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Making the Fascist State

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MAKING THE FASCIST STATE HERBERT W. SCHNEIDER NEW YORK OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY MCMXXVIlI Fortune, being a woman, is always a lover of young men, for they are less cautious, more violent, and with more audacity command her. (Machiavelli: The Prince. Ch. xxv.) COPYRIGHT, 1928, BY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW YORK, INC. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA FOREWORD THIS book is the result of studies carried on in Italy during 1926-7 when I was a Fellow of the National Social Science Research Council. The generosity of this Council and the kindly interest of its President, Professor Charles E. Merriam, have made this work possible. My guiding aim in this study was to investigate the construction of fascist theories in terms of the varying practical situations into which the movement was forced by dint of circumstances. The fascist mind and imagination hold the foreground of this picture, while enough of the political history and economic problems of the movement is brought into the background to make clear how the fascisti intended their ideas to be applied. The interaction between fact and philosophic fiction, between practical exigencies and social theories, between mind and body, forms the dominant theme of the following interpretation of fascism. To the practical politicians both within and without the move- ment the greater part of this ideology is mere froth. But to the student of the workings of the human mind such froth is not negligible. Philos- ophies may not reveal the ultimate and universal nature of things, nor are they prime movers; but they are significant symptoms of social pathology and entertaining forms of human energy. I make this ex- plicit statement here of my method, to save the reader the trouble of discovering for himself that this book is intended as both more and less than a history of fascism; it is a laboratory study of the mind and imagination at work. I have been helped more than I can well express by distinguished Italians, by ex-ministers, senators and many others actively engaged in politics, whom I should like to name here, were it prudent under the present political circumstances to do so. But in order not to repay their kindness by causing them embarrassment, I content myself with ac- knowledging my indebtedness to them collectively. I wish to express my appreciation to various fascist officials, to librarians, to university administrators, and to Italians generally, for their courteous and hos- pitable treatment of an inquisitive stranger. To my colleagues, Professors John Dewey, John J. Coss and Dino Bigongiari, I am indebted for their encouragement, advice and criti- cism. To Carol Smith Schneider, who has written and rewritten all of this many times, and who has seen the manuscript through its many stages and vicissitudes, the reader owes more than he realizes, and I more than I can say. H.. W. S. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY MAY 1928. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I WAR AND EMPIRE.......................................................................... 1 I. INTERVENTIONISM. Nationalism or imperialism: the dilemma of Italian pre-war foreign policy (i); The Tripoli War of 1911 (2); The New Italy (3); The philosophy of the Nationalists (4); Patriotic socialist opposition to imperialism (6); In- terventionists (7); Mussolini bolts (8); Il Popolo d'ltalia (10); Fasci d'azione rivoluzionaria (13). Il. DOWN WITH PARLIAMENT. Impatience (15); War Discipline (15). IlI. IMPERIAL ROME. Victorious Italy (17); The great humiliation (17); The War Party saves its face (19); The Moral Primacy of Italy (20); Nationalist recovery (24); The New Roman Empire (25). IV. FASCIST FOREIGN POLICY. The Prime Minister's first concern (27); The League of Plutocratic Nations (28); Sea power (30); East versus West (30); The Latin versus the Anglo-Saxon world (30); France, the arch- enemy (33); The Balkan game (34); Expand or explode (35); International morality (37); The heroic people (39). CHAPTER Il REVOLUTIONS..................................................................................... 42 I. SQUADRISM. Agrarian socialism (42); Aftermath of the War (43); Violent defense (44); Reds versus Blacks (45); Puni- tive expeditions (46); Government neutrality (46). Il. LOCAL COLOR. Romagna (47); Bologna (47); Ferrara (48); Cre- mona (49); Italia redenta (50); Florence (50); Siena (52); Perugia (52); The South (54). IlI. MILAN FASCISM. Young intellectuals (55); Futurist fasci (55); The first fascio di combattimento (56); Mussolini, 1919 (56); The Program of 19199 (58); Defeat (61); Factory occupation (61). IV. WAR ON BOLSHEVISM. Some battles (64); Mussolini, 1920 (66); Marinetti bolts (67); Political gypsies (6y); Fiume (68). V. THE FASCIST PARTY. Beginnings of the hierarchy (68); * Figures in parentheses represent page folios in the text, VIlI The political game (70); In Parliament (71); The Gentle- man of the Right (72); The republican urge (73); The Pact of Pacification (74); The National Fascist Party (75); The Militia (78); Rest and restiveness (79). VI. THE FASCIST REVOLUTION. Parliamentary crisis (79); Fascist demands (80); The March on Rome (81); Afterthoughts (82). CHAPTER IlI THE FASCIST STATE ......................................................................... 85 I. MUSSOLINI AND HIS PARLIAMENT. The Coalition Cabinet (85); Mussolini introduces himself (86); Favorably impressed (86); Fascist coalition (87); Electoral reform (88); The plebiscite (89); Parliament functions (90); Fatherly advice (91); Murder (91); The Aventine secession (92); Fascism stands alone (93); Constitutional reform (94); War on the Aventine (95); War on the press (95); War on Masonry (96); Squadrist warfare (97); The opposition vanishes (97); The Rump functions admirably (98). Il. FOUNDATIONS OF THE FASCIST STATE. Judicial reform (99); Reform of the bureaucracy (99); The work of the " Solons " (99); Executive power (100); Local administration (100). IlI. THE THEORY OF THE FASCIST STATE. Democracy, Italy's scapegoat (101); Nationalist theory (102); Idealist theory (105); Machiavel- lian theory (no); The up-to-date state (112). IV. THE FAS- CISTI IN THEIR STATE. The rush for the band-wagon (113); The Old Guard (114); Mussolinism (115); The Prime Minis- ter (116); The dark interior (116); Dissidence (117); The case of Misuri (118); The National F as ci (119); Integralism and revisionism (121); The case of Rocca (122); Tinkering with the machine (124); Internal friction (124); The Mus- solini myth (125); The crisis (126); Penitence (126); In- transigence (127); The new intransigence (128); The new Constitution of the Party (129); The Party turns school- master (131); Doubts (131); Educational rotation of offices (132); The irreconcilables reconciled (133); More giovinezza (133); The Militia (134). CHAPTER IV SYNDICALISM AND THE CORPORATE STATE ........................... 138 1. THE CONVERGENCE OF SYNDICALISM AND NATIONALISM. The syndicalist revolt against bourgeois socialism (139); Revo- lutionary wars (140); The growth of national syndicates IX (142); Syndicalistic nationalists: d'Annunzio (145); Fascism the synthesis (146). Il. THE RECONSTRUCTION OF SYN- DICALIST THEORIES. The discovery of new origins (148); A suitable metaphysics (151); Nations and classes: proletarian Italy (152); Class struggles (154); Proletarian aristocracy (156); Citizens versus producers (158); Syndical society and the sovereign state (160); Gruppi di competenza (162); Other groups (163). IlI. THE CRISIS. Towards syndicate monopoly (165); The Party and the Corporations (166); De Stefani's liberalism (167); The Right Wing (169); The agriculturalists balk (170); The industrialists force a com- promise (171); Labor retaliates (172). IV. REFORM. The Reform Commission (174); The Pact of the Vidoni Palace (177); The new Constitution (178). V. THE CORPORATE STATE. Interpreting the Constitution (190); New Rules and Regulations (191); The Ministry of Corporations (193); The Magna Charta of Labor (196); Syndicalism versus Cor- porationism (200); Economic representation (201); Syn- dical democracy or fascism (203); The strong state (207); Some socialists explain (212). CHAPTER V FASCIST CULTURE.............................................................................. 215 I. FASCISM AND CULTURE. Il. FASCIST RELIGION. The Catholic Italian people (216); The bourgeois Italian state (217); The Catholic invasion of the state (217); The fascist attack (217); Fascist repentance (218); New friends in an old harmony (218); Fascist spiritual ambitions (220); The Catholic state (221); Religious education (221); Fascist rites and ritual (222); Rival suitors of youth (223); Saint Francis and Mussolini (224); Fascist religion in the making (226); Saint Benito (227); Fascist myth (228). IlI. FASCIST INTELLECT. Anti-philosophy (230); The old intellectualism (231); Signs of revolt (231); Futurist revolt (232); The revolt of youth (234); Educational reform (235); Journalist intellect (237); Suckert (238); Volt (Count Vincenzo Fani) (239); Rocca (239); Pellizzi (240); And others (241). IV. FASCIST ART. Futurism (242); Vocism (243); D'Annun- zio (244); Discouraged artists (245); Mussolini comes out for art (245); Fascist works of art (246). V. FASCIST MORALS. The supposed unity of fascist culture (247); Fascist char- acter (248); Sport (248); The well-ordered life (249); Giovinezza (250); Aristocracy (251); The heroic breed (252). X APPENDIX SELECTIONS FROM FASCIST LITERATURE AND DOCUMENTS OF FASCIST HISTORY PART I THE WAR PARTY, I. Mussolini makes a start
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    Dimenticare il «Balkan» 7 Dimenticare il «Balkan». La distruzione del Narodni Dom di Trieste nelle rielaborazioni fasciste (1921-1941)1 di Matteo Di Figlia Abstract – The omission of «Balkan». The Narodni Dom destruction in Trieste in the fas- cist revision On July 13th 1920, in Trieste, the fascists destroyed a building known as «Balkan», an outpost of the Slovenian community. This essay studies the symbolic legacy of that assault, as it was one of the first fascist squads actions in Italy. The memory of the «Balkan» is analysed through its connections with important squads leaders’ careers, the effects of Trieste’s urban expansion and the fascist cult of the fallen «squadristi». The timeline of this study stretches until the Second World War, when the fascists attack on the Slovenian and Croatian population hit a new peak. Key words: Fascism, Hotel Balkan, Narodni Dom, Memory of squadrism. Parole chiave: Fascism, Hotel Balkan, Narodni Dom, Memoria dello squadrismo. Introduzione Questo saggio trae origine da una ricerca sul modo in cui lo squadrismo sviluppatosi tra il 1919 e il 1922 venne raccontato dai fascisti dopo la conquista del potere2. Inol- tre, cerco di studiare le rievocazioni di alcuni momenti salienti della lotta squadrista. Concentro l’attenzione sulla memoria dell’assalto alla sede de «L’Avanti» verificatosi a Milano il 15 aprile 1919, della distruzione Narodni Dom (la Casa nazionale slovena) di Trieste del luglio 1920, della strage di Palazzo d’Accursio consumatasi a Bologna il 21 novembre successivo, dell’uccisione del fiorentino Giovanni Berta, ammazzato il 28 febbraio 1921, e della strage di Sarzana del 21 luglio dello stesso anno.
  • Uva-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)

    Uva-DARE (Digital Academic Repository)

    UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Cultural promotion and imperialism: the Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council contesting the Mediterranean in the 1930s van Kessel, T.M.C. Publication date 2011 Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): van Kessel, T. M. C. (2011). Cultural promotion and imperialism: the Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council contesting the Mediterranean in the 1930s. General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:30 Sep 2021 CHAPTER 2 THE DANTE ALIGHIERI SOCIETY AND THE BRITISH COUNCIL: THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE STATE This chapter takes a closer look at how the Dante Alighieri Society and the British Council were organized in the 1930s. Far from providing an exhaustive and detailed description of the administrative and operational structure of the two organizations, the aim is to concentrate on two particular aspects.