speed connected state-of-the art machines to something which is dated, stand-alone, or poorly maintained (Lloyd, 2005).
ICT integration in schools could be simply viewed as the use of computers in the teaching and learning process. This view would clearly misjudge the complex nature of the integration procedure itself. By integrating, we understand combining parts together, so that they work together to make a whole. The ‘parts to be combined’ include the school context in which integration is to take place, the technologies provided, the technical skills of teachers, the technical support provided for the installation, maintenance and upgrading of hardware and software, the pedagogical preferences and skills of teachers, the availability of appropriate electronic resources – and finally, the skills and motivation of students.
ICT Integration could be seen as a whole configuration of events, activities, contents, and interpersonal processes taking place in the context in which ICT is used. However, the right conditions need to be in place before the educational benefits of ICT can be fully harnessed, and a systematic approach is required when integrating ICTs into the education system. This fact is often overlooked, and in their eagerness to jump onto the technology bandwagon, many education systems end up with technologies that are either unsuitable for their needs or cannot be used optimally – due to the lack of adequately trained personnel (Ng, Miao, & Lee, 2009).
2.2.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS
Several models and frameworks have been formulated to provide a better understanding of the ICT integration process, to evaluate the positive effects of technology on learning, or to investigate the kind of enhanced learning environment that technology provides in the classroom. Pelgrum (2003) identified five key dimensions that should be addressed when considering ICT Integration in education. These comprise the curriculum, the ICT Infrastructure, the staff development and support, the organisational change and leadership, and the National educational policies and ICT implementation strategies.
2.2.3.1 The Curriculum
The curriculum is seen as the content and processes of learning in schools, as well as the outcome of learning. Three roles are generally differentiated for ICT in the curriculum: “Learning about ICT”, which refers to ICT as a subject of learning in the school curriculum, such as
11 computer (or ICT) literacy, computer science and information literacy; “Learning with ICT”, which refers to the use of ICT, including multimedia, the Internet or the Web as a medium to enhance instruction, or as a replacement for other media without changing the beliefs about the approaches to, and the methods of, teaching and learning; and “Learning through ICT”, which refers to the integration of ICT as an essential tool into a course/curriculum, such that the teaching and learning of that course/curriculum is no longer possible without it.
2.2.3.2 ICT Infrastructure
ICT Infrastructure refers to the hardware, the software and network connectivity. Here, ICT is used not only to support “learning about ICT”, but also to support “learning with ICT” and “learning through ICT”, as described in the previous section. Sub-dimensions are identified in relation to ICT infrastructure in education, such as “the stand-alone versus the distributed” dimension – if software is only locally available (CD-ROM) or accessible only from remote locations (Web-based); “the producer versus the consumer “dimension – if the digital materials are being made by the children and teachers themselves, or if they are made by others and accessed by the children and the teachers; “the structured versus the learner-controlled” dimension – the degree to which a pre-determined learning route is designed into materials (tutorials and some simulations) versus their being used as exploratory environments, or as hyperlinked encyclopaedias of resource materials.
Issues relating to the quality and the quantity of hardware, the type and cost of equipment needed, the features of the ICT infrastructure which are crucial, and the guidelines for handling and maintenance should be addressed at this stage. From the Software perspective, the debate ranges over the respective pros and cons of using Free Software (FS), and solutions versus proprietary solutions. At the economic level, the balance goes to the FS solution, while proprietary software companies claim their Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) is lower (Muller, Sancho Gil, & Hernandez, 2006).
2.2.3.3 Staff development and support
Teachers play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of ICT in education, since they are the key to making learning happen. The lack of ICT knowledge and skills from teachers is reported to be a major obstacle to implementation; and consequently, this requires the need
12 for further training for teachers. The introduction of computers in schools is a complex innovation which poses considerable challenges to teachers in their daily work.
Education reforms should require teachers to adopt new roles, since more responsibilities for learning are given directly to the students. This change requires that teachers be proficient in advising and guiding students through more autonomous, self-directed learning processes, while at the same time monitoring the curriculum standards achieved by students. Preparing teachers for this new role is a major challenge for staff development. Also, while teachers are often the focus of staff-development provisions, they are not the only stakeholders that require staff development to cope with the introduction of ICT into schools.
First of all, the presence of large quantities and varieties of ICT equipment in schools has created the need for dedicated technology co-ordinators and technical support staff. The availability of support, both technical and pedagogical, is vital for the successful implementation of ICT.
2.2.3.4 Organisational change and leadership
The change brought in by introducing ICT has to be aligned with other institutional priorities, if it is to be successful. However, case studies of ICT implementation in schools in a number of countries have indicated that the vision and goal of such implementation can be very different, even for schools that have been actively engaged in innovation of their traditional educational practices. (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). It might be expected that changes which do not involve challenges to the existing educational priorities or beliefs of the school would be relatively easily implemented.
However, to bring about curriculum change, drastic changes in teaching practices, school culture and organizational management must be made. Schools need to become “learning organisations”, i.e institutions that anticipate new challenges and change, and orientate themselves towards continual renewal and improvement.
2.2.3.5 Educational policies and ICT implementation strategies
In recent years, many governments throughout the world have adopted plans that have, in varying degrees, addressed the issues relating to ICT integration in schools (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). These plans are largely similar to their intentions in regard to the major direction of change, and are essentially plans for reforming education from a system which is mainly teacher-directed to one that encourages more student-centred learning.
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However, the nature and scope of the strategies for initiating, guiding and implementing these policy plans differ between countries, partly as a consequence of varying socio-economic circumstances (UNESCO, 2001). This study reviews the kinds of policy goals pursued by some selected countries, the implementation strategies that have been used at national level to promote the use of ICT in the curriculum, and the issues and challenges that policy-makers need to consider when formulating their national ICT in education policies and strategies.
At the school level, policies must be formulated as well. A whole-school ICT policy sets out the rationale for the teaching and learning of ICT, as well as the aims and objectives for ICT use within the ethos and wider frameworks of the school. It gives clear guidance on the types of equipment, programmes and measures that need to be in place if the requirements of the policy are to be met. The central aim of the policy is to provide a broad, balanced and challenging range of ICT opportunities for the students – to effectively prepare them for a future role in society (BECTA , 2009).
An effective ICT policy must be a concise and accessible document that informs and directs the teaching of ICT within the school. The policy must be subject to initial agreement by the governing body and the staff, and they should undertake regular reviews in common with all the other school policies. The priorities need to be reflected in the school's ICT development plan, and the ICT priorities and associated budget requirements need to be identified in the school development plan.
Kozma further suggested a classification of these components in a framework for policy formulation, into two categories, namely: strategic components and operational components (Kozma, 2008).
Strategic components, such as national policies, are needed to provide a rationale, a set of goals, and a vision for how education systems might look with the introduction of ICT, and how students, teachers, parents, and the general population might benefit from its use in schools. Kozma identified possible alternatives from national policy statements used to justify the investment of funds in educational ICT. Some of these statements aimed at promoting the use of educational ICT to support economic growth or promoting social development. Some policies focus more specifically on the impact of ICT on the education system, either to advance educational reform or to support education management.
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Operational policies, on the other hand, are a means of turning the visions provided by strategic policies into reality. Operational policies—typically framed as action plans, programmes, or projects—often consist of the following components: content development; pedagogical and curricular change; technical support; teacher training and Infrastructural development.
2.3 ICT IN EDUCATION FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
2.3.1 DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low level of material wellbeing. There is no single internationally-recognised definition of a developed country, and the levels of development may vary widely within so-called developing countries (UNSTATS, 2010), with some having high average standards of living. According to the United Nations Statistical Division, the designations "developed" and "developing" are intended for statistical convenience, and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process.
In this view, we have at one end the developed nations – countries that have a high level of development according to some criteria. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions. One such criterion is income per capita; countries with high Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialisation; countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed.
More recently, another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent and is becoming more widely used.
On the other end of the classification, we have Least-Developed Countries (LDC). These are – according to the United Nations -- countries which exhibit the lowest indicators of socio- economic development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings of all countries in the world. A country is classified as a Least-Developed Country if it meets three criteria based on low-income (three-year average GNI [Gross National Incom]) per capita of less than US $905, which must exceed $1,086 to leave the list), human resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy) and economic vulnerability (based on instability
15 of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by natural disasters) (UNITED NATIONS, 2009). A total of 33 countries from Sub-Saharan Africa constitute the bulk of the 49 LDCs listed.
Countries that have “graduated” from the LDC category or are aspiring to become a Developed Country could be classified as “Developing countries” or “emerging and developing economies”.
2.3.2 THE FOCUS ON ICT INTEGRATION INTO SCHOOLS: MOVING TOWARDS A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY
According to the UNESCO, moves towards “learning societies and organizations” are based on the need to acquire new knowledge throughout life. More and more opportunities for learning are currently being offered outside the formal education system, many of them supported by ICT development and tools (UNESCO, 2007). But as educational demand increases and supply diversifies, increasing disparities can be observed in respect of access, affordability and quality.
The nature of this ICT take-up in education goes beyond using information and communication systems to improve education administration, to the large-scale adoption of digital technologies that impacts on curricular and pedagogical structures.
Some Sub-Saharan developing countries, generally characterised by low income, weak human resources and high economic vulnerability, are facing critical issues, some of which are outlined by the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as: ending poverty and hunger, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowering women, reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability, and developing a global partnership for development (United Nations).
However, it is maintained that ICTs can be powerful enablers of such developmental goals (Hameed, 2006) because their unique characteristics can and do radically improve communication and the exchange of information – to strengthen and create new economic and social networks. All developing countries, even the poorest, are improving their access to, and their use of modern ICTs, some at a dramatic rate with a long-term view for improved education, health, job creation, governance and other services (Rodriguez & Wilson, 1999).
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But this is not without a confluence of economic, social, and political challenges. On the one hand, there is pressure for governments to provide education to all members of the population — even in the face of scarce financial, physical, and human resources — as a precondition for economic and social development. At the same time, globalization and the shift to a ‘knowledge-based economy’ require that educational institutions develop in individuals the ability to transform information into knowledge, and to apply that knowledge in dynamic, cross- cultural contexts.
2.3.3 JUSTIFYING ICT INTEGRATION IN EDUCATION
ICT integration in education should be seen as a support to “attain objectives that have not been attained efficiently otherwise: expanding access, promoting equality, improving the internal efficiency of educational systems, enhancing the quality of education, and preparing new and old generations for a technology-driven market place” (Jhurree, 2005). According to Jhurree (2005), integrating ICT in education could provide the following benefits to the community and the society:
An enhanced learning environment for learners: Technology provides a motivating learning environment, whereby learners are given the opportunity to be constructively engaged with instruction.
A powerful tool to supplement teachers’ instruction in classroom: If properly used by teachers, technology can foster more interest in learning on the part of students, and teachers can use it in the instruction of their respective subjects.
An administrative tool for teachers and administrators: Apart from classroom instruction, teachers are also involved in class administrative duties, such as students’ record keeping, lesson planning, preparing handouts, tutorials and slides, preparing examination papers, marking papers and recording results, performing some type of statistical analyses on marks and so forth. Administrators are also involved in a variety of work that requires technology, such as the computation of school performance for a certain year, the keeping of records of employees, and the preparation of the school budget, among others.
Increased access to education and inclusive education in the school: ICT has been recognised as providing a means of helping schools achieve the goal of promoting equal access to
17 education. It also has the potential to offer increased access to education to students with disabilities.
A communication platform: Through the Internet and the networks, schools have an excellent opportunity to promote collaboration, to share ideas and experiences, and to communicate with the world. Students, teachers, and administrators can communicate, exchange knowledge and concerns, meet experts and peers, and share work in collaborative projects through ICT.
2.3.4 TRENDS IN ICT IN EDUCATION FROM DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Developing countries have recognised the fact that successful knowledge economies will require additional skills to productively transform knowledge and information into innovative products and services. This aligns with the global trend, observed from a World Bank report highlighting the focus of governments around the world, on strategies to increase access to and improve the quality of education (World Economic Forum, 2002). A relevant education is more important today than ever before, because today’s networked world demands a workforce that understands how to use technology as a tool to increase productivity and creativity.
Developing countries have, therefore, recently witnessed a considerable commitment and huge investments by national governments and their partners to improve access, retention and the quality of education. Despite this, the present state of education in most developing countries presents a rather bleak picture. Recent studies have indicated that up to as many as 72 million children worldwide have never been inside a classroom, half of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations, 2009).
This clearly suggests a major concern for developing nations in Sub-Saharan Africa, to provide access to education for all. From this report, access to education, however, is only part of the solution, as school systems are chronically underfinanced and under-resourced, and often fail to deliver a high-quality education. As a result, millions of children start school, but eventually drop out. These out-of-school children in developing countries are especially vulnerable to poverty, abuse, violence, hunger and diseases, as not being in school contributes to future generations of people with limited life choices.
Providing greater access to basic education and ensuring quality education are two paradigms imposed on developing nations seeking to subscribe to the concept of knowledge-based societies. Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a time
18 of educational expansion (Tinio, 2003). Tinio further states that “for developing countries ICTs have the potential for increasing access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. It thus represents a potentially equalizing strategy for developing countries”. ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing learner motivation and engagement, by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training.
Also, ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved constituencies—scattered and rural populations, groups traditionally excluded from education, due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities, girls and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as well as all others who for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enrol on a campus (Tinio, 2003).
The potential of ICT use in education, however, opens up major concerns to developing nations, as outlined by a World Bank report (World Bank, 1998):
“*ICTs+ greatly facilitate the acquisition and absorption of knowledge, offering developing countries unprecedented opportunities to enhance educational systems, improve policy formulation and execution, and widen the range of opportunities for business and the poor. One of the greatest hardships endured by the poor, and by many others, who live in the poorest countries, is their sense of isolation. The new communications technologies promise to reduce that sense of isolation and open access to knowledge in ways unimaginable not long ago” (World Bank, 1998).
This predicts that if developing countries do not align with the quest towards the adoption of new technologies, they will be further isolated.
2.3.5 MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FROM DEVELOPING NATIONS
Several issues have been raised from literature pertaining to the adoption of ICT in schools in developing countries. Well-known issues relate to financial constraints, whereby low-income developing countries, such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa, have obvious difficulties in escaping from the low-income, low-technology equilibrium to enter into the ICT realm (LEE, 2001) (Addo, 2001) and the lack of human capacity. LEE questionably states that “even if free computers and free Internet access are available, they are useless to those individuals who are illiterate or lack the know-how. The application of ICT technologies requires human capabilities to handle such technologies”.
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Apart from these known issues, the use of ICTs in education in developing countries is facing additional questions and challenges. These include:
The rush to adopt the new technology in education: Developing countries often find themselves in situations where there is pressure to acquire and adopt new technologies because of the claims of what these technologies could do to aid and leapfrog their development, without really understanding the potential and reach of the technologies, or without having analysed their environments and contexts for appropriateness, applicability and impact (Swarts).
The Focus on technology: More often than not, computers are installed in schools around the world without sufficient thought being given to how these computers will be used (Hawkins, 2002). Discussions and planning for ICTs in education are driven by a technological imperative – with little thought being given to the wider educational context within which the technology is to be used. The appropriateness of the technology for the purpose is often overlooked in the rush to acquire this technology.
Technology-generated learning: This widespread notion may lead to a lot of wasted money, with technologies put into schools being either unused or poorly used (Swarts). For the new technologies to actually contribute to learning, much more thought needs to be put into the issues of pedagogy, curriculum, professional development of teachers, software, maintenance, scheduling, and other issues. Moreover, as Pelgrum suggests, a strongly ICT infrastructure-led development plan may lead to the wastage of valuable resources if the teachers and principals are not prepared, or if the understanding of the purpose is merely a technological one, such that the impact of the introduction of technology becomes rather limited (Pelgrum & Law, 2003).
Taking into account informal learning: Students, even in developing countries have considerable skills in the manipulation of new technologies, sometimes more so than their teachers (Swarts). Research findings seem to indicate that informal contact and communication is the most prevalent form of transferring ICT knowledge (Pelgrum & Law, 2003).
Technology not replacing traditional classrooms: Fears, anxiety, and concern that teachers have about change must be addressed. Using technology as a teaching and learning tool in the classroom does bring fear, anxiety and concern to a greater extent – since it involves both changes in classroom procedures and the use of the often-unfamiliar technologies (Bitner & Bitner, 2002). Knowledge is expanding rapidly, and most of it is available to teachers and
20 students at the same time. This puts an unavoidable burden on teachers to continue updating their knowledge and exposing themselves to modern channels of information. Most teachers now have to learn how to cope with the new technologies in their classrooms, how to compete with students in accessing the enormous body of information (particularly via the internet), and how to use the hardware and software to enhance the teaching and learning process.
Frequently, students are more advanced in, and adept at using, the new technologies than their teachers (Swarts).
Technology and content: Content development is a critical area that is too often overlooked. The lack of culturally appropriate educational content, particularly for developing countries, poses challenges. Cultural differences affect learners’ ability to fully understand and benefit from the lessons and their intended learning outcomes. It is, therefore, clear that content produced in one context cannot be adopted without some modification into another context. The bulk of existing ICT-based educational material is likely to be in English, and thus of little relevance to education in developing countries (especially at the primary and secondary levels) (Tinio, 2003).
2.3.6 COMMON FACTORS AFFECTING ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS
Kozma (2003) generally identified three levels of factors which may consequently influence the ICT use in education. The three levels are:
- A Macro-level refers to system factors, such as cultural norms, social context, educational policy, and curriculum standards, etc.; - A Meso-level refers to school factors, such as the IT infrastructure available, IT integration plans, school leadership, innovation history, parents, etc.; - A Micro-level refers to individual factors for teachers, such as pedagogical practice, innovation history, educational background, experience with technology, etc; and for pupils, such as experience with technology, social and cultural background, etc.
At the Meso- and Micro-levels, several factors are known to enable or prevent ICT integration in schools. These factors could be identified as driving factors or opposing factors.
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2.3.6.1 Driving Factors
Fisser ( 2001) identified several driving factors which affect the implementation of new forms of ICT in education. The following Table 2.1 summarises his findings.
Driving Factors The increasing capacity, flexibility, and suitability of ICT to educational applications; The continuing decrease in the cost of hardware; The growth of knowledge, with its attendant consequence of the obsolescence of much what was previously learned, places an ever-increasing pressure on the conventional models of education; The realisation that the quality of the learning experience can be enhanced by applying ICT; The demand from isolated learners for more equitable access and service; The perception of many institutions that the application of ICT would enable them to increase their market share in an environment that is increasingly competitive; The need to be seen to be ‘keeping up with the competition’; The expectation of policy makers and administrators that the development of virtual delivery models would reduce costs, increase productivity, and enable expansion without cost increases. Table 2.1 Driving Factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Fisser, 2001),
2.3.6.2 Opposing Factors
Difficulties encountered in the process of ICT integration into schools are known as “barriers” (Schoepp, 2005). Pelgrum (2001) identified these barriers as pertaining to two kinds of conditions: material and non-material. The material conditions may have been the insufficient number of computers or copies of software. The non-material obstacles included teachers’ insufficient ICT knowledge and skills, the difficulty of integrating ICT into methods of instruction, and insufficient teacher time.
Webb (2007) in contrast, identified barriers at three levels: the teacher – usually to do with competence, motivation and training; the school: especially limited access to ICT and the absence of an ICT dimension in the overall school strategy; and the school system: rigidity of the school system, especially when linked with the wider educational framework.
From a global perspective, the most commonly cited barriers identified by Webb (2007) are summarised in the Table 2.2.
Opposing Factors Access to hardware and software, as well as funding; Time for planning, personal exploration, online access, and skill development; Technical and administrative support and resources;
Training and expertise; Resistance, passivity, school cultures, and the traditions of teaching;
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Lack of vision and leadership;
Support for the integration of technologies into instruction and the curriculum; Table 2.2 Opposing Factors affecting the use of new forms of ICT in education (Webb, 2007)
2.4 INTEGRATING ICT IN SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
2.4.1 THE COMPONENTS OF A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ICT IN SCHOOLS
Fluck (2003) distinguished “ICT Integration” from “ICT effectiveness”, as the first refers to the degree to which ICT vanishes into the background of the classroom learning activity; while, the second refers to the degree in which ICT improves or broadens learning outcomes and /or the rate of their achievement by students (Fluck, 2003). This suggests that the effective integration process is a transformation process that starts from a basic integration and ends at an effective use of ICT in the teaching and learning process in a school. And so, ICT development can be conceived as a continuum along which an educational system or an individual school can pinpoint the approach that relates to the growth of ICT in their particular context.
This model is referred to as a continuum of approaches to ICT development (UNESCO, 2002), and it identifies four broad approaches through which educational systems and individual schools can proceed in their adoption and use of ICT. These four approaches, termed: emerging, applying, infusing, and transforming, represent a continuum; this is depicted as the model in Figure 2.1.
EMERGING APPLYING INFUSING TRANSFORMING
Figure 2-1 Model depicting a continuum of approaches to ICT development in schools (UNESCO, 2002)
The Emerging approach is demonstrated by those schools at the beginning stages of ICT development. Schools exemplifying the Applying approach are those in which a new understanding of the contribution of ICT to learning has already developed. The Infusing approach portrays schools involved in integrating or embedding ICT across the curriculum. The last stage of this continuum is the Transforming approach, and schools here use ICT to rethink and renew school organisation in creative ways.
Another model proposed by Fluck (2003) could generally specify the stages of effective ICT Integration. This model has the advantage of being sufficiently general and simple. It accurately
23 describes the integration process in three stages: the introductory, the integrative and the transformative stages (see Figure 2.2).
The Introductory Phase 1 corresponds to the period where the school, system or participant has to do with computers in education, as a subject to be studied. The Curriculum component at this stage merely enumerates a large number of facts and concepts about computers; ICT is taught as a separate subject, and one could say that at this stage, people “learn about ICT”. ICT infrastructure remains a key issue and schools begin to purchase, or are donated, some computing equipment and software. Such computers exist as stand-alone devices or in a single laboratory network.
Staff development is still a primary concern, as teachers and administrators undergo ICT literacy programmes and begin to explore the possibilities and consequences of using ICT for school management – and then adding ICT to the curriculum. Support at this stage can take weeks to address issues, if at all, and these issues end up being resolved. The school organisation remains largely hierarchically structured, and the Policy and vision aim at technology literacy and focus on increasing student enrolments and ICT skills. Schools at this emerging phase are still firmly grounded in traditional, teacher-centred practice (Wilson-Strydom & Thomson, 2005).
Figure 2-2 A general model for the development of ICT policies in schools (Fluck, 2003)
The Integrative Phase 2 describes contexts in which ICT is incorporated into the teaching of other subjects, and is included in teacher planning. The curriculum identifies key interrelated concepts and principles that organise the subject area and the curriculum also emphasises deep
24 understanding of these within and across the subject, as well as their application to solve complex real-world problems. In schools at this stage, people “learn with ICT”. An authentic ICT Infrastructure requires additional sophisticated hardware and software for simulation and multimedia. These will be used to support a deep understanding of interrelated concepts, to address any misconceptions, explore systems, and solve problems.
Networks will also be used to support collaborative work. Staff development is concerned with the ability of teachers to develop skills in the use of more sophisticated methodologies and technologies that would enable them to serve as a guide and manager of the learning environment and enable students to engage in extended collaborative project-based learning activities. The school organisation allows teachers some flexibility in implementing the curriculum and making it responsive to students’ interests, community needs, and contemporary issues.
Policy goals focus on improving the understanding and problem-solving skills of students and connecting school learning to real-world problems and contexts.
The Transformative Phase 3 is the most complex of all the three stages. No assumption is made about the place or timing of learning, since this includes contexts where the topics studied embrace some of those which are not possible without ICT. The curriculum is flexible and responsive to student goals and local contexts; and furthermore, it emphasises the development of collaboration, inquiry, information management, creativity, and critical-thinking skills. Learning occurs through ICT and can be tagged “learning how to learn”.
The ICT Infrastructure consists of pervasive technologies and the social networks used to support knowledge production, collaboration, and knowledge sharing by students and teachers. Teachers at this stage collaborate with each other, and with outside experts, to build a professional community. They are engaged in creating and sharing their own body of professional knowledge and best practices. The school becomes a continuously improving learning organisation, with teachers engaged in continuous innovation.
Administrators, community members, teachers, and students all create a shared vision and goals for their learning community. Educational policies focus on the research, development, generation, and sharing of new knowledge, as well as continuous learning.
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A summary of the various phases of ICT in school development and the status of the key components is presented in Table 2.3:
Introduction Integration Transformation Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Technology literacy, student Improving understanding and Emphasis on Knowledge enrolments, ICT Skills problem-solving skills of students. creation, continuous learning. Policies and Connecting school learning to real- Vision world problems and contexts School Hierarchical structure Structural flexibility over Schools become learning curriculum implementation. More organisations. Continuous organisation Standard classrooms time for projects, planning and innovation from teachers collaboration ICT literacy programs Teachers building skills to manage Teachers are model learners predominate. and guide students through responsible for their own and Staff collaborative work each other’s development as Development colleagues and mentors. Computers taught as a separate Applying Knowledge. ICT used to Collaboration, inquiry, subject. solve complex real-world problems information management, Curriculum creativity and critical thinking Learning about ICT skills developed. Purchase/donation of computers Simulation and Multimedia are in Pervasive technologies and hardware and software. Low use. More dedicated and social networks. Infrastructure ratio of computers to students. sophisticated hardware in place
Table 2.3: Summary of the key phases of ICT in School development (Fluck, 2003)
2.4.2 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA COUNTRIES ICT READINESS MEASUREMENT
Despite achieving the highest mobile growth rate in the world, Africa’s ICT penetration levels are still far behind those of the rest of the world, and very few African countries reach ICT levels comparable to global averages. Less than five per cent of Africans use the Internet, and fixed and mobile broadband penetration levels are negligible. African countries are facing a number of challenges in increasing ICT levels. They include the lack of full liberalisation of markets and the limited availability of infrastructure, such as a shortage of international Internet bandwidth.
In addition, prices for ICT services remain very high, compared with income levels, and broadband Internet services are out of the reach of most Africans (ITU , 2009).
To provide a quick and relative benchmark of the overall success of a country in participating in and benefiting from ICT, the World Economic Forum, in its Global Information technology report (2009 – 2010), put in place the Net-worked Readiness Index (NRI). The NRI Framework attempts
26 to interpret the underlying complexity of the development and use of ICT in an intuitive and easy-to-comprehend model.
The three key components (Figure 2.3) or sub-indices of this model include: the Environment component index designed to measure the readiness of an environment for a country to provide for the development and usage of ICT, the Readiness component index, which measures the capability of the principal agents of an economy (citizens, businesses, and governments) to leverage the potential of ICT, and the Usage component index that aims to measure the degree of usage of ICT by the principal stakeholders in the NRI framework— Individuals, Businesses, and Governments.
Figure 2-3: The Networked Readiness Index 2009 – 2010: The Framework (World Economic Forum, 2010)
From these sub-indices, - environment, readiness and usage – the results from the environment index are closely consistent with the overall network readiness index. The environment component index further consists of three sub-sections, namely: the infrastructural sub-index defined as the level of availability and quality of the key access infrastructure for ICT within a country, the market sub-index that assesses whether or not there are appropriate human resources and subsidiary businesses to support a knowledge-based society, and the political/regulatory sub-index that measures the impact of a nation’s polity, laws, and regulations, and their implementation for the development and use of ICT.
Sub-Saharan Africa continues to lag behind the rest of the world by a significant margin, as may be seen in Table 2.4. Among the 26 countries of the region listed in the 133 countries report,
27 only two – Mauritius 51st and South Africa 52nd - make it into the top half of the NRI, while 18 Sub-Saharan countries rank below the 100th mark.
It should be noted that Mauritius leads South Africa on the overall Network Readiness Index and tops all Sub-Saharan African Nations. However, the South African environment component is more conducive to ICT integration, ranking first in Sub-Saharan Africa and 39th in the World. This is an indication of the quality of infrastructure, political and business sector’s readiness to use ICT.
Country Environment Network Country Environment Network Component Readiness Component Readiness sub-index index sub-index index SELECTED TOP WORLD COUNTRIES Sweden 1 1 Hong Kong SAR 15 8 Singapore 9 2 Netherlands 8 9 Denmark 2 3 Norway 3 10 Switzerland 4 4 Taiwan, China 21 11 United States 10 5 Iceland 7 12 Finland 5 6 United Kingdom 12 13 Canada 7 7 Germany 16 14 ...... SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Mauritius 42 53 Burkina Faso 100 108 South Africa 39 62 Benin 107 111 Senegal 82 75 Uganda 102 115 Gambia, The 72 77 Mozambique 114 116 Botswana 65 86 Malawi 93 119 Namibia 54 89 Tanzania 103 120 Kenya 91 90 Madagascar 119 121 Mali 101 96 Ethiopia 127 122 Zambia 92 97 Cameroon 103 128 Ghana 89 98 Burundi 131 129 Nigeria 97 99 Zimbabwe 130 132 Cote d'Ivoire 117 104 Chad 133 133 Lesotho 96 107
Table 2.4: Network Readiness Index and Environment sun Index in Sub-Saharan African Countries. (World Economic Forum, 2010)
2.4.3 LEVEL OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SELECTED COUNTRIES
The Network Readiness Index classification supported the selection of countries in order to assess the level of ICT adoption in the schools in these countries. Countries from the top, the middle and the bottom of the network readiness classification were compared, based on the status of the key components of the ICT Development in the school framework.
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2.4.3.1 ICT Integration in schools at the Top Level: Lessons from Singapore
Singapore is a developing country that has reached the last phase of ICT Integration in Education through the drafting and implementation of three successive series of Masterplans.
Phase 1: the Singapore Masterplan 1 (MP1): This was a 5-year plan from 1997-2002 by the MoE to integrate ICT into Education. Its main focus was to build strong ICT foundations for the smooth carrying out of the subsequent Masterplans. Its four major goals were: i) Communication and collaboration – teachers and pupils to communicate and collaborate with other institutions; ii) innovation – innovative processes in education to be generated; iii) thinking and lifelong learning – to enhance creative thinking, lifelong learning, and social responsibility; and iv) leadership: promoting administrative and management excellence in the education system.
These goals aligned with the introductory stage (Phase 1) of the ICT Development in Schools’ model (Figure 2.2) and addressed three key components of the ICT Integration in schools’ process: the Curriculum and assessment component saw ICT used as a tool rather than as a subject of study, with a balance between the acquisition of factual information and the critical and creative application of information. ICT was also used for 30% of the curriculum time. From the physical and technological infrastructural perspective, the money spent on IT hardware and infrastructure resulted in all schools in Singapore being equipped with computers and Internet access by 2002. As the MP1 neared its final stage in 2002, many schools began to exemplify their usage of technology aspects.
The following results were achieved: A 2:1 teacher-to-notebook computer ratio and a 5:1 students-to-computer ratio. Also online materials and courseware (mathematics, Social Studies, Mother Tongue) were developed. The staff development and support component witnessed the completion of core ICT training for teachers in every school and the provision of at least one technology assistant in every school.
By the end of five years of the first Masterplan in 2002, as many as 363 schools had fundamental building blocks in place to use ICT in the curriculum. The MP1 laid very strong foundations, such as ICT Infrastructure and the ample training of teachers in ICT. More importantly, MoE achieved a shift in the mindset of teachers; and ICT became an accepted tool for teaching and learning. Table 2.5 summarises the achievements of MP1.
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Phase 2: the Masterplan 2 (MP2) came right after MP1 in April 2003. This was also a five-year plan. This plan sought to deepen the integration of ICT into daily lessons in schools. The aim was to generate more interactive and engaging usage of ICT in the learning process. The goals of the second master plan included: i) Making pupils use ICT effectively for active learning; ii) enhancing connections between curricula, instruction and assessment with ICT; iii) teachers using ICT effectively for professional and personal growth; iv) promoting active research in IT in education; v) ensuring that schools have the capacity and capability in using ICT for school improvement; and vi) providing an infrastructure that could support the widespread and effective use of ICT.
These goals are in line with the second stage of ICT integration in Education: the Integrative Phase. There is an emphasis on information-processing and knowledge-creation, development of open-ended, flexible and customisable digital content, and self-paced learning – in an effort to inculcate learner independence and digital competency. There is thus a greater attempt by policymakers to be more specific in their desired outcomes from education, where technology becomes integral.
Phase 3: the Masterplan 3 (MP3): This represents a continuum of the vision of Masterplan 1 and 2, and is also scheduled over a five-year period. It aligns with the transformative stage, where no assumptions can be made about the place or timing of learning; and it includes contexts where the topics studied include those that are not possible without ICT. The MP3 seeks to achieve greater engagement of students – to encourage more self-directed questioning and learning. With a Differentiated Professional Development, school leaders can create the environment for teachers to reflect and learn from each other about effective teaching practices that incorporate ICT use in the classrooms to achieve desired learning outcomes for their students.
The four major goals are: i) Strengthening the competencies for self-directed learning; ii) Providing tailored learning experiences, according to the way that each student learns best; iii) Encouraging students to go deeper and advance their learning; and iv) Making it possible to learn everywhere – and not just in the classroom.
An examination of the case of Singapore illustrates one way in which a country can make significant educational investments that pay off economically through a centralised approach. In
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Singapore, education decision-making is centralised at the Ministry of Education. Table 2.5 provides a quick overview of the Singapore model of ICT integration.
Master Plan1 Master Plan 2 Master plan 3 Policies and Strengthening ICT and knowledge Building ICT foundation Deepening ICT in lessons Vision creation
School Centralised. Schools exemplify Centralised. Schools Centralised. Schools exemplify organisation usage. exemplify usage. usage.
Staff Basic Staff training, Professional growth and active Differentiated Professional Development Collaboration research through ICT Development ICT used in the planning, design Enhanced connections Curriculum ICT from subject of study to tool and implementation stages of the between curricula curriculum All schools equipped with basic Complex, supporting Greater accessibility provided Infrastructure infrastructure widespread and effective use. through Mobile infrastructure Table 2.5: Singapore stages of ICT integration in education (National University of Singapore, 2008)
2.4.3.2 ICT Integration in schools at the Middle - Level: case of South Africa
South Africa is a developing country facing two significant challenges: from both a global perspective and from a national perspective. Internationally, South Africa faces the same global market competition as countries that are more economically advanced. South Africa has an advanced telecommunications infrastructure and boasts the highest teledensity in Africa, ranking 44th in the Information Infrastructure micro-index (World Economic Forum, 2002).
According to the Global Information technology report 2009-2010 (World Economic Forum, 2010), South Africa ranks 39th in the ICT environment component micro-index. This includes the Market environment, the Political and Regulatory environment and the Infrastructural environment; this continues to be one of the main strengths of the country, particularly in its regulatory (21st) and market (29th) components.
Despite this high rank in the ICT environment component, it is seen as having a very poor individual preparation and uptake of ICT (115th and 89th for individual readiness and usage, respectively). Individual Readiness measures the readiness of a nation’s citizens to utilize and leverage ICT. Factors that are used to measure this include: literacy rates, the mode and level of access to the Internet, and the degree of citizen connectivity.
This might be an indication of the difficulty of developing a universally available quality education for all socio-economic segments of the country’s population. An attempt to resolve
31 this rather critical issue has been outlined on the draft White Paper on e-education proposed by the Department of Education (Department of Education, August 2003). It contains a ten-year plan for promoting e-education in South Africa. The plan is to be phased in over three stages and eventually integrated on four levels, namely: school administration, teaching, learning, and departmental educational management. The primary goal of the White paper is to equip every Basic and Further Education and Training (FET) learner with the knowledge and skills needed to use ICT confidently, creatively and responsibly – by 2013.
The Department of Education Draft White paper on e-education starts by contextualising the use of ICT in society within the broader realities of the digital divide, with increasing disparities between the rich and the poor, among and within countries. It also outlines the potential of ICT for development within Africa; and it identifies the current inertia observed in the use of ICT in education.
The paper identifies the disparities reflected in the South African society, which also find expression in the ICT Integration into education, with most schools that are equipped with computers still being found in urban areas, and a vast majority of schools without computers for teaching and learning in the rural areas. The overall goal – that of having every South African learner to be ICT-capable by 2013 – is supported by a strong policy framework consisting of four components: equity; access to ICT infrastructure; capacity building; norms and standards.
The need for an equitable allocation of resources, and to prioritise schools in rural and underserved communities is highlighted in order to ensure that technology use in the education sector does not further exacerbate the digital divide within the country.
In order to attain the above e-education policy’s efficiency and likelihood of success, the Department of Education has identified many enabling factors captured into strategic objectives such as: ICT professional development for management, teaching and learning; electronic content-resource development and distribution; access to ICT infrastructure; connectivity; community engagement; and research and development.
The White paper recognises the fiscal constraints affecting the Government, the vast upfront investment required for e-education and the need for ongoing and predictable funding sources for the longer term. Possible sources of funding identified were licensing obligations; private sector donations, and support from international development assistance agencies; and appropriate public-private partnerships.
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The implementation strategies are recognised as being essential in making the ideals expressed in this paper real for citizens. Three implementation phases were outlined to achieve these educational goals: The Phase 1 (2004 – 2007) is set to enhance the system-wide and institutional readiness to use ICTs for learning, teaching and administration. This aligns with the “Introduction Stage of ICT Development in school”, as suggested by Fluck, 2003. The Phase 2 (2007 – 2010) is aimed at achieving system-wide integration of ICTs into teaching and learning. ICT is expected to be widely present in institutions, with teachers and managers integrating it into management and curriculum. The Phase 3 (2010 – 2013) will be attained when ICT is integrated at all levels of the education system – management, teaching, learning and administration.
Because South Africa uses a decentralised approach in implementing the policy, some of the more-resourceful provincial governments and municipalities have invested significantly in infrastructural development, whilst others with a high number of rural areas could simply not afford such a huge investment. This has led to the uneven level of infrastructure and advances obtained country-wide (see Table 2.6).
A study conducted in South Africa highlighted the fact that facilities at rural schools are likely to be scarce, class sizes are often large; and hence, the use of ICT for teaching and learning, where available, becomes more challenging (Wilson-Strydom & Thomson, 2005). However, ICT integration in school has been favoured by a large number of initiatives aimed at providing ICT infrastructure and Internet access to schools throughout the country.
Although these initiatives have been relatively successful, many schools cannot afford or are insufficiently skilled to maintain sponsored ICT equipment. It is expected, however, that the degree of implementation will vary from province to province, depending largely on the leadership, skill base, and human resource capability available in the Provincial Departments of Education.
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Provinces Number of Schools With Computer Centres % with Computer Centres Eastern Cape 5,715 596 10% Free State 1,643 353 21% Gauteng 1,994 1,510 76% KwaZulu Natal 5,835 982 17% Limpopo 3,918 428 11% Mpumalanga 1,540 254 16% North West 1,740 391 22% Northern Cape 609 314 52% Western Cape 1,466 886 60% Total 24,460 5,714 23% Table 2.6: Computer Summary grid for schools in South Africa (Department of Education, 2009)
Table 2.7 provides a quick overview of the stages of ICT integration in schools in South Africa, based on various public and private initiatives and the available literature, as interpreted by the researcher.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Policies and Not yet clearly Foundation, introduction System-wide integration ( Collaboration) Vision identified School Decentralised. Schools Decentralised. Evolving provincial models. EMIS , EMS Not specified organisation exemplify usage. Staff Basic Staff training, Education portal for continuous Professional Teaching Not clearly Development Collaboration Development Established ICT from subject of study to Curriculum Enhanced connections between curricula tool Infrastructure Basic roll out of infrastructure Scattered initiatives (donors, Government, etc...) Table 2.7: South Africa’s current stages of ICT integration in education
2.4.3.3 Integration at the Bottom-Level: Most Sub-Saharan African Countries
Sub-Saharan Africa countries constitute more than two third of the LDCs. These countries face challenges and issues hardly addressed before in this new era of globalisation. A cross-sectional examination of the available reports from these countries has shown that a vast majority are yet to engage in the ICT integration in school processes. This is understandably due to infrastructural challenges, such as the lack of electricity, classrooms, etc. amongst others.
Table 2.8 presents the current trends of ICT Integration in school from the Sub-Saharan African countries against the developed nations. Countries portrayed here are those ranked in the Global Information Technology Report 2009 – 2010 (World Economic Forum, 2010). These results are based on the reviews of national policies for ICT in education and Department /Ministries of Education reports. It should be noted that the symbols x, xx, and xxx in the table represent the stages of ICT development in schools for each of the components, namely: the x: introduction, xx: integration and xxx: transformation stage.
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SELECTED TOP WORLD COUNTRIES ... SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Country Policies / Infrastructure Staff School Curriculum / vision Development Organisation content
Sweden xxx xxx xxx Decentralised xxx
Singapore xxx xxx xxx Centralised xxx Denmark xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx Switzerland xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx United States xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx Finland xxx xxx xxx Decentralised xxx Canada xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx ...
Mauritius xx xx xx Centralised xx transformationstage South Africa xx xx xx Decentralised xx
Senegal x x x Not defined x xxx: Gambia, The x x x Centralised none Botswana xx xx x Centralised xx Namibia xx xx x Centralised xx Kenya xx x x Centralised xx Mali none x x Centralised none Zambia x x x Centralised x Ghana xx x x Centralised x Nigeria x x x Decentralised none
Cote d'Ivoire none x x Centralised none integrationstage Lesotho x x x Centralised none Burkina Faso x x x Centralised none xx:
Benin x x x Centralised none
Uganda x x x Centralised x Mozambique x x x Centralised x Malawi x x x Centralised x Tanzania x x x Centralised x Madagascar none x x Centralised none Ethiopia xx xx x Centralised x Cameroon none x x Centralised x
Burundi x x x Centralised none introductionstage
Zimbabwe x x x Centralised x x: Chad none x x Centralised x Table 2.8: Current Status of ICT Integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa
2.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
ICT Integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is at a static phase, despite encouraging initiatives all across nations and the progress made in isolated countries. The region is widely known for its serious levels of poverty, hunger and under-development, low school enrolment, child mortality, and HIV/AIDS pandemic. Governments in these countries are faced with the challenge of reducing the above concerns; and they are generally reliant on global aid and funding from developed nations to implement their strategies. ICT has since been recognised as a catalyst, as it could aid in overturning the current trend and ensure a swift move towards an
35 information society. However, lack of financial resources and poor and inadequate planning and the under-usage of available resources have resulted in the current status quo. The ICT in schools is believed to provide an enhanced learning, teaching and administrative environment, and a greater access to education. Several models suggest a three-phase model for ICT integration in school in which the key component states are set in slow motion – from initiation to adoption.
Lessons learned from emerging countries suggest that addressing issues from each of these components – Policies, curriculum/content, Staff development/support, School organisation, and infrastructure – in the local context would certainly ensure the proper adoption of ICT in schools.
In the next chapter, a cross-examination of the context of ICT integration in schools in a Sub- Saharan African country at the initial stage of the process will be made. Cameroon is a country at the initial level of ICT integration. This country portrays the typical inertia observed in Sub- Saharan Africa.
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CHAPTER 3 THE CURRENT STATUS OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of Cameroon and establishes its current ICT Readiness status based on the indicators from the World Economic Forum’s NRI. A literature review is made to reveal the existing legal framework and policies guiding the integration of ICT into education, as well as the country’s level of ICT infrastructure. Factors revealed that have contributed to the inertia observed in the development of ICT in education are also presented in the latter part of this chapter.
3.2 CAMEROON: A COUNTRY OVERVIEW
3.2.1 CAMEROON: A COUNTRY PROFILE:
Located at the heart of Central Africa, Cameroon is at the crossroads of Equatorial Africa to the South and Tropical Africa to the North. Cameroon’s 475, 442 square kilometres is triangular in shape, with a coastline bordered to the West by the Gulf of Guinea, with access to the Atlantic Ocean. Cameroon’s land boundaries are Nigeria to the West, the plains of the Lake Chad basin to the North, the Republic of Chad and the Central African Republic to the East and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo Brazzaville to the South. Plateaus and mountain chains characterise the terrain of Cameroon.
Cameroon has had colonial and contemporary socio-political and linguistic experiences, especially her bilingualism in English and French, with ten administrative regions, two of which are English-speaking (29%) and eight of which are French-speaking (71%). Cameroon has a population of 19 million. This is made up of about 279 ethnic groups with an annual growth rate of 2.0%, with 40.6% within the age range of 0-14 years.
Cameroon, a decentralised unitary state, according to its constitution of January 1996, has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in Sub-Saharan Africa – owing to its oil resources and favourable agricultural conditions. The main exports are cocoa, coffee, rubber,
37 cotton, bananas, petrol, timber and aluminium. It is the leading country in the Central African region, and recently made it to the Network Readiness Index scale, ranking 128th out of 133 nations worldwide. Table 3.1 provides an overview of a few indicators from this country.
Summary statistics Surface area (square kms) 47,5442 Population in 2008 (millions) 18,9 Economic indicators Gross domestic product (GDP) (PPP $) 2008 2,139 Total number of telephone subscribers (per 100 inhabitants) 2007 19.7 Mobile Phone suscription (per 100 population) 2008 32.3 Internet users (per 100 inhabitants) 2008 3.8 Social indicators Population growth rate 2005-2010 (% per annum) 2.0 Population aged 0-14 years in 2008 (%) 40.6 Infant mortality rate 2005-2010 (per 1 000 live births) 87.5 Urban population in 2007 (%) 56.0 Government education expenditure (% of GDP) 3.3 Primary-secondary gross enrolment ratio (women and men per 100) 58.3/70.5 Table 3.1: Socio-economic Indicators: Cameroon (UNDATA, 2010)
3.2.2 THE CAMEROON EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The Cameroon educational system is subdivided into two sub-systems: the Anglophone sub- system and the francophone sub-system. In general, the educational system covers three distinct levels: the preschool and primary level, the secondary level and the tertiary level.
The secondary level of education is the area of focus in this research paper. It covers seven years divided into two cycles; the first cycle leads to the award of the BEPC Diploma and lasts four years in the francophone sub-system, or to the award of the GCE O-Level diploma in five years in the Anglophone subsystem. The second cycle follows the first and leads to the Baccalaureate in three years in the Francophone sub-system or to the GCE A-Level in two years in the Anglophone sub-system.
This system applies to both the public and private sector. The Anglophone sub-system is mainly based in the North-West and South-West regions, and in some schools in major cities of the country, while the Francophone sub-system is applicable in the remaining eight regions of the country. In both systems, technical and general education is offered at the beginning of the secondary level of education. Between 2001 and 2005, the school enrolment rate in these two systems was 51% for males and 36% for females.
The Ministry of Secondary education was created in 2004, through a presidential decree to be specifically in charge of the Secondary Education sector. It houses about 30,663 teachers who
38 trained 1,022,807 students in 2003/2004 in both general (75%) and technical (25%) education systems, with the private sector accounting for 37% of the overall pupils trained.
1,698 secondary schools accommodated the students, with 1,213 of these schools being general education public or private schools, and 482 being technical education public or private schools. The private sector accounts for 45% of the total number of schools, while there are approximately 936 public secondary schools (55%) (ENIET, 2007).
The educational system is weakly supported by the Government. The budget allocated to education has been consistently weak (2.7% of the national budget), according to a government report (NICI, 2004). This has led to insufficient care facilities due to the cessation of the construction of classrooms, the lowering of the teacher/pupil ratio, as a result of freezing the recruitment of teachers, the lack of teaching materials and other auxiliary teaching and learning.
The difficulties in this sector have also resulted in other ills, including a lack of equity and an inefficient management system.
The educational system so far has been unable to obtain the necessary financial resources to meet the costs of quality education; and this has led to a reduced spending per student. This resulted from a conjunction of several factors that were not adequately anticipated, particularly as regards technical secondary education and higher education. The deterioration of financial resources has reached a point where the quality of secondary technical and academic production is now being strongly felt (CAMEROON, 2006).
In addition to this financially struggling Government, the huge contribution of parents towards achieving quality education should be noted. About 25% of teachers in primary schools are supported and paid for by the pupils’ parents associations and the local elites (World Bank, 2004). It has been estimated that households could account for almost 57% of the overall spending in education per annum, against 43% supported by Government (CAMEROON, 2006). However, the pupils’ parents association - major stakeholder in education - has been totally ignored during the drafting of the Policy document for education.
3.2.3 HOW NETWORKED-READY IS CAMEROON? BASIC INDICATORS
The Networked Readiness Index (NRI) framework is a major international assessment of countries’ capacity to exploit the opportunities offered by ICTs. It remains the first global
39 network to map out those factors that contribute to this capacity. Since its first release in 2001 by the Centre for International Development (CID) in collaboration with the World Economic Forum, the Network Readiness Index ranking has moved from a set of 75 countries to 133 Countries in 2010. Cameroon made its first entry in 2004, and has since then been at the bottom of the scale. The inclusion of Cameroon, however, was a clear indication of the recent ICT progress observed in the country.
The social indicators for Cameroon are above the average of most countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa region, but they are still insufficient to meet the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) commitments in education. In addition, other levels of teaching and training requiring the mobilization of significant efforts and indicators of quality throughout the system are still relatively low (United Nations Development Assistance Framework, 2007). This however does not prevent the Cameroon educational system from being ranked 89th in the world (World Economic Forum, 2010).
This could be misleading, as all other key indicators of the NRI rank Cameroon alongside countries at the bottom of the scale. Cameroon ranks 126th and 127th respectively in the Environment and Readiness components of the Network Readiness Index. The poor ranking in the Environment index (126th) indicates the inertia of the nation towards the development and usage of ICT. Also the Readiness component indicates the incapability of major stakeholders of the economy – government, businesses and citizens – to leverage the potential of ICT.
However, the usage component measuring the degree of usage of ICT shows that there is an increased awareness and improved usage from government, businesses and citizens. This can be seen in sub-indices, such as the Internet access in schools (109th), personal computers (108th) – personal computers per 100 inhabitants (2005) – capacity for innovation (78th), government e- participation index (71st); and finally, Government success in ICT promotion (95th).
A complete table of all the indicators for Cameroon can be found in Appendix 3A.
3.3 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF ICT IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON
The use of computers in Cameroon secondary general and technical education is not new. Unfortunately, no research has been undertaken to find out its current state within the school system. As a developing country, despite a strong government belief in ICT for development, the
40 rationale around many of the arguments against the use of computers in the school system focuses more on the deployment of critical resources at times of economic and fiscal hardship than on a discussion of research projects, which could be selected according to a specific agenda. However, it would be rewarding to evaluate the current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon – in order to establish what has already been done – despite the odds faced by developing countries. There should be a way of recommending and promoting best practices and proper leveraging of the available scarce resources.
In the following section, an attempt will be made to evaluate the status of the major key components of ICT integration in Education, such as Policies, infrastructures, Staff Professional Development, Curriculum and Content development, Funding, Schools’ Organisations and Support. The cross-examination provided an insight into what was currently being done; and it describes the current environment for ICT adoption in schools.
3.3.1 LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND POLICIES
Although the Cameroon government officially recognised the need for ICTs in schools in 2001, there is not yet any specific policy guiding their use and integration into education. Prior to this date, when educational experts met in Yaoundé in 1995, to see how the educational system could be improved upon, nothing was mentioned about the application of ICTs in the classroom. The Cameroon Educational Law 98/004 of 14th April 1998 did not make mention of ICTs in the school system when it set out to improve the then-current educational system.
The project for introducing ICTs in schools was given an impetus by two presidential statements in 2001. This brought ICTs into the realm of education at all levels of schooling. These statements made it clear that imported computers and their accessories were to be duty free for schools. Moreover, the World Bank in its ICT task-force policy has raised the concept of cyber education in the global school system – to promote the development of computer technology, to improve the accessibility of learners to information technology, and to encourage digital inclusion in developing countries.
Consolidating the presidential statements and the World Bank initiative, the then Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) authorised the Inspectorate General of Pedagogy in charge of teaching computer sciences at all levels to design and develop a project on cyber education in Cameroon.
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In 2004, key strategies on using ICTs in education were highlighted in the first official draft of the NICI’s (Cameroon National Information and Communication Infrastructure) (NICI, 2004) policy and plan prepared by the government with support from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). As indicated in the NICI plan document, the government has resolved to achieve the following:
• Modernising the educational system through the introduction of ICTs in schools
• Introducing ICT application training modules into national universities
• Preparing a sectoral ICT policy for the educational sector
• Training teachers in the use of ICTs
• Equipping all schools with ICT facilities
• Multiplying pedagogic resource centres for teachers and students
• Establishing distance training facilities
• Providing support for the production of ICT teaching materials
In June 2005, the Prime Minister of Cameroon signed a decree creating and organising the national sub-committee for the integration of ICTs in education. But to date, a national policy for ICT in Education has still not been produced.
A further attempt was made to materialise the political will to use ICT in the teaching-learning educational situation. This was found in the Sectoral Strategy document of Education jointly drafted by the four Ministries in charge of education - MINEDUB, MINESEC, MINESUP and MINEFOP - and presented in February 2005 (CAMEROON, 2006). The document highlighted ICT, first as a factor for improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools; and secondly, as a means of strengthening the institutional capacity of Ministries of Education.
This document was followed by a decision (No. 249106/MINESDC/CAB) on May 15th, 2006 that clearly underlined the roles of the media resource centres in schools. However, a recent government assessment shows that a marginal number of students use ICTs in the learning situation (National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008).
3.3.2 ICT INFRASTRUCTURE IN SCHOOLS
With no specific guideline established, the adoption of ICT in schools was on its way to an unavoidable failure. Three specific approaches to computer procurement in schools were
42 forthcoming. The Government approach, the Private schools and donors, and the Parents’ additional Levy.
Government approach: This was supposed to be the most effective way of integrating ICT into schools. This was Government planned – through the cyber education project prepared by the Ministry of National Education – in collaboration with external partners and support from the presidency to establish Multimedia Resources Centres in several schools. In 2002, a ministerial decision (Decree N°2002/004 of the 4th January 2002) establishing a General pedagogical Inspectorate in Charge of Computers in Education was released and the conditions for the creation of Multimedia Resources Centres (MRC) in government secondary schools were published. In this context, 100 Multimedia Resource Centres – ten in each of the ten provinces – were to be established by the year 2007.
These were to be modern Computer Laboratories with state-of-the-art computer desktop facilities, educational and human resources; and they were due to serve the schools and the surrounding communities. With only 17 MRC established since 2002 across the nation – which is approximately 2% of the entire public secondary schools in Cameroon, the government incapacity to meet its target of 100 MRC by 2007, was clearly demonstrated. This led private donors, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO) and even parents to step in.
Private Schools and Donors: Several Private Secondary schools and colleges have taken it upon themselves to acquire and equip a Computer Laboratory. This was in most cases aimed at offering better returns, with schools having a computer laboratory believed to be able to attract a greater number of students. Some private schools acquired, in one way or another, computer equipment, be it state-of-the-art or obsolete, the idea being to lure students in and justify the resulting tuition increase.
Some private schools have well-established partnerships with Western institutions. These, in turn, provide quality infrastructure and support. The private educational sector – accounting for 45% of the entire secondary schools in Cameroon – plays a vital role in ICT integration in schools. These establishments make up the largest percentage of schools that have been equipped, and are now the best-provided with ICT equipment with very low student to computer ratios (Matchinda, 2008). Efforts made by this sector could significantly influence the entire process of ICT implementation in schools.
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Parents’ additional levy: In line with the trend and excitement of ICT use in school, a vast majority of cases arose, where either the government was unable to equip secondary schools with access to ICT infrastructure, or where there was an absence of donations from private individuals or entities (NGOs, APEE ...). In such cases, parents were called upon to reach into their pockets to allow their children to benefit from computer courses in school.
This request was further institutionalised through a series of decrees and circular letters from the MINESEC, such as the circular letters No. 26/05/MINESEC/IGE/IP-INFO of 07/11/2005 and No. 20/07/MINESEC/CAB of 12/09/2007, the latter being amended by the Ministerial Instruction No. 7.27 / MINESEC / IGE / IP-INFO of 19/11/2007. These letters defined the procedure for obtaining approval by Private Business operators to provide their services to schools. These mandates included providing equipment on a short-term lease basis or long-term purchase.
This procedure has seen schools procure computers in most cases second-hand, with parents paying a standard compulsory fee per annum.
3.3.3 ICT CURRICULUM AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The official ICT curriculum in secondary school was released in 2003, through a decree (N°3745/P/63/MINEDUC/CAB of the 16th of June 2003) published by the Ministry of National Education (presently MINESEC, the Ministry of Secondary Education). The decree introduced the official ICT curriculum in education and made it clear that ICT would become a compulsory subject in all schools from September 2003. This initiative could not be supported with training resources and the necessary material to implement the curriculum, leading schools to use inadequate teaching materials for a curriculum already becoming obsolete.
Some schools adopted teaching books from private schools, since the Ministry of Education could not provide any alternative literature.
With this lack of material resources, the lack of human resources to teach the curriculum exacerbated the situation. The Ministry of Secondary Education reorganised itself in 2003 to include a National Pedagogy Support Unit (Cellule d’Appui à l’Action Pédagogique). This unit was to be equipped with a distance training unit and was expected to ensure the training and capacity-building for teachers, which included distance learning. But in a context where even in the teachers’ training colleges, no provision was made for ICTs application, the scenario was set
44 to produce for some years to come a teaching corps, which to a great extent was computer illiterate (ROCARE, 2005).
However, ICT was introduced as a major course in the Teacher’s Training College in Yaoundé in 2007; and the first batch of graduates from the Department of Computing Sciences and instructional Technology have just been assigned to schools (in March 2010) (DITE, 2009). Despite this breakthrough, teaching the ICT curriculum in a vast majority of schools is still contracted out to computer sciences graduates or technicians with little or no ability to teach and with unstructured approaches towards delivering the curriculum.
In other cases, teachers with basic computer literacy acquired on a personal level are often called in to assist. This lack of co-ordination observed here has also been sustained by the fact that ICT remained an elective subject in most schools’ programmes, as well as during national secondary schools examinations.
3.4 ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON: WHAT CONTRIBUTES TO THE INERTIA?
The current level of ICT integration in Cameroon was established from the status of the five basic components of ICT development in schools, according to Fluck’s Model. These are: i) Policies; ii) curriculum; iii) professional development; iv) infrastructure; and v) school organisation. The previous sections identified Cameroon as being at the initial stage of ICT integration, as shown in Table 3.2.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 2 Policies and No National ICT policy for Education - - Vision School Highly Hierarchical structure - - organisation Staff Basic ICT Literacy programmes are yet to be - - Development implemented nation-wide Curriculum Computer literacy is taught as a separate subject. - - Purchase/donation of computers. Low ratio of Infrastructure - - student to computers. Table 3.2: Cameroon: current level of ICT integration in education A close look at each of these components reveals the possible causes of the current inertia observed ten years after the government expressed its commitment and resolve to make ICT the key to a move towards an information society.
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Policies and vision: “The Cameroon government, anxious to promote the development of new information and communication technologies in the educational system, reaffirms its options regarding their use as a factor in improving the quality of teaching and learning in schools...” This is an extract from the Cameroon Educational Sector Strategy document, adopted in 2006. It clearly indicates an interest to promote quality education through ICT. However, in the absence of a National ICT policy regulating the Integration of ICT in teaching and learning, the purpose of ICT in school is not clearly defined, and the current informal and chaotic situation observed will simply be ongoing (Tchinda, 2007).
Infrastructure: ICT infrastructure in schools remains led by the vision, according to which wiring schools, buying hardware and software, and distributing the equipment throughout will lead to abundant classroom use by teachers and students and improved teaching and learning. No thought has been given to what sort of technology is needed, or for what it will be used. What type of hardware? What type of software would be needed to ensure adequate teaching and learning? However, due to limited or inexistent ICT budgets and refurbished materials, in most cases donated or purchased, these are highly unsustainable – as their life span is always very limited. Guidelines should, however, be put in place to guide school principals (who often lack computer literacy) in the procurement of computers. Limited or non-existent budgets could also account for the lack of support or simply the additional running costs brought in by this equipment (Tchameni, 2007).
Curriculum: The official outline of the curriculum adopted by the Ministry of Education is far from what is actually being taught in schools or found in Multimedia Resource centres. The reliance on contents from the internet leads to the use of unstructured and often inadequate resources for course delivery. This has spawned a wide range of criticisms by teachers and administrators over the need for local content development (Tchameni, 2007). A Cameroon government report highlights the fact that available content is derived from scattered, generally non-sustainable initiatives – due to the absence of a national approach to content production (National Agency for Information and Communication Technologies, 2008).
However, as has been revealed from the literature, content development remains one of the major challenges for African ICT Integration in schools (Hawkins, 2002).
Professional Development: In a context where teachers are expected to spare extra funds to embark on a basic ICT literacy programme, where the lack of financial resources oblige some
46 contract teachers to experienced delayed salaries, where the inadequate number of teachers in traditional subjects requires that teachers must deal with oversized classes or extra teaching hours, many of those teachers perceive the introduction of these new technologies as a threat. As they remain one of the key components of ICT integration in school, strategies must be adopted – at national and school level – in order to change the mindsets and the level of confidence of teachers towards ICT.
School organisation: Without a national vision and policy, schools are often left with the huge challenge of defining where they want their school to be at a certain point in the future, through ICT. Most schools embark on ICT with no specific shared vision among the stakeholders, such as parents, local business, local community, staff and students. This often leads to ICT being underutilised where it exists. There is this action-before-thoughts approach, where computers are brought in before any thought is given to who it is going to use them, what additional costs will be incurred, what skills are needed to use them, and above all, what goals are expected to be achieved.
3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
A recent NRI classification – which appraises the progress made by countries towards using ICT for development – included Cameroon in its ranking. With the fast growth of mobile telephone subscribers (ITU , 2009), as well as some positive social indicators (educational system quality ranking 84th on NRI), it is believed that the integration of ICT into education in Cameroon could boost/create the much-needed dynamics required in the entire Sub-Saharan Africa region.
Despite the need for ICT in education, strongly expressed by the Cameroon government, ICT integration in schools in Cameroon still remains at the initial introductory stage of the Fluck’s model of ICT development in schools (Fluck, 2003), with a government report clearly indicating that the educational sector may not be able to guarantee an adequate training in the mastery and usage of ICTs by her citizens. This is necessary, in order to be competitive in the emerging global knowledge society.
The challenges faced by Cameroon are more or less common to the sub-region: lack of financial prowess, poor basic infrastructure and human resources; inexistent policies, a paucity of vision and the necessary legal and regulatory framework for ICT in schools; unsupported curriculum
47 with school administrators still being unaware of the rationale for ICT in school, as well as the low level of expectations.
Understanding the current situation of ICT in the educational sector will yield a more appropriate and context-oriented framework for ICT in schools in Cameroon. This must encompass the existing challenges and ensure its successful implementation. With the ongoing decentralisation of the Cameroon institutions to a regional level, local communities will be responsible for the development and outcome of their educational system.
The next chapter will describe the research design, the data collection and analysis methods, as well as the process of data validation and triangulation.
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CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the research design, the data collection methods, the data analysis methods, as well as the limitations and ethical considerations of the study. Firstly, the philosophical approach in the study, which uses a phenomenological paradigm is discussed. This is followed by a discussion on the choice of a case study, as the main research methodology reflects the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The mixed method approach initially used a quantitative survey to evaluate the level of ICT usage in the concerned schools.
A cross-sectional approach was adopted. This makes use of a purely qualitative approach, with open-ended questions, eliciting descriptive responses from decision-makers and ICT managers in the selected schools, on specific aspects of ICT adoption. Semi-structured interviews with principals and ICT teachers were analysed so as to obtain factors affecting ICT adoption in their respective schools. The use of different methods allowed for methodological data triangulation.
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
4.2.1 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES
The overall research question was formulated in Chapter 1 as:
“Which guidelines should be followed to ensure a successful integration of ICT in schools?”
In view of this research question, three research sub-questions were forthcoming; and these were formulated as follows:
RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?
RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
RQ3: Which factors promote or hinder ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
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To answer the above research questions, and to verify the trends, as found in Chapters 2 and 3, a case study (see Section 4.3) was conducted in the Western Region of Cameroon with participants from four selected schools. The following sections give an overview of the application of case study research. They describe the different case-study approaches, and which to apply. Next, the components and the units of analysis of a case study are described and ways to collect, to analyse and to present the data and the results are discussed.
4.2.2 THE PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
The choice of which method to employ is largely dependent on the nature of the research problem; and (Creswell, 1994) argued that the actual suitability of a research method derives from the nature of the social phenomena to be explored. There are basically two methodological traditions of research in the social sciences, namely: positivism and phenomenology.
Positivism is an approach to the creation of knowledge through research. It emphasizes the model of natural science: the scientist adopts the position of the objective researcher, who collects facts on the social world and then builds up an explanation of social life by arranging such facts in a chain of causality (Finch, 1986).
In contrast, phenomenology is about a reality which is socially constructed rather than objectively determined. Hence, the task of the social scientist should not be to gather facts and measure how often certain patterns occur, but rather to appreciate the different constructions and meanings that people place on their experiences (Noor, 2008).
Positivism, which is based on the natural science model of dealing with facts, is more closely associated with the quantitative method of analysis. On the other hand, post-positivism that deals with understanding the subjectivity of social phenomena, requires a qualitative approach.
The researcher’s epistemological position is based on the following stance: Data are contained within the perspectives of people that are involved with ICT integration and adoption in schools, either in a decision-making capacity or as participants; and based on this, they need to be engaged in the collection of data. The phenomenological methodology is best suited for this type of study. In contrast to positivists, a phenomenologist believes that the researcher cannot be detached from his/her own presuppositions, and that the researcher should not pretend otherwise (Hammersley, 2000).
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The intention of this research, since its preliminary stage, has been to gather data regarding the perspectives of the research participants (stakeholders in schools) on the phenomenon of ICT integration in schools and the factors that promote or hinder this process.
4.3 STRATEGIC METHODOLOGY: A CASE STUDY
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION
“The essence of a case study, the central tendency among all types of case study, is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what result” (Yin K. R., 2009).
Having long been considered as the exploratory stage of some other type of research method rather than a research method itself, case study methods have failed to be recognized as a distinctive form of empirical inquiry. Critics have emphasized the lack of rigour of the method, where the investigators were sometimes found to be sloppy, with biased views – or not following systematic procedures. Another concern about case studies is that they provide a poor basis for scientific generalization, with critics wondering how one could generalize from a single case.
Other concerns focused on the duration of case studies, as they were simply too long and resulted in massive, unreadable documents. Despite these critics, researchers still continue to use the case-study research method with success, in carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and problems (Soy, 1997).
A case study may be defined as an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are not always clearly defined. Yin (2009) presented at least four applications for a case-study model:
To explain the presumed causal links in real-life interventions too complex for the survey or experimental strategies; To describe an intervention and the real-life context in which the intervention has occurred; To illustrate certain topics within an evaluation; To enlighten those situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no clear, single set of outcomes.
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It may be argued that the integration of ICT in schools involves all four of the above categories. By doing a case study the relation between what is currently being done with regard to ICT in schools and what the expected outcome should be, is established. However, some of the criticism against case studies relates to single-case studies. One of the most pertinent comments made is that if a single case study is used, the research will be incapable of providing a generalizing conclusion; but in contrast to this criticism, Yin (2009) has argued that the relative size of the sample does not matter.
The goal of the study should establish the parameters, and then be applied to the research. In this way, even a single case could be considered acceptable, provided it has met the established objectives. This raises some questions about single or multiple-case designs and approaches.
4.3.2 SINGLE VS MULTIPLE-CASE STUDIES
Our strategy could be a single case – in which the phenomenon has not been observed by many before – or a multiple case, which is used when the findings from a case occur in other cases with a view to generalising them. In multiple-case study design, a replication rather than a sampling logic must be followed; and when no other cases are available for replication, the researcher is limited to single case designs (Yin K. R., 2009)
A single case study is an appropriate design under several circumstances, and Yin (2009) identifies five different rationales. One rationale for a single case study is when it represents the critical case in testing a well-formulated theory. A second rationale is where the case represents an extreme case or a unique case. Then, the third rationale for a single case is the representative or typical case. Here, the objective is to capture the circumstances and conditions of an everyday common place situation.
A fourth rationale for a single-case study is the revelatory case; and a fifth rationale is the longitudinal case: studying the same single case at two or more different points in time.
The case study was a representative case – with a view to showing how ICT integration in schools could be done in a typical region and with the final aim of suggesting guidelines for ICT integration in school in the entire country. A single case study in a typical region was used in this study to investigate the factors affecting ICT integration in participating secondary schools in which basic ICT infrastructure exists, and an ongoing resolve from policy-makers to integrate ICT into the entire school system.
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4.3.3 AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY
Yin (2009) suggested that there are three case study approaches: exploratory, explanatory and descriptive. In exploratory case studies, the fieldwork, and the data collection may be undertaken prior to definition of the research questions and hypotheses. In an exploratory case study, the collection of data occurs before theories or specific research questions are formulated. The aim is to look for patterns, ideas or hypotheses – rather than testing or confirming a hypothesis.
In exploratory research the focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject area – for more rigorous investigation later. Descriptive research design goes a bit further, and tries to describe the different characteristics of a phenomenon. Descriptive case studies require that the investigator begins with a descriptive theory. This implies that in this type of study, hypotheses with cause-and-effect relationships are formed.
A descriptive research goes a little further than an exploratory case and requires a theory to guide the collection of data. An explanatory research is suitable for doing causal studies and can be used when the research field has matured. This design tries to explain the course of events and relate how things have happened.
The overall approach of this research is exploratory, as there are few or simply no previous studies – aimed at establishing the status of ICT integration in the country – to which references could be made for information. We shall be analysing the various initiatives, looking at factors that enable or hinder the integration of ICT in schools, rather than testing an existing integration process in place.
4.3.4 CASE-STUDY DESIGN
A research design could be defined in its simplest form as the logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study’s initial research questions -- and ultimately, to its conclusions (Yin K. R., 2009). This could further be seen as a blueprint for the research, dealing with at least four problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect, and how to analyse the results (Philliber, Schwab, & Sloss, 1980).
The primary aim of a research design is to help avoid a situation in which the evidence does not address the initial research questions.
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Unlike other research methods, a comprehensive “catalogue” of research designs for case studies has yet to be developed (Yin K. R., 2009). It is often used to maximise construct validity, internal validity, external validity and reliability. Case-study designs have always been considered a subset or variant of the research designs used for other methods, such as experiments, until recently. With the lack of adequate codification for case-study research designs, Yin (2004) recommended, as part of a carefully designed research project, the use of a case-study protocol consisting of five major components: The study’s questions, its propositions (if any), its unit(s) of analysis, the logical linking of the data to the propositions, and the criteria to be applied for interpreting the findings.
Another approach was presented by Soy (1997), who drew upon the work of (Stake, 1995), and Yin (2004). Soy proposed six steps in conducting case-study research. These include: determining and defining the research questions, selecting the cases and determining data gathering and analysis techniques, preparing to collect data, collecting data in the field, evaluating and analysing the data, and preparing the report.
A combination of both approaches was used for the design of the case studies. In the description of the design of the case study in this chapter, attention was paid to the research questions, the stated purpose of the study, the units of analysis, the process of data collection, the instrumentation for data collection, the method of quantitative and qualitative data analysis and to presenting the results.
4.3.4.1 The Research Questions
The main aim of the case study was to find answers to the overall research question: Which guidelines should be followed to ensure proper ICT in school integration? To complement this primary research question, three sub-questions were posed, namely:
RQ1: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in the Sub-Saharan African region?
RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon? and;
RQ3: What factors affect ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
4.3.4.2 Stated Purpose of the study
The case study, being exploratory, had its purpose clearly stated, as suggested by Yin (2009) and Tellis (1997). The purpose of this study was to determine how ICT integration was currently
54 being implemented in schools in Cameroon – and to suggest how it should be done. Answering RQ1 gave us a clue of the general trends of ICT in schools in the Sub-Saharan region, and it was expected that the case of Cameroon would not deviate from this trend. Understanding the factors affecting each component of the process of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon will certainly lead to the establishment of appropriate guidelines for effective ICT integration in schools in the country.
4.3.4.3 Units of analysis and the selection of cases
The Unit of Analysis is a critical factor in a case study. Often simply referred to as the case, Yin suggests that the term may be an individual, a group of individuals or even some event or entity (Yin, 2004). Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental in understanding the system being examined.
As stated earlier, case studies could be single-case studies or multiple cases. These can further be classified as holistic or embedded. In an embedded case study, the case is split into multiple units of analysis, while a holistic case study has one unit of analysis for each case. Our case study may be classified as a single case study, as discussed in a previous section.
This case is about ICT integration in schools in a typical region of Cameroon. However, this single case study could be referred to as embedded, since it involves many schools (sub-cases) within a region (holistic single case) in which ICT integration is ongoing.
Cameroon is divided into ten provinces currently known as Regions. The West Region consists of eight divisions or departments (departments), each headed by a senior divisional officer.
4.3.4.4 Sampling
The cost of studying an entire population to answer a specific question is usually prohibitive in terms of time, money and resources. Therefore, a subset of subjects, representative of a given population must be selected; this is called sampling. The most commonly used sampling techniques in qualitative research are the non-probability sampling methods, where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomised selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of
55 their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher (Castillo, 2009). There exists several sampling techniques, such as convenience sampling, where the samples are selected because they are accessible to the researcher; consecutive sampling, very similar to convenience sampling, except that it seeks to include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample; Quota sampling, in which the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of the subjects, depending on which trait is considered as the basis of the quota; Snowball sampling, usually done when there is a very small population size and where the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research; and finally, the Judgmental sampling, more commonly known as purposive sampling.
In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind (Castillo, 2009). With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are fit for the research in contrast to other subjects. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.
Purposive sampling technique was used in the selection of schools with basic ICT infrastructure as a key criterion. The selection of the schools in the chosen region was further influenced by the availability of ICT resources, the school readiness to support the research conducted by granting access to resources and information, and the limited funds available to cover schools in regions far apart. Fifteen schools were short-listed, and selected from within the case – the Western Region – by the Regional Department of Education.
These schools were recognised as the most advanced schools in the region in terms of their ICT infrastructure. A further assessment was then made to streamline the number of participating schools to four, based on criteria, such as the accessibility and the willingness of leaders to adopt the ICT in education change, as listed in Table 4.1 – in no specific order. Two of the selected schools are from a semi-urban area and two from an urban area.
Name of School Type of School No of Students Area
Collège St Thomas d’Acquin De Bafoussam Private 1000 Urban Lycée Bilingue de Baham Public 1700 Semi-Urban Lycée Classique de Dschang Public 2500 Urban Lycée Classique de Bangangte Public 2000 Semi-Urban
Table 4.1: Selected schools in Western Region of Cameroon
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4.3.5 DATA-GATHERING METHODS
Stake (1995) and Yin (2003) identify six sources of evidence that can be collected during case studies, each having their strengths and weaknesses. The first is documentation, which is stable because it can be reviewed repeatedly; it is unobtrusive; it is exact and it has a broad coverage and can assist in confirming the evidence from other sources. However, it can also be difficult to retrieve; the selection and reporting can be biased; and the access can be deliberately blocked.
The second is archival records, which is the same as documentation; but in addition, it also has the advantage of being precise and quantitative, and the disadvantage of being difficult to access due to privacy reasons. The third is direct observations, which have the advantage of being real-time and contextual, but they can be time-consuming, selective, and the observed event may react differently due to the observation. The fourth is participant-observation, which has the same characteristics as direct observations.
They have the extra advantage of being insightful into interpersonal behaviour – and an extra disadvantage of the possibility of being biased – due to manipulation. The fifth is physical artefacts. They are insightful into cultural features and technical operations; however, selectivity and availability are disadvantages. The sixth and last source of evidence is interviews. Interviews are one of the most important sources of case-study information (Tellis, 1997).
There are several forms of interviews that are possible: Open-ended, focused, and structured or survey. In an open-ended interview, the key respondents are asked to comment on certain events. The researcher must avoid becoming dependent on a single informant; and must seek the same data from other sources to verify its authenticity. The focused interview is used in a situation where the respondent is interviewed for a short period of time, usually answering set questions. This technique is often used to confirm data collected from another source.
The structured interview is similar to a survey in which the questions are detailed and developed in advance. Interviews, despite being targeted and insightful, could have disadvantages, because they can be biased – due to poorly constructed questions or poor responses; and they can be inaccurate, due to poor recall.
In this study, two major sources of evidence were used: documentation and interviews. Existing reports, administrative documents, circulars and decrees were reviewed and a total of 100 respondents were interviewed from all four schools. Four (4) of the respondents were the
57 principals of each school; four (4) other respondents were the ICT co-ordinators of each of the schools (in charge of both educational and technological support), forty-two (42) teachers, and fifty (50) students. The respondents tasks were categorized as follows: The principals are in the role of “Policy”; the ICT co-ordinators are in the role of “support”; teachers and students are placed in the role of “education”, as shown in the Table 4.2.
Respondents Role Principals Policy ICT Co-ordinators Support Teachers Education Students Education Table 4.2: respondents and roles in each school
To help establish construct validity and reliability of the case-study evidence, the principle of multiple sources of evidence, as suggested by Yin (2009), guided the choice of the sources of evidence. Its main advantage is that it allows for the development of converging lines of inquiry. In collecting case-study data, the main idea is to “triangulate” or establish converging lines of evidence – to make the findings as robust as possible (Yin, 2004). In this case, structured interviews (surveys) with close-ended questions were used to obtain quantitative data from students and teachers. These data validated the data collected from semi-structured interviews with principals and respondents from the support unit.
4.3.5.1 Survey
Initially, a preliminary survey had to be conducted in recommended schools – to obtain information on whether ICT was actually being used in the school in any form and whether the decision-makers had an established drive to use ICT for improved learning in the near future. Such information obtained (as depicted in Appendix 4.A) included:
The type of School (public or private) The existence of a computer Lab The purpose of the Lab Number of computers used at school The availability of Internet access The number of students in the school
4.3.5.2 Designing Interview instruments
The aim of the study being to establish the current level of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon, to identify factors that affect ICT integration in schools in Cameroon and to suggest
58 guidelines that would allow for proper ICT integration in schools; some sets of questions were devised to guide interviews aimed at addressing these objectives. These interviews focused on the major components of ICT integration, such as the school ICT policies and organisation, the ICT infrastructure, ICT use and access, curriculum content and delivery, teacher/staff readiness and support. Principals, ICT co-ordinators, teachers, and students from each school were the major respondents during the four series of interviews.
These interviews aimed at providing insights into the above issues; they could be grouped into four categories:
Interviews with Principals: These aimed at gaining a better understanding on the possible impact of the use of ICT in the school. The questionnaire (see Appendix 4.B) designed to this effect sought to gain insights into the history, culture, and vision of the school in relation to the incorporation of ICT. A key point of the interviews was the expectations of the schools in relation to the use of ICT. Other discussion points were:
The school ICT policy The expected role, rationale and importance of ICT The history of ICT in the school current arrangements Current strategies and associated developments being undertaken
Interviews with ICT coordinators: The second component of the interviews was addressed to the ICT co-ordinator; the questionnaires (see Appendix 4C) were used in order to gain a better understanding of the challenges and barriers towards ICT integration in schools. Discussion in these interviews included:
The school ICT practices The existing infrastructure and the requirements The degree or level of support The curriculum implementation Accessibility
Interviews with Teachers: The third component of the Interview was addressed to teachers to evaluate their readiness for accepting a challenge: in using ICT for teaching. A semi-structured questionnaire (see Appendix 4D) was preferred, in order to obtain teachers’ opinions and views on the potential challenges and expectations from using ICT. This also validated the data obtained from prior respondents and policy documents.
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The emphasis in these interviews was placed on:
The teachers’ access and use of ICT The ICT literacy level The teachers’ perception of ICT
The data obtained from the previous respondents were validated at this stage with teachers more likely to reflect – based on their real-time experiences, rather than some policies.
Interviews with students: The fourth part of the interview is concerned with students’ access to ICT, and to the uses of ICT (see Appendix 4E). These interviews were more structured and were used to gather details about:
The student’s access to ICT in schools or (if any) at home The frequency of usage of ICT The purpose for using ICT in schools
Table 4.3 provides a summary of the data-collection methods used with the following key focuses:
1. The level of ICT integration in schools 2. Factors affecting ICT Integration in schools Method Data Collection Instrument Resultant data School overview Surveys Preliminary Survey Basic ICT Infrastructure Documentation Student Questionnaire Access to ICT Schools practices Use of ICT Policies Access to ICT Curriculum Survey Teachers Questionnaire ICT’s access and use Skills and readiness Skills and readiness Support Support Infrastructure Interviews Co-ordinators Interviews Policies Curriculum Curriculum Policies Access to ICT Policies, Vision Expectations Infrastructure Principal Interviews (telephone and face-to- Strategies School context face) School context Funding Funding Table 4.3: Data-collection methods, a summary
4.3.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
According to Yin (2007), because a research design is supposed to represent a logical set of statements, the quality of any given design can be judged according to certain logical tests. Four of such tests have been commonly used to establish the quality of any empirical social research:
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Construct validity – which identifies correct operational measures for the concepts being studied; internal validity – which seeks to establish a causal relationship, whereby certain conditions are believed to lead to other conditions; external validity – which defines the domain to which a study’s findings may be generalised; and reliability which demonstrates that the operations of a study – such as the data collection procedures – can be repeated, with the same results.
The construct validity test was applied in this research through the use of multiple sources of evidence, such as documentation (policy and strategy documents), interviews (student, teachers, ICT co-ordinators and principals), observations (laboratory structure and environment) and surveys. The use of these multiple sources of evidence provided for converging lines of inquiries or a process of triangulation. As information was collected from multiple sources of evidence, but aiming at corroborating the same phenomenon, we had here a triangulation of data sources (data triangulation).
In this case, structured interviews (surveys) with close-ended questions were used to obtain quantitative data from students and teachers that validated the data collected from semi- structured interviews with principals and ICT co-ordinators.
Reliability is explicitly linked to notions of consistency, dependability, accuracy, and predictability. Case-study notes were used throughout the investigation, so as to achieve reliability. The case-study notes contained information that became available informally and independently of the above data-collection instruments.
4.3.7 DATA TRIANGULATION
Recognising the imperfections in each data-collection method, a triangulation approach was used to cross-check the gathered data (Figure 4.1). Data collected from interviews with key informants, such as principals and ICT co-ordinators on access to and the use of ICT infrastructure, curriculum implementation or staff professional development, were verified against data gathered from teachers and students’ surveys.
Secondary data gathered from the existing literature and the ministry of education decrees were checked against key informants’ interviews. These interviews were conducted to corroborate and complement findings from the literature, as well as teachers and students’ surveys. The study also relied for some data on a single collection method.
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Figure 4.1: Data Triangulation
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4.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
This chapter has presented the methodology used, and is summarised in Table 4.4. The strategies used to answer each research question, as well as the chapters in which this took place, are illustrated.
Research Questions Methods Used Chapter Case Study Main Research Question Chapter 6 Literature review RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in Literature Review Chapter 2 Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa? Chapter 2 RQ2: What is the current status of ICT in schools in Literature Review Chapter 3 Cameroon? Case Study Chapter 6 RQ3: What are the barriers and enablers of ICT Case Study Chapter 6 integration in schools Table 4.4: Summary of research questions and methodology
A single embedded case study design was preferred, with four schools being investigated within a single holistic case, namely the Western region. In each of the schools, data collection methods, such as interviews (principals, ICT co-ordinators), surveys (teachers and students), and documentation were used. The reasons for choosing the particular approaches were provided, as well as the characteristics and limitations of the methods and associated instruments used to carry out these investigations.
In the next chapter, the results of the investigation will be provided as a basis for the subsequent analysis that follows. This is aimed at formulating answers to the research questions.
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CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The research methodology used to gather information related to ICT integration in a typical school in the Western region of Cameroon was presented in the previous chapter. Over the course of the investigation, some data-collection techniques were selected and structured in order to gain insight into factors affecting ICT integration in schools, as well as the level of ICT integration.
This chapter summarizes the results of questionnaires and interviews conducted during the course of the study. Four schools were investigated with questionnaires collected in each school from students and teachers, and interviews conducted with ICT co-ordinators and school principals, as shown in the Table 5.1.
Students Teachers Population Co-ordinators Principals (N=50) (N=42) (N=4) (N=4) Male Female Male Female Gender (N=36) (N=14) (N=36) (N=6) Table 5.1: Gender distribution of respondents The results revealed that the basic implementation of ICT in schools is a complex and challenging task in developing countries. As elaborated in the following sections, a preliminary survey confirmed some expectations on the level of ICT integration. Several important inter- related themes emerged from the interviews conducted, including how participants used ICT, the different ways and levels of access, the challenges involved – particularly those relating to limited funding and the lack of resources and training.
5.2 CODING THE DATA SOURCES
The sources of data used throughout this chapter were coded and summarised in Table 5.2
Instrument Code Student Survey SQ Teachers’ Survey TQ Co-ordinator Interviews CQ Principal Interviews PQ School Documentation SD Table 5.2: Data-source coding
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There were four participating schools, and in each school four categories of respondents were interviewed, namely: teachers, principals, ICT co-ordinators and students.
The instruments provided a rich source of data from multiple complementary and overlapping perspectives. For example, the data gathered from students using the student Interview instrument were closely related to the data gathered from interviews (CQ, TQ) and the school documentation (SD).
5.3 EXPECTATIONS According to the Fluck’s transformation model of ICT adoption, the integration process is thought to be carried out in three stages: the introductory, the integrative and the transformative. A review of the literature revealed that the level of ICT integration can be obtained from the status of the major components of ICT adoption (curriculum, schools organisation, policies, infrastructure and access to ICT, and Staff Professional Development) in the selected schools. Furthermore, from the available literature, ICT adoption in schools, in most Sub-Saharan African countries and particularly in Cameroon, is expected to be at the introductory phase.
This early phase of ICT adoption is characterised by patchy unco-ordinated provision and use, leading to some enhancement of the learning process, some development of e-learning, but little transformed learning and teaching (Balanskat & Blamire, 2007). This implies initial expectations for the major components of ICT Integration in Cameroon to be as summarised in Table 5.3.
Component Expectation ICT is taught as a separate subject and not embedded into the school curriculum Curriculum Learning to use or Learning about ICT Professional Teacher’s readiness and skills, ICT literacy programs predominate. Development Teachers’ perception of ICT still uncertain and ambiguous High student to computer ratio, Scanty access, only during class periods; other informal ways of access Access and Use Use for teaching basic computer skills, email or Internet browsing Policies and Technology Literacy, student enrolments, ICT Skills School organisation Hierarchical structure, no flexibility over curriculum implementation, Standard classrooms Uncoordinated provision, Purchase/donation of computers hardware and software. Infrastructure non-existent infrastructure plan, low ratio of student to computers Table 5.3: Initial Expectations
This chapter presents the results emerging from interviews conducted within a sample of four purposefully selected schools in the Western Region of Cameroon. The data collected during this phase were obtained from these schools known to have acquired a computer laboratory for
65 computer courses. The study focused on various issues regarding the major components of ICT integration into schools, as mentioned earlier, and led to the emergence of the following themes.
The themes related to the factors that could hinder or facilitate ICT integration in schools, as well as the current level of ICT use of respondents. These were:
TH1. Access to and use of ICT: challenges and enablers, extent of use;
TH2. Professional development: teacher’s readiness and confidence;
TH3. School organisation: Governance and policies in school context;
TH4. Infrastructure: cost and effectiveness;
TH5. Curriculum: content.
While these themes may not have been in linear order, they however were inter-related and interdependent. For example, shortage of ICT infrastructure could impact access to and use of ICT in schools. Similarly, the lack of confidence from teachers may be as a result of inadequate school policies and suchlike. The following sections will present the results, as they were reported within the specified themes.
5. 4 THE RESULTS FROM INTERVIEWS
5.4.1 TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
This section presents the findings related to the level of teachers’ readiness and the factor associated with their adoption and the implementation of ICT. A total of 42 teachers completed the teachers’ questionnaire. The Teachers’ Questionnaire (TQ) collected the data on the teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and practices with regard to ICT adoption in their respective schools. As discussed in Chapter 2, key factors relating to teachers have been identified as principally: (i) ICT Literacy or basic ICT skills; and (ii) teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption for teaching and learning. This section presents the findings from the teachers’ questionnaire, as well as the Principal Questionnaire (PQ), as they relate to these two key issues.
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5.4.1.1 Teachers’ ICT literacy
In order to use ICT effectively for teaching, there is a common agreement in literature that teachers must possess basic ICT skills. Teachers’ professional development has been identified as a key factor in the successful integration of ICT in schools (Fluck, 2003) (Pelgrum & Law, 2003) (Webb, 2007).
TQ2.1 knowing how to use a computer: basic ICT skills
As noted in Chapter Three, the government effort to provide ICT skills to teachers was still at an early stage and focused mainly on the next generation of teachers (teachers in Teachers’ training colleges). Currently, active teachers often acquire ICT skills through informal learning; self-sponsored training courses or institutional support. Predictably, Table 5.4 shows that a vast majority (83.3%) of teachers interviewed claimed to know how to use a computer. These findings reveal that 26.2% of teachers had attended a formal computer training course. Furthermore, 83.3% of teachers agreed that knowing how to use computers is absolutely essential.
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) Know how to use computers(TQ2.1) 35 11 9 8 7 (83.3%) Have attended a formal computer training course 11 2 4 2 3 (TQ6.2) (26.2%) Strongly Agree that knowing how to use computers 35 13 10 7 5 is very useful (TQ4.12) (83.3%) Table 5.4 Teachers ICT literacy status TQ2.7 ICT pedagogical skills: Using ICT to prepare lessons
ICT pedagogical skills refers to the use of ICT for the purpose of teaching. Table 5.5 shows that only 42.9% of respondents said they had once used a computer to prepare lessons. The reasons for this reduced number are summarised in Table 5.6, with the most commonly cited reasons being the non-existence (66.7%) and inaccessibility (51.9%) of ICT infrastructure, or the lack of any technical support (51.9%).
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) I have used ICT to prepare lessons at least 18 5 5 5 3 once (TQ2.7) (42.9%) Table 5.5 Number of teachers who have once used ICT to prepare lessons
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School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No Reasons for not using ICT? (10) (6) (5) (6) (27) non-existence 5 4 4 5 18 (66.7%) Inaccessibility 3 6 2 3 14 (51.9%) Don’t know how to use them 1 1 1 0 3 (11.1%) I lack skills to use them 3 3 2 2 10 (37%) I lack technical support 3 5 3 3 14 (51.9%) No time 1 0 0 1 2 (7.4%) Others 2 0 0 0 2 (7.4%) Table 5.6 Reasons for not using ICT
5.4.1.2 Teachers’ attitude towards ICT adoption for teaching and learning
It was found from literature that one of the barriers towards ICT adoption is the fear, anxiety and concern that teachers have. Bitner and Bitner (2002) stated that using technology as a teaching and learning tool in the classroom brings fear, anxiety and concerns to a greater extent, since it involves both changes in classroom procedures and the use of often-unfamiliar technologies (Bitner & Bitner, 2002). During interviews with teachers, a 5-point Likert-type scale (Strongly agree - completely disagree) was used to obtain their views on ICT in schools. The findings are reported in Tables 5.7 – 5.23.
TQ4.1 ICT could ease my teaching job
Table 5.7 shows that all interviewed teachers in all four schools acknowledged the importance of ICT in their teaching, with 78% of the teachers strongly agreeing that ICT could ease their teaching burden.
Computers could ease my teaching School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No Job (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 11 10 6 5 32 (78.0%) I agree 2 1 3 3 9 (22.0%) Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.7: Computers could ease my teaching load (TQ4.1)
TQ (4.2, 4.4) ICT useful but lack of access
One of the benefits of ICT in schools is the ability it has to provide access to pedagogical resources that could supplement teaching. This view is shared by 97.6% of teachers interviewed, as indicated in Table 5.8. This positive belief in ICT is somehow overshadowed by the lack of infrastructure or access to ICT. Table 5.9 shows that more than half of the teachers interviewed (53.6%) did not have the required access to ICT. This proportion is higher in schools with no Internet access (School 3) or in schools in semi-rural areas (School 1).
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ICT allows finding useful online School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No resources for my teaching (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 10 10 4 6 30 (73.2%) I agree 3 0 5 2 10(24.4%) Neutral 0 1 0 0 1 (2.4%) I disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.8: ICT allows finding useful online resources for my teaching (TQ4.2)
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No ICTs are useful but we lack access (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 1 6 0 0 7 (17.0%) I agree 5 2 4 4 15 (36.6%) Neutral 1 3 2 3 9 (21.9%) I disagree 4 0 3 1 8 (19.5%) I totally disagree 2 0 0 0 2(4.9%) Table 5.9: Teacher’s lack of access (TQ4.4) TQ (2.7, 5.6, 5.7) Teachers’ ICT usage
There is a common view from literature that ICT could increase the existing load on teachers and may constitute a barrier towards ICT adoption. Findings at this stage tend to disagree with this view, as the reports show that views are equally shared among teachers who consider the additional burden from the introduction of ICT, and those who do not, with 22% of teachers opting for a neutral view, as shown in Table 5.10.
Using ICT adds additional workload School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No for teachers (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 2 0 0 0 2 (4.9%) I agree 3 5 3 1 12 (29.3%) Neutral 0 4 3 2 9 (22%) I disagree 6 2 3 4 15 (36.6%) I totally disagree 2 0 0 1 3(7.3%) Table 5.10: ICT creating additional workload for teachers (TQ4.7) This neutral position may be attributed to the fact that teachers are still at the early phase of ICT adoption, and are not yet fully aware of the challenges they will be facing when undergoing full integration of ICT in the curriculum. Table 5.11 shows that 85% of teachers confess not knowing what is required for ICT integration into the curriculum, and 57.5% agree that they would use ICT if they knew what it implied. The uncertainty observed is further confirmed in Table 5.12, where teachers equally agree (34.2%) or disagree (34.1 %) that they would embark on using ICT if their daily tasks were reduced to accommodate the extra workload.
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I would have used ICT if I had known School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No what it implied and what was (12) (11) (9) (8) (40) required Strongly agree 3 4 0 0 7 (17.5%) I agree 7 3 3 3 16 (40.0%) Neutral 1 3 5 2 11 (27.5%) I disagree 0 0 1 3 4 (10.0%) I totally disagree 1 1 0 0 2 (5.0%) Table 5.11: Not knowing what using ICT implies (TQ5.6) I would use ICT if our daily chores School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No were reduced (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 3 1 0 0 4 (9.8%) I agree 7 0 1 2 10 (24.4%) Neutral 1 5 4 3 13 (31.7%) I disagree 1 5 4 3 13 (31.7%) I totally disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) Table 5.12: Reduced daily chores (TQ5.9) TQ4.5 Students would learn better using ICT
In Table 5.13, the view that students would learn better with ICT is shared by 90.2% of the teachers interviewed. This confirms their early view of ICT as being valuable tools for their teaching.
Students would learn better using School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No ICTs (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 7 9 1 2 19(46.3%) I agree 3 1 8 6 18 (43.9%) Neutral 1 0 0 0 1(2.4%) I disagree 2 1 0 0 3 (7.3%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.13: Students would learn better using ICTs (TQ4.5) TQ4.6 Not skilled enough to use ICT
Contrary to earlier expectations, teachers strongly refuted the idea of lacking the necessary skills to use ICT. Table 5.14 shows that a total of 68.3% of teachers claimed they are skilled enough to use ICT, while barely 31.7% admitted not being skilled enough.
I am not skilled enough to use ICTs School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 1 1 0 0 2 (4.9%) I agree 3 3 4 1 11 (26.8%) Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I disagree 4 6 2 5 17 (41.5%) I totally disagree 5 1 3 2 11(26.8%) Table 5.14: not skilled enough to use ICTs (TQ4.6) TQ2.9 Using ICT implies a totally new pedagogical approach
According to the literature, the use of computers per se cannot make up for poor pedagogy and content. Two types of pedagogy, namely instruction and construction, are currently being practised. The former is the approach usually followed by traditional classroom teaching; the
70 latter refers to a way of teaching that facilitates a full exploitation of the potential of ICT, but demands rethinking and a redefinition of the traditional approach in education, as well as of the teacher-student relationship (UNESCO, 2010). From these findings, 85.4% of teachers agreed that a new pedagogical approach would be required to integrate ICT into their teaching.
Using ICT implies a totally new School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No pedagogical approach (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 4 2 0 1 7 (17.1%) I agree 7 9 8 4 28 (68.3%) Neutral 0 0 1 1 2 (4.9%) I disagree 2 0 0 2 4 (9.8%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.15: A new pedagogical approach (TQ4.9)
This positive view remains eclipsed by the lack of both technical and administrative support, as may be seen in Table 5.16, where 70.8 % of teachers agreed to not having enough support to use ICT in teaching.
We do not have sufficient support to School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No use ICT in our teaching (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 5 4 2 1 12 (29.3%) I agree 5 6 4 2 17 (41.5%) Neutral 2 0 3 4 9 (22%) I disagree 1 1 0 1 3 (7.3%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.16: Lack of support to use ICT in teaching (TQ4.11) Most research into the barriers to the integration of ICT into schools found that teachers’ attitudes and an inherent resistance to change were significant barriers (Schoepp, 2005). However, findings show a positive perception of ICT from the teachers interviewed.
TQ(4.13, 4.14, 4.15) attitude towards Computers
Table 5.17 shows that 92.9% of teachers refuted the idea of feeling aggressive towards computers, with a similar proportion (92.7%) disagreeing with the fact that they could not work with computers (Table 5.18).
I feel aggressive towards computers School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) Strongly agree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) I agree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Neutral 0 0 0 2 2 (4.8%) I disagree 8 5 3 2 18 (42.9%) I totally disagree 5 6 6 2 21 (50.0%) Table 5.17: Feeling aggressive towards computers (TQ4.13)
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I do not think I can work with School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No computers (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 1 0 0 0 1(2.4%) I agree 1 1 0 0 2 (4.9%) Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I disagree 5 6 1 6 18 (43.9%) I totally disagree 6 4 8 2 20 (48.8%) Table 5.18: Can’t work with computers (TQ4.14) Table 5.19 displays a similar response (92.7%) obtained, when asked if they were not interested in problem-solving with computers.
I am not interested in problem- School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No solving using computers (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I agree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Neutral 2 0 0 1 3 (7.3%) I disagree 4 5 1 3 13 (31.7%) I totally disagree 7 6 8 4 25 (61.0%) Table 5.19: Not interested in problem-solving using computers (TQ4.15) TQ4.10 Computers could be a distraction for students
With the ever-increasing debate over technology as a distraction to students, where concerns are expressed on issues, such as technology in the classroom distracting learning, because students may access the Internet instead of paying attention to teachers. The following excerpt was obtained from a teachers’ online group discussion:
“If you are asking how the internet can be a distraction, if it allows students to log in and go online instead of doing their work, the answer is simple: Not enough monitoring and not enough opportunity for exploration. The current practice of 21st century teaching and learning suggests that at least every student in a middle school and high school should have access to online research. If the teacher is not specific about where to go and what to do, and does not put time limits and rubrics, the students will definitely move away from the lesson and do whatever they want. However, if the teacher has a well-prepared lesson plan and knows which sites are going to be used, for how long and with what purpose, the students would never have enough time to do research, present results, and edit and publish and on top of that go and waffle around online. So, it is up to the educator to decide how to discipline the classroom”. (enotes.com, 2010) The findings in Table 5.20 show that 65.9% of teachers disagreed with the idea that technology could distract learners.
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Computers could be a distraction School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No for students (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 1 1 0 0 2 (4.9%) I agree 5 0 0 1 6 (14.6%) Neutral 2 0 3 1 6 (14.6%) I disagree 4 7 6 6 23 (56.1%) I totally disagree 1 3 0 0 4 (9.8%) Table 5.20: ICT as a distraction for students (TQ4.10)
TQ4.17 I need a mastery of computers for the future of my job
Table 5.21 indicates a near total agreement (97.5%) that a mastery of computers is needed for the future of their jobs; 95.3 % of teachers interviewed disagreed that learning to use computers would be very difficult for them (Table 5.22).
A mastery of computers will be School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No necessary for the future of my job (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 5 5 2 4 16 (39.0%) I agree 7 6 7 4 24 (58.5%) Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.21: A mastery of computers needed for job’s future (TQ4.17) This is a rather positive view, as expectations would have been that teachers think they are too old to use computers (83.4% disagreed with this view) and could not afford returning to schooling (Table 5.23).
Learning to use computers would be School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No difficult (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) I agree 0 1 0 0 1 (2.4%) Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I disagree 7 4 2 4 17 (40.5%) I totally disagree 6 6 7 4 23(54.8%) Table 5.22: Learning to use computers would be difficult (TQ4.16)
TQ 4.18 I am too old to learn about computers
Findings in Table 5.23 reveal that 83.4% of teachers disagreed that they are too old to learn about computers, with 73.8% aged 31 and above (Table 5.24).
I am too old to learn about School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No computers (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) Strongly agree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) I agree 1 0 0 3 4 (9.5%) Neutral 0 1 0 1 2 (4.8%) I disagree 5 1 1 0 7 (16.7%) I totally disagree 7 9 8 4 28 (66.7%) Table 5.23: Too old to learn about computers (TQ4.18)
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Age distribution of respondents School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) 21 - 25 1 0 0 2 3 (7.14%) 26 – 30 1 1 3 3 8 (19.1%) 31 – 35 6 2 2 1 11 (26.2%) 36 – 40 1 5 3 1 10 (23.8%) +41 5 3 1 1 10 (23.8%) Table 5.24: Age distribution of respondents (TQ1.4) TQ 4.20 Feeling uncomfortable when others speak about computers
Table 5.25 indicates that 85.4% of teachers feel comfortable when their colleagues speak about computers, contrary to earlier expectations that the lack of infrastructure and access could instead lead to frustration and rejection.
I am feeling uncomfortable when my School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No colleagues speak about computers (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I agree 1 1 1 0 3 (7.3%) Neutral 2 0 0 1 3 (7.3%) I disagree 5 1 2 4 12 (29.3%) I totally disagree 5 9 6 3 23 (56.1%) Table 5.25: Feeling uncomfortable when talking about ICT (TQ4.20)
5.4.1.3 Teachers’ willingness to use ICT in teaching or learning
The following section reports and highlights the extent of readiness of teachers regarding the use of ICT in teaching and learning. Participants were asked to respond to 11 Likert-type statements dealing with their readiness for ICT in education.
TQ5.1 Using ICT if there are enough computers
Table 5.26 shows that 73.2% of teachers agreed that they would use ICT if there were enough computers for the number of students. Only 17.1% of the teachers interviewed disagreed with this idea, and 9.8% opted for a neutral position.
I would use ICT if there were enough School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No computers for the number of (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) students Strongly agree 3 9 3 1 16 (39.0%) I agree 4 1 5 4 14 (34.2%) Neutral 2 1 1 0 4 (9.8%) I disagree 1 0 0 3 4 (9.8%) I totally disagree 3 0 0 0 3 (7.3%) Table 5.26: Not enough computers for the number of students (TQ5.1) TQ5.2 Using ICT if trained for that purpose
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Table 5.27 shows that 90.2% of teachers interviewed agreed they could use ICT in teaching if they received proper training for the purpose.
I would use ICT if I had received a School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No proper training for that purpose (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 5 6 7 8 26(63.4%) I agree 5 4 2 0 11(26.8%) Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) I disagree 2 1 0 0 3 (7.3%) I totally disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) Table 5.27: Lack of proper training to use ICT (TQ5.2) TQ5.3 Using ICT if there were adequate equipment
As many as 78.1% of the teachers thought that the lack of adequate equipment would hinder their adoption of ICT into teaching and learning, as shown in Table 5.28.
I will use ICT if there were adequate School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No equipments (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 4 10 4 0 18 (43.9%) I agree 4 1 5 4 14 (34.2%) Neutral 1 0 0 2 3 (7.3%) I disagree 2 0 0 2 4 (9.8%) I totally disagree 2 0 0 0 2 (4.9%) Table 5.28: Lack of adequate equipment to use ICT (TQ5.3) TQ(5.4,5.5) Using ICT if administrative and technical support is provided
Table 5.29 and Table 5.30 reveal that the lack of administrative support (80.9%) and technical support (85.4%) could negatively impact their attempt to use ICT in teaching.
I would use ICT if I received the School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No required administrative support (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 6 10 4 0 20 (47.6%) I agree 5 1 4 4 14 (33.3%) Neutral 1 0 1 2 4 (9.5%) I disagree 1 0 0 2 3 (7.1%) I totally disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) Table 5.29 Lack of administrative support to use ICT (TQ5.4) I would use ICT if I received the School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No required technical support (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 7 10 4 2 23 (56.1%) I agree 3 1 5 3 12 (29.3%) Neutral 2 0 0 1 3 (7.3%) I disagree 0 0 0 2 2 (4.9%) I totally disagree 1 0 0 0 1(2.4%) Table 5.30: Lack of technical support to use ICT (TQ5.5) TQ5.7 Using ICT if official teaching resources are available from the Ministry of Education
It was found from Chapter Three that the context of ICT integration in the region was affected by the lack of educational materials from the MINESEC in a teaching environment strongly reliant on official educational resources. Table 5.31 reveals that 80.5% of teachers would expect
75 to receive adequate teaching resources from the MINESEC before embarking on using ICT for teaching purposes.
I would use ICT if I had obtained official and School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No adequate teaching resources from the MINESEC (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 3 7 1 0 11 (26.8%) I agree 7 3 7 5 22 (53.7%) Neutral 0 1 1 1 3 (7.3%) I disagree 2 0 0 2 4 (9.8%) I totally disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) Table 5.31: Lack of official and adequate teaching resources from the Ministry of education (TQ5.7)
TQ5.8 Using ICT if I received ready-made digital content
Table 5.32 indicates that 68.3% of teachers would, however, expect ready-made digital content as being requisite before embarking on the adoption of ICT in schools.
I would use ICT if we had received School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No ready-made digital content (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 4 5 0 1 10 (24.4%) I agree 7 6 2 3 18 (43.9%) Neutral 1 0 6 1 8 (19.5%) I disagree 0 0 1 3 4 (9.76%) I totally disagree 1 0 0 0 1 (2.4%) Table 5.32: Lack of ready-made digital content (TQ5.8) TQ5.9 Using ICT in teaching their subject is rather difficult
A total of 65.9% of teachers disagreed that they would use ICT if they were teaching some other subject where using ICT would make it easier. This shows that despite 80.5% of teachers teaching non-computer classes (Table 5.34), there is a positive belief that computers could be used in teaching other subjects (Table 5.33).
I would use ICT if I were teaching a School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No subject where its use could be much (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) easier Strongly agree 2 0 0 0 2 (4.9%) I agree 3 0 0 3 6 (14.6%) Neutral 2 2 0 2 6 (14.6%) I disagree 4 9 9 3 25 (61.0%) I totally disagree 2 0 0 0 2 (4.9%) Table 5.33: Using ICT easier in other subjects (TQ5.11)
Distribution of respondents School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No according to type of subject taught (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) Scientific subjects 5 6 3 2 16 (39.0%) Art and Literature 5 5 5 2 17 (41.5%) Computers 3 0 1 4 8 (19.5%) Table 5.34 Distribution of respondents according to the type of subject taught (TQ1.5)
TQ (5.13, 5.15) Using ICT if authorities showed more commitment towards ICT integration
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With 83% (as seen in Table 5.35) of teachers expecting more commitment from the school authorities towards ICT integration, stronger expectations were formulated towards the MINESEC. Table 5.36 shows that 92.2% of teachers could use ICT in teaching, if provision for rewards were made by the MINESEC.
I would use ICT if the school authorities showed School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No more commitment towards ICT integration (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) Strongly agree 5 2 1 1 9 (22.0%) I agree 6 7 8 4 25(61.0%) Neutral 1 1 0 2 4 (9.8%) I disagree 0 0 0 1 1 (2.4%) I totally disagree 1 1 0 0 2 (4.9%) Table 5.35: Lack of commitment from school authorities (TQ5.13)
I would use ICT if provision were made for School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No rewards by the Ministry of education (10) (11) (9) (8) (38) Strongly agree 6 3 2 0 11 (29.0%) I agree 4 7 6 7 24 (63.2%) Neutral 0 1 1 0 2 (5.3%) I disagree 0 0 0 1 1 (2.6%) I totally disagree 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.36: lack of rewards from the Ministry of education (TQ5.15)
5.4.2 INFRASTRUCTURE: PROVISION AND SUSTAINABILITY
This section presents findings related to the current existing infrastructure and procurement methods. Basic ICT Infrastructure remains the starting point for most ICT in schools’ initiatives. ICT co-ordinator (CQ) and Principal Interviews (PQ) were used to gather data on key issues relating to ICT infrastructure in schools, such as provision and maintenance. It has been identified from the literature that ICT infrastructures in schools in Cameroon are acquired through three primary channels, namely: private donors, government or parents’ associations.
The following sections report findings in relation to ICT provision and the existing hardware and software infrastructure.
PQ1.1 Provision for ICT in schools
Table 5.37 shows that Parents’ Associations play a major role in funding ICT procurement in schools. ICT provision in some schools is completely supported by parents’ associations, while in some other instances private donors are invited to participate. It should be noted that there is a total lack of support from Government in the provision for ICT to the respective schools.
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How did the school acquire its computers School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Donors (Private) Parents Contribution Government Internal Budget Table 5.37: ICT Procurement in schools ICT infrastructure plan for the school (PQ, CQ)
Table 5.38 presents the findings from Principal and ICT co-ordinators’ interviews, and it reveals that all schools lacked an infrastructural plan. With the parents’ association support, schools had a minimum budget for ICT infrastructure procurement (School 1, School 2, and School 3) and ICT maintenance (School 2, School 3 and School 4).
However, all school principals acknowledged that the existing ICT infrastructure does not align with the school’s needs. This was confirmed by a principal stating that, “Donated computers easily become obsolete and hard to maintain” (PQ-School 1).
ICT infrastructure plan School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Is there any ICT infrastructure plan for the school? (PQ2.1) Do you have a minimum budget for ICT infrastructure procurement (PQ2.2) Do you have in place an appropriate budget for ICT maintenance (CQ3.5) Does the existing ICT Infrastructure align with the school’s needs?(PQ2.3) Table 5.38: ICT infrastructure plan CQ2.5 What computer specification do you have?
Table 5.39 confirms the earlier view from the principal in School 1, with all computers found in schools having a configuration not higher than Pentium III. This implies that more advanced and recent educational tools would simply not be compatible with the existing computers.
Computer specification in schools School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Less than Pentium 2 Pentium 2 or equivalent Pentium 3 or equivalent Pentium 4 or equivalent Intel Core 2 duo processors Most recent processors Table 5.39: Computer specification in schools (CQ2.5)
CQ(2.13,2.14) What Type of Internet connection do you have?
Two of the schools had Internet Access, with School 2 being equipped with a VSAT access, and School 4 with a Dial-up access. The VSAT access in School 2 was due to the partnership signed with a major Internet service provider.
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What type of Internet Connection do you have? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 ADSL Satellite (VSAT) Wireless (Radio) Dial up No Internet Access Others Table 5.40: Type of Internet connectivity (CQ2.13, CQ2.14)
CQ (2.6, 2.8) What additional hardware do you have?
The most commonly found additional hardware in the schools was the Inkjet Printer. This is known to be a low-cost printer with a basic capacity. No projector was found in any of the schools visited and the presence of a Network was only found in the schools that had Internet connectivity (School 2 and School 4).
Hardware infrastructure in schools School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Laser Printer Inkjet Printer CD Writer Retro projector Video Projector Digital Interactive boards Scanner Photocopier Laminating Machine Are computers on a network? Table 5.41: Hardware infrastructure in schools (CQ2.6, CQ2.8) CQ2.10 What software resources do you have?
Table 5.42 reveals that the major software found in all schools surveyed was the basic Microsoft Office Suite. It should also be noted that the existence of a digital Encyclopaedia in schools with basic internet connectivity is regarded as being very important.
Software resources in schools School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Office Suite Encyclopaedia Tutorials Educational Software Simulation tools Access to Digital Libraries Audiovisual educational materials Educational games Others Table 5.42: Software resources in schools (CQ2.10)
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PQ2.5 What is your major concern regarding infrastructure?
All principals’ stated that there was an inadequate ICT infrastructure in schools, as indicated in Table 5.43. The quality, maintenance, and even the need for support were not yet seen as priorities by the principals interviewed.
Primary users of ICT resources School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Insufficient They are of poor quality Expensive to maintain Lack of support for proper use Other concerns Table 5.43: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.5)
PQ (2.6, 2.7, 2.8) CQ (2.1, 2.3) Computer Laboratories
With all schools having at least a computer laboratory, the findings (Table 5.44) revealed that the lab was meant for both teachers and students, with no dedicated lab or section for teachers. There was, however, potential for expansion, as all the principals interviewed acknowledged that there was space available for expansion if the need arose.
Computer Labs School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Do you have a computer lab? (CQ2.1) Is there a dedicated lab or section for Teachers (PQ2.6) Are the labs used for administrative purposes? (CQ2.3) Do you have enough room for expansion of computer Labs (PQ 2.7) Are you aware of the actual cost of setting up a computer lab? (PQ2.8) Table 5.44: Computer Labs
CQ2.11, PQ2.9 Primary user of ICT and student to computer ratio
According to Table 5.45, access to ICT resources and laboratory is primarily aimed at teachers and students. However, the ratio of student to computers – being defined as the ratio of the number of students in the school to the number of computers available to them – is very high – and does not truly permit proper access for both teachers and students. Table 5.46 shows that the average student-to-computer ratio was 87:1, with schools in semi-rural areas having a higher ratio than those in the urban areas.
Primary users of ICT resources School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4
Teachers Students Administrative staff Teachers and Students
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Table 5.45: Primary users of ICT resources (CQ2.11)
Primary users of ICT resources School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No Number of Students 1700 2000 2500 1000 Number of Computers 15 21 35 20 Student to computer ratio 133:1 95:1 71:1 50:1 87:1 Table 5.46: Primary users of ICT resources (PQ2.9)
5.4.3 ACCESS AND USE
A large body of literature indicates that the access to ICT is a prerequisite for its integration and adoption by schools members (UNESCO, 2010). Access to ICT can be done in a formal way in a school environment, as well as in a less co-ordinated manner from homes and cybercafés. This section presents the findings relating to where, when, and how access to ICT takes place. Findings associated with the various uses of ICT in the school will also be reported. Data were gathered from PQ, TQ, CQ, as well as SQ.
5.4.3.1 Students’ Access to ICT
SQ (2.1, 2.2) Student access and frequency of access to ICT in School
It is reported from Table 5.47, that 86.9% of students have access to ICT in schools, but this access was in 86.9% of the cases less than once a week (Table 5.48).
Student access to ICT in school? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (16) (10) (13) (11) (50) 43 Do you have access to computers in Schools? 13 10 13 7 (86.9%) Table 5.47: Student access to ICT in school (SQ2.1) How often do you have access to School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total ICT? (16) (10) (13) (7) (46) Everyday 0 0 0 1 1 (2.2%) A few times a week 3 1 1 0 5 (10.9%) Once a week 2 9 9 2 22 (47.8%) A few times a month 9 0 3 0 12 (26.1%) Once a month 2 0 0 4 6 (13.0%) Table 5.48: Students’ frequency of access to ICT in school (SQ2.2) Student access to ICT at home and outside school or home
Table 5.49 shows that a number of students have access to ICT at home (42%). However, cybercafés remain the major point of access to ICT by students (71.8%), as indicated in Table 5.50. Cybercafés are Internet access centres where, for a fee, students can connect to the internet with no known restrictions.
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Other students’ access to ICT? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (16) (10) (13) (11) (50) Access to computers at home? (SQ2.4) 21 3 5 3 10 (42.0%) Access to computers outside school or 39 14 4 10 11 home? (SQ2.5) (78.0%) Table 5.49: Other students’ access to ICT? Access to ICT outside school or School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No home (14) (4) (10) (11) (39) Cybercafé 5 4 9 10 28 (71.8%) Friend’s place 6 3 4 6 19 (48.7%) Private training centres 0 0 1 2 3 (7.7%) Others 3 0 0 4 7 (18%) Table 5.50: Access to ICT outside school or home (SQ2.6)
SQ2.3 Reasons for limited/no access to ICT by students in schools
Table 5.51 shows that 65.2% of students said they were not granted access to the lab outside class periods. The insufficient time in labs (30.4%) and the lack of infrastructure (21.7%) were other reasons mentioned by students as hindering their access to ICT in schools.
Reason for limited or no access to ICT by School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No students in school (11) (0) (4) (8) (23) Lack of skills 3 0 1 1 5 (21.7%) Lack of interest 2 0 0 0 2 (8.7%) Insufficient time in labs 4 0 0 3 7 (30.4%) Lack of infrastructure 4 0 0 1 5 (21.7%) School does not grant access after class periods 3 0 4 8 15(65.2%) Table 5.51: Reason for limited or no access to ICT by students in School (SQ2.3) SQ(3.5,3.6) Do you share your computer with other students during classes?
The high ratio of students to computers observed earlier is being confirmed by the findings reported in Tables 5.52 and 5.53.
Students shared access to School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No computers (16) (10) (13) (11) (50) I share a computer with other students 16 10 12 11 48 (96.0%)
Table 5.52: Students’ shared access to computers (SQ3.5) A high of 96% of students admitted sharing computers. The number is almost proportional to the student-to-computer ratio in the school: a ratio of 7.6 students shared a computer in school 1; 3.6 in school 2; 2.38 in school 3; and 1.8 in School 4.
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Number of students sharing a computer during School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 classes (16) (10) (13) (9) 1 – 2 1 2 7 9 3 – 4 1 8 6 5 – 6 2 7 – 8 12 Average Number of students sharing 7.6 3.6 2.38 1.8 Table 5.53: Number of students sharing a computer during classes (SQ3.6)
Students’ access to the Internet
Table 5.54 and Table 5.55 show that all students interviewed in school with Internet access had an E-mail account and access to Internet in school. In schools with no Internet access, answers varied according to whether in a semi-rural (6.25%) or urban area (76.92%). The most preferred place of access to e-mail was the Cybercafé (75%).
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (16) (10) (13) (11) (50) Do you have an E-mail account? (SQ2.5) 1 10 10 11 32 6.25% 100% 76.92% 100% (64.0%) Internet in school?(CQ2.13) Table 5.54: Student’s with e-mail account Where do you access your email School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No or the Internet? (1) (10) (10) (11) (32) Home 0 0 1 1 2 (6.3%) School 0 9 0 2 11 (34.4%) Cybercafé 1 4 10 9 24 (75.0%) Friend’s place 0 0 0 2 2 (6.3%) Cell phone 0 0 0 1 1 (3.1%) Table 5.55: Places of access to e-mail or the Internet? (SQ2.9)
5.4.3.2 Teachers’ Access to ICT
TQ2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.1 Teachers’ access to ICT
A different access picture is expected from teachers, where 95.2% (as reported in Table 5.6) did have access to ICT in school, with 62.5% of them, however, having access less than twice a week (see Table 5.57). It should be noted that there is a high access rate (83.3%) to the Internet, as well as the average number of teachers owning a computer (54.8%).
Teachers’ access to ICT School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) Own a computer at home (TQ2.4) 7 5 5 6 23(54.8%) Have access to ICT in school (TQ2.5) 12 11 9 8 40(95.2%) Have access to the Internet (TQ3.1) 9 11 8 7 35(83.3%) Table 5.56: teachers’ access to ICT
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Frequency of teachers’ access to School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No ICT in school (12) (11) (9) (8) (40) Rarely 3 2 2 0 7 (17.5%) Once a week 0 2 1 0 3 (7.5%) Once or twice a week 1 5 5 4 15 (37.5%) Many times a week 2 2 0 1 5 (12.5%) Every day 2 0 0 1 3 (7.5%) At will 4 0 1 2 7 (17.5%) Table 5.57: Frequency of teachers’ access to ICT in school (TQ2.6) Table 5.58 highlights some of the reasons why teachers have limited or no access to ICT in schools. The most frequent reason mentioned by those concerned the non-existence (66.7%) and inaccessibility (51.9%) of ICT. The lack of technical support (51.9%) was also stated as one key reason.
Reason for teachers’ limited access School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No to ICT in school (10) (6) (5) (6) (27) Non-existence 5 4 4 5 18 (66.7%) Inaccessibility 3 6 2 3 14 (51.9%) Don’t know their use 1 1 1 0 3 (11.1%) I lack skills to use them 3 3 2 2 10 (37%) I lack technical support 3 5 3 3 14 (51.9%) No time 1 0 0 1 2 (7.4%) Others 2 0 0 0 2 (7.4%) Table 5.58: Reason for teachers’ limited access to ICT in School (TQ2.10) TQ (3.2, 3.3) Teachers’ places of access to the Internet
Table 5.59 shows that the access to the Internet by teachers is primarily made from cybercafés (54.3%), schools (25.7%) or homes (20%).
Where do you access the Internet? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (9) (11) (8) (7) (35) Home 1 2 3 1 7 (20.0%) School 0 7 0 2 9 (25.7%) Cybercafé 8 2 5 4 19 (54.3%) Friend’s place 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Cell phone 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.59: Place of access to the Internet (TQ3.2) Table 5.60 highlights the major reasons behind accessing the Internet by teachers where E-mail (94.3%), pedagogical resources (77.1%) as well as communication (65.7%) appear to be the top reasons for access.
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For what reasons do you access the School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No Internet? (9) (11) (8) (7) (35) E-mail 8 11 8 6 33 (94.3%) Pedagogical resources 7 6 7 7 27 (77.1%) News 5 3 5 4 17 (48.6%) Classes preparation 6 4 5 6 21 (60.0%) Collaboration with teachers 3 0 0 2 5 (14.3%) Distance Learning 1 1 1 3 6 (17.1%) Entertainment 5 0 3 3 11 (31.4%) Communication 5 9 6 3 23 (65.7%) Others 1 0 9 0 10 (28.6%) Table 5.60: Reasons for accessing the Internet (TQ3.3)
5.4.3.3 Teachers’ use of ICT
TQ (2.1, 6.2) Knowing how to use a computer
Table 5.61 shows that 83.5% of teachers claim to know how to use a computer. However, only 26.2% of these teachers had attended a formal computer training course and 63.6% of the training was self-sponsored (Table 5.62).
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (14) (11) (9) (8) (42) Know how to use computers (TQ2.1) 35 11 9 8 7 (83.3%) Have attended a formal computer training 11 2 4 2 3 course (TQ6.2) (26.2%) Table 5.61: Computer Literacy (TQ2.1, TQ6.2) How was your training sponsored? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (2) (4) (2) (3) (11) Self-sponsored 0 4 2 1 7 (63.6%) Sponsored by the school 1 0 0 0 1 (9.1%) Sponsored by the MINESEC 0 0 0 2 2 (18.2%) Sponsored by a private body 1 0 0 0 1 (9.1%) Others 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.62: Computer training (TQ6.3)? Table 5.63 shows that 61.1% of the teachers had used ICT for two to five years.
Number of years of using computers? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No (11) (9) (8) (7) (35) 0 – 1 year 1 1 0 0 2 (5.6%) 2 – 5 years 3 7 7 5 22 (61.1%) 6 – 10 years 5 1 1 2 9 (25.0%) 11 – 15 years 2 0 0 0 2 (5.6%) + 15 years 0 0 0 0 0 (0.0%) Table 5.63: Number of years using computers (TQ2.3)
5.4.4 CURRICULUM
The curriculum is seen here as the content and processes of learning in schools, as well as the outcome of learning. ICT could be used in the curriculum in three major ways: learning about ICT, learning with ICT, or learning through ICT (Fluck, 2003). Data collection on the use of ICT in
85 the curriculum in the selected schools was achieved through TQ and CQ,, and the results reported.
CQ (5.9, 5.10, 5.11) Computer literacy taught as a subject in school? (CQ)
Computer literacy is taught as a subject in all four schools that were investigated. This confirms earlier expectations from literature. Also, computer labs were not used for other subjects in all schools, as shown from Table 5.64.
School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Computers taught as a subject (CQ5.9) Computers used to teach other subjects?(CQ5.10) Are computer labs used by other teachers for their subject? (CQ5.11) Table 5.64: Use of computer Lab TQ (5.2, 5.2, 5.7) Why am I not using computers in teaching my subject?
The major reasons for not using computers in teaching other subjects were the lack of training (90.2%), lack of technical and administrative support (85.4%), lack of digital content from the Ministry of Education (80.5%), or simply the lack of computers (73.2%), as may be seen in Table 5.65.
Top reasons for not using computers in teaching School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Total No their subject? (13) (11) (9) (8) (41) There are not enough computers (TQ5.1) 7 10 8 5 30 (73.2%) No proper training to do so (TQ5.2) 10 10 9 8 37 (90.2%) No official digital content from MoE (TQ5.7) 10 10 8 5 33 (80.5%) No administrative / technical support (TQ4.11) 10 11 9 5 35 (85.4%) Table 5.65: Top reasons for not using computers in teaching (TQ5.1, TQ5.2, TQ5.7)
5.4.5 SCHOOL POLICIES AND ORGANISATION
As stated in Chapter 2, the change brought in by introducing ICT has to be aligned with other institutional priorities if it is to be successful (Pelgrum & Law, 2003). The present section will present findings relating to how ICT implementation relates to the school’s overall vision and policies. It is interesting to note how schools reorganise themselves to take up ICT, despite a non-existent national policy for ICT in education. Data relating to school ICT policies and organisation were collected from the principal and ICT co-ordinators’ Interviews.
PQ 3.1 Existence of policy document for ICT in school
Table 5.66 shows that no schools were found with a policy for ICT adoption.
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Is there any policy document? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Is there a policy document guiding the adoption of ICT in schools? Table 5.66: Existence of policy document for ICT in schools (PQ3.1) PQ(3.3, 3.4) How was ICT in schools initiated?
Table 5.67 reveals that, apart from a desire to stay competitive, the ICT integration in schools was prompted by requests and funding from parents. Parents Associations play a critical role in the country and constitute a major source of funding for projects, such as building classes or paying additional temporary teachers to supplement the shortage of permanent teachers. They contribute by accepting to pay an extra fee each year for funding such projects.
In each of the schools surveyed, an extra compulsory computer fee was charged per annum to support ICT procurement in the school, as well as curriculum delivery. Table 5.68 reveals parents’ associations as being a major source of funding in the selected schools.
What prompted ICT integration in school? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Donated computers Desire to stay competitive Government funding Parents’ request and funding School vision and careful planning A compulsory ministerial decree Table 5.67: What prompted ICT integration in school (PQ3.3)
What are your sources of funding for ICT? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Private donors Parents associations Government School internal budget Others Table 5.68: Sources of funding for ICT (PQ3.4) PQ (3.2, 3.5 – 3.9) Future of ICT in schools
Table 5.69 indicates some key priorities identified by principals with respect to the future of ICT in their schools. They are:
- Acquiring more computers - Training teachers in basic ICT skills - Getting Internet access - Networking the school - Providing computers for teachers It should be noted that no emphasis has yet been placed on policies.
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What are the school’s ICT priorities in the next 3 years? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4
Getting more computers Training Teachers (basic ICT skills) Training teaching on how to use ICT in teaching Content production Getting more specialised hardware and software Getting an Internet Access Networking the school Providing computers for administration Providing computers for Teachers Drafting a policy document on ICT in the school Others Table 5.69: School’s ICT priorities (PQ3.2, PQ3.5) What are your major concerns experienced when School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 integrating ICT in school? Lack of Infrastructure Inadequate infrastructure Lack of teachers’ training Cost of Maintenance Lack of support Lack of integration plan Lack of funds to carry out integration Table 5.70: Major concerns when integrating ICT in school (PQ3.6)
The lack of infrastructure, teachers’ training, funds and an ICT-integration plan are among the major challenges schools faced while integrating ICT (Table 5.70). However, even as principals recognise the need for an Integration plan, they seem to have no clue on how to prepare such a document (Table 5.71).
ICT integration plan and literacy? School 1 School 2 School 3 School 4 Do you know what is required for an ICT integration plan? (PQ3.7) Are you computer literate? (PQ3.8) Have you received any formal computer training course? (PQ3.9) Table 5.71: ICT integration plan and literacy
5.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In this chapter, the major results obtained through the data-collection instruments have been presented. Specific instances were provided to indicate where supporting data were gathered. Emphasis was placed on the key components of ICT development in schools. However, these instances are simply examples limited to the case study, and a full set of all the possible results might be beyond the scope of this study.
In the next chapter, the data obtained and reported on will be analysed – with the aim of providing answers to the formulated research questions.
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CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, the main results of the school interviews were presented. Four schools were successfully investigated with a total of 100 participants falling into four categories: students (N=50), Teachers (N=42), ICT Co-ordinators (N=4) and School Principals (N=4). Interviews were conducted through the use of Questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone Interviews. In this chapter, the data are analysed, in order to answer the research question. The analysis of the results suggests guidelines for the successful integration of ICT in schools by revealing factors that hinder or impact ICT integration in schools, as well as establishing the current level of ICT integration in the selected schools.
6.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The main research question guiding the study was to determine: “What were the guidelines for a successful integration of ICT in schools?”
Three research sub-questions were formulated as:
RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?
RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
RQ3: Which factors promote or hinder ICT integration in Schools in Cameroon?
With RQ1 already answered in Chapter 2, the data analysis provided answers for RQ2 – establishing the current status of ICT in schools in Cameroon – and RQ3 – identifying barriers and enablers of ICT integration in schools.
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6.2.1 WHAT IS THE CURRENT STATUS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON? (RQ2)
As reported from the Literature Survey (Chapter Two), the level of ICT integration in schools can be obtained by establishing the current level, in each school, of the major components of ICT integration in schools. Such components are: the curriculum, staff Professional Development, infrastructure and access, school policies and organisation.
The three stages of ICT integration in schools were identified to be: the introduction stage, the integration stage, and the transformative stage (see section 2.4.1). The status of each component of ICT integration at each of these stages differs; and this could easily lead to establishing the level of ICT integration in the school. A look at each of these components in the selected schools in the region could define the level of ICT integration in the schools.
6.2.1.1 The curriculum
The use of ICT in the curriculum constitutes one of the major components of ICT integration in the school. It is seen here as the content and processes of learning in schools, as well as the outcome of learning. According to the literature, three key roles are generally associated with ICT and the curriculum. These are: “Learning about ICT”, which refers to ICT as a subject of learning in the school curriculum, such as computer (or ICT) literacy; “Learning with ICT”, which refers to the use of ICT, including multimedia, the Internet or the Web as a medium to enhance instruction, or as a replacement for other media without changing the beliefs about the approaches to, and the methods of, teaching and learning; and “Learning through ICT”, which refers to the integration of ICT as an essential tool into a curriculum, such that the teaching and learning of that curriculum no longer becomes possible without it.
According to Table 6.1, the status of the curriculum at each stage of ICT integration in schools is presented.
Introduction Integration Transformation Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Computers taught as a separate Applying Knowledge. Collaboration, inquiry, information Curriculum subject. ICT used to solve complex real- management, creativity and critical Learning about ICT world problems. thinking skills developed. Learning with ICT Learning Through ICT. Table 6.1: Status of curriculum at each stage of ICT development in schools From the findings obtained from the Co-ordinators’ Interviews, computers are taught as a separate subject (CQ5.9) with no other subject taught in computer labs using computers
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(CQ5.10). This could be attributed to the fact that teachers lack sufficient skills/training (TQ5.2) and the necessary technical support to do so (TQ4.11), as well as the insufficient number of computers and infrastructure in the schools (TQ5.1). With the present findings, the curriculum could be said to be at the Introduction phase.
6.2.1.2 School Policies and Organisation
The literature highlights the point that changes brought in by introducing ICT have to be aligned with other institutional priorities if they are to be successful. A whole-school ICT policy is a statement of the beliefs, values and goals of a school's staff working co-operatively in the context of using ICTs. Like any other formulated strategy, this is a management tool. The level of ICT integration in schools is determined by the observation of major institutional changes. Table 6.2 highlights the major changes expected at each stage with regard to the school policies and organisation.
Introduction Integration Transformation Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Technology Literacy, Improving understanding and problem Emphasis on Knowledge creation, Policies and student enrolments, ICT solving skills of students. continuous learning. Vision Skills Connecting school learning to real-world problems and contexts Hierarchical structure Structural flexibility over curriculum Schools become a learning School Standard classrooms implementation. organization. Continuous organisation More time for Projects, planning and innovation from teachers collaboration Table 6.2: Status of Policies and Organisation at each stage of ICT development in schools Results obtained in Chapter Five reveal the non-existence of a school ICT policy (PQ3.1). Principals interviewed identified as their primary priorities the training of teachers on basic ICT skills, the provision for more computers in the school, as well as the connectedness to the Internet (PQ3.2, PQ3.5). These stated goals clearly align with those found in schools at the early level of ICT adoption (see section 2.3.1). Moreover, teachers seemed to be reliant on the official curriculum resources (TQ5.7) and seemed to lack “authority” to independently implement any changes at their local level (TQ5.4).
Such hierarchical rigidity is reinforced by the lack of government policies for ICT in education, as well as the lack of school policies clearly stating how teachers should go about implementing such changes.
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6.2.1.3 Infrastructure and access
ICT Infrastructure here refers to hardware, software and network connectivity, and should be used in schools not only to support “learning about ICT”, but also to support “learning with ICT” and “learning through ICT”, as described in the previous section. The key issues relating to quality and quantity of hardware, the type and cost of equipment needed, the features of the ICT infrastructure which are crucial, and the guidelines for handling and maintenance should be addressed when planning ICT in schools.
The access to ICT from basic access to “always and anywhere” access could be an indicator for achieving ICT integration in schools (see Table 2.3).
As with the previous components, the level of ICT integration may be determined from the status of the ICT infrastructure in the schools. Table 6.3 provides a snapshot on what may be expected from the infrastructure at each stage of ICT development in schools.
Introduction Integration Transformation Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Purchase/donation of Simulation and Multimedia are in use. Pervasive technologies and Infrastructure computers hardware and More dedicated and sophisticated social networks. software. hardware in place
Scanty access. Widespread and effective access Anytime, anywhere. Access High student to computer Mobility Ratio
Table 6.3: Status of infrastructure and access at each stage of ICT development in schools The status of infrastructure and access could be obtained from CQ, PQ, TQ and SQ. The lack of ICT infrastructure in schools has been highlighted from several sources throughout our investigation (TQ2.9, TQ5.1, PQ2.3, PQ2.5, PQ3.5, PQ3.6, SQ2.3, SQ3.5,). All schools investigated have set as one of their priorities for the next three years the acquisition of more computers and basic ICT infrastructure (PQ3.5).
With teachers still worried about gaining basic ICT skills (TQ5.2), the use of simulation and multimedia resources is practically non-existent in all the schools surveyed (CQ2.10).
A direct consequence of this shortage of infrastructure is the very limited access to ICT observed; 86.9% of the students interviewed had access to ICT less than once a week (see section 5.4.3.1), while 62.5% of the teachers were found to have access less than twice a week (see section 5.4.3.2). The ratio of students to computers in all schools was very high (see section 5.4.2) with an average ratio of 87:1. This was further confirmed by the students’ usage in the
92 laboratories, where in some cases eight students would have to share a computer during classes (SQ3.6).
With the very high ratio of students to computer (PQ2.9) and the existing focus on acquiring more computers to support teaching and learning (PQ3.2), the status of the curriculum in the observed schools could be said to be at the early introductory stage of ICT development.
6.2.1.4 Staff professional development
The role of teachers in the ICT adoption into the school process has been recognised in literature as a key. They play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of ICT in education, since they are the keys to making learning happen. The lack of ICT knowledge and skills from teachers is a major obstacle to the implementation, and adoption of ICT in schools (see section 2.3.4). With the introduction of ICT in schools, teachers are required to adopt new roles, as more responsibilities for learning are given directly to the students.
This change requires that teachers be proficient in advising and guiding students through more autonomous, self-directed learning processes, while at the same time monitoring the curriculum standards achieved by students. Preparing teachers for this new role is a major challenge for staff development. Also, while teachers are often the focus of staff-development provisions, they are not the only stakeholders that require training to cope with the introduction of ICT into schools. First of all, the presence of large quantities and varieties of ICT equipment in schools has created the need for dedicated technology co-ordinators and technical support staff.
The availability of support, both technical and pedagogical, is vital for the successful implementation of ICT.
The staff development, like the other components of ICT adoption in school, is said to take place in stages. Table 6.4 shows the status of Staff Development at the various stages of ICT development in schools.
Introduction Integration Transformation Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 ICT literacy programs Teachers building skills to manage and Teachers are model learners Staff predominate. guide students through collaborative responsible for their own and Development work each other’s development as colleagues and mentors. Table 6.4: Teachers’ professional development at each stage of ICT integration in schools
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The results reveal that from Principals (PQ3.8) to Teachers (TQ5.2), there is a strong need for ICT literacy programmes. All principals interviewed were found to not possess ICT skills (PQ3.8), while 90.2% of teachers admitted they required training to be capable of using ICT in teaching and learning. Furthermore, ICT literacy programmes were found to be in the top priority list of each principal for the next three years.
6.2.1.5 Summary of Findings relating to RQ1
Schools could either be at the introductory phase of ICT integration, at the Integration phase or at the transformation phase. At each of these stages, the key components of ICT integration in schools undergo changes; and these changes would determine the level of ICT integration in such schools. The following Table 6.5 summarised the findings relating to the status of each component in all the schools under study.
Component Status
Focus on Technology Literacy, ICT Skills POLICIES AND VISION No existing Policy Document Hierarchical structure SCHOOL ORGANISATION Standard classrooms
STAFF DEVELOPMENT ICT literacy programs predominate. Computers as a separate subject. CURRICULUM Learning about ICT Concerns about Purchase/donation of computers hardware and software. INFRASTRUCTURE AND ACCESS High ratio of student to computer. Scanty or limited access Table 6.5: Quick Summary of status of components The status of these components matches that of schools at the introductory level of ICT in schools. This will prompt our next investigation, which is: What factors prevent or could enable the integration process in each school?
6.2.2 WHAT FACTORS ENABLE OR PREVENT ICT INTEGRATION IN SCHOOLS? (RQ3)
Factors affecting the integration of ICT in schools fall into two major categories: enabling factors – which tend to promote and facilitate the integration of ICT – and opposing factors – that tend to prevent the adoption of ICT in the schools concerned. Kozma (2003) further classified these factors according to three levels: Macro-Level factors (or systemic factors) such as Educational Policies or Social contexts, Meso-level factors (or school factors) such as ICT infrastructure, Integration plan, school leadership, parents, etc., and Micro-level factors such as teachers’
94 pedagogical practice, innovation history, educational background, experience with technology or students’ social and cultural background, experience with technology, etc...
The focus was on School factors (Meso-level), with components such as ICT infrastructure, ICT Integration Plan, School Leadership, Teachers, Parents etc. being scrutinised.
In the course of analysis, enabling and opposing factors of ICT in schools were looked at in each key component of ICT development in schools. The following sections will analyse the results obtained, so as to identify the driving and opposing factors.
6.2.2.1 Factors relating to the curriculum
The curriculum in the schools was identified to be at the initial introductory phase of ICT integration, being mainly characterised by ICT being taught as a separate subject.
Drivers
a. The existence of a National Syllabus for ICT in school. The existence of a compulsory national curriculum (CQ5.3) is a major driving force, as most schools strive to ensure its delivery. b. Teachers’ positive feelings about using ICT to teach their subjects. It was found in section 5.4.1.3 that as many as 65.5% of teachers believed they could actually use ICT in teaching their subjects.
Opposing factors
a. The lack of ICT infrastructure hinders teachers from using ICT in teaching their subjects (TQ5.1). b. The lack of proper training to use ICT in the curriculum constitutes another setback in the use of ICT in teaching the curriculum (TQ5.2). c. The non-availability of digital resources from the Ministry of Education was also identified by teachers as a preventing factor for the use of ICT in teaching the curriculum (TQ5.7) d. The lack of administrative and technical support was mentioned by 85.4% of the teachers interviewed, as being a hindrance in their use of ICT in teaching (TQ4.11).
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6.2.2.2 Infrastructure and access
ICT infrastructure at the initial stage of ICT adoption in schools remains the most significant challenge; and this challenge has the potential to affect all the other components. The shortage of ICT infrastructure could have a negative impact on the entire integration process. The following enabling and opposing factors relating to ICT infrastructure and access in the school were identified.
Drivers
ICT infrastructure procurement could be funded through Parents’ Associations, as shown in Table 5.37, with a minimum budget available yearly(PQ1.1); A continuing decrease in the cost of hardware and software could make procurement easier (SD2); Students’ access to ICT is possible from home (42.0%) and from other places, such as cybercafés, as shown in section 5.4.3.1; As many as 54.8% of teachers own a computer at home, and this could possibly leverage the need for basic infrastructure; There is enough room for expansion within the school for additional computer laboratories (PQ2.7).
Opposing factors
The lack of ICT infrastructure is the major opposing factor (PQ2.5, TQ5.1) and this leads to the high ratio of students to computer observed in all the schools. The lack of ICT infrastructure plan does not allow for the right priorities to be set (PQ2.1). Donated computers often become quickly obsolete (CQ2.5).
6.2.2.3 Factors from Teachers’ Professional Development
Teachers play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of ICT in education, since they are the key to making learning happen. It is widely believed that all education professionals need to be equipped with technological skills and capabilities to support the delivery of high quality education in the 21st century (BECTA , 2009). The identification of the factor influencing
96 teachers’ adoption of ICT is capital to the successful implementation, and adoption of ICT in schools. Several enablers have been reported from previous findings.
Drivers
A high of 83.3% of teachers agree to having basic knowledge of computers and admit that learning about computers is useful. (TQ2.1, TQ4.12). This positive attitude will certainly facilitate any literacy programme to be put in place. All the teachers interviewed admitted that computers would be the key for the future of their job (TQ4.1, TQ4.17). As many as 90.2% of the teachers interviewed believed that students would learn better if ICT were used (TQ4.5). According to 85.4% of the teachers interviewed, a new pedagogical approach will be required when using ICT in teaching (TQ4.9). The wide acceptance of this fact should easily facilitate the introduction of new pedagogical skills into the teachers’ community. A total of 92.7% of teachers admitted to being ready for the ICT uptake in their teaching (TQ4.13, TQ4.14, and TQ4.15).
Opposing factors
Despite the claims of being computer-literate (TQ2.1), only 26.2% of the teachers have actually attended any formal training course (TQ6.2). The absence of formal training could cast doubts on the actual skills possessed by the teachers. The non-existence and inaccessibility of ICT infrastructure, as well as the lack of training and technical support prevents the use of computers in preparing lessons (TQ2.7). Despite the positive belief about ICT in their careers, there are still 56.2% of teachers that think or remain undecided as to whether ICT would be an extra burden on their daily task (TQ4.7). This could be justified by the fact that teachers are still at the early phase of ICT adoption, and are not yet fully aware of the challenges they will be facing when undergoing full integration of ICT into the curriculum. As shown in section 5.4.1.2, 85% of teachers admit to not knowing what is required for ICT integration into the curriculum.
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Section 5.4.1.3 reveals that a considerable percentage of teachers (68.3%) still believe that they will need ready-made digital content in order to use ICT in the curriculum (TQ5.8).
6.2.2.4 School Policies, vision and organisation
The school policy or vision of ICT is perceived from literature to be the most crucial point from a strategic perspective. A whole-school ICT policy sets out the rationale for the teaching and learning of ICT and the aims and objectives for ICT use within the framework of the school. It gives clear guidance on the types of equipment, programmes and measures that need to be in place if the requirements of the policy are to be met. The following sections reveal factors that impact school policies and organisation.
Drivers
There is a strong commitment from parents towards the uptake of ICT in schools (PQ3.3). There is a positive perception of ICT and a readiness from teachers in the schools (TQ4.1, TQ4.5, TQ4.13, TQ4.14, TQ4.15, and TQ4.17). A possibility of a minimum budget to plan for ICT infrastructure procurement (PQ2.2). A positive commitment to embark on ICT uptake from the school’s leadership, despite setbacks (PQ3.5). A driving desire to stay competitive (PQ3.3).
Opposing factors
The lack of school ICT policies (PQ3.1). The non-existence of an ICT integration plan (PQ3.6). The reliance on sponsors and donors who could not always be guaranteed (PQ3.3, PQ3.4).
6.3 GUIDELINES FOR ICT INTEGRATION INTO SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON
A number of schools have recently recognised the need for ICT integration for teaching and learning. They have committed themselves by acquiring computers and engaging in a basic
98 computer-literacy programme for students. The previous sections revealed a stand-still at the ICT introduction stage in all schools, or sometimes a decline after a few years of attempting to bring about such an introduction. What is it that school principals and education stakeholders need to know when considering the introducing of computers into schools? The following section will provide complete guidelines that address the issues relating to each component of ICT integration in school. The guidelines have been developed from the initial findings, as well as from published documentation from the BECTA schools Project’s report, or experiences in the Asia-Pacific region, a region similar to Sub-Saharan Africa and comprising developing countries (UNESCO, 2010).
At the Introductory stage of ICT development in schools, four key themes that need to be absolutely addressed emerged from the literature: Policies; Teachers’ training; infrastructure and funding. Each of these themes will be examined with regard to schools in Cameroon and guidelines will be suggested.
6.3.1 ICT POLICIES
Our findings (PQ3.1) revealed an absence of policies in all schools during our investigation. With policies regarded as a compulsory guide for the integration process, principals and school decision-makers should consider this as a first step towards the adoption of ICT into their respective schools. The preparation of ICT policies could be done in four distinct steps:
Step 1: Develop a vision
Where are we and where do we want to be? A vision for implementing technology across the school must first be established. This vision is important, as it defines the outcomes for learning and teaching, relationships and behaviours (BECTA , 2009). An effective vision for technology supports and enhances the school’s aims, in terms of learning, teaching, management and administration. A vision must be inspiring, helping the transformation of education to take place, and achievable.
In the case of the investigated schools, a school’s vision is generally aligned with that of the Ministry of Education; and in the absence of such (PQ3.1), decision-makers must develop a whole-school vision for ICT. This must set broad goals relating to:
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- The use of technology for learning: This should be tailored towards providing access to high quality learning materials, providing a safe environment and preventing access to unsuitable material or the inappropriate use of systems, allowing the learner to have access, so that they can study at any time, anywhere, evaluating their level of ICT skills over time. - The use of technology for teaching: Emphasis could be laid on ensuring that all staff are skilled and stay motivated in the use of ICT, enabling a culture of continuous development of technical skills, enabling access to a wide range of multimedia and digital resources, enabling teachers to create, use and adapt teaching resources created by themselves and others, and supporting work planning and monitoring, for groups and individuals. - - The strong desire of teachers to use technology in their teaching (TQ4.1, TQ4.17) should be maintained by ensuring that their doing so is in line with the whole-school vision. - The use of technology for management: This should: i) Allow for integrated personnel and timetabling arrangements; ii) enable the aggregation and analysis of data to provide timely information about course effectiveness, staff and learner performance, attendance and discipline; iii) use the students’ performance data to inform decisions about staff development; iv) support timely communication with parents about students’ attendance, behaviour and attainment; v) be accessible to all who need to use it, including the Regional Department of education.
A vision should be endorsed by all stakeholders; and to achieve this, a consultation with parents, staff (teaching and non-teaching), students, local community representatives and sponsors must be made and documented in the vision document.
Step 2: Performing an ICT audit
An ICT audit aims at establishing the current status of ICT in a school. It should reveal information regarding the access, use and opportunities provided by ICT within the school. Such information should focus on:
- A whole community: Do the community and staff endorse the school vision?
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- The School: This provides the current state of ICT use in the school, such as to provide information on what ICTs are being used, where, how, by whom and how often they are being used. A complete inventory should include even less obvious resources, such as networks and cabling systems, links to other places and ducts for cables which exist, but may not yet be in use. - The teaching staff: The strengths and weaknesses of the teaching staff must be revealed, including their level of skills, confidence, attitude to change, an understanding of pedagogical issues (constructivists, active, higher-order learning or collaborative learning). This audit should also reveal whether teachers use computers at home or in school, as well as the related technologies. The sort and type, the use of these technologies, the challenges, as well as achievements must be documented. - Students and their access to ICT at home: This includes how many and what types of students have access to information technology equipment at home. What equipment do they have? How is it used? -- and whether there is an existing Internet connection. - Students and access to ICT at School: What is the current use of ICT? What are their views on the current ICT provision and use in the school, as well as their expectations?
The information collected here could be done through the use of surveys, questionnaires, visits, workshops or facilitated meetings. The internal audit reveals the ICT in the school’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, and also the various expectations from stakeholders.
Step 3: Developing the School ICT Policy
BECTA (2009) suggested two approaches when preparing ICT policies for secondary schools: The first approach is a cross-curricular delivery model, where consideration is given to ensuring that subject teachers have the necessary ICT skills and knowledge to deliver the ICT learning objectives. The second approach is a discrete delivery model, where ICT is taught as a timetabled subject. This approach is the recommended approach for an introductory stage, due to the prevailing limited resources. It requires that: i) Enough specialist staff are available to deliver the courses; ii) sufficient time can be created from within the existing timetable; and iii) enough ICT venues and equipment for the ICT lessons exist (TQ6.4). The approach can also be used to effectively prepare for a transition towards the second stage of ICT development in
101 schools; that is the Integration stage. The content of the policy at this early stage should provide a framework for (UNESCO, 2010):
What is taught, how it is taught and the rationale for what and how it is taught What ICT equipment is required and how the hardware and software are deployed A strategy for implementation Staff development and training issues The distinctive contribution of ICT to the school’s aim and the curriculum Addressing issues associated with ICT, including e-safety, general health and safety The setting of high expectations for using ICT which are then formalised in the acceptable policies for staff, students and parents Monitoring and review and how progress will be assessed After-hours and community use Leadership and management roles
It is suggested that during the development of the school’s policy, a working committee that reflects the breadth of the school and representatives of the relevant stakeholders (ICT coordinator, Parents, teachers, ICT teachers, and technicians) must be set up. They must agree on the process and procedures for the group and establish a timescale for the completion and submission of the draft to staff and stakeholders.
Step 4: Setting targets and performance indicators
Based on the above, some strategic targets and associated performance indicators could now be set up by the school. These will start to make the vision a reality by providing a set of measurable achievements. This would also assist in assessing which projects and initiatives are more likely to contribute towards the overall success of the adopted plan. Strategic targets are simply areas where there are significant gaps between the school’s vision and the current use of ICT. Performance indicators describe performances the school wishes to measure. These should be worded so as to indicate the sort of data which need to be collected, so that progress can be evaluated against strategic targets.
Annual targets break down the strategic targets into measurable sections that can be evaluated at the end of each year – with revisions held every 3 to 6 months. In the context of the schools, the non-documented strategic target that was recurrent in the discussions with principals was the ability of students to conveniently use ICT to access, organise, retrieve and present information in all areas of the curriculum. Annual targets here could be set as follows:
Year 1: 20% of students and 50% of teachers make basic use of ICT Year 2: 50% of students and 75% of teachers make basic use of ICT
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Year 3: 80% of student make basic use of ICT and 20% of teachers use ICT in the curriculum. ...
Infrastructure-related performance indicators could be the student-to-computer ratio or the extent of connectivity. Performance indicators relating to staff-professional development could be: i) The number of trained and ICT-certified staff; ii) the extent to which teachers use multimedia resources in teaching the curriculum; iii) the extent to which teachers participate in professional development activities; iv) the extent to which teachers are able to identify opportunities where ICT can improve the learning environment; or v) implement appropriate ICT solutions to improve learning.
Indicators for the curriculum component of ICT integration in school could be the ability of students to use ICT to present work for assessment in digital format (e.g. as word-processed documents or interactive multi-media); ICT Policy documents or additional sources of funding could be indicators for the policy component.
6.3.2 TEACHERS’ TRAINING
The outcome of ICT in Education projects ultimately depends on those at the heart of education: Teachers (UNESCO, 2010). Quite a number of driving factors were found in the schools with respect to teachers’ professional development. With quite a number of teachers claiming to have received basic informal computer literacy skills (TQ2.1, TQ4.12), a process to formalise their skills through a computer literacy programme should be much easier than might be expected.
With teachers recognising the need for computers in their future career (TQ4.1, TQ4.17), the impact it may have on student’s learning outcome (TQ4.5), and the need for a new pedagogical approach (TQ4.9), the immediate recommendation would be to plan a learning platform directed to teachers, so as to facilitate collaborative work and simulate the future learning environment for students.
Based on the above, teachers’ training should not only be on basic computer literacy courses, but could also address key issues on using ICT for teaching. A recommendation, therefore, would be that a stand-alone technology course should be given that addresses the instruction of the use of technology in teaching. This should be possible due to the fact that teachers have already gained informal skills, and are more excited about discovering the impact this could
103 have on their teaching. This approach would give them a good overview and sufficient opportunities right from the onset.
6.3.3 INFRASTRUCTURE PLAN
ICT infrastructure has been identified in the previous sections as a key enabler, and at the same time, as the main opposing factor of ICT development in school. The lack of ICT infrastructure causing a high ratio of students to computers, the lack of ICT infrastructure plan, or simply donated computers that often become rather quickly obsolete – were among the major infrastructure-related factors observed in all schools. This was probably due to the fact that no ICT infrastructure plan was in existence in all the schools visited.
Schools need to plan the development and management of their ICT infrastructure carefully. ICT infrastructure planning should be driven by the broader strategic goals and needs of the school (Autralia Department of Education, 2009). Plans that are developed should also be consistent with the policies and advice of the school system, or the sector to which the school belongs. Planning for the development and management of ICT infrastructure should be undertaken with a clear understanding of:
- The school’s goals and needs - The extent of the current ICT infrastructure, generally documented through infrastructure plans and registers. - The extent to which the current ICT infrastructure conforms to basic infrastructure management principles, such as those identified by BECTA (2009), by being reliable, coherent, affordable and sustainable. - The advice and services for technical support that are provided by the school system or sector to which the school belongs - Its functional requirements
Several considerations should be made when planning for infrastructure in schools. These include (Autralia Department of Education, 2009):
- Access devices: the items of ICT equipment (including the associated operating software) that are directly used by students, teachers and school staff. Decisions about access devices, including the types to be acquired or replaced, the number and their placement, the need to be driven by the teaching, learning and administrative practices that the school intends to support.
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- Network infrastructure: This connects the different access devices throughout the school to the required tools, services and digital resources, many of which will be located outside the school. Decisions about the network infrastructure need to reflect the requirements for connecting these access devices. - Application software: This provides specific functionality for teaching, learning or administration, including: o content-management systems o learning systems o finance and assets systems o staff and student management systems o assessment and reporting systems - Support resources: Including people and skills, processes, externally provided services and financial resources.
It is recommended to document the plan after it has been made. The documentation should include:
- A diagram for the deployment of access devices to learning and administrative spaces throughout the school - A detailed development of the school’s network infrastructure - The use of new application software packages - The provision of technical support - Changes to key procedures, including security and cyber-safety procedures - The procurement of required technical products and services - The disposal of redundant components - Changes to facilities, furniture and fixtures - Expenditure, including budgets for current and future costs
6.3.4 COSTING
ICT costing was identified in the previous sections as an opposing factor, since most principals are ignorant of its exact cost. The cost of ICT in the schools visited was always associated with acquiring ICT equipment. The following cost categories should be taken into account when planning ICT development in schools:
- Hardware: Hardware costs, as annualized investment costs in schools; and these costs should average 30 – 40% of the total costs of the ICT in any school project (Bakia, 2002). The estimates provided here are obtained from the Asia-Pacific experience (UNESCO, 2010). Schools should also consider using diskless desktop computers (thin clients), as they cost
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less than PCs. This should only be considered when using a centralised laboratory model, as is the case in the schools in the case study. A more diffuse classroom model may require a more technically proficient network administrator and high-speed terminals – due to the heavy traffic created. It should also be noted that with a centralised laboratory model, the overall total number of computers required is significantly reduced, as lab venues could simply be booked when required. - Software: No Educational software was found in any of the schools investigated (CQ2.10). Software costs are annualised investment costs and vary with the intended use of the computers. While it is apparent that a large pool of software resources involves higher costs, it must not be overlooked that hosting a wide range of software applications can increase the amount needed for training and support as well. Freeware can solve parts of this cost problem. Another problem found here could be the scarcity or high cost of software in languages other than English. Software for instruction and networks usually incurs greater expenses than server and other administrative software.
With regard to the hardware and software infrastructure, some "gifts" to schools from donors were found to actually be more costly to accept than to reject, because older or used equipment and software may require too much time, adaptation, and cost for upgrades to be practical (CQ2.5). Most schools are not used to turning down "gifts" – even when they are too expensive to accept.
- Maintenance and support: The number of support staff required depends on the number of computers, the number of software applications, and the abilities of the intended users. The estimated cost of maintenance largely depends on the state of computers during acquisition and also on the level and usage of such equipment. Most schools have no maintenance plan; and the decision to repair faulty computers depends on the availability of funds and the critical nature of the fault. The recurring maintenance costs should be anticipated and generally average about 20% of the overall cost of ICT in any school plan (Bakia, 2002). - - Connectivity: The cost of connectivity depends on the expenses involved in preparing a building for connectivity, namely heating, ventilation, and security requirements, the costs of equipment and installation, and on the costs of recurrent connectivity charges. When choosing a connection model, factors such as the amount of information to be transported, the reliability requirements, potential partnerships with other users, characteristics of the
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terrain, and distances – should all be taken into account (UNESCO, 2010). In one of the school surveyed, most teachers had access to the Internet from Cybercafés or homes (TQ3.2), while there was an existing Internet connection in school. The most recurring complaint from teachers was the need for a permanent fast internet connection in the school (TQ6.4). - Professional Development: The costs for staff training are annualised investments and sometime recurrent. They include the costs of organising training sessions or sending teachers out for training. - Central Management: This is a recurring cost of planning for ICT in the school. Such costs may run throughout the year and these include evaluation and monitoring activities. All working sessions towards ICT integration in schools should be prepared. - Facilities and renovations: These are annualised investment costs in schools that relate to securing, upgrading, and maintaining computer lab facilities. Principals in all schools have acknowledged having enough room for future expansion. But such venues – originally designed as classrooms – would have to be renovated, so as to accommodate ICT equipment and resources.
6.3.5 FUNDING
Funding for ICT development programmes has been a key issue in all the schools investigated. The Ministry of Education, realising Government’s incapacity to provide funds for ICT development in schools, published a decree that allowed for schools to gather minimum funds through a compulsory ICT fee to be paid yearly by students. A contribution of up to $10 per student per annum is expected to provide a means of funding ICT in schools-related initiatives (SD6). Principals could, consequently, have a minimum budget to invest in procuring ICT equipment, and consider other alternatives for funding. However, they often rely on partnerships with private business entities that supply the computers and sign an agreement to deliver the curriculum.
With no infrastructure plan in mind from the school principals, the business partners appear to be the sole stakeholders of the ICT integration in schools, delivering a few used computers to the school and reaping huge benefits. A proper tool for principals to resolve this issue is to have a proper ICT infrastructure plan resulting from the whole-school policy. A knowledge of the
107 exact costs of acquiring ICT could result in a more comprehensive and feasible plan over the years.
In addition to this, it would be inappropriate not to consider other sources of funding, as it remains one of the most important ingredients in the successful integration of ICT in schools. Additional possible sources of funding are identified here apart from the school budget (Jhurree, 2005):
1. Educational collaboration: Through collaborative efforts among schools and other organisations, both local and foreign, funds can be raised and provided to schools. This could be confirmed from the existing partnership between a school and a prominent Service Provider in the region that leads to the school having a full multimedia Laboratory. 2. Corporate Grants: Many wealthy companies receive tax deductions, along with Societal recognition and customer markets, for the help, in funds or other financially quantifiable terms, they give to institutions to achieve the latter’s goals. Such avenues should be considered and the necessary contacts made. 3. Private gifts: Financial support can also be obtained from private sources, such as parents-teachers associations – as is already the case in all of the case-study schools. It should be noted that other sources in this category should be contacted, such as other associations, civic groups, individuals, alumni or special fund-raising events. 4. International donor organization: UNESCO, the World Bank, USAID, etc. can be exploited to obtain funds for the equipment of schools with computers. Hawkins (2002) suggested that opening school computer laboratories after school hours to the community could also be a source of finance.
6.4 DATA TRIANGULATION
Triangulation was the data interpretation method used to establish the current status of ICT integration in schools, as well as the factors affecting or promoting ICT adoption. Five themes emerged from the literature (as discussed in section 5.3) as key components of ICT integration, and each of them were investigated through primary interviews with key informants, such as principals and ICT co-ordinators. Using the triangulation approach, the interpretation of the acquired data through these interviews was supported by data gathered from students’ and
108 teachers’ survey. The curriculum was found to be taught as a separate subject from the interviews with the ICT co-ordinators combined with teachers’ and students’ surveys. These triangulated data also confirmed most of our earlier expectations from the literature review (see Section 5.3). They showed that – in terms of access and use – there was a significant high student-to-computer ratio in all schools, resulting in scanty access from students and teachers. The data revealed the non-existence of an ICT policy document – leading to principals not knowing how to proceed and what outcome was expected.
In terms of the infrastructure, our expectations of a state of acute shortage of basic ICT infrastructure was met with a prevalence of obsolete donated computers. These findings led us to the conclusion that ICT in the visited schools was at the introductory stage of the ICT development process in schools (in Cameroon).
To investigate factors affecting or promoting ICT in schools, data (teachers’ readiness/literacy and attitude towards ICT, teachers’ and students’ access and the use of ICT) gained from teachers’ and students’ questionnaires were used to confirm early interviews with key informants (principals and ICT co-ordinators). The documented structured questionnaires with students and teachers revealed several driving factors, such as teachers’ positive attitude towards ICT and increased ownership of computers at home, as well as opposing factors, such as high student-to-computer ratio, lack of infrastructure, training (teachers) and support. These triangulated data were verified against similar studies (Webb, 2007; Wilson-Strydom & Thomson, 2005; Fisser, 2001; Pelgrum & Law, 2003; Schoepp, 2005) and presented with similarities.
6.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
A detailed analysis of the results provided answers to RQ2, regarding the current level of ICT integration in schools. It was found that the level of ICT adoption in the selected schools was at the introductory phase of Fluck’s model of ICT development in schools. This was largely supported by the status of the key components of ICT integration in schools. A quick review demonstrated that ICT was still being taught as a subject, while the teachers’ professional development was still a pending issue, due to the lack of infrastructure and of any technical support. The high ratio of students to computers led the school leadership to set priorities on the procurement of equipment.
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Several factors were identified as being capable of driving or opposing the development of ICT in schools. Some of the most significant enablers were the generally positive attitude of stakeholders towards ICT uptake in schools, as well as the strong involvement of parents as a reliable source of funding. Opposing factors, such as the lack of ICT school policies which implied a lack of vision, did not favour the existing momentum, however.
In the light of the above, a remedy to this problem was to provide principals and decision- makers in schools with a set of guidelines that would enable them to embrace ICT integration. These guidelines are summarised in Table 6.6.
STEP 1 STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP5 School’s ICT Perform an Develop School’s Setting strategic Performance Review and Vision ICT Audit ICT policies targets Indicators Evaluation Infrastructure Requirements, Student to ICT Infrastructure goals, Security and computer
plan: Access n o i / t a u l a v E d n a w e i v e R safety, Monitoring ratio, Network devices, and evaluation, Use connectivity Software / LMS/ policies CMS ICT for Professional management Development Number of In-Service training trained and Review, [teachers, non- certified staff academic and ICT for Current use, technical staff] teaching Ability to use Costing expectations Curriculum ICT for Hardware and Learning about assessments software, challenges computers or finding management, ICT for ICT in teaching online connectivity, learning resources training, support Policies ICT Policy ICT Regulatory document framework Funding/ support Funding
Considering other sources and sources of partnerships funding Table 6.6: Guidelines for ICT integration in schools In the next chapter, the major ideas emerging from the study will be explored further. A summary of the findings is provided and appropriate recommendations are made, as well as possible avenues for further studies are suggested.
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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
There is only a limited literature available on the status of ICT in education in Sub-Saharan African countries; and therefore, there was a need to investigate the status of ICT integration in Sub-Saharan Africa for teaching and learning purposes. The present chapter summarises the findings of the study regarding the status of ICT adoption in schools in Cameroon, and those factors preventing a further transition into higher stages of ICT development in schools. Based on the findings, guidelines that could assist decision-makers in the planning and implementation of ICT in schools are suggested.
Recommendations are made with regard to the future areas of research.
A report (UNESCO, 2005) stated that ICT integration in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa is still at an early stage; and already, it faces several setbacks that may undermine the various initiatives undertaken by governments and by the private sector to promote the use of computers in schools. In an attempt to identify the depth of this situation, understanding the current status of ICT in the Sub-Saharan Africa region was necessary.
From the existing literature, the current status of ICT education in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa could not be visibly ascertained. Furthermore, several factors promoting or opposing ICT in education in schools were broadly identified at a global level; and any attempt to link these to the specific context of schools in Sub-Saharan Africa could have been misleading, with no context-specific study of these factors.
The following section provides a detailed summary of the research questions, and how they were answered.
7.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES
In response to the above, three key research questions were formulated to answer the overall research question:
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1. RQ1: What are the current trends of ICT integration in schools in Sub-Saharan Africa?
The corresponding research objective was to investigate the current status of Sub-Saharan African countries in terms of ICT adoption in school. The answer to this first research question was sought from the literature. The Network Readiness Index (NRI) – a framework that provided a benchmark of the overall success of a country participating in and benefiting from ICT – was relied upon to obtain the global ranking of Sub-Saharan African countries in terms of environment, readiness and usage sub-indices.
The environmental sub-component of the NRI was of specific interest. It provided a metric for the measurement of the conduciveness of an environment in providing for the development and usage of ICT. The environmental sub-index was further based on three sub-indices: Market, regulatory and infrastructural sub-indices. A closer look at the Infrastructural sub-index – defined as the level of availability and quality of the key access infrastructure for ICT within a country, further revealed a pattern of variation similar to that of the overall Network Readiness Index.
Using Fluck’s model for ICT development in schools (Fluck, 2003), a literature review was carried out on the status of each component of ICT development for countries at the top, middle and bottom level of the Network Readiness Index – with a view to establishing their level of ICT integration in schools. The levels of ICT adoption in top-ranking countries, such as Singapore, or medium-ranking countries, such as South Africa, were established as 3rd stage (final transformation phase) and second stage (integration stage), respectively for these countries, which closely matched the expectations from the NRI ranking.
However, due to the very limited available literature, Sub-Saharan countries in the same manner were thought to be at the early stage (introduction phase) of ICT development in schools, as they ranked bottom in the Network Readiness Index table. A further look at the status of ICT in schools in one bottom-ranking country – Cameroon – appeared to be necessary.
2. RQ2: What is the status of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
The main research objective associated with the second research question was to establish the level of ICT integration in schools in Cameroon. To achieve this objective, the insufficient literature available suggested that the country was still at an early stage of ICT development in
112 school, but that information could not be totally relied upon. This constituted our primary hypothesis, as the study embarked on a case study of selected schools in a typical region of the country Cameroon. The aim of this study was to establish the status of ICT development in selected schools – thought to have embarked on the ICT adoption process by the regional Department of Education – as well as to provide answers to the third Research Question: the factors promoting or opposing ICT development in schools.
The findings revealed that all schools surveyed were at the initial level of ICT adoption, the introductory phase. This was ascertained by considering the key components of ICT integration in schools.
Curriculum:
An investigation into the curriculum component in each school showed that computers were taught as a separate subject, and ICT was not being used for teaching other subjects. This was merely due to the fact that a key priority of the schools was to provide basic computer training for students, as promised to their parents, who were the major stakeholders in funding for computers in schools. Another reason for this was that the computer subject was to be made an examination subject during the national examination (PQ4.1).
One principal noted that with computers being an examination subject, teaching computers from the initial grade would give enough experience to the student to face national exams – a statement that was made when this principal was asked what his future plans were regarding the curriculum.
Staff Professional development:
With no formal ICT training courses for staff held in all schools, a vast majority of the teachers in each of these schools was able to gain basic IT skills informally (TQ2.1, TQ6.2). This self- development of teachers simply reflected their overall positive attitude towards computers, and the use of computers in teaching. However, this positive self-confidence was overshadowed by the significant lack of support, training and infrastructure, among other challenges.
There was no mention of training for non-academic staff in any of the schools, as the use of computers was centred on students (CQ2.11). Therefore, it was determined that Staff Professional Development toward ICT in all the schools was only at the introductory stage of the
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Fluck’s model; and this was characterised by a focus on the Basic ICT literacy program for teachers.
Infrastructure and access
A common characteristic of schools at the early stage of ICT adoption is the focus on acquiring a basic ICT infrastructure. A significant shortage of ICT infrastructure was recorded in each of the schools, with very high student-to-computer ratios. However, other forms of access to ICT were found in all the schools; and Cybercafés were the most common places of ICT access by students, driven by the Internet push.
Also a significant number of students and teachers were found to have access to ICT at home, which could be further seen as a way of alleviating the impact of the lack of infrastructure in the schools.
Policies and school organisation
It was ascertained that the lack of policy and vision strongly impacted on the ICT-adoption process. With most teachers being willing to adopt ICT in school, they were faced with the barrier of not knowing how to proceed, since they required support from both the school and the Ministry of Education. ICT policies set out the rationale for teaching and learning how to use ICT. With no clearly defined policy, teachers could show a reluctance to engage in ICT use in teaching – especially in a very hierarchical school system.
These results helped in establishing that the selected schools – recommended as some of the most advanced schools in the region in terms of ICT adoption in schools – were, in fact, still at the early introductory stage of ICT development.
3. RQ3: What are the factors promoting or opposing ICT integration in schools in Cameroon?
Identifying factors that could promote or aid ICT adoption in schools, as well as any possible barriers, became the objective of the third research question. These factors affecting the integration of ICT in schools fell into two major categories: enabling factors – which tend to promote and facilitate the integration of ICT – and opposing factors – which tend to prevent the adoption of ICT in the schools concerned. This study focused on school factors, seen as factors
114 relating to components, such as ICT infrastructure in school, schools’ ICT policies and integration plan, school leadership and organisation, teachers’ professional development, and suchlike.
In the course of the analysis, facilitating and opposing factors of ICT in schools were considered in each key component of ICT development in schools. The lack of ICT infrastructure, the absence of ICT-policy documents to guide the integration process, and the lack of training and support were among the prominent opposing factors identified. While dealing with these factors was the key challenge to overcome in order to achieve ICT adoption, several unnoticed ICT driving factors also emerged.
These unexpected factors included the very positive attitude of teachers and staff towards the use of ICT in teaching, and the possibility for ICT procurement through parent-teachers’ associations. Table 7.1 provides a summary of the various facilitating and opposing factors in the investigated schools.
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COMPONENT DRIVING FACTORS OPPOSING FACTORS • The lack of ICT infrastructure hinders teachers from • Existence of a National Syllabus for ICT in using ICT in teaching their subjects school. • The lack of proper training to use ICT in the curriculum
• The non availability of digital resources from the Curriculum • Teachers’ positive feeling about using ICT to Ministry of Education teach their subjects. •The Lack of administrative and technical support
prevents the use of ICT in teaching. • ICT infrastructure procurement could be funded through parent-teachers’ associations • A continued decrease in the cost of hardware • The lack of ICT infrastructure leads to the high ratio of and software could make procurement easier student-to-computer observed in all schools. Infrastructure and (SD2). • The lack of ICT infrastructure plan does not allow for • Students’ access to ICT is possible from home access the right priorities to be set. (42.0%) and from other places such as cybercafés • Donated computers often become quickly obsolete • 54.8% of teachers own a computer at home • There is enough room for expansion within the school for additional computer laboratories. • Only 26.2% of the teachers have actually attended a • Most teachers agree to have basic knowledge of formal training course which may cast doubts on the computers and admit that learning about actual skills possessed by the teachers. computers is useful. • The non-existence and inaccessibility of ICT • Teachers admit that computers would be key for infrastructure, as well as the lack of training and the future of their job and that students would learn Teachers technical support prevents the use of computers in better if ICT were used. preparing lessons. Professional • Teachers agree that a new pedagogical • Teachers are still not fully aware of the challenges Development approach would be required when using ICT in they will be facing when undergoing full integration of teaching which would facilitate the infusion of new ICT in the curriculum. pedagogical skills. •Teachers (68.3%) still believe they will need ready- • 92.7% of teachers admitted to being ready for the made digital content in order to use ICT in the ICT uptake in their teaching curriculum. • Strong commitment from parents towards the uptake of ICT in schools. • There is a positive perception of ICT and • The lack of School ICT policies. School Policies, readiness from teachers within the schools. • The non-existence of an ICT integration plan • Existence of a minimum budget to plan for ICT vision and •The reliance on sponsors and donors which could not infrastructure procurement. Organisation always be guaranteed. • A positive commitment to embark on ICT uptake from the school leadership despite setbacks. •A driving desire to stay competitive Table 7.1: Enabling and opposing factors for ICT development in schools
4. Main Research Question: Guidelines for successfully integrating ICT in schools
A set of guidelines was suggested for schools at the introductory stage of ICT adoption – to facilitate the process. These schools had already committed themselves to acquiring ICT with no clearly predefined vision or specified outcome. The guidelines addressed four key areas, such as: policies -- Teacher’s training – infrastructure – funding. Policies were found to be a compulsory guide for the integration process, and the first step towards adoption of ICT in schools. Preparing ICT policies implied developing a clear vision that clearly specified the outcome of learning and teaching, as well as the relationships and behaviours.
The vision was to set goals relating to the use of ICT for learning, teaching, and for management.
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The next step following establishing a clear vision was developing the policy document for ICT in school. An ICT audit is required to establish the current status of ICT in the schools and this must reveal key information on all ICT-related issues involving the community, the school, the staff, and students’ access and expectations. The content of the policy document would then be drafted, to define how and when ICT would be used, who would use it, and the type of equipment required.
A strategy for implementation should emerge from this document, as well as procedures for monitoring and evaluating the progress made. The recommendation here was for the involvement of all relevant stakeholders’ representatives in the working committee responsible for drafting the school’s ICT policy document. Strategic targets should be put in place to provide a set of measurable achievements and performance indicators, defining what needs to be measured.
Teachers’ training was found to be important, as teachers are the basis of making any learning take place in the classroom. With several teachers claiming basic ICT skills, it is recommended that teachers’ training should be a stand-alone technology course devoted entirely to the use of technology in education. This approach would provide teachers with a good ICT overview in a uniform and structured manner.
Knowing the right cost and requirements for Infrastructure would provide a proper starting point for most development plans. The lack of ICT infrastructure, any ICT infrastructure plan and the predominance of obsolete and donated computers were the major infrastructure-related opposing factors in all the observed schools. This investigation revealed that the cost of ICT in most schools visited was associated with acquiring ICT equipment (hardware and connectivity); and these costs were usually overestimated.
Other costs, such as maintenance and support, professional development costs, management costs, or facilities and renovation costs were simply ignored. The lack of support and difficulties in maintaining obsolete computers were among the major complaints received from teachers (TQ6.4) and principals interviewed. Appropriate costing is essential in the context of limited sources of funding.
Funding for ICT development programs has been accomplished by an annual compulsory contribution of parents amounting up to $10 per student (SD3). With this approach, principals could have a minimum budget to invest in procuring ICT equipment, and would probably need
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to consider other alternatives for funding. However, with no infrastructure plan in mind, principals are often misled by business partners who become the sole stakeholders responsible for providing ICT equipment and training to schools – in the hope of reaping huge financial benefits.
Figure 7.1 provides an overview of the guidelines for ICT adoption and development in a school at the introductory stage.
Figure-7.1 Guidelines for ICT adoption in schools at the introductory stage
7.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study was conducted in four selected schools in the Western Region of Cameroon, a region generally known for its high level of literacy. Five schools were to be selected from a group of 15 schools from the Regional Department of Education; and this was later reduced to four schools, since during the course of the investigation, one of the schools was robbed of its entire ICT infrastructure overnight. This prompted their opting out of the research. The selection of the four schools was influenced by the responses, showing the readiness of the school authorities to facilitate this study, and also on the recommendation of the regional Department of Education.
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The findings here are the outcomes of considering the answers that the participants indicated or said in relation to their use of ICT; and the only verification of such data was made by matching data from different categories of respondents. For example, the self-perceived “ICT-literate” from teachers could have been understood as merely having once used a computer.
ICT integration in schools is clearly a complex issue, being influenced by numerous factors at macro-level (National policies, etc.) or micro-level (individual level). The focus in this study was limited to factors at the school level that would allow schools to complete the early stage of ICT integration and move to the second level: the integration stage.
As a result of the pronounced lack of ICT infrastructure in the various schools investigated, this study, therefore, did not attempt to address how effectively ICT was being used. Rather, the aim has simply been to gain insights into the current status of ICT in the schools, as well as the factors that would influence, promote, and constrain the use of ICT. This study does not guarantee that under optimal infrastructural conditions, the effective use of ICT in teaching would automatically be met.
7.4 RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY
Subject to the above limitations, this study may be considered significant, for three reasons:
Firstly, this is the first study of its kind conducted in secondary schools in the region, in order to appraise the extent of ICT in schools and suggest guidelines for the integration of ICT into schools. A situation similar to the one described in the above schools could be expected from other schools in the region.
Secondly, the findings from this study should enable a more-focused adoption of ICT in schools, as the opposing factors found here could be separately addressed, and the enabling factors could be fostered in those schools already engaged in the process.
Thirdly, for schools considering the adoption of ICT for teaching and learning, an isolation of the constraints observed earlier, together with an adoption of the recommended guidelines would provide a better chance of success.
The following recommendations are here made for the future of ICT in schools in Cameroon:
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1. To Principals and Policy-makers: Policies are meant to define the rationale for using ICT in schools, as well as to provide guidelines for their implementation and use. The resources for the use of ICT must be organised, so as to provide access to hardware, software, information, facilities, services and support. These goals could only be achieved if proper policies were put in place. The guidelines suggested in the study could aid in the establishment of those policies that would facilitate the adoption of ICT in schools.
Principals also have to deal with issues when planning for ICT in their respective schools, and should find in these recommended guidelines a valuable tool to pursue their ICT integration goals. With a confirmed lack of knowledge on what is required, they were often easy victims of businessmen seeking to dispose of obsolete equipment.
2. To teachers: The recommended guidelines finally recognise their role in the integration process, and may contribute to removing their fears of technology replacing instruction. The need for ICT-skilled teachers is more than merely mandatory; and it remains a key point in the ICT-development plan.
3. To parents: Parents will better understand the impact of ICT adoption in schools, as they will have a say in adopting the vision and drafting policies. They would also have a clear insight on what their expectations should be with respect to the use if ICT at home and in the school.
4. To sponsors and donors: sponsors will realise through these guidelines, that donations of obsolete materials to the schools do not facilitate the integration process, and they should also understand that ICT in school is not simply about having computers, but involves other significant issues and costs, such as maintenance, teachers’ training, management or renovation. These costs simply cannot be supported by the school alone.
5. The Department of Education: the Regional Department should understand that provision of ICT needs to be seen as an ongoing management process, and not just as
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being limited to selecting, purchasing, and installation of hardware and software. They should realise that it needs to be managed as a process that includes arrangements for training, ongoing maintenance, the provision of consumables, the care and distribution of shared resources and the evaluation of effectiveness. Most decrees released by the Ministry of Secondary Education were concerned with the provision of ICT.
Through these guidelines, a necessity to address all the relevant factors – to ensure a successful integration – should be made. With the ongoing decentralisation of the Cameroon institutions to a regional level (Cheka, 2007), local communities will be responsible for the development and outcome of their educational system. The proposed guidelines will come as a handy tool for decentralised regional government policy-makers, when planning for ICT to improve teaching and learning.
7.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
As this is the first exploratory study conducted in this region, further studies might evolve from the findings – to refine, extend and/or challenge this research. There are matters of generalisation and verification that could indicate the need for further research.
Firstly, the scope of the study narrowed the investigation down to a meso-level (school level), and further research at the micro-level (individual practices) might reveal a different output.
Secondly, this study has identified factors that hinder ICT in schools; but it does not suggest means to eradicate these hindrances. A further investigation of the impact of each of these factors on the ICT integration process could be carried out, in order to suggest appropriate corrective measures.
Thirdly, no metrics have been suggested with regard to investigating professional learning or evaluating learning outcomes. Such measure should clearly provide a better understanding of the successful completion of the introductory phase of ICT integration in schools.
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APPENDIX 3.A INDICATORS FOR COUNTRY CAMEROON
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APPENDIX 4.A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF SCHOOLS
PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF SCHOOLS
(Version June, 2009)
Institution Identification
Historical Data
1 Institution Name : ______
2 Geographical Location: ______3 Title and Name of contact person: ______4 Contact / address: ______5 How would you classify your ______institution/organization? (Primary/Secondary School, Community College, University, Vocational/Technical, Non-Governmental Agency, State/College, Federal/Government, Other) 6 Total Number of Students : ______Males Vs Females ______7 Is your institution a Public or Private ______school?
Basic ICT INFRASTRUCTURE:
1 Do you have a computer Lab? ______2 If Yes, What is the Primary purpose of ______the Lab? 3 Do you have Internet Access? ______If Yes what is the Bandwidth? ______
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APPENDIX 4.B PRINCIPALS’ INTERVIEWS
INTRODUCTION HEADING FOR INTERVIEWS
This research is conducted in the context of a study led by the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in conjunction with the Regional Department of Education in the Western Region and the Regional Cisco Networking Academie IUTFV of Bandjoun – Cameroon.
The study aims at investigating the factors that could enable or prevent a successful integration of ICT in schools in Cameroon. It will provide a set of guidelines that will be valuable to decision-makers when considering integrating ICT into their respective schools.
The information gathered throughout this study will remain confidential; and no participant’s name will be used in any report of the study. Also all participants have the right to voluntarily opt out of the study while it is yet under way.
The researcher is Raoul Calvain Nangue (An MTech student at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University) and the supervisor of the study is Prof. Darelle Van Greunen, who may be contacted for more information regarding the study:
Email: [email protected] Tel: +27 41 5042090 Address School of ICT P O Box 77000 Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 6031
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PRINCIPALS’ INTERVIEWS
Questions’ Guide
This guide was used to record Principals’ responses during the Interviews:
After the formal introductory sequence, the Interview went as scheduled:
Date:
School:
Interviewer:
Q1-1 How was ICT provision made in the school? Q1-2 Are there ongoing ICT-projects within the school? If so, name them and give their status? Q1-3 Do you have any partnership with external organizations? If so describe each of them. Q1-4 Do you have a unit responsible for ICT in your school? If so describe it. Q1-5 Have you tried to secure funding through external sources? What were your difficulties?
Q2-1 Is there any ICT infrastructure plan for the school? Q2-2 Do you have a minimum Budget for ICT infrastructure procurement ? Q2-3 Does the existing ICT Infrastructure align with the school’s needs? Q2-4 Are you considering using ICT for administrative work? Q2-5 What is your major concern regarding infrastructure? Q2-6 Is there a dedicated lab or section for teachers? Q2-7 Do you have enough room for the expansion of computer Labs? Q2-8 Are you aware of the actual cost of setting up a computer Lab? Q2-9 What is the ratio of students-to-computers in your school? Q3 -1 Is there any policy document guiding the adoption of ICT in the school? Q3-2 What is your primary focus in terms of ICT? Q3-3 What prompted ICT integration in your school? Q3-4 What are your sources of funding for ICT? Q3-5 What are the school’s ICT priorities during the next 3 years? (Choose from the List) Getting more computers - Training Teachers (basic ICT skills)- Training teaching on how to use ICT in teaching - Content production - Getting more specialized hardware and software - Getting an Internet Access - Networking the school - Providing computers for administration - Providing computers for Teachers - Drafting a policy document on ICT in the school- Others Q3-6 What are your major concerns experienced when integrating ICT in school? (Choose from the list) Lack of Infrastructure- Inadequate infrastructure- Lack of teacher’s training- Cost of Maintenance- Lack of
support- Lack of integration plan - Lack of funds to carry out integration – others Q3-7 Do you know what is required for an ICT integration plan? Q3-8 Are you computer literate? Q3-9 Have you received any formal computer training?
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APPENDIX 4.C ICT CO-ORDINATOR’S INTERVIEWS
ICT CO-ORDINATOR’S INTERVIEW
This questionnaire is divided into six Sub-sections:
Section 1: Personal information Section 2: Computer Access Section 3: Internet Access Section 4: Human Resources Section 5: The Curriculum Section 6: Training Please answer all the following questions.
I. PERSONAL INFORMATION
Key Description Question Type Q1-1 To which school do you belong? ⃝ Lycée Classique de Bafang (1) ⃝ Lycée Bilingue de Baham (2) ⃝ Lycée de Bayangam (3) ⃝ Lycée Classique de Bangangté (4)
⃝ Lycée Classique de Dschang (5) ⃝ St Thomas d’Acquin de Bafoussam (6) Q1-2 What are your functions in school? ⃝ Teaching computers (1) ⃝Managing the computer Lab(2) ⃝ Head of division (3) ⃝Teacher (4)
⃝Academic support(5)
II. COMPUTER ACCESS
Q2-1 Do you have one or more computer Labs? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-2 If YES to Q2-1, What are the dimensions of your Lab? ⃝ Less than 50 square metres (1) ⃝ 50 -100 square meter (2)
Q2-3 What is the most current use of the Lab?
⃝ Practical and classes (1) ⃝ Cyberspace (2) ⃝ Other training (3) Q2-4 How many computers are there in the Lab? Q2-5 What are the specifications of your computers? ⃝ Less than Pentium 2 (1) ⃝ Pentium 4 or equivalent (4) ⃝ Pentium 2 or equivalent (2) ⃝ Intel Core 2 duo processors (5)
⃝ Pentium 3 or equivalent (3) ⃝ Most recent processors (6) Q2-6 What additional hardware do you have? ⃝ Laser Printer (1) ⃝ Digital Interactive boards(6) ⃝ Inkjet Printer (2) ⃝ Scanner (7) ⃝ CD Writer (3) ⃝ Photocopier (8) ⃝ Retro projector (4) ⃝ Laminating Machine (9) ⃝ Video Projector(5) Q2-7 What computer accessories do you have? ⃝ Printing Paper (1) ⃝ Floppy Disk (4) ⃝ Ink cartridge /toner (2) ⃝ USB memory (5)
⃝ Blank CDs/DVDs (3) ⃝ Folders(6)
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Q2-8 Are your computers connected to a Network? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-9 If No to Q2-8, what are the reasons? (Tick all that applies)
⃝ Lack of funds(1) ⃝ Lack of expertise (2) ⃝ under consideration(3) ⃝ What is a network used for? (4) Q2-10 What software resources do you have? (tick all that applies) ⃝ Office suite(1) ⃝ Digital Encyclopaedia (2) ⃝ Tutorials (3) ⃝ Educational software (4) ⃝ Simulation tools(5) ⃝ Digital Library access (6) ⃝ CD/DVD, Video & Audio (7) ⃝ Interactive Games (8) Q2-11 Do you have Licences for the software above? ⃝ Yes all licences (1) ⃝ YES but only a few (2) ⃝ NO, no license at all (3) ⃝ We only use Freeware (4) ⃝ Technicians never told us about Licences (4) Q2-13 Do you have an Internet connection? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-14 If YES to Q2-13, what type of Internet Connection is that? ⃝ ADSL (1) ⃝ VSAT (2) ⃝ Radio /Wireless (3) ⃝ Dial up (4)
⃝ Others (5) Q2-15 Do you have a Website? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
III. ACCESS TO INTERNET
Q3-1 How is computer maintenance carried out? ⃝ Systematic by private company (1) ⃝ curative by school personnel (4) ⃝ Systematic by school personnel (2) ⃝ No specific type of maintenance (5)
⃝ curative by private company (3) Q3-2 What is your level of satisfaction with the present type of maintenance?
⃝ Very satisfied (1) ⃝ Not satisfied (3) ⃝ Satisfied (2) ⃝ very ineffective(4) Q3-3 What is the percentage of working computers compared with the initial number? ⃝ Less than 10%(1) ⃝ Between 51 – 75% (4) ⃝ Between 10 and 25%(2) ⃝ More than 75% (5) ⃝ Between 26 and 50% (3) Q3-4 What are the most recurring problems? (Tick all that applies)
⃝ Internet connection(1) ⃝ Operating systems (2) ⃝ Viruses (3) ⃝ Application Software (4) ⃝ Network connection (5) ⃝ Hard drives (6)
⃝ Memories (7) ⃝ Power Supply (8) ⃝ Keyboard/Mouse (9) ⃝ Others (10) Q3-5 Do you have a maintenance budget? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2) Q3-6 How do you think maintenance could be improved?
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IV. Human Resources
Q4-1 How many staff are trained to use ICT?
Q4-2 How many staff are trained in computer maintenance?
Q4-3 How many staff are trained to browse the Internet? Q4-4 Do you have any staff in charge of ICT?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q4-5 If YES to Q4-4, what is his level of study? ⃝ Secondary School(1), ⃝ University Diploma (4), ⃝ GCE (2), ⃝ First Degree (5)
⃝ GCE + IT Experience (3), ⃝ Engineer or more (6) Q4-6 Have you recently held any ICT training session for your staff? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q4-7 If YES to Q4-6, what was the training about? ⃝ Basic ICT training (1), ⃝ ICT use in specific subjects (5), ⃝ Basic Office training (2), ⃝ Using a school management tool (6), ⃝ Educational Software (3), ⃝ Creating and using Email (7), ⃝ Web Browsing for information (4), ⃝ Others (8) Q4-8 How many Computer teachers do you have? Q4-9 How many of them are temporary staff members? Q4-10 How many are permanent staff members? Q4-11 How many of them teach other subjects as well?
V. THE CURRICULUM
Q5-1 The official curriculum is too old to be implemented ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-2 There are no teaching resources for the official curriculum ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-3 The official curriculum is still elective and each teacher gives what he finds right ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-4 The content of the official curriculum does not match our daily expectations
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-5 Temporary teachers do not have the required pedagogy to teach the curriculum
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⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-6 The curriculum should be based on basic IT skills ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-7 The curriculum should include advanced concepts in computing
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-8 The curriculum is too complex to be generalised ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ Neutral (3),
VI. TRAINING
Q6-2 Have you attended a formal computer training course?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q6-3 If Yes to Q6.2, under which initiative? ⃝ Self sponsored (1) ⃝ Sponsored by a private body (4) ⃝ Sponsored by the school (2) ⃝ Others (5)
⃝ Sponsored by MINESEC (3) Q6-4 What are your expectations from the school with regard to ICT?
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APPENDIX 4.D TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire is divided into six sub-sections:
Section 1: Personal information Section 2: Computer Access Section 3: Internet Access Section 4: What you think about computers Section 5: Your view on the use of ICT in school Section 6: Your use of ICT Please answer all the following questions.
I. PERSONAL INFORMATION
Key Description Question Type Q1-1 What is your Gender? ⃝MALE(1), ⃝FEMALE(2)
Q1-2 In which school do you teach? ⃝ Lycée Classique de Bafang (1) ⃝ Lycée Bilingue de Baham (2) ⃝Lycée Classique de Bangangté (3) ⃝ Lycée de Bayangam (4)
⃝ Lycée Classique de Dschang (5) ⃝ St Thomas d’Acquin de Bafoussam (6) Q1-3 How long have you been teaching? ⃝ 0 - 1 YEAR (1) ⃝2 - 5 YEARS (2) ⃝6 - 10 YEARS (3) 11 - 15 YEARS (4) ⃝ ⃝+ 15 YEARS (5) Q1-4 What is your Age Range? ⃝21 - 25 YEARS (1) ⃝26 - 30 YEARS (2) ⃝31 - 35 YEARS (3) ⃝36 - 40 YEARS (4)
⃝+ 41 YEARS (5) Q1-5 What type of subject do you teach? ⃝ SCIENTIFIC (Maths, Physics, etc.) (1) ⃝ ARTS (History, Languages, Geography, etc.) (2) ⃝ INFORMATIQUE (3)
II. COMPUTER ACCESS
Q2-1 Do you know how to use a computer? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-2 If NO to Q2-1, what are the reasons? ⃝ Lack of skills (1), ⃝ Lack of interest (2), ⃝ Lack of time (3), ⃝ Lack of funds for training(4),
⃝ Lack of infrastructure (5), ⃝ No computers in schools (6) Q2-3 If YES to Q2-1, for how long have you been doing so?
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⃝ 0 - 1 YEAR (1) ⃝ 2 - 5 YEARS (2) ⃝ 6 - 10 YEARS (3) ⃝ 11 - 15 YEARS (4)
⃝ + 15 YEARS (5)
Q2-4 Do you own a computer at home?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-5 Do you have access to computers in school? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-6 If YES to Q2-5, at what frequency? ⃝ Very rarely (1) ⃝ Many times a week (4) ⃝ Once a week (2) ⃝ Every day (5)
⃝ Once to twice a week (3) ⃝ At will (6) Q2-7 Do you use ICT in teaching? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-8 If YES to Q2-7, what Technologies? (tick all that applies)
⃝ Tutorials(1) ⃝ Scanner (2) ⃝ Retro/Video projector (3) ⃝ CD ROMS (4) ⃝ Digital Interactive boards (5) ⃝ Digital Camera (6)
⃝ Video Conference (7), ⃝ CD Writers (8) ⃝ Printers (9), ⃝ USB Memory (10)
Q2-9 If No to Q2-7, What are the reasons? (Tick all that applies)
⃝ They are non-existent(1) ⃝ inaccessible (2) ⃝ I don’t know their utility (3) ⃝ Not skilled enough (4) ⃝ lack of technical support (5) ⃝ Lack of time (6) ⃝ Others (7)
Q2-10 Do you use the following resources for teaching? (Tick all that applies)
⃝ Word-processing tools(1) ⃝ Spreadsheets (2) ⃝ Educational software (3) ⃝ Simulation tools (4)
⃝ Digital Encyclopaedia (5) ⃝ Others (6)
Q2-11 For what purpose are you using these resources? (Tick all that applies)
⃝ Personal Use (1) ⃝ Preparing classes, teaching (2) ⃝ Administrative (marks, reports) (3) ⃝ Others (4)
Q2-12 If you are not using any of the resources above, state why? (Tick all that applies)
⃝ They are not available (1) ⃝ inaccessible when in need (2) ⃝ Not skilled enough (3) ⃝ Not quite adequate (4) ⃝ Quite expensive (5) ⃝ lack of technical support (6) ⃝ Lack of time (7) ⃝ Others (8) III. ACCESS TO INTERNET
Q3-1 Do you have access to the Internet?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
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Q3-2 If YES to Q3-1, where do you access the Internet? ⃝ Home (1) ⃝ Friends’ (4) ⃝ School (2) ⃝ Mobile phone (5)
⃝ Cybercafés (3) Q3-3 For what purpose are you accessing the Internet? (Tick all that applies) ⃝ Email (1) ⃝ Searching for teaching resources (2) ⃝ News (3) ⃝ Class preparation (4) ⃝ Collaboration with teachers (5) ⃝ Distance Learning (6) ⃝ Entertainment (7) ⃝ Communication (Telephony, chat, etc.) (8) ⃝ Others (9) Q3-4 If NO to Q3.1, For what reasons? (Tick all that applies) ⃝ No Internet in school(1) ⃝ Lack of funds (2) ⃝ Lack of Interest (3) ⃝ Too expensive for its use (4) ⃝ too expensive from home (5) ⃝ Lack of time (6) ⃝ Willing to, but don’t know how (7)
IV. WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT COMPUTERS
Q4-1 Computers could make my work easier! ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-2 Computers could help find useful resources for teaching.
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-3 I find them more useful for tasks not related to my work ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-4 They are useful, but we do not have any access
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-5 Students would learn better using computers ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-6 I am not skilled enough to use computers
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ ⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-7 They create an additional workload for teachers
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⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-8 Too much information, so that we do not know what to choose.
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ ⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-9 They imply a new pedagogical approach
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ ⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-10 They will distract students
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-11 We lack support to use them ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-12 Knowing how to use computers is useful ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-13 I feel hostile and aggressive towards computers
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-14 I am not so sure of being able to use computers
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-15 I am not interested in problem-solving using computers ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-16 Learning to use computers will be difficult for me ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-17 I need to master computers for the future of my job ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ ⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-18 I am too old to learn about computers
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⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-19 I do not see how computers will be useful for my job ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q4-20 I am not comfortable when my colleagues speak about learning to use computers ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3),
YOUR VIEW ON THE USE OF ICT IN SCHOOL
Q5-1 There are not enough computers for the students
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-2 I need to receive proper training to be able to use ICT in teaching ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-3 We do not have an adequate infrastructure for ICT to be used in teaching ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-4 I will use ICT in teaching if the appropriate administrative support is provided
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-5 I will use ICT in teaching if the appropriate technical support is provided
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-6 We do not know what it takes to use ICT in teaching ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-7 We need adequate teaching and learning resources from the MINESEC
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-8 We need ready-made digital content to be able to use ICT in teaching
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⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-9 We would need a reduction of our daily workload to be able to use ICT in teaching
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-10 We need a financial reward from the school to use ICT in teaching ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-11 I would have used ICT if I were teaching a different subject ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-12 School authorities are not too committed towards ICT.
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-13 I will use ICT in teaching if online resources were more appropriate
⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), Strongly Disagree (5) ⃝ ⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-14 I would use ICT if our efforts were well rewarded ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3), Q5-15 I would use ICT if the MINESEC made provision for rewards for ICT usage in teaching ⃝ Strongly Agree (1), ⃝ Disagree (4), ⃝ Agree(2), ⃝ Strongly Disagree (5)
⃝ Neutral (3),
V. USE OF ICT
Q6-2 Have you attended a formal computer training course?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q6-3 If Yes to Q6.2, under which initiative? ⃝ Self-sponsored (1) ⃝ Sponsored by a private body (4) ⃝ Sponsored by the school (2) ⃝ Others (5)
⃝ Sponsored by MINESEC (3) Q6-4 What are your expectations from the school with regard to ICT?
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APPENDIX 4.E STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire is divided into three Sub-sections:
Section 1: Personal information Section 2: Computer Access Section 3: Your use of ICT Please answer all the following questions
I. PERSONAL INFORMATION
Key Description Question Type Q1-1 What is your Gender? ⃝MALE(1), ⃝FEMALE(2)
Q1-2 In which Grade are you?
⃝Junior Level (1), ⃝Senior Level (2)
Q1-3 What is the name of your school?
⃝ Lycée Classique de Bafang (1) ⃝ Lycée Bilingue de Baham (2) ⃝Lycée de Bayangam (3) ⃝ Lycée Classique de Bangangté (4)
⃝ Lycée Classique de Dschang (5) ⃝ St Thomas d’Acquin de Bafoussam (6)
II. ACCESS TO COMPUTERS
Q2-1 Do you have access to computers in school?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ YES (1)
Q2-2 If YES to Q2-1, at what frequency? ⃝ Every day (1) ⃝ A few times a month (4) ⃝ A few times a week (2) ⃝ Once a month(5)
⃝ Once a week (3) Q2-3 If NO to Q2-1, What are the reasons?
⃝ Lack of skills (1), ⃝ Lack of interest (2), ⃝ Lack of time (3), ⃝ Lack of infrastructure (4),
⃝ School does not grant access(5), ⃝ Others (6)
Q2-4 Do you have access to computers at home?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ YES (1)
Q2-5 Do you have access to computers outside the school or home?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ YES (1)
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Q2-6 If YES to Q2-5, please choose all that applies from the following places ⃝ Cybercafés (1) ⃝ Friends’ (2)
⃝ Private Institute (3) ⃝ Others (4) Q2-7 Do you use the Internet in school? ⃝ No Internet in school(1) ⃝ Very rarely (2) ⃝ Sometimes (3) ⃝ Only during class periods (4) ⃝ Very often (5) ⃝ At will (6) Q2-8 Do you have an E-mail account?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-9 If YES to Q2-8, where do you read your mails from? (Tick all that applies) ⃝ Home (1) ⃝ Friends’ (4) ⃝ School (2) ⃝ Mobile phone (5) ⃝ Cybercafés (3) Q2-10 What is your primary activity on the Internet? ⃝ E-mail (1) ⃝ Chat (2) ⃝ Searching for information (3) ⃝ Facebook /Hi5, etc.(4) ⃝ Online Games (5) ⃝ Training and course materials (6) Q2-11 Do you have a Cellphone?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-12 If YES to Q2-11, for what purpose do you use your cell phone? (Tick all that applies) ⃝ Calls (1) ⃝ Internet (2) ⃝ Music and Videos (3) ⃝ Photos (4) ⃝ Recording (5) ⃝ Data Storage (6) Q2-13 Do you have a USB flash?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q2-14 If YES to Q2-13, for what purpose? (Tick all that applies) ⃝ Save and copy music (1) ⃝ Store course materials and assignment (2) ⃝ Data transfer only (3) ⃝ Listening to music (4) ⃝ Internet Downloads (5) ⃝ Others (6)
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III. USE OF COMPUTERS
Q3-1 Where did you use computers for the first time?
⃝ Home (1) ⃝ Friends’ (4) ⃝ School (2) ⃝ Mobile phone (5)
⃝ Cybercafés (3)
Q3-2 Do you have a computer Laboratory in school?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q3-3 For what primary reason do you use a computer? ⃝ Learning tool (1) ⃝ Internet (Email, chat) (2) ⃝ Research Tool (3) ⃝ Entertainment (Music, films) (4)
⃝ Games (5) ⃝ Others (6) Q3-4 Is Computers a compulsory subject in your school? ⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q3-5 Do you share your computer with other students during classes?
⃝ YES (1) ⃝ NO (2)
Q3-6 If YES to Q3-5, how many are you when sharing?
⃝ 1 (1) ⃝ 2 (2) ⃝ 3 (3) ⃝ 4 (4)
⃝ 5 (5) ⃝ 6 (6) ⃝ 7 (7) ⃝ 8 (8)
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