I the EMBEDMENT of ISLAMIC CULTURES

THE EMBEDMENT OF ISLAMIC CULTURES: AN ANALYSIS OF ISLAMIC, CULTURAL, AND POLITICAL PRACTICES IN MALAYSIA WAN NORSHIRA BINTI WAN MOHD GHAZALI A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. October 2016 i This work is the intellectual property of the author (Note: if there are other owners of the IP, as a consequence of any statement issued under paragraph 12 of Section 14A, they must also be named here). You may copy up to 5% of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner(s) of the Intellectual Property Rights. ii ABSTRACT This research examines the entrenchment of Islamic cultures in Malaysia’s political system and society. The study contends that the state is involved directly in the composition of cultures through its power structure. The study begins with an initial question of ‘how Islamic ideology has been embedded in the socio-political context’. As Islam is not the only practising religion; another question to be explored is ‘what interpretation do people give to the construction and practices of Islam’. With the aim to extend the current research treatment of Malaysia’s Islamic revivalism and Islamisation project, this study focuses on the cultural implications and experiences of Islam. Since most research deals with the broader role of Islam in Malaysian politics, the cultural implications and experiences of the religion in society has not been specifically or substantively addressed and has led to the peripheral notion of Islam. This study uses an individual interview approach and focus group discussions on exploring the experiences of the research participants with regard to the phenomenon under investigation. Participants from three categories – government authority, media practitioner, and ordinary people – were approached with the general assumption that they could provide from general to specific information related to the key research questions. An abbreviated version of grounded theory using a constructivist-interpretivist paradigm is adopted to explore the lived experiences of individuals who witness, experience, and involve in the ways in which Islam has been constructed, preserved, contested, or resisted in the society. Based on the framework built from the grounded theory analysis, the research shows Islam as one of the ideological hegemony that strengthens the state’s power in governing Malaysian society. In so doing, the state assembles many important institutions and mobilises them as its cultural producers to shape the understanding and practice of Islam at the political level. The study also reveals, when religious consciousness has increased, the Islamisation projects are no longer a mere political rivalry and state’s manipulation of power but more towards fulfilling the community’s need for stronger Islam. From Gramscian notion, the state promotes values that are in congruence with the people’s interest to retain its hegemony. This has moulded the culture and lifestyle of the Muslim in Malaysia through the visibility of Islamic practices as compared to other religions. However, it is learned from the data, some Islamic rules and practices have put ethnic relations into complex situations. The identification of Malay and Islam has led to the portrayal of other ethnic groups as the ‘other’. Too much emphasis on Islam (us) has side-lined other religious practices (other). In conclusion, these results negate the view that Islam holds a subservient position as claimed by a few studies. Finally, the research suggests other areas that could be explored using the same framework. iii DEDICATION To my parents, husband, and children iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In the name of Allah the Compassionate the Merciful The continuous support and contributions by many individuals during my study at the Nottingham Trent University have assisted the successful production of this work. I wish to convey my profound appreciation and gratefulness to my supervisory team, Dr. Olga Bailey and Dr. Shaun McMann for their endless guidance throughout the years I have been working on this research. Their insightful scholarship was instrumental in assisting the production of this work into its final form. Many thanks to International Islamic University Malaysia and the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia for awarding me a scholarship and study leave at the Nottingham Trent University to enable me to conduct this research for my Ph.D. To the people who participated in this research, thank you for all the stories and thoughts that were shared. I am greatly thankful for your interest in this study. My special thanks go to my husband, Mohd Bukhari, for the sacrifices he has made, leaving his work for three years to accompany me in this journey and for his moral support. Your patience in taking care of our beautiful children and in helping me out with house chores is priceless. Thank you for your unwavering love and faith. To my children, Harraz, Hamra, and Habib, thank you for being part of this challenging battle. Your presence has got me going even after several daunting moments. My appreciation also goes to my parents, Hajjah Zaliha Abdul Rahman and Haji Wan Mohd Ghazali Mohamed for their endless dua’ for my success in the academic undertakings and financial help during the final months of my study in Nottingham. I’m forever indebted for your love and kindness. My sincere thanks are also due to all my circle of friends and my Ph.D. girls – thank you for the friendship, support, and laughter. This journey would have never been easy without your constant encouragement and words of wisdom to keep me going. To Fawz, you have been such a wonderful listener and a good advisor. To Farah, thank you for sharing your knowledge in pushing me to get my data analysis going. To Nouf, Dzuhaidah, and Zera, the sharing moments that we had when I was in an v uncertainty are meaningful to me. Thank you to Eman, for everything. You have been my buddy during our Ph.D. journey and countless coffee breaks. Finally, I would also like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to the Nottingham Malaysian Community members for making me feel at home all the time. May all of you be granted success in your future endeavours. My warm prayers also go to all people who have made prayers for my accomplishment in my Ph.D. journey. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................... III DEDICATION ....................................................................................... IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................... V TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................... VII LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ................................................... XII GLOSSARY ........................................................................................ XIII CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 14 1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 14 1.1 ISLAM AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON ....................................................... 15 1.2 RESEARCH RATIONALE ......................................................................... 20 1.3 RESEARCH AIMS ................................................................................... 22 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ......................................................................... 24 1.5 RESEARCH SCOPE AND LIMITATION ...................................................... 25 1.6 THESIS STRUCTURE ............................................................................... 27 CHAPTER 2: SETTING THE CONTEXT – THE BACKGROUND OF MALAYSIA ..................................................................................... 31 2.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 31 2.1 POST-COLONIAL MALAYSIA ................................................................. 32 2.2 THE POLITICS OF ETHNICITY AND INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS .............. 35 2.3 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF MALAYSIA’S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND POLITICS ............................................................................................... 40 2.4 ISLAM AND ISLAMISATION PROGRAMME IN MALAYSIA ........................ 48 2.5 MEDIA STRUCTURE IN MALAYSIA ........................................................ 53 2.5.1 Media ownership .......................................................................... 56 2.5.2 Alternative media ......................................................................... 60 2.6 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 66 vii CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .............................. 69 3.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 69 3.1 RELIGION AS A CULTURAL FORM .......................................................... 71 3.2 CULTURE, POWER, AND THE STATE ...................................................... 72 3.3 EMBRACING ISLAM AS THE STATE IDEOLOGY ....................................... 81 3.4 HEGEMONY AND POWER

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