Collective Violence in Yorkshire, North of England

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Collective Violence in Yorkshire, North of England *,.'(.) )&#.#&()()'#./#- /&.3) )#&#(- (#0,-#.3) &-#(%# ,#0()-. /-.5 )&&.#0#)&(#(),%-"#,6),.") (!&(8 8)033# 3 $68$9$1;$#O?*;);)$6$80*99*313';)$!</;A3'3!*/!*$1!$93';)$1*>$89*;A 3' $/9*1.*O'386< /*!$@0*1;*31*18330 kkoO 1(<($$1;8$O *1*1.;<lpO 31lmAljkqO;klRjj3U!/3!.R Helsinki 2017 Publications of the Faculty of Social Sciences 48 (2017) Political History © Graham Wood Cover: Pickets in Orgreave Village©Reproduced with kind permission of Martin Shakeshaft - www.strike84.co.uk Distribution and Sales: Unigrafia Bookstore http://kirjakauppa.unigrafia.fi/ [email protected] PL4 (Vuorikatu 3 A) 000014 Helsingin Yliopisto ISBN 978-951-51-2601-6 48/2017 Political History (print) ISBN 978-951-51-2602-3 48/2017 Political History (pdf) ISSN 2343-273X (print) ISSN 2343-2748 (web) Unigrafia, Helsinki 2017. 2 Abstract The research focus is a specific case study analysis of collective violence in the North of England, in particular West and South Yorkshire. There are three cases: the Bradford Riots June 9-11th, 1995, The ‘Battle of Orgreave,’ June 18th, 1984 and a violent encounter between Leeds United and Manchester United fans at Elland Road on October 11th, 1975. The cases are set within the dynamic of violence mutation revealed in both their specific genres and in the fusion of violence that draws together the cases and manifestations of violence in the region throughout the period covered. The unique challenges of violence research are addressed and a triangulation methodology was employed drawing upon extensive newspaper sources, official reports, secondary sources and a limited sample of supporting interviews to garner an insight into the events. Fundamental problems of definition were broached, highlighting the difficulties of undertaking a multidisciplinary study of violence. This was compounded by different disciplines seeing the phenomenon through their own restrictive lens, resulting in divergent and contradictory conceptualisations of violence. This necessitated the formulation of a conceptual framework - violent conflictual contention, to obviate some of the weaknesses in violence definition. Inculcated within the framework were thematic strands of grievance and identity formation set within the contentious repertoire of non-institutional actors leading up to and emanating from the cases themselves. Primary attention was devoted to the non-institutional actors, although recognition was made of the role played by the police in all the cases. Yet irrespective of the level of social control employed by the police, and all three cases exhibited differing crowd control strategies, they nonetheless could not prevent the outbreak of violence and may have in fact have inadvertently exacerbated an increased recourse to violence. A grievance framework was proposed in which suddenly imposed grievances were identified in the unfolding events and reference was made to grievances of illegitimate inequality and violated principles that may have been key causal factors or factors that perpetuated the continuation of the violence. Grievance factors were juxtaposed with identity considerations that highlighted the fragility and transitory nature of identity formation. As the research developed it became evident that those confronting the non-institutional actors in the cases were derived not from some external ‘other’ but were in part sourced from their own fractured communities. Compounding the volatility of grievance and identity formation was a realisation of violence that transformed in both time and space and effectively negated any essentialist approach to the study of violence, thereby compromising the concept of violent conflictual contention. The actors involved could only access a limited and at times vicarious contentious repertoire, so their invocation of violence reflected an instrumentality and a self-belief in the virtuosity of their use of violence at specific points in time. Placed within their historical pathways, the cases moved from the 1970’s, through the 1980’s and 1990’s and finally into the twenty-first century. Demarcated in their own clearly defined temporal context, the cases demonstrated significant levels of non-fatal violence. When transfused into a totality that merged the cases together into a landscape of violence, then the region was witness to significant and perpetual levels of violence during this period. This has resulted in a Yorkshire particularism fraught with contradiction and a resort to violence that has found refuge in the different communities. 3 Tiivistelmä Tutkimuskohteena on tapaustutkimusanalyysi joukkoväkivallasta Pohjois-Englannissa, erityisesti Länsi- ja Etelä-Yorkshiressa. Tapauksia on kolme: Bradfordin mellakat 9.–11.6.1995, ”Orgreaven taistelu” 18.6.1984 ja jalkapalloseurojen Leeds United ja Manchester United fanien keskinäinen väkivaltainen yhteenotto edellisen kotistadionilla Elland Roadilla 11.10.1975. Tapaukset asetetaan väkivallan muutoksen dynamiikkaan siten, kuin ne esittäytyvät sekä erityisissä väkivallan lajityypeissä että tarkasteltaessa niitä väkivaltakokonaisuuksina, joihin vedetään yhteen sekä nämä tapaukset että väkivallan ilmentymät kyseisellä seudulla koko tarkastelun alaisena aikana. Työssä käsitellään väkivallantutkimuksen ainutlaatuisia haasteita. Metodisesti triangulatiivinen tutkimus hyödyntää laaja-alaisia sanomalehtilähteitä, virallisia raportteja, toissijaisia lähteitä ja rajallista otosta käsittelyä tukevia haastatteluja, joista kootaan käsitystä tapahtuneesta. Puheeksi otetaan perustavanlaatuiset määrittelyongelmat ja korostetaan monitieteisen väkivaltatutkimuksen tekemisen vaikeuksia. Haasteellisuutta lisää se, että eri tieteenaloilla ilmiötä tarkastellaan tieteenalan omasta, rajoittuneesta katsantokannasta, mistä tuloksena on eriävyyttä ja ristiriitaisuutta väkivallan käsitteellistämistavoissa. Tämän vuoksi on muotoiltu käsitteellinen viitekehys, väkivaltainen konfliktinen kiista, jotta on voitu karsia pois heikkouksia väkivallan määrittelystä. Viitekehyksen puitteissa täsmennetään temaattiset epäkohta- ja identiteetinmuodostustekijät asetettuina tapauksiin johtaneeseen ja tapauksista itsestään alkunsa saaneeseen keinovalikoimaan, joka ei-institutionaalisilla toimijoilla oli kiistatilanteissa käytössä. Päähuomio kohdennetaan ei-institutionaalisiin toimijoihin, vaikkakin poliisin rooli tunnustetaan kussakin tapauksessa. Poliisin käyttämästä sosiaalisen kontrollin tasosta ja kussakin kolmessa tapauksessa käytetyistä erilaisista joukkojenhallintastrategioista huolimatta ei väkivallan purkautumista kuitenkaan pystytty ehkäisemään, vaan näillä menetelmillä saatettiin itse asiassa tahattomasti lisätä väkivaltaan turvautumista. Työssä esitetään epäkohtien viitekehys, jossa yhtäkkisesti aiheutetut epäkohdat identifioidaan tapahtumien kehityksessä, ja viitataan epälegitiimin eriarvoisuuden ja loukattujen periaatteiden epäkohtiin, jotka ovat saattaneet olla keskeisiä kausaalisia tekijöitä tai väkivallan jatkumista ylläpitäneitä tekijöitä. Epäkohtatekijät rinnastetaan identiteettinäkökohtiin, jotka korostavat identiteetin muodostumisen haurautta ja jatkuvaa muutostilaa. Tutkimuksen edetessä kävi selväksi, että tapauksissa ei-institutionaalisten toimijoiden kanssa vastakkain asettuneet eivät olleet mitään ulkopuolisia ”muita” vaan osittain lähtöisin näiden toimijoiden omista, hajanaisista yhteisöistä. Epäkohtien ja identiteetin muodostamisen ailahtelevuutta pahensi väkivallan todellistuminen, joka muuttui niin ajassa kuin paikassa ja käytännöllisesti katsoen teki tyhjäksi essentialistisen lähestymistavan väkivallan tutkimukseen ja siten asetti kyseenalaiseksi väkivaltaisen konfliktisen kiistan käsitteen. Mukana olleilla toimijoilla oli ollut kiistatilanteissa käytettävissään vain rajallinen ja ajoittain välillinen keinovalikoima, joten heidän turvautumisensa väkivaltaan heijasti instrumentaalisuutta ja heidän omaa uskoaan väkivallan käytön hyveellisyyteen tiettyinä ajankohtina. Historiallisille poluilleen sijoitettuina tapaukset etenivät 1970-luvulta 1980- ja 1990-lukujen kautta viimein 2000-luvulle. Omiin, selvästi määriteltyihin ajallisiin asiayhteyksiinsä rajattuina tapaukset ilmentävät merkittävän tasoista ei-fataalia väkivaltaa. kun tapaukset sulautetaan väkivallan kokonaisuuteen, ilmeni tutkimuksen piiriin kuuluvalla seudulla tuona aikana merkittävää ja jatkuvaa eritasoista väkivaltaa. Tuloksena tästä on ollut nimenomaan Yorkshirelle leimallinen asiantila, joka on täynnä ristiriitaa, sekä eri yhteisöissä sijansa saanutta turvautumista väkivaltaan. 4 Preface To get a sense of the trials and tribulations of life in Yorkshire weaving through the cases outlined in this research the reader is advised to look at the writings of David Peace or the film representations of his works: ‘GB 84’ which looks at the 1984 miners’ strike, ‘The Red-Riding Quartet’ covering the years 1974 to 1983 and the stark reality of everyday survival against the backdrop of the Yorkshire Ripper and the ‘Damned United’ giving an insight into the intrigues at Leeds United Football Club. Another interesting work is Hanif Kureishi’s work ‘My Son the Fanatic’ set in Bradford, which gives an incisive portrayal of an ethnic community living in Britain and the film ‘Bradford Riots’ by director Neil Biswas. Not forgetting the real historical insight into Yorkshire communities: the film ‘Kes’ by director Ken Loach and ‘This Sporting Life’ directed by Lindsay Anderson. The rich literary freedom afforded by these works contextualises this doctoral research. This research raises interesting
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