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Crisis of Meanings in the Oceans: Experiences from Victoria, Australia

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Crisis of Meanings in the Oceans: Experiences from Victoria, Australia Between the devil and the deep blue sea – Negotiating ambiguous physical and social boundaries within the shark fishing industry of Bass Strait, Australia. Tanya J King Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2006 School of Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies University of Melbourne ii This thesis addresses questions of identity and ontological legitimacy within the commercial shark fishing community of Bass Strait, Australia. I consider the implications of competing discourses for the integrity of fisher identity, environmental conservation and public narratives on environmental ‘crises’. I draw upon ethnographic material developed with commercial fishers and, to a lesser extent, fisheries ‘experts’, to explore ambiguities in understandings of individuality and perceptions of the marine environment. Informing this analysis are theories of practice, particularly notions of embodied relationships and knowledge, the role of ‘luck’ in enabling a particular expression of ‘individuality’, the ‘skipper effect’, a consideration of nation-state sanctioned and popular media representations of the environment, and the peculiarly Australian experience and representation of individuality, both as performance and as trope. These themes are considered against a backdrop of the physical and social activities involved in commercial fishing, and the 2001 nation-state-initiated introduction of an Individual Transferable Quota management system. A thematic link throughout the thesis is the role played by perceived boundaries in physical and social environments. I describe how commercial shark fishers and fisheries ‘experts’ encounter boundaries, and how they are strategically created, dissolved, enforced and ignored in the realisation of agency. The demarcations which are particularly salient in the range of contexts considered are those which bound the ‘individual’, and those which distinguish between human and non- human environments. While small-scale fishers explicitly venerate ‘individuality’, the productive reality demands a level of cooperation. Many Australian commercial shark fishers ‘pick partners’ in order to locate and track fish, while attempting to maintain enough secrecy so that shoals are not iii shared among so many boats as to be economically unviable. By strategically claiming individuality, fishers are tactfully and legitimately able to withdraw from particular partnerships, freeing them to invest in alternative relationships. Within a community of like-minded others, it is precisely the ambiguity of inter-personal boundaries that facilitates the agency of fishers, enabling them to variously privilege individuality or sociality as the productive context demands. The paradox between professed individuality and serial cooperation has been addressed in the Australian context through descriptions of ‘mateship’ as a trope for rendering ambiguity innocuous. In emic narratives on individual success, Australian and international small- scale fishers often refer to ‘luck’ rather than to collectively enabled performance. In etic depictions of individual fishing success also, most notably in the ‘skipper effect’ literature, anthropologists have referred to ‘luck’ in contexts where a consideration of collective activity might have yielded a more accurate explanation of individual success. While ‘individuality’ is a vital component of small-scale fisher identity, it necessarily operates as a component of sociality. Though fisheries ‘experts’ also negotiate ambiguous boundaries strategically, their interpretive licence is restricted by the rigidity of the parameters they encounter as agents of the nation-state: as civil- servants. The context of their experience is vastly different to that typically encountered by fishers. Centralised bureaucratic management systems rigidly define the ocean, commercial fishers and civil-servants according to criteria that tends to be generic, demonstrable, replicable and quantifiable. From a nation-state perspective, those features which are salient to the management of commercial fishing are different to those perceived by commercial fishers themselves. As nation-state authority affords ontological legitimacy to bureaucratic decrees on ‘the iv marine environment’, fishers are increasingly compelled to defer to the authority of this tangible domain in their role as ‘citizen’. In the process, however, the ambiguity of various boundaries is compromised and the efficacy of fisher ‘individuality’ is attenuated. These groupings – commercial fishers and fisheries ‘experts’ – are not unproblematic. However, the domains of experience encountered by these two groups are different enough to occasion the development of significantly distinct categories of meaning. Adding complexity to the situation is the investment by all of these people in a more general cultural domain manifest in media representations of ‘the environment’. I explore some of the complexities and disruptions which emerge when commercial fishers and national fisheries regulators come together to discuss an ocean and a group of people which they experience – understand – in distinct ways. Towards the end of the thesis I draw together emergent themes such as individuality, agency, ambiguity, boundaries, experience and ontology, and consider these themes in relation to the ethnographic material My purpose is not to merely highlight these differences, but to consider the durability of particular ways of seeing the world, and to muse over what can happen when those with minority perspectives are compelled to adjust their behaviours, understandings and identities in response to boundaries and categories that do not correspond to their existing systems of meaning. v This is to certify that: (i) the thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD except where indicated in the Preface, (ii) due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used, (iii) the thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, citations, bibliographies and appendices. vi Even when we are able to go beyond the stereotypes, and acknowledge that essentially every sector of industry, government, science, policy, and management have contributed to the current states of fisheries, many genuinely hard problems remain to be resolved ….We need to abandon our stereotypes about others. We need to be honest but forgiving about the short-comings of every participant in the entire process. We need to know how we are imperfect, and what those imperfections imply. Then we need to get on with doing the most perfect job possible with imperfect people and imperfect processes. It’s a lot like the rest of life. – Jake Rice, Finlayson Revisited – What has changed since Fishing For Truth was published? (2001:9). vii Dedicated to the memory of Dylan and the Ripple III viii 1 Acknowledgements: An inevitably inadequate attempt to thank those who have made this thesis possible At the beginning of 2001, I moved to the fishing port of Port Albert, where l lived for a further two years. I spent a lot of time in other ports, mostly in the state of Victoria, particularly Port Welshpool and Lakes Entrance. However, the attendance at various management meetings also took me to the states of South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. My time was divided among talking with local fishermen, attending meetings between fishermen and various official bodies (particularly AFMA), both locally and interstate, going on fishing trips, and working as a waitress at the Pier Port Hotel in Port Welshpool. I also spent a week observing the operation of the shark sector of management at the offices of the Australian Fisheries Management Authority, in Canberra. At the beginning of 2003, I returned to Melbourne to begin the arduous task of writing about my experiences, impressions, understandings and all of the things that people had told me. I moved into a house in Clifton Hill with two friends – Claire and Julian – who were also working on PhDs. I claimed an office in the School of Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies and eased back into the vibrant and supportive community of colleagues – staff and fellow students – at the University of Melbourne. 1 All sea creature images courtesy Dover Publications Inc. (2002). ix At the beginning of 2004, after a year of churning out ghastly drivel, which my ever-patient supervisors diligently read, I colluded with Simone Blair, a fellow maritime anthropologist, to make a break for it. Setting our sights inland we headed for central China. A landslide or two later, my love of the sea was reinvigorated and I returned to Melbourne with a story to tell. Edging toward the end of 2006, I have my story. Now I am confronted with the task of thanking those who have supported me through the last six years, who have shared their lives with me, shown me generosity, professionalism, patience, kindness, friendship, humour, resilience, perspective, well-deserved criticism and wisdom. To all of the fishermen and industry-based people I have met – I thank you for the enormous amounts of time and knowledge you so generously shared with me and the faith so many of you have in me. Though I take full responsibility for the shortcomings contained in this document, this amazing story is yours, and I feel priveledged to have been allowed to try to capture it in words: a futile goal, I know, but here is my best attempt. I hope that when you recognise yourself in
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