Masaryk University Brno Faculty of Education
Department of English Language and Literature
English Football and Hooliganism
Diploma Thesis
Brno 2012
Supervisor: Written by: Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. Bc. Petr Konvičný
Declaration
I hereby declare that I have written this diploma thesis myself and used only the sources listed in the enclosed bibliography.
I agree with this diploma thesis being deposited in the Library of the Faculty of Education at the Masaryk University and being made available for academic purposes.
…………………………….. Bc. Petr Konvičný
2
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank to Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. for his guidance and professional advice on writing the thesis, and to my dear friend Charalampos Anastasiadis for his helpful comments on various aspects of the topic in question.
3 Contents
1. Introduction ...... 5 2. English Sport Identity ...... 7 2.1. Identity and Sport ...... 7 2.2. British and English ...... 9 3. Evolution of Football and the Football Association ...... 12 3.1. First Attempts ...... 13 3.2. Coming Home ...... 14 3.3. The Football Association and the Present ...... 16 4. The Roots of Hooliganism ...... 21 4.1. Hooligans and Hooliganism ...... 24 4.2. Comprehension of Football Hooliganism ...... 27 4.3. Before the War ...... 31 4.4. Between the Wars ...... 32 4.5. The Beginning of the End ...... 34 5. 'Hooligangs' ...... 37 5.1. The ICF – West Ham United FC ...... 37 5.2. 'No One Likes Us, We Don't Care' – Millwall FC ...... 39 5.3. The Red Army – Manchester United FC ...... 40 5.4. YNWA – Liverpool FC ...... 42 6. The Route to Perdition ...... 45 6.1. The Kenilworth Road Riot ...... 46 6.2. Heysel ...... 48 6.3. Hillsborough ...... 52 7. The Way Out ...... 57 7.1. The Terraces Extinction ...... 58 7.2. The Power of the Law ...... 61 7.3. From Participants to Consumers ...... 64 8. Conclusion ...... 67 Works Cited ...... 69
4 1. Introduction
Football is a phenomenon of the modern age. Bearing in mind the fact that it is the most widespread and also the most popular sport in the world and that it actually originated in England, we can be sure that for a long time its role in this country and its society is not just that of a game. It has become much more than that. Football has grown over the years into something much bigger than the idea of sport itself, which affects lives of many people in England in various ways.
This diploma work intends to investigate the rise of this fascinating game from the early beginnings to its today's stage in which football is one of the most important things connected to this country. As a matter of fact, it is the pride of the English, and for many people, the meaning of their life.
Alongside with this, the work includes an inquiry into the world of football fans, the well-known hooligans. The role of hooliganism in the English society is more than controversial and has brought many troubles and unfortunate events which just could not be ignored any more. The main aim of the study is to investigate the reasons for a change of the English football environment in which mad crowds of frantic fans were replaced by peaceful (but still loud enough) spectators.
This part of the work aims to clarify the principles of being a football fan in general, to search for the beginnings of the football madness, and to depict the rise of the problem of hooliganism. Important events in the history of English football connected to this phenomenon as well as notoriously known fans of particular clubs like West Ham United, Millwall FC, or Liverpool FC will be explored. The work will try to analyze these events and find out the impacts and changes they have brought into the world of football and the whole English society.
The main intention of the work is to find and prove the change that has been brought into English football stadiums after the years of cruelty, madness, and injustice. These are the things that had to be eliminated from such an enjoyable environment and replaced by security, respect, and a positive atmosphere. An important thing is to
5 understand what made such changes happen, and that these changes had to happen. One would be almost afraid to think where this could end if the change did not come.
The contribution of this work could be seen in an investigation of a particular part of the English society by offering an insight into a topic that has always been notorious but still in some respect hidden and secret. This is supported by the fact that the relationships between hooligans and all kinds of media have never been very positive. This topic is something we should know and talk about. However, the insight into the world of football and hooligans will certainly never be complete, since nobody outside this world will ever see its real face.
6 2. English Sport Identity
The question of identity and its role in the world of sport is being dealt with for decades. The way people let drag themselves and their minds into such an environment is astonishing and raises an interesting question: How is this even possible?
What makes people lead lives the fundamentals of which are limited only to scores, results, minutes, goals, wins, draws, and losses? What makes them think the whole week just about the weekend's game, behave like an infant after a win and like a desperado after a loss, forget about birthdays, name days, and anniversaries?
One of the possible answers is the ability of such people to apply their minds in another world, in the world of sport. They almost split their personalities and let each of them merge with different things. In other words, it is a way of finding a new identity.
2.1. Identity and Sport
The word identity plays an important role in nowadays' world. But what does this word for every one of us really mean? People use it very often and claim to search for it all the time. But do they really know what they are searching for?
There are many ways of looking at the phenomenon of identity. Mike Storry and Peter Childs describe it in two main ways: on one hand, identity is "partly described by what the state considers to be important about people: their physical characteristics, place of birth and area of employment" (6). On the other hand, for many people this word means something different. They see the essence of their identity in "their emotional life, their aspirations, their sporting or intellectual achievements and so on" (Ibid.).
As we can see, the first way of explaining identity is more of a set of facts and information about an individual by which we can assume his or her position and role in society. On the contrary, the other explanation goes more into the emotional part of one's character – the way he or she thinks, acts, and reacts. It seems to be a way of finding something in our lives to which we can stick, believe in, appreciate, and rely on. And this is just what appears to be the main aspect of searching identity in the world of
7 sport – the idea of finding, following, and supporting something we can never possess or experience in our personal life.
The fact that people apply themselves actively in the world of sport as supporters or fans is nothing which should be surprising to anybody. People generally like to be part of something, have something to hope for and believe in. This is why people search for their sport identity. And it does not matter at all that this often happens only in the intellectual sphere. One does not have to be at the stadium or in front of television every time his or her team is playing. But the way he or she follows the team and the way he or she says 'we won again' is something special and gives him or her a feeling that the more often it is said, the more often it is longed for to be said again.
The search for our sport identity is a process the duration of which is practically unlimited. We are born into certain circumstances which give us the basics of our identity that evolves alongside with our personality. The evolution of our identity in the sphere of sports can be affected by many impacts coming from the environment we live in – e.g. family, friends, hometown, or homeland. However, the final result of this process depends largely on the way we live our life after all – on other people we meet, other cities we get to know or live in, or other countries we choose to find our future in (this is also known as the process of socialization).
There are various reasons why people actually search for their sport identity. Another (and simpler) definition provided by Mike Storry and Peter Childs claims that identity is "who people take themselves to be" (6), which corresponds to the world of sports well enough. Many people identify themselves with successful sportsmen – not because they want to be exactly the same or because they are envious. The reason they adore them is that these sportsmen are very often heroes in the eyes of 'regular' people. They have worked very hard and their childhood might have been horrible. But it paid off and now they are living their dreams. Apart from that, these people are very good examples to be followed by children and young people – they give them hope and strength, they make them believe in themselves and discourage them from giving up.
Another way of finding our identity in the world of sports is supporting a particular club or team. This is very often given by the region or city we come from. The saying 'home
8 is where your heart is' applies here undoubtedly. Most people feel quite strong about their hometowns even if they leave it and spend the rest of their lives in a completely different place. And in case they find their way to connect these feelings with a team representing their hometown, they hardly ever lose it. On the other hand, the place we come from is not the only determining factor when choosing which team to like and support. A bond to a certain team can be created by a simple visit of a city, a stadium, or a match as well as by finding friendships or relationships the feelings of which make us like the same team in spite of the fact that it may come from a distant city or country. Some people also choose their favourite team because of a certain sportsman playing for that team or just because the team in question is very good. It is therefore nothing unusual for various teams to be liked in various countries or even on various continents. For instance, the biggest English football clubs like Manchester United, Liverpool, Arsenal or Chelsea have huge amounts of fans literally all around the world.
A special way of searching for a sport identity is connecting it to our nationality. The stronger people feel about their homeland, the easier it is for them to apply it in the world of sports. In fact, great sport events have a special ability to evoke a national pride in people no matter the age, gender, or religion. Thus even people who are not very keen on watching sports change their attitude and in the crucial moments of big events they start to notice the results, get excited, and cheer with the others to support the heroes representing their country. As a good example of people being typical of this behaviour can be seen the inhabitants of Great Britain – the so-called Britons, and among these, the English.
2.2. British and English
The words British and English play an interesting role in studying British culture and society. The things, information and feelings they represent do not always have to be absolutely clear to their senders and receivers.
The problem is that even though England (together with Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) represents only one part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, its importance and position brings 'England and Englishness' in comparison to
9 the others to a definitely higher level. Thus it is quite ordinary for the terms British and English to be used interchangeably, depending very often on the user's attitude and feeling. In other words, by the choice of such vocabulary we can sometimes estimate the speaker's approach to being British as well as his or her attitude to Great Britain in general.
Susan Bassnett comments on the problematic usage of the terms British and English with the following words:
The common interchangeability of 'English' and 'British' as designations
of identity poses problems for any cultural historian sensitive to the full
range of national identities within the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain
and (Northern) Ireland', who yet wishes to explore the shared
'Britishness' that has resulted from belonging to 'the imperial race'. (qtd.
in Bassnett xxi)
It therefore seems impossible to state the final difference between these two terms or establish any given rules for their usage. In fact, this 'quest for the distinction' can sometimes seem not only impossible, but also useless. It is claimed that "if one asks what the difference is between English culture and British culture one realizes that there is no difference" (qtd. in Bassnett 104).
However, this statement could be questioned in certain ways when considering the world of sport, and especially football. England, being declared as a country which 'invented' this game, is very proud to have its own national football team. Every young English football player dreams about being part of this team once and the position of a captain of England national team is an honour to be treasured. In fact, this is something the last captain did not manage. In 2011, John Terry (Chelsea FC) was deprived of the captain armlet after a scandalous revelation of an affair between him and his teammate's wife. He stayed in the team but it cost him the privileged position he had to work so hard for. The current captain of England national team is Steven Gerrard, a Liverpool FC player.
10 It is worth mentioning, though, that the way Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland feel about their national football teams is the same. All these, as well as England, are individual members of the International Football Federation (FIFA), which means that they can take part separately in the tournaments held by this organization.
What is interesting is the fact that this does not apply in Olympic Games where sportsmen and teams from these four countries do not represent their homelands but the whole kingdom under the name Great Britain. Thus it can happen that footballers normally playing for England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland in the World Cup or European Championship final tournaments or in qualifications for these play together in one team in Olympic Games, representing Great Britain. In other words, the agelong rivals suddenly turn into allies – for the sake of the kingdom.
Finding our identity in the world of sport is something which can easily enrich our lives in various ways. We do it to have something to follow, to express our feelings, and to strengthen the bond to our city or country. It does not really matter how often it makes us happy and how often sad, the only thing that matters is that we have something to enjoy and believe in.
The truth is, England is one of the countries the inhabitants of which apply their identity in the world of sport in a very strong and enjoyable way. Football, being the most popular among the sports played and watched in England, is a good example of that. For many English people it is much more than just a game. It is their pride. And bearing in mind the fact that English football is being watched and adored all over the world, we have to admit that they really have something to be proud of.
11 3. Evolution of Football and the Football Association
The image of football, as we know it today, was not created, as they say, over night. As a matter of fact, it is right the opposite. It is certainly not surprising that the whole process took more than one hundred years, at least concerning the history of modern football which was invented in England. And of course, based on this fact, the English are very proud to call it 'their own' game.
The evolution itself is peculiar mainly in the way it has been processed. The fact that an idea of a game the only aim of which was to amuse a couple of boys has grown into something as big and influential as today's world of football is simply fascinating. Football is being played in almost every country all over the world and the power and glory it has gained over the years is enormous. It makes people smile and cry, joy and sorrow, love and hate. And apart from that, it makes them pay.
Actually, the aspect of money is probably the biggest change that has been brought into football in the course of its evolution. It has turned it into a great business which collects and produces huge amounts of money. The best players in England earn more than two hundred thousand pounds a week. There are people who buy football clubs and spend billions of pounds to make them win. Just for fun.
The important news is that it really works. This can be seen on the example of Chelsea, a traditional London club which for long years belonged to the average. However, after it was bought by the well known Russian billionaire Roman Abramovic, the club managed to win several important trophies and raised itself among the best clubs in England and the world. Another example is Manchester City, an all-time weaker brother of the glorious Manchester United. Nevertheless, the situation has changed significantly. Thanks to the new Arabic owner and his unstoppable inflow of money the two rivals stand face to face.
Many people who like football do not like this change and are disgusted by the power of money which emerged significantly in an environment that was originally supposed to be purely about the game and sport. However, there is nothing they can do about it because this is how it works in the modern world of business. On the other hand, they
12 will hardly ever avoid it and quit watching it. They will always see football as the pure game the basics of which were established such a long time ago. It is a game they love no matter what.
3.1. First Attempts
Humans are playful beings. They have always liked to compete, beat the opponent, and win. It is a natural and given attribute of every one of us. Some feel it more, some less. But nobody lacks it completely. It is no wonder then that people have always been searching for possibilities of satisfying this yearning. And one of the ways that offers us all this can be a simple game. The first attempts at inventing a game played with a thing looking like a ball which was, fairly distantly though, reminding of today's football appeared centuries and millennia ago.
To find the very first evidence of a game reminding of football in a way that it consisted in kicking a ball, we have to go back to China some two centuries BC. One of the important rules of a game called Tsu' Chu (apart from the basic one – aiming the ball at a certain target) was the prohibition of the hand usage, which made the game not very easy and therefore more enjoyable. Another form of the football ancestors came from Japan some five hundred years later. The game called Kemari, though, has no aim of hitting a certain target but only passing the ball in a circle of players. What is interesting is the fact that this sport is being played in Japan until today. The Roman version of 'prehistoric football' was named Harpastum and was even played by two teams on a marked area shaped into a form of a pitch. The popularity of this game lasted for more than seven hundred years and in spite of the fact that the Romans brought it to Britain, it has never found a real successor – due to the marginal role the use of feet was playing in this game. (History of Football – The Origins)
It is necessary to say that all these archaic beginnings of football played an important role in the following evolution of this beautiful game. They have helped to arouse a yearning for playing and winning in people the origins of which are rooted deep inside of every one of us. And it is worth mentioning that the awakening of this yearning was not a very difficult one, since football appears to be highly addictive.
13 Apart from that, a clear benefit of playing these varieties of football and other sports could already at that time be seen in the fact that it simply kept people fit. It helped to make them strong, healthy, and prepared for any kind of physical effort. Needless to say, that is exactly what was needed in those difficult times.
The beginnings and evolution of football were taking place in various times and in various parts of the world. Some affected its final image more, some less, and some not at all. However, it is certain that the most important part of its history has begun to be written when football was brought to its homeland – to England.
3.2. Coming Home
Football and England are two words which simply belong together. Football is the English pride and England is the cradle of football. To comprehend the meaning and importance of this game for the whole English nation, we should bear in mind the words of Richard Holt who claims that "all peoples have their play, but none of the great modern nations has built it up in quite the same way into a rule of life and a national code" (1).
As already mentioned, the Romans were the ones to bring football to England. Even though the 'Harpastum version' was the one that did not survive, there were more variations of the game that emerged in the course of time. One of the categories was the so-called 'mob football', the main attributes of which were the lack of rules and an immoderate violence. It was being played in various places all over the countryside by an unlimited number of players, usually between the whole villages. Concerning the rules, it is worth mentioning that "any means could be employed to get the ball to its target with the exception of murder or manslaughter." (History of Football – Britain, the Home of Football) There are several theories depicting the origin of this version of football but none of them seems to be proved as the right one. However, there is one thing certain – based on all this, it could be seen that football is booming, and that something big is coming.
An important step in the history of football was its integration into the public school system. The reason for this was the simple aim of leading young people to life of
14 fitness, sport, and physical readiness. As the initiator of this new trend can be seen the school of Eton which came with the first set of football rules in 1815. These rules were internal for the school, though. It did not take long and the example of Eton was followed by other schools in England like Cambridge, Oxford, or Sheffield which introduced such essential things as free kicks, corner kicks, or throw-ins. In fact, this was a way of coming to uniformity in football rules. The only exception was represented by the school of Rugby which believed in its own system, separated itself from the others and created its own game. (Development of the English Game) Another significant moment which contributed to the growth of popularity of football was the change of working hours for factory workers which occurred in 1850. Before that, working people had hardly any free time for any kind of leisure activity. This act gave the workers free Saturday afternoons and therefore a chance to enjoy this time at football stadiums. Needless to say, this was a chance they took advantage of without any doubts. (Ibid.)
Alongside with the almost never ending process of unification of the rules there was one more thing to be done – the creation and foundation of individual (nearly 'professional') football clubs. The reputable position of the first and oldest football club in the world belongs to Sheffield Football Club. The foundation of the club in 1857 was a big step in the evolution of English football. The club's board of management succeeded in establishing a standardized set of rules coming from the principles of mob football and thereby raising this game into its modern times. Thanks to this, Sheffield FC will always belong among the clubs that will never be forgotten in the world of football – in spite of the fact that nowadays the club is playing in Northern Premier League Division One South. The long name indicates that it is a league the level of which is not very high. To be precise, it is the eighth highest football league played in England. However, as already mentioned, the big historical names and moments are very hard to forget. (Sheffield FC – Club History)
Although all these historical steps were very important in the evolution of English football, the most significant one was still to come. It was clear that what was needed to be done was to find any kind of unification which would create a compact and understandable image of English football. And that is exactly what happened in the following years.
15 3.3. The Football Association and the Present
After the long years during which football was being played wherever possible with an extensive lack of meaningful laws, and a rather chaotic search for any kind of a system in the football neighbourhood, something which brought an order and sense into football finally came – the Football Association, the governing body of English football, was founded.
This was the crucial moment that has brought football into its modern times. In the course of time, it has raised the game into a professional sphere and allowed football to grow into a sporting phenomenon the glory of which the world has never seen before and will hardly ever see again. On the other hand, it has brought football into the world of business, which 'spoilt' the game for many people in England and around the world (it did not spoil the glamour and popularity of the game, though). In other words, this moment has changed the world of football.
The important day of the foundation of the Football Association came soon after the first football clubs following Sheffield FC started to appear. The representatives of twelve clubs and schools from the London region met on 26th October 1863 at London's Freemason's Tavern to agree on the mutual rules of the game and to establish the Football Association. One of the schools left the negotiation because of a disagreement on a prohibition of hacking ('kicking below the knee') but the rest managed to establish a set of fourteen official laws for all the members of the association to be followed and played by. Even though various quarrels were emerging in the following years, the establishment of the International Football Association Board, covering the football associations of all the four parts of the United Kingdom, has brought all the misunderstandings to their end and let the popularity of football flourish. (History of The FA)
The moment of creation of the governing body of the English football was followed by steps which moved the game closer to the professional sphere. It was clear that what was needed were competitions in which the member clubs of the association could meet in official matches. That is the reason the Football League and the FA Cup, the oldest football competition in the world, were established.
16 The original idea of the Football League was formed in 1888 when twelve of the most remarkable English clubs were chosen to compete in home-and-away fixtures scheme throughout the season. The most successful among the founder members of the league was Preston North End FC who managed to win the championship in the first season unbeaten, which gave the team a significative nickname "the Invincibles". (History of the Football League) It is very noticeable that it took more than one hundred years for any other team in England to manage the same thing. In 2004, Arsenal FC won the league with no loss in all the thirty-eight matches. Together with the previous and following seasons, they did not get the feeling of losing in a league match in forty-nine games in a row. Bearing in mind the difference of the way football was played in 1888 and the level of competitiveness in today's world of football, there is no doubt that this was something outstanding and unique. After this, Arsenal players became the second "Invincibles" in the English football history and set a record the breaking of which can take another one hundred years, or even more.
Another well known club among the founder members of the Football League is Notts County FC, established in Nottingham. Because of the low level of the competition Sheffield FC is currently playing in, Notts County claims the position of the oldest professional football club in the world. David Conn comments on the current image of this traditional club with the following words: "Notts County: hmm, what do we know about them? Well, they were founder members of the Football League in 1888, but in all the time since have won only one trophy, the FA Cup, and that was over 100 years ago." (The Beautiful Game? 175) In fact, none of the original twelve clubs playing in the first season of the Football League belongs among the highest elite of English football nowadays and some of them are playing in lower leagues. However, this does not erase any of the credit and glory they gained by being part of such an important moment in the English football history.
The following evolution of the Football League (lasting more than a century) has brought many improvements and changes not only into the world of football, but also into the world of ordinary people. Football was booming all over England, the Football Association was expanding, and more and more famous clubs and players were emerging. The popularity of football could not be endangered even by such horrible
17 events as the both World Wars turned out to be. The league was interrupted during those years, of course, but the time of never ending fear and terror made people long for anything which could help them to bring themselves back to normal life again. As difficult as it may have been to find such a thing for these people, and almost impossible only to imagine for those who have never 'been there', the unceasing interest and high attendances at the stadiums in the post-war periods proved that football was one of those things.
From a sporting and economic point of view, the Football League was changing persistently throughout the whole 20th century. The number of members of the FA was increasing and the league was spreading. Many great names of players and particularly famous clubs emerged – the examples of Manchester United, Liverpool or Arsenal speak for themselves and represent the great tradition and glorious renown of English football all around the world. It is important to say that especially the last two decades have changed the league very markedly. It has been renamed to the Premier League ('Barclays Premier League' at the moment) and influenced by various impacts from 'the outside'. After the years of facing the problem of hooliganism - which is going to be dealt with in the following sections of this work - English football has to cope with an inflow of overseas players and managers who have changed its face completely. The times of purely English teams in the Premier League are long gone and not only the overseas players represent a majority in many teams nowadays, but a certain number of them also belong among the best ones playing in England. Even though this change does not make most of the proud English people very happy, there is simply no way of avoiding it. The Premier League, being often regarded as one of the most attractive, prestigious and watched football leagues in the world, is a very popular target for many elements the aim of which is to make the best of the huge potential it contains. As far as the players are concerned, it is natural for them to wish to play in one of the best leagues and for such great clubs – and if they are given the chance, they hardly ever hesitate. Regarding the most successful clubs in the history of the Football and Premier League, the already mentioned ones must be repeated – Arsenal FC managed to win the league thirteen times; Liverpool FC, the phenomenon of 1980s, even eighteen times. However, the best one in this respect is Manchester United FC with nineteen league titles, breaking the Liverpool record only one year ago.
18 Although it may still take quite a lot of time, the dominant position of these clubs is not entirely safe. As already mentioned, thanks to the overseas impacts and an unstoppable inflow of money from the new owners, former average clubs are making their way among the best. In the last decade, Chelsea FC managed to win three league titles. Manchester City FC, who have not won the title for more than forty years, claimed the most recent one (2011/2012 season) after a long title run against their biggest rivals – Manchester United. As they say, money does not make a team. But it helps a lot.
Be that as it may, the Premier League, with its long-lasting tradition and the pride covering its image, is a competition that annually excites millions of fans worldwide. And it is highly unlikely that any number of foreign players, managers, or businessmen will ever change that.
Nevertheless, there is an older and perhaps also even more famous competition in the English football. Being established almost twenty years earlier than the Football League, the FA Cup is unambiguously the oldest football competition in the world.
The idea of a cup in which all the member clubs of the FA could compete was born in 1871. The season 1871/1872 was the first in which the tournament was held under the name "the Challenge Cup" and only fifteen teams participated in that year. Compared to that, more than seven hundred clubs try their luck in the FA Cup nowadays hoping to get as far as possible every year. When thinking of the most successful clubs in the history of the cup, the proven names must be highlighted again – Manchester United (eleven trophies) and Arsenal (ten victories) are on the top, followed by Tottenham Hotspur who have won the cup eight times. It is worth mentioning that according to the historical statistics of this competition, players of different forty-two teams have got the privilege to touch the valuable trophy. (History of The FA Cup)
The beauty of the FA Cup consists in the chance for smaller clubs to confront the big ones. The cup begins at lower levels and as it proceeds through more and more rounds, clubs from higher levels up to the Premier League start to be appointed. It is always a big event for a club from a smaller town to welcome one of the glorious teams at their tiny stadiums. It is a tradition and opportunity people have always enjoyed. And in case they manage to defeat the stronger and much more reputable opponent, or at least to bring the game into a draw, which is to be solved by a rematch at the other team's
19 stadium, it means a great success for the club and more exciting moments for the home fans. And though it may sound surprising, this happens more often than one would expect. As a matter of fact, the saying that it has no logic and that literally anything can happen is one of the things that make football so amusing. The last match of the tournament – the FA Cup Final – is a spectacular climax of the oldest football competition in the world. It is played every year at the Wembley Stadium in London, the biggest and most famous stadium in England. Needless to say, the final game is a great event for the whole English sporting community and a tradition that attracts millions of football fans worldwide. It is worth noticing that the last two finals were conquered by teams mentioned in connection with the changing face of English football – in 2011 Manchester City was the one to win the trophy, and the most recent one belongs to Chelsea. It is hard to believe that this is just a coincidence.
The distance football has covered in the course of its evolution in a way reminds of the one the human race and its society has experienced. After rather chaotic beginnings where rules, if any, did not play a very important role a certain system was tried to be established. Although it was hard to find and especially to maintain the system, in the end this task was managed. And once it seemed to really work, the time of power and money has come to change its image again completely.
Be that as it may, there is no other game in the world having such power to influence the way people think and behave. In fact, football has grown into a phenomenon ruling the world of sport – and all this thanks to England, the cradle and mother country of this fascinating game. The way football has changed and let affect itself by the power of money in the last twenty years is significant but at the same time not so surprising. Seeing the world itself changing so quickly, only a fantast would think the world of football will escape from that. There is just no other option. Even though it is very hard for many people to put up with this fact, a great majority of them will never leave it. They will continue enjoying the game they have always loved.
20 4. The Roots of Hooliganism
The world of football has changed. These days it is not just about playing a game, winning or losing, and getting famous or forgotten. It is not about the ones who play it anymore, it is about the ones who watch it. In fact, the spectator is the one standing in the centre of today's world of football. He is the one to make it so widespread and hugely popular, and to turn it into a great business producing unbelievable amounts of money. Football is not being played for the joy of the players anymore, but for the joy of the people.
The role fans are playing in the rather mysterious football environment is a crucial one. Without fans, spectators, and other football enthusiasts this game would have never become what it is and what it means in the world of sports nowadays. And it is worth saying that the way football fans and their clubs are connected is indeed unique. In the course of time, these people have learned to create bonds to their teams the strength of which regular people can hardly understand, or even imagine. In many cases they have come so far that for the sake of their team they are able and willing to sacrifice almost everything. Sadly enough, it has happened more than once that the thing they had to sacrifice was their own life.
Needless to say, these deep relationships between football clubs and their supporters work mutually. Fans represent an integral part of every football team, no matter the level they are playing at. The higher the level, the more visible the fans get, though. But there are more differences, of course. Clubs playing at the highest levels have literally professional relationships with their fans. Each of them has its own official supporters club (sometimes more than one) closely cooperating and communicating with the club's governing body. Anyway, the greatest difference appears in the number of supporters the teams have. The biggest clubs in England are adored all around the world and even a rough number of fans of these clubs is very difficult to estimate.
What is not so difficult to estimate is the fact that football fans have always played an important role in the evolution of the world of football. They have written significant and, unfortunately, also tragic moments in its history; they have created their own world which nobody outside this world is ever allowed to enter and get to know. They appear
21 in various kinds of media on a regular basis, which gives us a feeling that we get a proper insight into this environment and that we understand it. We think we know so much about it, but the truth is, we know next to nothing.
The reason for this seems to be quite clear, though it might not be that simple. It is well known that relationships between football fans and all kinds of media have never been very positive. In fact, it is worse than that – they are more than cold. These fans are an easy target for sensation-eager journalists and publicists who often present them as uncontrollable animals bringing nothing but riot and evil. In other words, they put them all into one basket. Of course, the fans hate them for this and the result is that they immure themselves into their own world even more, thus trying to protect themselves and demonstrate their deep contempt. The problem is that by this they enclose a circle that nobody is able to get into and they give the public a chance to get an image of this world only from one side – from the side of media. What is certain is the fact that if this does not change, we will never be able to see the truth. Until then nobody will be able to say whether the media are right or wrong, since no group of humans has ever been composed of identical individuals containing no exceptions.
It is believed, though, that the English football fans belong among the worst in Europe and the world. This stems mainly from the number of unfortunate events in the history of English football caused by these fans, and from the reputation they have gained over the years. Needless to say, the reputation is nothing but terrifying. And of course, this is concerned not only with the club football, but also with the national one. During the biggest national football tournaments – World Cup and European Championship – certain individuals among the English fans are even not allowed to leave the country because everybody knows what to expect from them (in case the English team qualifies itself to the final tournament, which happens most of the times). It is worth mentioning, though, that during the last European Championship in Poland and Ukraine (2012) there were no problems with the English fans. However, the Polish, Russian and Croatian ones provided quite a successful 'substitution'.
But still, it has to be noted that the club football is what has shaped the image of English football fans. In this respect, it is interesting to think and try to understand how it happens that a simple fondness for a football club can turn into a passion determining the course of one's life.
22 It might not be that easy to really comprehend this. But realizing how much football and everything related to it means for the English people and how strongly they feel about it, we must understand that they are willing to experience it with the exactly same strength. One of the great examples of a devoted football fan is Nick Hornby, a well- known English writer and a lifelong Arsenal fan. In his most famous novel Fever Pitch he humorously depicts the unbelievable secrets of his life which, a little exaggeratedly, consists of two things only: the combination of red and white colours; and the Highbury stadium, the home of Arsenal. This novel is also where he clarifies the way football has absorbed him – by using the following words: "I fell in love with football as I was later to fall in love with women: suddenly, inexplicably, uncritically, giving no thought to the pain or disruption it would bring with it" (7).
People like Nick Hornby represent a unique group of individuals for whom football is not a mere form of relaxation, fondness, or distraction. It is a passion. Passion so strong that once you get captured, it never lets you go. And it would be quite surprising if you ever wished that to happen.
For these people, football comprises more than an integral part of life. The genuine football fans do not live their lives in years, but in seasons. In their calendar, a year does not begin in January, but in August – when the season starts; and it does not end in December, but in May – when the season ends. The climax of their week is not Sunday, but Matchday (usually Saturday, very often also Wednesday, which is when most of the cup matches are played) and they love Christmas even more than ordinary people do because this festive time is when the league offers a great amount of matches, and these Christmas games gain a special solemn atmosphere. On the other hand, football fans are having serious trouble enjoying the summer time. Since the end of May, their lives get filled with a sudden emptiness which is to be overcome by nothing else but the start of a new season some three months later. In other words, these people love football with all their hearts; they breathe for their teams and players. In most cases it is not a matter of one's choice, but a matter of life circumstances that eventually lead one to his or her football destiny.
Nevertheless, the kind of football fans this work aims to focus on is something truly special. Over the years, these groups of fans have separated themselves from the
23 'ordinary' rest and have created a phenomenon which has been affecting the world of football significantly for decades. The basic mutual attributes defining these people are violence, riot, and fear; the first two being those produced by their actions, the last one being the impact on their environment. They have been given a specific terminology determining them as individuals as well as the phenomenon causing so much trouble in any country's society.
In any case, it should be noted that the extraordinary ways of spectator behaviour in the world of sports is nothing particularly recent or a matter of the late twentieth century. According to cultural research, it is believed that "the vagaries of spectator behavior probably began with the first sports contest ever staged and have continued in various forms since that time" (Loy 94). However, the late twentieth century was certainly the time when this phenomenon has reached its climax. Unfortunately, the climax has turned out to be quite an unlucky one.
Yet all this does not have to mean that these football fans are no real fans of football and that they just use the game as a cover for all the terrible stuff they do. They love it the same way all the other football addicts do, but they seem to need much more than just watching it to enjoy it to the fullest.
4.1. Hooligans and Hooliganism
The world of football is very wide and concerns many spheres of today's world. Among all the impacts and themes it offers, there is no other subject related to it that would disseminate such things like fear, distress, and a negative atmosphere in such an amount as the problem of hooligans and hooliganism does.
A simple reference to hooligans evokes very often a feeling of antipathy and disdain in ordinary people. They see these fans as empty-headed lunatics enjoying nothing but violence and riot, hiding this in the fondness of football, which, of course, they consider to be something that does not belong to a football stadium, or near one. Many of them regard hooligans and hooliganism as the only flaw in such an enjoyable environment as the world of football is. They feel this problem needs to be fought with and eradicated completely. Very often it also makes them think why does this even happen. Why do
24 these people behave like that? How is it even possible that so many of them enjoy violence so much? How can they be so evil? What kind of world and society are we living in? Is this the beginning of the end? Questions like these are not easy to be answered. In fact, any answers to such questions are very difficult to be found. John W. Loy claims that "an understanding of the behavior of spectators might more profitably be sought in the realm of custom, convention, and cultural pattern than in the realm of ethics and morality" (94). This basic idea does not reveal the mystery of the hooligan behaviour, but it gives us a hint that this kind of manner does not have to mean that the people who behave like this must be naturally evil. It might be rooted in them so deeply and intensely that there is simply no way of averting it.
The origin of the word 'hooligan' itself is covered in mystery. There seems to be no certain proof about where did this word come from and what did it really mean but there are several theories estimating the original background of this well known term. Nevertheless, it is believed that among the most probable theories claiming the clarification of the origin of the word hooligan counts the one using the following words:
1890s, of unknown origin, first found in British newspaper police-court
reports in the summer of 1898, almost certainly from the variant form of
the Irish surname Houlihan, which figured as a characteristic comic Irish
name in music hall songs and newspapers of the 1880s and '90s.
(Hooligan)
Bearing in mind the substance of the word hooligan nowadays, this theory indicates that the meaning of the word has undergone a progress the way of which aims to a rather negative side. Even though it is highly possible that the true origin of this word will never be revealed, it is certain that it has become globally known and standardized. Even in the Czech language there is a variant of this word, namely 'chuligán' – being widely used, having the meaning of a bad-mannered male. In other words, hooligans are 'famous' everywhere.
25 When thinking about the reasons for becoming a football fan and trying to search for the benefits and pleasures gained when being one, it would probably not be very difficult to succeed. Yet it is believed that there are two basic personal functions serving the fan involved: "(1) it engenders in him a feeling of belonging, and (2) it provides a socially approved outlet by which behavior and attitudes otherwise socially unacceptable can be expressed" (Edwards 238).
The feeling of belonging the fan gets was mentioned already with reference to one's search for identity in the world of sports. In fact, it makes him feel that he is not alone, he feels much stronger as a member of the group, and he believes in what he is fighting for, as all the other group members do. Apart from that, knowing that he has somebody to rely on makes him believe in himself significantly more. Within the group, it happens very often that he finds a new identity in himself. This new identity, however, does not have to have anything in common with his personal life. It can serve as a special ingredient of his everyday reality, or sometimes as a way of escaping from it. In other words, a hooligan group is where everybody becomes a completely different person.
This phenomenon of finding a new identity and becoming a different person within the group is closely related to the second point Harry Edwards has made. As an individual acts within a group, he gets a feeling of protection, sometimes almost invulnerability. He feels covered and hidden in the power of group, knowing that whatever he does and however deep the trouble gets, he is never alone in it. The mentioned expression of "behavior and attitudes otherwise socially unacceptable" is exactly what football fans, namely hooligans, use the coverage and safety of their group for. As a matter of fact, the combination of strength, desire to riot, and a feeling of security is what makes hooligans so fearful, and at the same time it is the worst possible one for anything and anybody crossing their way. Beside that, it is worth mentioning that the behaviour and attitudes they demonstrate are frequently worse than 'socially unacceptable'. In many cases, they get far beyond that.
Be that as it may, hooligans and hooliganism represents a phenomenon that has become an integral part of the world of football virtually from its modern beginnings. The amount of problems it has brought and the number of people who cannot stand it is enormous. Despite that, it is still there. As they say, nothing and nobody has ever been and ever will be perfect.
26 4.2. Comprehension of Football Hooliganism
The studies of hooliganism deal with various aspects of the world of football fans and its environment, but the question of explaining and understanding football hooliganism appears to belong among the most difficult ones. This might consist in the fact that all the regular people living their lives in 'standard' ways see the hooligan behaviour as something truly incomprehensible. It is not odd that very often they are even not able to imagine a reason why would they ever behave in the way hooligans do.
It would be difficult to list a set of reasons why hooligans do all the things that makes most of society hate them. It is hard to say whether the only reason they do it is to rebel, or simply because they are such bad people, or because they are trying to send a message nobody has so far understood. Every man is an individuality having his own beliefs, values, and character determining the course of his life in terms of searching for different things in different ways; therefore it is practically impossible to state any relevant diagnosis of the hooligan behaviour.
Yet there are theories claiming to explain various aspects bringing certain contribution to this kind of manner. One of the most widespread and believed theories of football hooliganism relates "on the one hand, to the excessive consumption of alcohol by fans and, on the other, to the occurrence of violent incidents on the field of play" (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 13).
In fact, alcohol is believed to be one of the crucial aspects affecting the fans' behaviour. It is known to make one feel stronger, it gives him courage and desire to do things he would have never done when being sober. Based on this, hooligans are often imagined to spend several hours in their disgusting pubs before every match, drinking heavily and getting rowdy. This theory might have a few flaws, though. It is important that alcohol does not influence everybody in the same way, namely in the way described above. Getting sleepy, dull, and disoriented, which is another possible influence of alcohol, is certainly not something what a hooligan preparing himself for a match would wish. Apart from that, we cannot expect all football fans to be drinkers. We also cannot expect those who drink to behave worse than those who do not. In fact, some hooligans are believed to avoid alcohol on the matchdays completely – simply to be able to think, act, and follow the others with a clear mind. In other words, they know what they want
27 to do and they want to make sure they do it right. But still, the role and influence of alcohol at and around football stadiums is undeniable, and we can hardly say that this influence is very positive.
As far as the occurrence of violent incidents on the field of play is concerned, it is sometimes regarded as another thing bringing the disorderliness to football stadiums. It is true that the English Premier League (and the way it is being played) is well known for its harsh style full of rough fights, dangerous tackles, and horrible looking fouls. All this may arouse anger in the excited fans, especially when their team is the one being hurt. In this case, they start to search for a way of expressing their disapproval and, sadly enough, one of the ways has always been taking justice into their own hands. Swearing, threatening, and general rebellion have become an integral part of the football stadium's atmosphere. What is more, it has happened more than once that the way hooligans chose was to get straight on the pitch and express their feelings in a much worse way, using more than just words. This, fortunately enough, is something which does not occur anymore, even though to this day it is sometimes obvious how much the fans would like to do it once again. But they do not because it is clear to them that by doing this they could lose the biggest joy of their lives forever. Be that as it may, it is hard to say to what extent the violence on the field of play could ever affect the frantic hooligans and encourage them to do things they would not do without watching the game being played in such a rough way. Bearing in mind the fact how much human beings let affect themselves by various impacts from their environment, though, we can hardly reject this theory for being unreasonable.
Another theory aiming to explain football hooliganism deals with ordinary phenomena occurring within every society – unemployment and permissiveness. Dunning, Murphy, and Williams indicate that "there appear to be a number of complex and mainly indirect links between unemployment and the social conditions in which the standards expressed by football hooligans are generated" (17).
The question to ask here is what kinds of impacts these phenomena can bring. It is true that such a crucial thing as unemployment can affect one in quite a negative way. In case the state of being out of job takes a longer time, one can get frustrated rather easily; he loses hope, and often finds a way out in ways he would have never searched for before. But still, the idea that having no job would make people riot as lunatics and do
28 all the horrible things sounds a bit exaggerated, or even scary. We can only hope that the eventuality that so many people would let drag themselves to the rough hooligan world only because of that is close to impossible. As a matter of fact, this theory has some flaws anyway. According to Dunning, Murphy, and Williams, the most notorious and organized groups of hooligans come from big cities like London, Manchester, or Liverpool – which is where unemployment has always afflicted a substantial minority of people; and as various inquiries have shown, unemployment has never been a significant and mutual attribute within the groups of the English hooligans. (17)
The problem of permissiveness seems more likely to be believed as an encouraging factor in the hooligan behaviour. The more tolerant and lenient the rules in society get, the less fearful the ones who want to break them become. They feel secure or even untouchable enough to dare to be as violent and rowdy as they wish. And if the law is not strict and powerful enough to stop them, there is no other force that would ever manage that.
Apart from these 'popular' explanations of football hooliganism, there are theories aiming to explain this phenomenon in more academic ways. One of these refers to Peter Marsh and his theory of 'ritualized aggression'.
According to Marsh, there is an important difference between 'real' or 'proper' violence, and 'aggro' or 'ritual aggressive action' – the former meaning "physical violence directed in an aggressive way towards another human being", whilst the latter being just symbolic – involving "the display of weapons but not their use, and sequences of action that are aborted but which would, if carried through, result in injury or death" (qtd. in Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 19).
Strange as it may sound, what this theory is trying to say is that the violence football hooligans present is not real. It claims that "the intention of fans who fight is solely to humiliate and secure the submission of their opponents but not to inflict injury on them" (Ibid.). In other words, hooligans do not fight their opponents in order to injure or even kill them, but to demonstrate their own strength and determination to fight for what they stand for.
29 It is true that this theory is supported by the fact that, under normal circumstances, the fights between fans have strict rules to be followed. Nobody is ever to be injured severely or killed, nobody is to be attacked by two or more opponents at the same time, and most importantly, nobody is ever to be attacked when lying on the ground. The trouble here is that these rules are never to be trusted completely; hooligans are people acting in a passion which is very often difficult to be controlled. And if all this happens in places of public, they are able to affect their environment in ways that are rather not to be even imagined.
The essence of this theory consists in the idea that the violence hooligans present should not be seen as a force to destroy everything and everybody with, but as a way of expressing beliefs and values they cherish. And even though the goal is not to injure anybody or destroy anything, under unfortunate circumstances and with various interventions from outside (e.g. the police) it can happen easily that the result is quite different from what was intended. In these cases, the 'ritualized aggression' suddenly turns into the 'real' violence, which is the worst and most sorrowful scenario possible. And it is clear enough that those cases are the ones that create the idea of hooligans and hooliganism in the eyes of media, ordinary people, and the rest of society.
Another interesting point concerning comprehension of football hooliganism made by Laurie Taylor refers to the phenomenon of the skinhead movement. In his writings he stresses the impact of skinheads on football in the following words:
However, it was the emergence of the skinheads at the start of the 1968-9
season that signalled the emergence of football hooliganism proper. It
was they who introduced 'fighting gangs' and transformed the goal-end
terraces into 'territories' over which rival fans did battle. (qtd. in
Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 27)
The truth is that the rise of the skinheads was a moment of a great importance. Since the 1968/1969 season to this day, the world of hooligans and the one of skinheads have been very close to each other. In other words, the groups of hooligans and those of skinheads progressively mixed themselves.
30 It is worth mentioning that the new rules and manners brought by skinheads into football have survived and until nowadays they create a basis of the modern hooligans' world. The fighting gangs, territories at stadiums, city neighbourhoods, own pubs, even fondness for specific brands of clothing (Umbro and Lonsdale being the most popular ones) – all this has become an integral part of the hooligan movement. Sometimes it makes us think that what we are talking about is not a different world, but a different universe.
Be it as it may, football hooliganism is a phenomenon that will hardly ever get easy to be explained and understood. In fact, it does not really matter whether the strengthening force of hooliganism is alcohol, violence on the pitch, unemployment, or anything else. It appears that we must accept the fact that these people simply chose this way of life. It is their lifestyle, and the meaning of their existence. And it does not really matter how often and how much we discuss this problem, or how many pages we write in order to fix it, or how strict the law gets. They will do it anyway – simply because they want to do it; and we can be sure that they will always find a way.
4.3. Before the War
As mentioned earlier, football is a game that has found its way to the people of all kinds without major difficulties. Since the early beginnings of modern football more and more spectators and followers eager to enjoy the new and quickly popular entertainment were emerging. And speaking of football spectators, it is rather interesting to mention that already at the times of the modern football beginnings various spectator disorderliness at English stadiums were occurring quite frequently.
It is worth saying, though, that the world of hooligans before the First World War was of a different kind than it was the case later, or even it is today. All the disorderliness and roughness occurring at stadiums were seen from a slightly different, more liberal point of view. Dunning, Murphy, and Williams argue that "though not always approved of, one expected the use of bad language and a considerable degree of roughness at events that were predominantly attended by working-class males" (77).
31 From this we can feel that phenomena like violence and roughness were more 'normal' in those times' society. Bearing in mind that the majority of spectators at football matches were usually formed by the mentioned working-class males, it is not such a surprising fact after all. These men represented the true examples of pure masculinity; they were strong and tough. And of course, football matches were the right events and good opportunities for these men to demonstrate these qualities. Another significant difference in the pre-war hooligan era was the role of the media and their coverage of the spectator misbehaviour. Dunning, Murphy and Williams note that "in that period, there were no sensationalizing tabloids and no television to turn such anxiety as existed into a generalized moral panic" (78).
As a result, since the phenomenon of hooliganism in this period was not presented very precisely in any kind of media, it was not seen as a big deal after all. There was simply no possibility to turn it into a serious problem and make the people panic. But of course, this does not mean that the problem was not there. The truth is, it is quite the opposite – it has been there from the very beginning.
4.4. Between the Wars
The inter-war period has, once again, brought certain changes into the world of English football and hooliganism. The main progress could be seen in the growth of the number of players, clubs, and leagues all over England. The Football League was spreading, which naturally brought more spectators into football stadiums and also raised general football awareness of all people, which contributed to the growing popularity of this game. On the other hand, there was a danger that a higher number of people could cause a higher number of serious problems.
In fact, the comparison with the pre-war period brings interesting results. According to the official record of the FA, "the incidence of spectator disorderliness at Football League matches in the inter-war years was just under three times as high as the incidence before the First World War" (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 94). Even though we have to realize how much did the league spread and how popular it became, such an increase is rather surprising. Nevertheless, the data is, unfortunately, not precise enough to explain all the kinds of misconduct. This may lead us to a thought that the FA
32 records before the war were even of a poorer reliability and could have missed an unspecified number of incidents. Another possible explanation is that seeing the trouble with spectator behaviour in the pre-war years, the FA committee could become tougher in the following era and set stricter limits aiming to protect the people. But still, in this case, we can hardly say that it did really help.
What also changed in the inter-war years was the general perspective of the English football crowds. As opposed to the pre-war times, football spectators started to be seen in more 'respectful' way. This can be explained by the fact that "football has become a respectable and fashionable entertainment" (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 119). In other words, suddenly becoming so popular, football has become a game for people of all classes with no exceptions. Even the working-class people, the traditional majority of football crowds, started to represent a respected part of football spectators. However, all this does not mean that the English football fans have turned suddenly into peaceful observers. Unfortunate incidents were still happening, but the power of media was 'cleaning them up'.
It is known that the power of media is enormous in any kind of society, and it is not very surprising that their ability to play with people's minds has been there from the very beginning. The interaction of the world of football and the one of media in the times in question can be described with the following words:
In fact, one could say that the social composition of football crowds in
the inter-war years, the manner in which they were reported and
controlled and, hence, perceived by general public, seem to have
interacted to enhance their 'respectability', both in terms of their factual
composition and behaviour. (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 130-131)
It is difficult to guess what the reason that led media to this kind of behaviour was, but the truth is, they were quite successful. They managed to create a more positive idea of football crowds in the eyes of general public and made it believe that there was hardly any trouble. Everybody wanted to believe that the people have really improved and that
33 the English football fans belong among the best and most orderly in Europe, which, in light of the never ending incidents, was not truly happening. The question to ask here is whether or not this was a smart thing to do. Even though the idea of trying not to make the public feel nervous and start to panic can be regarded as basically right, the fact that everybody was being misled cannot be regarded as so right as well. On the top of that, this positive and non-problematic approach to the issue of the inter-war hooliganism was very likely to make even a greater shock out of what was about to come.
4.5. The Beginning of the End
The end of the Second World War can be determined as the beginning of the era during which the world of English football and hooligans has been brought into its final stage; it is the time when it has reached its peak and, in fact, its dead end. One can say that the World War has come to its end, but another one – the war of English hooligans – was just about to start.
Concerning the English society, the end of the war brought significant changes and improvements. It is natural that the time after the devastating military years was characterized by the growing importance of the working-class people, simply because they were the ones to help the country stand on its feet again. The following years were marked by a significant economical growth and an increase of wages, which gave many new opportunities to many people. It is therefore not surprising that great amounts of them turned their interests to brand-new sides, one of the most popular of them being the world of football.
An important feature of the post-war era in English football was a significant increase in people's attraction for the game. As Dunning, Murphy, and Williams claim, as the peak of this trend can be seen the 1949-50 season, when an imposing number of seventy- seven million people were calculated to have visited football matches. Nevertheless, since that year, the attendances started to decline constantly, the only exception being the years 1967-70 (following England's 1966 World Cup victory – by the way, to this day, still the only one). Hooligans are with no doubt believed to have contributed to this way of progress. However, they are scarcely the only thing to blame since the
34 attendances at football stadiums are recorded to decline long before hooliganism has finally been regarded as a severe social problem and has got into the general awareness of the public. (132)
This, as a matter of fact, has come during 1960s. In those years, the incidents caused by football fans started to be more and more serious and, finally, obvious. Supporters of the then most successful clubs like Liverpool, Everton or Manchester United have found fondness in 'trips' to away matches in considerably higher numbers than before, the goal being mostly London. During their journeys, they managed to riot at many other places than just football stadiums. They vandalized the trains, acted violently in the cities and on their way to and from stadiums, and involved in regular people's lives in various ways, not a single one of them being positive. It is no wonder then that "towards the end of 1964 a joint FA/Football League enquiry into the state of the game pinpointed 'soccer rowdyism' off and on the field as the game's major problem" (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 145). This was supported by the coming World Cup Finals in 1966 which was to be held in England. The FA officials started to worry about the situation and were afraid that the whole world would see the bad habits of the English fans, which could have ruined the reputation of the English football as such (actually, the tournament itself did not bring serious trouble; one of the possible explanations being the fact that the abroad fans were simply afraid to come to England). In other words, the English football environment started to panic. It had to come eventually, but one must admit that it has come rather late.
Alongside with this, another thing that changed significantly was the role and approach of media. They finally started to pay full attention to what was happening and depicted all the events in greater detail. It is said that "the popular press started to report incidents 'sensationalistically', often using a military rhetoric" (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 152). We might assume that the press was simply reflecting the growing panic within the public. Apart from that, it is probable that by the shocking headlines and revealing investigations it was trying to be sold more easily. Be that as it may, it is clear that football matches started to be depicted as events where violence was occurring on a regular basis.
35 There are also hints that the media behaviour directly contributed to the intensification of hooliganism. Unbelievable as it may sound, it is stated that "by the mid-1970s popular newspapers had even begun to publish 'league tables' of fan violence" (Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 153). Even though the intended idea was probably to let the fans see what they were causing and make them think about themselves, the real effect was most likely quite the opposite. They were given a chance to 'compete' with the other hooligan groups and to show everybody who is the toughest of all, which seemed to have encouraged them to riot even more. In short, this can barely be considered a very smart move to be done.
The following evolution of English football and hooliganism was characterized by more changes and innovations. During 1970s and 1980s, several new features shaping the face of the world of football emerged. Groups of hooligans started to be formed predominantly by the youth who felt free and radical enough to do whatever they wanted. This new trend is closely connected to the mentioned emergence of the skinhead movement, which has raised hooliganism to a completely new level. In fact, hooligan groups have turned into highly professional and organized gangs planning every one of their actions in precise detail. The creation of notoriously known gangs as the Inter City Firm (West Ham), the Red Army (Manchester United), the Gooners (Arsenal), the Headhunters (Chelsea) and others signified the beginning of the modern era of hooliganism. Unfortunately, as we shall explore later, it has been by far the most tragic one in the football history.
Football hooliganism is a phenomenon the evolution of which is not only truly intimidating, but it also makes one think what the human race is really capable of. The fact that crowds of curious people eager to see 'the new game' have turned into professional gangs producing organized violence and making everybody and everything frightened seems to be more than anybody would ever expect. In fact, the hooligan gangs have evolved to represent the essence of the modern football hooliganism. All this makes it clear that it simply had to come to the inevitable end.
36 5. 'Hooligangs'
As already indicated, the last phase of the evolution of hooliganism, namely the years between 1970 and 1990, was distinguished by a rise of a completely new form of hooligan groups. With a substantial help from the skinhead movement they began to bond themselves into highly specialized and organized hooligan gangs.
The essence of these gangs lies in the idea that for these men, the world of football and especially their club is worth more than almost anything else. They create groups which follow and support their teams no matter what, and they fight for them under any circumstances. The never ending goal of their efforts is to fight and humiliate the rival gangs in any way they can. In fact, the genuine football hooligans represent the toughest examples of the modern masculinity and, needless to say, that is something they like to demonstrate.
It is true that some of the gangs have become quite famous over the years. The tradition, style, and habits of theirs have become notoriously known and feared. Some of them have caused the biggest tragedies in the football history, for which they will always be remembered and never forgiven. They probably do not even expect that to happen for there are things that are never to be retrieved. Let us now shortly introduce some of the best known English hooligan gangs spreading riot and fear all over the country for decades.
5.1. The ICF – West Ham United FC
The ICF (the Inter City Firm) is a hooligan gang supporting West Ham United FC (the so-called 'Hammers'), a traditional English club from East London. Since its early beginnings in 1970s, the ICF has been considered to be one of the toughest, most feared and problematic hooligan gangs in London and England.
The name of the gang is not very difficult to explain. According to Dunning, Murphy, and Williams, "the members of West Ham United's self-styled Inter City Firm gave themselves this name because they do not travel to matches on football specials or in
37 official supporters' club coaches but tend, instead, to use regular (Inter City) rail services" (179). Such behaviour can be understood by realizing that using regular travel services provides the gang with a higher chance of not being controlled and caught by the police. Apart from that, it gives the fans the space for the element of surprise in their actions led against the rival firms.
The biggest rivals for the West Ham's ICF are gangs supporting Millwall FC, another club from London. This rivalry is regarded as one of the biggest in the world of football and has been documented and fictionalized several times. One of the popular examples is a Hollywood movie Green Street Hooligans (2005) depicting the story of West Ham supporters featuring as GSE (Green Street Elite) and fighting the Millwall fans. In reality, the two teams do not meet very often, the reason being the fact that they play in different leagues (West Ham in the Premier League, Millwall at one level lower). In 2009, they were drawn against each other in the League Cup, which happened after quite a long time and served as a great opportunity for the gangs to confront. As it has been expected, "this match sparked massive unrest, with several hundred fans battling in the streets outside the stadium. The pitch was invaded by West Ham supporters several times and one Millwall supporter was stabbed and was close to death." (West Ham United – Inter City Firm) Unfortunately, such an incident, concerning the clashes of the ICF with other firms, can hardly be denoted as special.
It is usual for all football fans to have their own songs and chants by which they celebrate their team, insult their rivals etc. Concerning West Ham United, the famous anthem of the club is the song I'm forever blowing bubbles:
I'm forever blowing bubbles, Pretty bubbles in the air, They fly so high, Nearly reach the sky, And like my dreams, They fade and die, Fortune's always hiding, I've looked everywhere, I'm forever blowing bubbles, Pretty bubbles in the air. (West Ham Utd Terraces Songs & Chant)
38 The former Club Historian John Helliar explains that this theme song, the origin of which is to be found around 1919 in the USA, was adopted by the West Ham fans as their anthem during 1920s after it became a hit also within the English public. Unfortunately, the true reason and circumstances accompanying the adoption of the song stay covered in mystery. (The Story of Bubbles) Even though the song itself does not have anything in common with West Ham and the lyrics may sound a bit unfortunate, its fans accepted it over the years as their own and created a bond to it the strength of which equals their relationship to West Ham itself.
It is true that the Inter City Firm will always belong among the most famous hooligan gangs in England. Its reputation will never get from where it stands, but its members will never sorrow for that – for the only thing that has ever mattered to them is to fulfil the memorable saying 'West Ham Till I Die'.
5.2. 'No One Likes Us, We Don't Care' – Millwall FC
Millwall FC is an interesting football club. Despite the sporting aspect which has never been at the highest levels and the fact that the club itself is not that big and glorious, its supporters are famous all over England and beyond. The fame, though, is that of a rather negative kind. Together with the ICF, they are believed to be the worst in London and the country.
The Millwall hooligans represent a true example of the roughest rowdyism. Over the years, they have involved themselves in an uncountable number of incidents the endings of which were often dangerous, tragic, and sometimes even beyond all understanding of sane human beings. The biggest rivalry with West Ham United was already mentioned, but it seems that Millwall is a rival for everybody. Anywhere they come they spread nothing but riot, raging fights, and, sadly, severe injuries. For this, the Millwall fans are being 'haunted' by the other hooligan gangs all over the country. The world of the Millwall fans and its environment is so special that according to Garry Robson, it is referred to as "Millwallism" (39). No other hooligan gang has ever been filled with such passion and determination to follow its team and fight for it, no other gang has ever been so tough, violent, and cruel.
39 Their home territory, a stadium with a distinctive nickname 'the Den', is where all the others are almost afraid to come. On trips to away matches they do not hesitate to attack anybody in and out the stadiums and riot anywhere they feel like to. Through all this they gained a reputation so low that practically everybody else hates them. In fact, this negative approach coming from the rest of the English football environment is what contributed significantly to the emergence of the Millwall anthem No One Likes Us:
No one likes us, no one likes us, no one likes us, We don't care, We are Millwall, super Millwall, we are Millwall, From the Den. (Robson 125)
This song can be perceived as a reaction to the dreadful renown and a highly negative myth the Millwall fans have earned to be covered with. By saying 'we don't care' they demonstrate what do they think about the others' opinion and strengthen the bond to their own team, focusing on nothing but themselves. In other words, it is claimed that "this song functions as a refusal of this distorting myth and as a celebration of the authentic Millwall identity known only to insiders" (Ibid.).
The myth of the Millwall hooligans projects them as the worst and most violent football fans in England. It is hard to make a table of such a thing but seeing all the riots they have been, are and will be causing, we must admit it cannot be far from the truth. The Millwall environment is so special that hardly any other football club will ever have the same thing. In fact, we might be glad about that. As Anthony Clare has declared, "Millwall is more than a football club, it's a way of life" (qtd. in Robson 29).
5.3. The Red Army – Manchester United FC
Manchester United is one of the most successful clubs in the history of the English football. By winning the league title in 2011, which was the nineteenth in the club's history, they broke the record Liverpool FC were holding with eighteen league titles for more than twenty years. It is a club the fame and glory of which goes far beyond
40 England and the British Isles, and which has millions of fans all around the world. Needless to say, they are not short of the tough English supporters either.
The Red Army is a well-known hooligan gang supporting Manchester United FC. The name of the firm comes from the team's traditional colour (the team's nickname being the Red Devils). The team's successes on the pitch made it much easier for the club to gain great amounts of fans nationwide. In fact, in terms of the number of its members, the Red Army has always been believed to be the biggest hooligan gang in England.
It was during 1960s and 1970s when the Red Army has gained its bad reputation. In those years they involved themselves in numerous incidents all over the country, which was commented by Len Shipman, the President of the Football League, with the following words: "They are worse than hooligans. I can only describe them as wild animals." (qtd. in Dunning, Murphy, and Williams 175) From this time on, the appellation 'animals' has begun to be used widely for football hooligans in general. All kinds of media were presenting them in this disgraceful way, which seemed to have, as a matter of fact, no effect to help. Most of the fans accepted this quite easily, some of them (including the Red Army) seemed even to enjoy that. It is declared that "they felt that their status as 'animals' was confirmed by the fact that they would henceforth have to watch, as it were, from inside a cage, a fact which led them to introduce the new chant 'We hate humans!'" (Ibid.).
One of the most remembered clashes of the Red Army was the one with the West Ham's ICF in 1975. As Dunning, Murphy, and Williams report, masses of Manchester fans 'invaded' London, ready to capture Upton Park, the home stadium of West Ham United. What they found, though, was unexpected resistance and power of the home side. The match was filled with uncontrollable disorderliness and numerous fights which dragged the spectators on the pitch and interrupted the game for several minutes. Nevertheless, what was the most interesting thing for the press was the defeat of the Red Army. The sensation-seeking journalists expressed hardly any condemnation of what happened, but tended to praise the courage and the great accomplishment of the West Ham supporters instead. The Sun reported that "Manchester United fans – the terrors of the terraces – were nursing their wounds yesterday after a savage hammering from their West Ham rivals. For once they were at the receiving end of a mass punch up." (177) Sadly, one would have to search really carefully to find anything to be praised about such an event.
41 Concerning the Manchester United's anthem, the famous chant ruling the world of all the team's supporters is called Glory, Glory Man United, which, in fact, is a variation of the well known song Glory, Glory Hallelujah:
Glory, glory Man Utd, Glory, glory Man Utd, Glory, glory Man Utd, As the Reds go marching on, Welcome to Old Trafford, it's the theatre of our dreams, We're ready to die, we're ready to fight, It's part of our history, The power and the glory, Oh the Stredford End will sing, As the Reds go marching on on on. (Glory, Glory Man United – The World Red Army)
The lyrics of the anthem express the great pride and faith every Manchester United fan feels towards his beloved club. What it stresses is the team's strength and its long tradition in the history of the English football. Also, the parts depicting 'the march' and 'readiness to fight and die' represent something that truly reflects what the name of this hooligan firm stands for.
Manchester United is a glorious football club, and the Red Army is a notoriously known hooligan gang. We may only wish the gang was not known for a completely different reason than the team itself, but that is the only thing we can do about it. As unpleasant as it may sound, warfare is what 'an Army' is for.
5.4. YNWA – Liverpool FC
Liverpool FC, the legend of 1980s, is another club belonging among the most successful ones in the history of the English football. It is worth saying, though, that the most glorious years for Liverpool are long gone; they won their last league title more than twenty years ago. But still, the amounts of fans following and being proud of this club prove the fact that it did not lose any of its fame and glory. Mentioning the fans, the sad
42 truth is that the Liverpool supporters have played probably the most significant role in the history of football hooliganism.
The Liverpool fans are known for their complete devotion to their club. Even in the last few years which have been very poor for the team they do not lose their passion, pride, and faith. Their home stadium, Anfield Road, is like a sanctuary where they gather regularly to express their beliefs. One of the stadium's terraces, called the Kop, is known as the heart of the Liverpool fandom. Anfield Road is known also for the electrifying atmosphere the home fans are able to create. Even from a television broadcast it is easy to imagine the inimitable feeling of being present.
The club's anthem is very likely the most famous one in the world of football. The song's title You'll Never Walk Alone represents the loyalty of all the fans to their club. In fact, the name of the song is often being used as an acronym YNWA, either simply standing for the lyrics of the song, or used by the fans as a motto whenever mentioning their beloved club. Regardless of his or her relationship to Liverpool, every football fan has to acknowledge the exceptionality of the moment and the great atmosphere when the anthem is being sung at Anfield Road. The lyrics of the song speak for themselves:
When you walk through a storm, Hold your head up high, And don't be afraid of the dark. At the end of a storm, There's a golden sky, And the sweet silver song of a lark. Walk on through the wind, walk on through the rain, Though your dreams be tossed and blown… Walk on, walk on, with hope in your heart, And you'll never walk alone… You'll never walk alone. (Liverpool FC Songs)
Sad to say, there is another side of the Liverpool fandom. During 1960s and 1970s, the Liverpool hooligans were among the first ones to discover the new entertainment by travelling to away matches in bigger groups, rioting wherever they came. Nevertheless,
43 compared to what was happening anywhere else in England, this part was not that exceptional. In other words, the worst era was still to come.
The crucial thing for the Liverpool fans was their involvement in tragedies the results of which turned out to be far beyond what had happened so far. The grievous incidents of Heysel and Hillsborough, which are to be dealt with in the following chapter, have changed the image not only of the Liverpool fans, but also of the English ones in general once and forever.
As a result of all that, Liverpool FC is a club the supporters of which are being haunted by what has happened; and we can be sure it will never be forgotten. It is clear that the remembrance should certainly not fade away, but at the same time all Liverpool supporters probably should not be blamed for that forever. There are things that simply cannot be undone. Be that as it may, the Liverpool fans will always have one certainty – no matter what they do, they will never have to walk alone.
As already mentioned, the emergence of the 'hooligangs' has changed the face of the English football fundamentally. They have brought things that one would never wish to appear in such an enjoyable environment, but as it happens rather often, many of our wishes never come true. This 'hooligan revolution' has eventually led to incidents which bring shivers whenever thought of, and which, hopefully, are never going to happen again.
44 6. The Route to Perdition
The evolution of the world of football hooliganism has reached its climax during 1980s, a decade which turned out to be the most tragic one in the history of football. The truth is, the events of the preceding decades – 1960s and 1970s – indicated that the progress of the English football fandom has taken a completely wrong way. The emergence and unification of the skinhead movement with the hooligan one, the creation of hooligan gangs, the organized violence and terror on the pitch, the never ending riots at and around stadiums – all this was giving us a hint that if nothing happens and changes, we might become victims of something truly disastrous.
The interesting thing about the constantly deteriorative situation was the approach the media have decided to take and the role they have chosen to play. After the years of almost ignoring the problem of hooliganism, during 1960s they started to pay more attention to the numerous incidents and to depict them in greater detail. But still, the way the events were being reported was rather odd – instead of warning and increasing the public's awareness of the imminent danger seriously, the goal was to sensationalize each of them and to depict the horrible facts as extraordinary social occasions. The climax of the curious media behaviour came during 1970s when newspapers started to publish imaginary tables of hooligan violence, which meant that every gang was given a chance to compete with the others and to accomplish the desire to become as tough as possible. All in all, one cannot say that the media were dealing with the serious situation in a very fortunate way. On the other hand, one cannot blame them for what was happening either.
The feared has come eventually, and it turned out to be worse than anybody has ever imagined. The tragic incidents of 1980s, the most grievous and unbelievable events in the history of football, have changed the world of this game once and forever. The 1985 Kenilworth Road riot, the Heysel tragedy of the same year, and the Hillsborough disaster of 1989 – these are the most remembered and shocking of all. These incidents made the reputation of the English football fans fall to the very bottom. In fact, it is hard to believe that a simple fondness for a football club can cause things that are beyond all understanding. Apart from feeling disgust, anger, and despair, it makes us ask one and only question: Why did this happen?
45 6.1. The Kenilworth Road Riot
The incident of the Kenilworth Road belongs with no doubt among the worst in the history of English football. The notoriously known Millwall fans have been spreading riot and fear all over the country for decades, but the way they presented themselves on 13th March 1985 at the Kenilworth Road, the home stadium of Luton Town FC, surpassed everything that was to be seen so far. The whole English public and, subsequently the rest of Europe, watched the horrible incident startled, knowing that this has gone way too far.
The Millwall visitors came to Luton for the FA Cup quarterfinal with no great expectations of winning since the team was playing at a lower level than the home side. Nevertheless, the estimated number of several hundred (most of which drunk) Millwall supporters coming to the match indicated that what they really came for was something different. Already the very beginning of the match was marked by unrest as the Millwall supporters were not willing to stay where they were supposed to – behind one of the goals. Moreover, the terrace seemed to be overcrowded and hardly suitable for such masses of the elite of English hooligans. However, the situation was managed in the end and the game was ready to start. (Millwall versus the Mob)
Unfortunately, that did not last long. After only fourteen minutes the match had to be halted due to the growing disorderliness at the overcrowded terraces, which had the effect of the Millwall supporters' invasion of the pitch. Furious fights and riot spread all over the stadium and it took some twenty-five minutes until an order was restored and the game could continue to be played. The rest of the match was marked by a permanent fear of the final whistle. After the end of the game a true hell broke out all over the stadium. The players literally sprinted out of the pitch and inside the stadium, all the officials and clubs members ran away to find a shelter. The hooligans invaded the pitch once again and created a riot the lunacy of which was beyond all human imagination. More than seven hundred seats were used as weapons; eighty-one people were injured and taken to hospital, including thirty-one policemen. One of the police officers was hit on the head with a piece of concrete and ceased breathing. Horribly enough, one of his colleagues was being attacked while trying to help him by resuscitation. (Millwall Hooligans)
46 The scenes that so many people had to watch that day belong among the worst things one could have ever seen in the world of football. The sequence of the never ending riot, the helpless police, the furious hooligans, the terrified men, women, and children at the stadium was something nobody wanted to believe. Watching video records of that incident makes us think why did anybody let this come so far, and what kind of people could ever be responsible for such a thing. As mentioned earlier, the appellations of hooligans included various names, none of them being appreciative. And this was the time when the words 'people' or 'humans' were simply not applicable. The anger and despair was just too strong for that.
The horror scenes were reported live from Luton by a journalist James Murray who used the following words: "As a lifelong Millwall supporter I could stand in disbelief as I watched the riots, and I felt like crying. Children around me clung to their parents in fear; women and pensioners vowed never to go to a football match again … the scenes before me were ones of open bloody warfare." (Millwall versus the Mob) It is not difficult to comprehend the horror of that night from what was said and written, but it is difficult only to imagine the feeling when being present at the match. Murray continued: "As a true Millwall fan it was impossible not to feel shame, not to feel sorrow for the game of football. And not to despair at how low life had sunk; for these were not fans, they were not people, they were animals." (Ibid.)
Although the answer is not easy to be found, the question to ask here is why did this even happen. We can only speculate about such a thing, but the fact that the terrace designated for the visitor supporters was so overcrowded is a bit surprising. Knowing about the Millwall hooligans' reputation and what are they capable of, letting such masses of them get on a terrace with an insufficient space and so close to the pitch might have been the crucial mistake. On the other hand, the fact that all stadiums were built in a similar way in those years and that the situation of overcrowding was not that extraordinary proves that the mistake was probably done somewhere else, and more importantly, much earlier.
Naturally, the incident caused an instant dismay in the English society. Some believed the government should rethink its policies and blamed the problem of unemployment; the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher highlighted values of the Victorian age and stressed the importance of family background and discipline in education. The Football
47 Association penalized Millwall FC by a £7,500 fine which was cancelled in the end anyway. (Millwall versus the Mob) Nevertheless, Millwall supporters punished themselves and their club in a way that no amount of money can express. The incident of the Kenilworth Road has turned Millwall into something which represented everything what was wrong not only in the world of football, but also in the whole society. In other words, Millwall FC has become the incarnation of evil. An interesting reaction was the one that came from the home side. Luton Town FC introduced a scheme which allowed 'club members' only to visit the matches, thus controlling everybody and protecting their own ground. Moreover, they banned supporters of all visiting teams to attend the games. Seeing the results of the horror incident, measures of these kinds were completely understandable.
The Kenilworth Road riot was an event the horror and sadness of which changed the face of English football. The sad true is that this incident was a culmination of all the terror that was happening years before. Even though it seems that such a climax could be presumable, there was nothing and nobody to prevent it. This incident also started an era in which the problem of football hooligans simply had to be fought with, it was the time when 'the war on football hooliganism' finally began. However, it was clear soon enough that the fight is going to be long and tough, for what happened next was worse than anybody would ever think of.
6.2. Heysel
The Heysel Stadium disaster will always be remembered as one of the blackest days in the history of football. This was the time when not only the English public, but the whole world saw what the English football fans are capable of and how far the horror of football hooliganism can get. On 29th May 1985, the glorious Liverpool FC was expected to confront one of the best Italian clubs, Juventus Turin, in the European Cup Final. This final match, attracting millions of excited fans worldwide, was played at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels, Belgium. Unfortunately, instead of excitement and a sports experience of high quality the event brought nothing but terror, disbelief, and a never ending sorrow.
48 As a matter of fact, the match was filled with concern long before it actually started. The first problem was the choice of the ground itself. The Heysel Stadium was already at that time very old and weak in construction, but despite all objections and doubts from both sides, UEFA (the Union of European Football Associations) refused to alter the choice of the hosting ground. Another thing bringing anxiety was the fact that the tickets for the match were not designated for the Liverpool and Juventus fans only, but one of the terraces was meant as a neutral zone for others, i.e. Belgian spectators. The fear was that the English and Italian fans will be able to buy tickets for that terrace on the 'black market', thus creating a mixed zone of Anglo-Italian hooligans. These concerns were not fulfilled completely, but the 'neutral zone' was immediately full of Juventus supporters, right next to the Liverpool ones. (Heysel: A Day Never Forgotten)
The sad truth is that these steps, made by either UEFA or the match organizers and officials, can hardly be considered as smart ones. By not listening to the warnings coming especially from Liverpool officials, who knew what their supporters are capable of, they made mistakes one will regret forever. In other words, the conditions under which the match was about to start made the ground ready for a horrific riot.
The trouble started approximately one hour before the game was supposed to be kicked off. The fans of both teams, occupying the neighbouring terraces, began to provoke and attack each other by throwing various items over a poor wire fencing, the only obstacle between the two terraces full of raging rival hooligans. It was clear soon enough that the situation could be hardly managed. The inadequate police squad, set in between the terraces, lost the control completely after the Liverpool fans broke through the fence and outnumbered them easily. The Juventus fans, seeing the furious performance of the English, began to flee to the other end of the terrace. However, the concrete wall they ran into made their escape impossible. In panic, they overcrowded the area significantly, pushing themselves at the wall while trying to get out. The pressure was too strong for the old wall to resist, and it collapsed eventually, crushing and imprisoning many of the helpless fans. Pieces of fencing were used as stretchers, football flags as covers for the lifeless bodies piled up on the terrace. (Heysel Stadium Disaster)
The whole world was watching the horrible scenes live, startled, and in disbelief. The expected European Cup Final turned into a tragedy the horror of which surpassed anything seen in the world of sports so far. At that moment, football ceased to exist.
49 The events of the 'neutral zone' brought more riots and chaos around the stadium, coming especially from the Juventus fans who witnessed the tragedy happening on the other side of the ground. In spite of all that, the match officials insisted on playing the match, fearing that cancelling it would bring even more trouble. Even though literally nobody was in the mood for playing football, the delayed game finally started. Nobody cared about the result anymore; the desire of winning the European Cup trophy was suddenly gone. Juventus won the match 1-0, but the joy simply faded away. John Wark, a former Liverpool player, describes the memory of that match with the following words: "Juventus won after Michel Platini scored from the penalty spot. It was not a penalty but there were no complaints from Liverpool players because we just wanted to go home." (Ibid.)
A Guardian journalist Paul Wilson summarized the grievous results of the Heysel incident on the occasion of the event's 25th anniversary. The number of losses reaching thirty-nine people dead and some six hundred injured was devastating. Despite the fact that the incident was not, at least officially, investigated, the blame for the tragedy was put on Liverpool and its fans entirely. Neither the Belgian police nor the stadium authorities were ever interrogated. The stadium itself underwent a major reconstruction in 1994, after years of not being used for organizing important games. As a punishment from UEFA, all English clubs were banned from European competitions for the following five years. Liverpool got a ban of ten years, but was allowed back after only six of them. (Wilson)
Although the Liverpool fans' guilt is doubtless, the fact that the incident did not undergo a thorough inquiry is rather surprising. In reality, there appear to be questions that would not be that easy to answer. The curious choice of the hosting ground might be something UEFA could be blamed for. Despite all the cautions, the match was played at an old and dangerous stadium proved to be highly unsuitable to host such a major final game. Mentioning this, it is surprising how ridiculously easy it was for the English fans to break through the fence that was supposed to separate the terraces. Alongside with this, the role of the match officials and that of the police is another thing to be questioned. The small group of policemen whose duty was to control the area between the terraces had no chance of success. They got overpowered by the English so quickly that it felt as if they were not there, and the Italians, taken by surprise, were left
50 with no other option than running away. From this point of view, we must admit that the security and control forces were simply not ready. Be that as it may, it is difficult to say whether the way of putting all the blame on the Liverpool side was the right one or not, but it was certainly the easiest one. Without lowering the guilt or trying to justify we should consider that the Liverpool fans were probably not the only ones to make a mistake, though their contribution was surely the biggest one. We can say that the whole incident was rather a combination of mistakes and unfortunate circumstances that eventually led to the tragic end.
As if meant to be, it took twenty long years until the two teams confronted each other again. During the season 2004/2005, they were drawn together in a quarterfinal of the Champions League, the modern version of the original European Cup. The first match was held at Anfield Road, and the home side made all the effort to host their Juventus guests in a truly friendly way. The beginning of the match was marked by regretful memories, a minute's silence, and the Liverpool anthem You'll Never Walk Alone which many of the Italian fans sang along. The famous 'Kop' terrace was where a huge writing 'amicizia', the Italian word for 'friendship', was displayed. All this was highly appreciated by the football public and confirmed the forgiving and friendly relationship between both clubs. This was emphasized by the Liverpool Chief Executive Rick Parry who claimed that "the bond between us remains strong, but we still want all Juventus fans to know that we are very sorry about the fact that thirty-nine people lost their lives. We moved forward in a spirit of friendship after Heysel and the clubs continue to work together in a spirit of mutual respect." (Heysel: A Day Never Forgotten)
It is natural that such a grievous event as Heysel is to be remembered forever. May 2012 was already 27th anniversary of the incident, and an annual occasion for Liverpool, Juventus, and the rest of the world to commemorate the victims of one of the biggest tragedies in the history of sports. On this occasion, Juventus stated the following: "It was a crazy night which swept away a joyful event to celebrate football and claimed thirty-nine innocent victims. This tragedy occurred twenty-seven years ago … but those sad, disastrous events in Brussels are still alive in our hearts." (Telegraph Sport) However, as horrific as the incident was, we might claim that the saddest thing about it all was that the wish everybody had did not come true, for Heysel was still not the end.
51 6.3. Hillsborough
The Hillsborough disaster is known as the climax of the horrific years afflicting the world of English football. With the total loss of ninety-six human lives, it is the biggest tragedy in the history of English sport. The year 1989 will always be remembered by all football fans as the most tragic and sorrowful one of all; for what happened on 15th April of that year in Sheffield was simply too much to bear.
On that spring Saturday, Liverpool FC was expected to face Nottingham Forest FC in a semifinal of the FA Cup. Traditionally, the semifinals of this competition were played at a neutral ground. For this one, the Hillsborough Stadium, the home ground of Sheffield Wednesday FC, was chosen. It is worth mentioning that this time there was nothing peculiar about the choice, since Hillsborough was regularly used for important matches like this. Coincidentally, these two clubs met in an FA Cup semifinal one year before, and the match was played at the very same stadium. But the year in question – the crucial 1989 – has changed everything. Since that dreadful afternoon, the name Hillsborough has been used as a synonym for the worst incident in the history of English football and one of the saddest days in the world of sports. It is worth mentioning, though, that this time hooliganism was not the cause of the tragedy.
The trouble began around 14:30, about half an hour before the kick off. Even though the Liverpool fans were arriving at Sheffield since midday, their entering of Leppings Lane, the terrace designated for them only, was accompanied with complications from the very beginning. Even some ten minutes to kick off, thousands of fans were outside the ground, waiting to get in. Their access was aggravated by a limited number of turnstiles which could not proceed such masses of fans in time. Fearing that overcrowding would cause trouble outside the stadium, the police ordered to open a large exit gate C to allow the fans to enter the terrace. Most of them chose the shortest way through the tunnel into the middle pens 3 and 4 on the lower stand which were right behind the goal and which, actually, were almost full already. The terrace boundary was formed by a steel fencing, built at most of the stadiums during 1970s and 1980s to avoid pitch invasions. The influx of fans made the terrace overcrowded severely, giving the people no space to escape, and making them panic. The match started at 15:00 and after only five minutes a collapsing crush barrier made the people fall on top of one another and caused fatal
52 crushing inside the 'cage'. Many fans were trying to climb over the fence to find safety; others were dragged to the upper tiers of the terrace. At 15:06 the match was stopped and the ground was overwhelmed by a complete chaos. Supporters were trying to help the injured, advertising boards were used as stretchers. Sadly enough, the situation was badly managed by stadium authorities. Firefighters were having trouble getting on the ground, dozens of ambulances were waiting outside with no way of getting in. Only fourteen people of those ninety-six who died were ever hospitalized. (How the Hillsborough Disaster Happened)
The scenes of Hillsborough entered the world of football in a way that will never be deleted. The overcrowded terrace, the imprisoned people, the horrific helplessness, the lifeless bodies, and the never ending chaos was too much for anybody to digest. The crucial question of responsibility for this event has been dealt with ever since and had been covered in mystery for twenty-three long years. Unbelievable as it sounds, only in September 2012 the truth, finding the mistakes to have been done, was finally revealed.
The search for the truth was rather complicated, though. Four days after the incident an article in The Sun newspaper was published, saying 'The Truth' and putting the blame on the fans. The article claimed that the Liverpool supporters misbehaved themselves, assaulted the police and the medical forces, and even stole things from the victims. All this was strongly refused by the Liverpool side. However, a different theory came only a few months later. In August 1989, the released Taylor Report written by Lord Justice Taylor said that the mistakes were done by the police and that the chief commander is the one to be blamed. According to the report, the biggest failure was that the tunnel leading to pens 3 and 4 was not closed after the gate C was opened. Apart from that, it criticised the inability of the police to manage the crowd outside the stadium properly and their effort to put the blame on the fans claiming that they arrived at the stadium late and drunk. (Hillsborough Disaster and its Aftermath) The truth is, by not closing the mentioned tunnel the police enabled too many people get on the terrace. The newly coming fans could not know that the pens are full already and pushed themselves into that space, thus creating a deadly prison for the ones present. In any case, the fact that two completely distinct theories came so soon after the event indicates that there was something strange from the very beginning.
53 As follows in the BBC article, in spite of the results of the investigation the Taylor Report has brought to light, there appeared to be no criminal charges against anybody, simply because of the lack of evidence. The further inquiries into the case in 1991 defined the deaths of the victims as 'accidental death'. The interesting thing about the inquiry was that the event examinations were time-limited up to 15:15, which was based on the belief that all the victims were dead by that time. It is clear, though, that the actions of the police and medical forces after that time could not be analysed appropriately, and therefore this inquiry can hardly be considered as completely relevant. The following years were marked by more attempts at thorough examination of the incident, coming especially from the victims' families whose aim was to make the authorities reopen the case and investigate it again. (Ibid.)
We must admit that the never ending efforts of the victims' families are completely understandable. With all the mystery covering the incident for such a long time, they were expecting answers to questions they were raising. These answers would hardly make the sorrow any easier to bear, but they would at least reveal the truth, which was something the families certainly deserved. Even though it took more than twenty grievous years, their requests were finally answered, and what is more, their qualms were proven to be right.
As David Conn states, the crucial investigation began in 2009 when the Hillsborough Independent Panel, led by the Liverpool bishop James Jones, was formed. The Panel investigated over 400,000 formerly unseen documents rendered by the police, Sheffield Wednesday, and other authorities concerned. The result of the investigation was a four- hundred-paged report released on 12th September 2012, revealing the shocking truth. The findings proved the victims and supporters to be innocent, and exposed the long- lasting efforts of the police to avoid their own responsibility and to put the blame on someone else. The South Yorkshire police, not willing to admit their own failure, were for those decades accusing the supporters of causing the tragedy by being drunk, violent, and misbehaved. For their own sake, the police altered the witness statements, had the victims checked for the level of alcohol in their blood, and in case they had any, even dragged up their criminal records. However, probably the most startling finding is the belief that if the police and medical forces had done their jobs properly, forty-one of those ninety-six lives could have been rescued. (Hillsborough Disaster: The Truth)
54 It is more than shocking that it took more than two decades for the revelation to come. Fearing of exposing their flaws and ruining their reputation, the police managed to keep the public far from the truth all that time. For this, the victims' families were being tormented not only by losses the pain of which is hard even to imagine, but also by a never ending uncertainty of what really happened. Now the true story of their loved ones has been uncovered, and they can finally rest in peace. Trevor Hicks, the president of the Hillsborough Family Support Group, commented on the twist in the case with the following words: "The truth is out today, tomorrow is for justice" (Ibid.).
As expected, this massive report caused an immediate dismay within the English public. In his speech, the Prime Minister David Cameron acquitted the Liverpool supporters by saying that they are not responsible for the disaster, and expressed his deep sorrow about the fact that it took so long for the justice to come. The chief constable of South Yorkshire Police David Crompton, who was in charge of his team on that crucial day, said he was shocked by the panel's conclusions and apologized for his team's failure, as well as for the course of events that followed the disaster. Another apology came from The Sun newspaper for its accusing article named 'The Truth' which was proved to be a criminal lie. The newspaper denoted this article as the biggest mistake in its history. The ensuing press conference was where the panel explained its findings concerning the number of losses, saying that there were as much as forty-one people still alive after 15:15, the highly controversial cut-off investigation point. According to the panel, these victims could have been possibly saved, should the actions of the police and emergency services be better organized and managed. (Staff Reporter)
The Hillsborough disaster will never be forgotten by any football fan in the world, and 15th April will always remain the saddest day of the year for every Liverpool supporter. This day is an annual occasion for everybody to commemorate the ninety-six lives which were lost so needlessly, and to remember one of the biggest tragedies in the history of sport. The sadness of the incident is even strengthened by the recent turn of events uncovering the story hidden for more than twenty years. It is regretful that the families who lost their beloved ones had to sorrow in a lie and uncertainty for such a long time. Although it does not make the pain of the losses any more bearable, after the never ending struggle they finally got what they were fighting for – the truth. And we can be sure that what they expect now is justice to be done.
55 The decade preceding the year 1990, and especially the four years this chapter is dealing with, represents the worst era in the history of English football. The incidents of the Kenilworth Road riot, the Heysel tragedy and the Hillsborough disaster came as the horrific and inevitable end of the terror happening years before. These events have changed the face of English football and showed its darkest side to the rest of the world. Apart from that, they proved that the role of football in England was not just that of a game anymore.
Seeing the horror of the tragedies coming one after another, one could feel that this was too much to handle. Football, the beautiful game being loved all around the world, was being ruined and disgraced, all this happening on the soil of the very same country it was born in. It was clear that something has to happen to change the direction it has taken. The main goal everybody was aiming at was to prevent such terrors as the Kenilworth Road, Heysel and Hillsborough and make sure that nothing like that happens ever again. In other words, the wish all football fans and people interested in this game were sharing was to improve its reputation again, and to bring it where it belongs – to the sunny side of the world of sports.
56 7. The Way Out
As indicated several times, 1980s was a decade the end of which brought English football into a truly critical state. The conditions under which the league was being played, the never ending spectator misbehaviour, and the way the English presented themselves and their game to the rest of the world was something that exceeded the bearable limits in a way which could not be tolerated anymore.
The disastrous peak of these horrific years was represented by the incidents of Heysel and Hillsborough. These events, by bringing an unbelievable shock and never ending sorrows of losing so many innocent lives so needlessly, completely destroyed the idea of football as the beautiful game it has always been. The world of hooliganism absorbed the world of football so much that it changed its sense and meaning in the eyes of the rest of society. Hooliganism became the most significant attribute within the English football, and, sadly, the only important thing representing it all around Europe and the world. In other words, the English hooligans managed to overgrow the game of football and everything related to it.
Apart from that, these years made many people think how low life had sunk, and what price did many of them have to pay for that. One could ask himself where does the limit of all this stand; and how would this end. Unfortunately, football hooligans seemed to have no limits at all. The situation became uncontrollable, and more importantly, unbearable. But still, thanks to the determination and belief people proved to have, there was hope for a change and a better future, for there was much more at stake than the game of football. The problem of hooliganism was ruining the whole English society, and that was simply too much to risk.
It was clear that a change has to come. A change to be done not only for the people, but also for the game itself. The feeling of terror, fear, and violence needed to be eradicated from the football environment and replaced by security, respect, and a healthy sporting atmosphere. This was needed more than anything else to 'cure' football and improve its spoilt reputation again. The truth is, people never really stopped loving the game; they just did not have the chance for doing so. And that is the main reason why the treatment needed to be done – for the sake of the beautiful game.
57 7.1. The Terraces Extinction
One of the important steps to be done in the search for a better future of the English football environment was the improvement of the actual places the game was being played in – the football stadiums. It is true that the state and construction of many English grounds at the end of 1980s was not of the highest quality, which was contributing to the problems football had to face. The popular concrete terraces designated for standing spectators only, very often dangerously overcrowded and difficult to be controlled, was a typical feature of that time's football fandom. A stadium of such proportion was a place where violence was the rule of the day. It was clear enough that if both the spectator behaviour and the 'football stadium culture' were to be improved, this had to be changed somehow.
It is worth mentioning that the incidents dealt with in the previous chapter were affected by this significantly. The concrete terrace at Kenilworth Road, overcrowded with frantic Millwall hooligans standing a few metres from the pitch, was something which could hardly ever prevent the fans from doing whatever they wanted. The Heysel Stadium in Brussels was simply too old, weak in construction, and thus very dangerous to host such a major game as the European Cup Final. The tragic end of the match proved this in the worst way possible. The ground of the Hillsborough disaster, the climax of all the tragic events, was originally thought to be suitable. But after the incident and its thorough investigation, the stadium was revealed to fail following the security measures, thus being inappropriate for major matches of the FA Cup. We should certainly not think that the bad conditioned stadiums were the primary cause of the disasters, or the cause of the critical state of the English football generally, but we must admit that their contribution was not negligible.
The idea of the improvement of English stadiums as a necessary step which could consequently improve the whole football environment came from Lord Justice Taylor and the mentioned Taylor Report of 1990, investigating the Hillsborough disaster of 1989. In his suggestions concerning the changes to be done in the world of football Taylor stresses the following idea:
58 What is required is the vision and imagination to achieve a new ethos for
football. Grounds should be upgraded. Attitudes should be more
welcoming. The aim should be to provide more modern and comfortable
accommodation, better and more varied facilities, more consultation with
the supporters and more positive leadership. (12)
This focus on the improvement of the English football culture has become the mutual goal of all forces caring about the game of football and its reputation. However, Lord Justice Taylor was among the first ones to come with actual and specific steps to be accomplished to achieve this. As already mentioned, one of the most important ones was to alter the structure and equipment of the grounds.
As Anthony King states, among all the recommendations Taylor made in his report, the implementation of all-seated football stadiums was probably the most famous and important one. The reason for this was Taylor's conviction that seated crowd is easier to be controlled and ordered, which would help to eliminate the frequent occurrence of hooliganism. (97-99) We can definitely agree with the belief that all-seated terraces help to bring order into crowd organization and control. The main problem of standing terraces was the frequent overcrowding, lack of organization, and the possibility of hiding within the crowd. All this was making the manifestation of hooliganism easy to carry out, and therefore frequent to happen. All-seated stadiums, on the other hand, prevent the terraces from being overcrowded by admitting only limited (and adequate) number of spectators. In addition, by being more ordered, the seating makes the control and identification of the crowd much easier.
Alongside with all-seating, another important step in the improvement of the stadium environment and atmosphere was the implementation of the camera control. According to King, the introduction of CCTV (closed-circuit television) brought the possibility for the police to zoom the problematic area immediately, search for a specific seat, and thus identify the particular person causing trouble. (99) It is worth saying that CCTV has soon become a powerful weapon in the efforts to eliminate football hooliganism. As a true example proving this fact can be seen the
59 movie Cass, based on an autobiographical book of the same name. The movie depicts the story of Cass Pennant, one of the most famous English hooligans and former leaders of the West Ham's ICF. As it is narrated in the story, the implementation of the camera control brought a sudden change in spectator behaviour at stadiums. Being controlled by CCTV, hooligan gangs did not dare to perform their violence right in front of the eyes of the police and other authorities concerned. Instead of that, they started to move their actions away from the reach of the cameras and to perform them anywhere else possible – outside the stadiums, in bars and restaurants, or simply in the streets. (Cass)
From this we can see that football hooliganism was not really being eliminated, but rather only moved to other places to be proceeded. This fact is not surprising, though. Bearing in mind the nature of genuine hooligans, we could hardly expect them to quit what they do and to disappear, for abandoning the meaning of life would be difficult for anybody.
Be that as it may, even though hooliganism is hard to imagine to suddenly vanish, the changes implemented after Taylor's recommendations did really help to improve the situation. Football stadiums became more comfortable and equipped with much better facilities and methods of control, which turned them into more 'friendly' places. People were no longer afraid to bring their kids to the grounds. Fighting, riots, and racist chanting were progressively eradicated from the scenes of the English football leagues. In other words, the culture of English football grounds was finally improved.
However, alongside with this, there appeared other changes that seemed not intended initially. Anthony King claims that "despite his socially inclusive intentions, the cost of Taylor's demand for all-seater stadia has had to be borne, at least partially, by the paying spectator" (102). It is no wonder that the significant improvement of the stadium environment claimed higher requirements in the financial sphere. The ticket prices were increased due to all-seating and other facilities upgraded, and quite naturally, they are doing so ever since. It is therefore very likely that in the course of time, the social composition of football spectators has altered. Football, at least its highest levels, is not an entertainment for everybody anymore. An example proving this is not difficult to be found. As Daniel Harris declares, the cheapest ticket for Arsenal's big matches in 2012/13 season goes over £60. In case you want to have better seats, you have to pay more than £100. (Harris) What is more, the tickets are not so easy to buy. Most parts of
60 the stadiums are occupied all year long by season-ticket holders, the membership of which is either inherited, or waited a long time for. And that is something not everybody can afford, or be so lucky to get.
No matter how important and beneficial the change of the football grounds was, we can imagine that there are people missing 'the days of the standing terraces'. The chance of simply coming to the stadium, buying a ticket and enjoying the roughness and raw atmosphere of the standing terrace is something they will not be given ever again. Nevertheless, the feeling of security and not fearing of losing your life is certainly more valuable than memories of the old days of football.
In any case, the changes and innovations implemented in the structure and facilities of stadiums was an important step in the fight against football hooliganism. The stadium environment turned to appear more spectator-friendly, more welcoming, and safer. It was a good move in the search for the bright side of football. Yet the grounds alone could not minimize or even eradicate the phenomenon of football hooliganism, for there was much more to be done to make hooligans behave like humans.
7.2. The Power of the Law
It is clear that the fight against football hooliganism was needed to be led from various sides. The events of 1980s, bringing a great shock into the English society, made it obvious that something has to be changed significantly before the reputation of England and its proud inhabitants reaches its very bottom. The government knew that what they are facing is a true trouble endangering the country's society. What was needed was finding a powerful weapon in combating football hooligans, and thus getting rid of the severe problem. And the right weapon the government was determined to implement was a set of new legal measures and a substantial change of the law.
In fact, the first attempts to solve the problem of hooliganism with the force of the law were coming already during the crucial decade. As indicated earlier, among the very first ones belongs the case of Luton Town FC. According to Andy Lyons, the horrific riot at Kenilworth Road in 1985 made the club decide for a resolute solution. The Luton chairman David Evans was the one to initiate a ban on all away supporters together with
61 a membership scheme designated for the home fans. This meant that no supporters of any other club were allowed to visit matches played at the home stadium of Luton Town FC; while the home ones had to provide their IDs to be admitted. (Lyons) Seeing the terror of the match in question and the state of the stadium after the rage of the Millwall rowdies makes us understand these steps undoubtedly. Luton Town simply wanted to protect their home ground and prevent it from being destroyed like that again, for the reconstruction of the stadium into an all-seater one was the only, and certainly not a cheap one, answer to the arisen situation. Apart from that, there was one more obvious reason for this – protection of the spectators. It was feared that instead of seats and stadium facilities, much more valuable things could get lost next time, namely human lives. Even though these concerns were proven to be right, Kenilworth Road has never had to witness such a tragedy. And that appeared to be the primary goal of the Luton's ban of all away fans and the newly introduced membership scheme.
As Andy Lyons continues, the tragedy of Heysel Stadium which happened in May 1985 made the English public panic and forced the government to finally 'do something', the result of which was the Football Spectators Act of 1989. This act intended to implement an obligation of identity cards for all spectators to provide to be allowed to enter the stadiums. However, after the Hillsborough disaster of the same year, the ID scheme was withdrawn and the act was subsequently substituted. (Ibid.) The following improvement of the legal measures was represented by the introduction of the Football Offences Act of 1991. According to Ian Blackshaw, this act "made it a criminal offence to enter the playing area; to throw missiles; and to chant racist remarks" (Blackshaw).
We must agree with the idea that the implementation of the measures this act brought was a crucial move in combating football hooliganism. The reason for this is that the events of pitch invasions, throwing missiles, and racist chanting were happening on a regular basis and thus ruining the English football. By eradicating these things from football stadiums the situation was improved significantly. However, as the strongest weapon against hooligan behaviour can be seen the punishment for breaking these laws, i.e. the implemented banning orders.
The ensuing introduction of the Football (Offences and Disorder) Act 1999 and the Football (Disorder) Act 2000 meant a consequent strengthening of the originally
62 established measures. As far as the mentioned football banning order is concerned, Ian Blackshaw explains the essence of this crucial enactment with the following words:
Section 14A of the Football Spectators Act 1989, as amended by the
Football (Disorder) Act 2000, requires the Court to impose a football
banning order on any person convicted of a relevant football-related
offence, if it is satisfied that there are reasonable grounds for believing
that the making of the banning order would help to prevent violence or
disorder at or in connection with any regulated football matches.
(Blackshaw)
In other words, breaking the law means a prohibition of visiting football matches all around the country, as well as all games of the England national team abroad. As Blackshaw continues to explain, the act goes so far that the police have the right to arrest and ban a person who is not charged with an offence, but it is sufficient that the person involved is probable to take part in manifestation of disorderliness and violence. This, however, is usually based on the records of former arrests and a database of people corresponding with the 'hooligan profile'. Regarding the length of the banning orders, the bans according to the section 14A offences have to last from three to ten years; while the 'probability' bans are to be set from two to three years. (Ibid.)
It is believed that the football banning orders represent the most significant measure and the strongest weapon in the efforts to eradicate football hooliganism. By implementing this, the government finally managed what for long years seemed almost impossible, since football hooligans started to think about the way they behaved at football matches. Knowing that by causing trouble they could be banned from attending any football stadium, it was suddenly clear to them that their actions are worth thinking through first. The truth is, the genuine fans love the game of football with all their bodies and souls, and the threat of losing it is the worst one they can imagine. The price of being deprived of the biggest love of their lives is simply too high to pay. And that is the main reason why the scenes of English football stadiums have changed remarkably, and why raging hooligans have turned into peaceful spectators.
63 The changes implemented into the world of English football in the spheres of stadium structure and the law have brought the improvement of the whole football environment the English society was longing for so endlessly. After a never ending struggle and truly determined effort, the bright side of the most popular game in the world was finally found again. Riots, fighting, and fear vanished and were replaced by respect and security. Thanks to all this, people have found their way to football again. The question to ask here is if the cost of the change was not too high, for the era preceding this, and especially its peak represented by the disastrous events of Heysel and Hillsborough, was something one will hardly ever digest and get over. Be that as it may, one can conclude that these events were the final impulse for the change to happen; and for the culture of the English football to be improved.
7.3. From Participants to Consumers
The years following the Hillsborough disaster of 1989 can be included among the most important ones in the evolution of English football and its fandom. It was the time when the game was managed to be guided out of the atmosphere of hatred and contempt, and it was the moment in which football could begin to form its new face and a better future. By eradicating the direct display of hooliganism at stadiums and modernizing the grounds themselves, the culture of the English football environment has been generally improved. As a matter of fact, the game of football has changed not only in the eyes of those concerned, but also in the eyes of the whole English society.
It is true and natural that alongside with the world of its fandom, football went through a substantial transformation also in other spheres of the game. The growing inflow of money caused changes in the financial area and consequently connected the world of football with the one of business. In the course of the years, football clubs started to function like companies with the main aim of making money. And it is worth mentioning that the amounts of money circulating in today's world of football are huge. Thanks to numerous investors, sponsors, and advertisers who were able to detect and use its economic potential, football has become something much bigger than just a game. Another thing which contributed to popularisation of football was its media coverage, and especially the influence of television which started to broadcast matches
64 on a regular basis. All this made the game of football turn into a mainstream entertainment haunting people on every step they take. In fact, England is a country in which one should not try to avoid or run away from the impact of football, for it would be simply useless. In other words, football has grown into a phenomenon the greatness of which can hardly any other game or sport cope with.
As far as the football fandom is concerned, the revolution it went through was obviously a major one, since the question of fans was the most important issue of the transformation of English football in general. As the problem of hooliganism was finally solved and the events of violence and terror vanished from stadiums, the game appeared to be more open and welcoming for 'ordinary' people. And it is true that they did not hesitate to take advantage of that, which can be easily seen on the current composition of the crowds. The former standard, the main feature of which was that the crowd was made almost exclusively out of adult males, is not the case of the scenes of the English football stadiums anymore. The improvement of the situation attracted new visitors such as whole families and women themselves, which made the crowds look more lively and 'colourful'. Thus, football has eventually made its way into every single sphere of life of the English nation.
As the football environment was changing, the nature of the football fans seemed to be changing alongside with it. This, of course, was caused partly by the mentioned fact that more and more different people were getting interested in the game and actually visiting matches; and partly by the fact that the true hooligans, being given no other choice, simply had to adjust to the new conditions, or vanish. Therefore, with the impacts from the financial sphere of the game, the role and essence of a football fan has moved from the one involved to that of a "consumer" (King 193). In fact, the time of consumerism has changed the face of the English football fandom completely. As opposed to the times of the '80s hooligans regularly creating the raw atmosphere, being truly connected with their team, and 'taking part' in the matches, the new consumer fans seem to be more distant from the game, mostly 'observing' and enjoying the beauty of the game, which can sometimes weaken the atmosphere at the stadium and lower the spectator's experience. This, however, does not apply for every club and every football ground, the true example of which being Liverpool FC and their famous Anfield Road. Yet the general difference is still visible. As far as the reaction of
65 the general public to this is concerned, we can imagine that there are people sad about the loss of the old atmosphere which was so typical for the world of English football. Nevertheless, we can be sure that there are many more of those glad about the fact that these days are long gone.
Despite all this, we should not think that the genuine English hooligans, as rough and devoted as always known, have disappeared. No matter what happens and how strict the law gets, they just cannot leave what they basically live for. However, they have to live it in a different way than they were used to. What they need is to stay hidden within their group and to try to interfere with their ambient world as seldom as possible, which is the only way for them to stay safe. As mentioned several times, the problem they have always encountered and which will hardly ever be solved is the highly negative relationship between them and the media. Because of this, we will never be allowed to see the real face of the world of football hooligans. Therefore, we will hardly ever get the chance to understand it either.
Be that as it may, we can conclude that the problem of hooliganism belongs among the biggest ones the English society had to face in the course of 20th century. It has grown into such a critical state that the whole England together with the rest of the world was watching startled and in disbelief how far the madness of the football fandom can get, and what horrible things it can cause. The amount of pain and suffering it brought into the lives of so many people is something one can hardly imagine, and never tolerate. It was necessary to use any force possible to get rid of this and to make sure that such events as the Kenilworth Road riot, Heysel, and Hillsborough, among many others, will never happen again.
We must be pleased to claim that these efforts ended up a success and the change has really come, since we should not even try to guess what would happen if it did not. Fortunately enough, hooliganism was eventually eradicated from the football stadiums and the culture of the English football significantly improved. The fear was suddenly gone, and the wish the whole country was sharing came true – people did not have to be afraid of taking their families and children to football matches anymore, for a football stadium has finally become a safer place.
66 8. Conclusion
The game of football has since its early beginnings grown into a state in which it undoubtedly rules the world of sports. Its evolution points out the mankind's ability to cling to any kind of entertainment offering an experience of a high quality. And it is worth saying that the entertainment and experience football offers is of such a quality that in many cases, the inclination has turned into addiction. In short, football has become a phenomenon of our time.
However, the evolution of football has brought more aspects of the game affecting lives of ordinary people in more ways than one would really wish. Over the years, the masses of people being fond of the game created a basis for another phenomenon which, eventually, overgrew the essence of football itself. In fact, the world of football fandom, and especially the phenomenon of hooliganism, is what determined the way the evolution of this game has taken. Sad to say, this path ended up worse than anybody would ever fear.
The rise of the hooligan movement was a crucial moment not only for the world of English football, but also for the rest of the country's society. The newly established gangs, spreading nothing but terror and organized violence, changed the nature and reputation of football fans completely. They revealed the darkest side of football to the rest of the world, and ruined the beauty of the game. Nevertheless, the number of human lives lost during this era is what is to be regretted the most. The world of football, being covered in fear and disgust, reached its dead end.
It should be noted, though, that the way the English handled the problem of hooliganism is one to be praised. They managed to find the right weapons to combat hooligans, and to restore order at stadiums. The violence and fear was finally gone, and the people could start to love the game again. By implementing the changes into its environment, football began its new era in which its image and culture was significantly improved. It became more open and welcoming for the general public, and most importantly, safer. In fact, the aspect of security can be seen as the crucial thing attracting the eager crowds and filling the stadiums with the 'new' fans.
67 As a result of all this, the world of football fandom has changed as well. The role the spectators play nowadays is more important and much more respectful than it used to be. They create the basis of the modern world of football, and they are the ones to make it so widespread and hugely popular. The clubs regard their supporters more than ever, and maintain relationships with them at an almost professional level. In other words, what was improved substantially is the mutual cooperation between fans, clubs, and their players. Needless to say, this was implemented for the sake of everyone involved.
The world of English football and its fans is something truly special, for there has never been, and hardly ever will be, anything similar the world of sports could offer. Even though it caused an overwhelming amount of pain and sorrow, there is hope that those days are gone forever, and that the only sorrow football will ever cause again is the one of losing a match. To get at least a basic idea of the way a genuine football fan thinks and absorbs the game he loves, we may recall the words of Nick Hornby: "If it is possible to attend and enjoy a football match sixteen days after nearly a hundred people died at one – and it is possible, I did it … – then perhaps it is a little easier to understand the culture and circumstances that allowed these deaths to happen. Nothing ever matters, apart from football." (217)
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69 Holt, Richard. Sport and the British: A Modern History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Print. "Hooligan." etymonline.com. The Online Etymology Dictionary, n.d. Web. 22 August 2012. Hornby, Nick. Fever Pitch. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2000. Print. "How the Hillsborough Disaster Happened." news.bbc.co.uk. BBC, 14 April 2009. Web. 23 October 2012. King, Anthony. The End of the Terraces: The Transformation of English Football in the 1990s. London: Leicester University Press, 1998. Print. "Liverpool FC Songs." anfield-online.co.uk. Anfield Online, n.d. Web. 9 October 2012. Loy, John W., Jr., and Gerald S. Kenyon. Sport, Culture, and Society. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971. Print. Lyons, Andy. "Thatcher attacks football – 1985-1989." guardian.co.uk. The Guardian, 18 May 2009. Web. 12 November 2012. "Millwall Hooligans." football-hooligans.org. Football Hooligans, n.d. Web. 11 October 2012. "Millwall versus the Mob." millwall-history.org.uk. The Millwall History Files, n.d. Web. 11 October 2012. Robson, Garry. 'No One Likes Us, We Don't Care': The Myth and Reality of Millwall Fandom. Oxford: Oxford International Publishers Ltd, 2000. Print. "Sheffield FC – Club History." sheffieldfc.com. Sheffield FC, n.d. Web. 15 June 2012. Staff Reporter. "Hillsborough report: Cops did not protect victims and blamed fans." thesun.co.uk. The Sun, 12 September 2012. Web. 25 October 2012. Storry, Mike, and Peter Childs. British Cultural Identities. London: Routledge, 1997. Print. Taylor, Lord Justice. The Hillsborough Stadium Disaster: Final Report. Home Office, 1990. PDF file. Telegraph Sport. "Liverpool and Juventus mark 27th anniversary of Heysel Stadium disaster." telegraph.co.uk. The Telegraph, 29 May 2012. Web. 18 October 2012. "The Story of Bubbles." whufc.com. West Ham United Football Club, 17 October 2007. Web. 20 November 2012. "West Ham United – Inter City Firm." realhooligans.com. Real Hooligans, 12 July 2011. Web. 4 October 2012.
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71 Resumé
The diploma thesis "English Football and Hooliganism" deals with the world of football and its fandom in England. It depicts the evolution and rise of this fascinating game from its early beginnings to its today's state in which it undoubtedly rules the world of sports. The main focus of the work is the phenomenon of hooliganism and the problems it caused not only in the English football, but also in the whole society. The work describes some of the worst incidents in the history of English football, trying to reveal the cause of each of these horrible events. The last chapter of the work focuses on the evolution of English football after these horrific years, and points out the changes that have been brought into this environment. The main aim of the work is to prove the positive change of the world of English football and its fandom, as well as the remedy of the spoilt reputation of the most popular game in the world.
Diplomová práce "Anglický fotbal a hooliganismus" se zabývá světem fotbalu a jeho fanouškovstvím v Anglii. Popisuje vývoj a vzestup této fascinující hry od počátků až do současné situace, ve které fotbal nepochybně vévodí světovému sportu. Hlavním bodem práce je fenomén hooliganismu a množství problémů, které toto hnutí způsobilo nejen v anglickém fotbale, ale v celé společnosti. Práce popisuje nejhorší incidenty v historii anglického fotbalu a pokouší se odhalit jejich příčiny. Poslední kapitola práce se zaměřuje na vývoj fotbalu v Anglii po těchto děsivých letech a poukazuje na změny zavedené do tohoto prostředí. Hlavním cílem práce je prokázat jak pozitivní změnu prostředí anglického fotbalu a jeho fanouškovství, tak i nápravu pokažené reputace nejpopulárnější hry světa.
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