Notes

Introduction

1. The Games of the New Emerging Forces were founded by , to challenge the hegemony of the International Olympic Committee. The first and last Asian GANEFO games were held in December of 1966 in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and 15 nations participated. 2. The People’s Republic of paid US$18 for the transportation costs of all delegations. More than 2,200 and officials from 48 regions, including , , the Netherlands, Belgium, and the , attended the Games.

1 and Development, or Development through Sport in the Arab World

1. The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) signed an international part- nership with Wales and . The aim, as stated on web page of the Regional Government Ministry of Youth Sport, was to initiate and deliver independent sport in the Kurdistan Region, “in a way that is integrated with at the national level, that builds on the strength of new and existing international partnerships, which will help the KRG to develop their aim to compete at the highest levels of as a region” (http://www.mosy-conference.info/). 2. To expand its market and to face the so-called Iranian “threat” in the region at political level, the GCC agreed, at the Thirteenth Annual Con- sultative Summit held on May 13, 2011, in the Saudi capital , to accept the demands of the Kingdom of and, surprisingly, that should join the Council. 3. The United Nations Development Programme Arab Human Development Report 2002 summarizes the deficit of development in the Arab world around the following points: the Arab world scores above sub-Saharan and South in world human development rankings by region, but below East and South East Asia and ; in GDP per capita, the Arab world outscores South East Asia, which indicates that the Arab world is more wealthy than it is “developed”; in rankings of human rights, participation and democracy, however, the Arab world scores dead last among all regions of the world; in rankings of women’s role and status in society, it scores second to last, being “outdone” only by sub-Saharan Africa. Adult illiteracy in the Arab world is still above 50 percent, par- ticularly among women, and rates of enrolment in formal education lag behind global averages – again, more so for women (Salem, 2006).

164 Notes 165

4. A recent rule adopted by FIFA has made the professionalization of all elite football leagues compulsory by 2011. 5. received $28 million from and to help in the construction of facilities destroyed during the civil war (Jordan Times, April 8, 1999). 6. It is interesting to make a parallel here with the Maccabi Games, which are the games of the Jewish communities around the world. 7. Reported in the Middle East Financial Network, June 22, 2005, http://www.menafn.com. 8. With a budget of US$2.8 billion, it is the biggest event after the Olympics in terms of number of countries represented (45), number of sporting events (39), number of volunteers (45,000), number of viewers (cumula- tive audience of 1.5 billion) and amount of broadcasting (2,000 hours of television coverage). 9. Mike Lee was described by the Observer as the man who, before setting up his company Vero communication, masterminded ’s successful bid to host the Games. The team also hired the service of Andrew Graig, a Detroit-based British executive who also worked for London (MacKay, D, 2008). 10. “Top regional nutrition experts warned that Gulf nationals are among the worst affected. If the trend continues, young people in the Gulf region will be more susceptible to chronic diseases such as heart problems, dia- betes, cancer and high blood pressure, which account for 50 per cent of premature deaths, according to the 400 experts gathered for a three- day conference aimed at formulating an Arab strategy to combat obesity and promote physical activity” (The National Newspaper, UAE, January 20, 2010). 11. “According to the findings of the Survey from the 18 Arab countries that responded out of the 22, Arab governments have yet to meet some basic challenges with regard to the implementation of the Standard Rules. These include raising public awareness about causes and prevention of disability, and the rights and potentials of persons with disabilities; pass- ing legislation; gathering and using information and statistics on disabil- ity; supporting organizations of persons with disabilities, and ensuring their representation; and creating an accessible physical environment” (Althani, 2006).

2 Football in Post-Colonial and “Post-Conflict”

1. Total rupture was not achieved, if we consider the number of teachers and sport technicians trained in France in the 1970s according to western, secular and modern models of teaching and pedagogy. 2. The national sports movement was still organized under the colonial legislation on sport dating from 1901, which was extended by Decree 66–354 on July 10, 1963, until the appearance of a new ordinance on sport and physical education, No. 76–81, on September 22, 1976. The Algerian Ministry of Youth and Sport (December 21/22, 1993). 166 Notes

3. Before, during and after the 1975 , in . This was the first major international event organized in Algeria, and it took place after only 13 years of independence. 4. For instance, in case of injury an would obtain the same remuner- ation as other workers in the company. 5. The athletes had previously required an authorization from the com- pany directors in order to participate in competitions at national or international level, or simply for training. 6. The first gold medal in a major championship in football came after only 13 years of independence. 7. Legislation was enacted in 1988 giving enterprises autonomy. 8. Almost all of Algeria’s export receipts were paid in US dollars. The reduc- tion in value of this currency reduced to a third the value of Algerian imports between 1985 and 1991, which resulted in 40 percent loss in revenue in less than a decade. 9. The president condemned the failure of the Algerian football team in the African Cup of Nations in in 1991, giving strict orders that the Min- istry of Sport intervene directly by changing the president of the football federation. 10. Most of them were dual citizens (e.g., Abdallah Liegon (Medjadi) playing at , Dahleb the captain of Paris St-Germain, Karim Maroc of Lyon FC and others). 11. Raï literarily means “opinion.” It expresses the yearn of post- independence youth for freedom of expression. Originally from Oranie (western Algeria), it is a mix of Bedouin (traditional) songs, which were adapted during the 1970s, with the introduction of modern instruments (guitar, saxophone, keyboard). Forbidden at start, as it was considered immoral and subversive, it was banned from all the television and state radio stations. It is now considered as part of the global music industry thanks to singers such as Khaled and Mami. 12. The state’s monopoly on national television and the restrictions imposed by the European Union regarding the provision of visas have transformed satellite TV channels into a sort of window through which Algerian people can travel, at least virtually. 13. Named after Bologhine Ibn Ziri, the founder of Algiers in 973. 14. Due to the absence of job opportunities, many youngsters have turned to the illegal selling of various European products on the black market. This activity is known in Algerian dialect as Trabendo. 15. Some of the national corporations, in addition to being official sponsors of the sports clubs, offered salaries and positions as employees for some top players and coaches. 16. For example, the pursuit of the recognition of Amazighia (the Berber language) as an official language by the government. 17. Introducing Algeria’s President-for-Life (http://www.merip.org/mero/ mero040109.html). 18. The Civil Harmony Law granted conditional amnesty to radical Islamists who surrendered and renounced violence. Islamist insurgents were eli- gible for amnesty if they fully disclosed their past, so long as they had Notes 167

not caused death or permanent injury to others, committed rape, or used explosives in places frequented by the public. Insurgents who had com- mitted any of those crimes would receive reduced sentences, but not full amnesty. See Rachid Tlemçani (2008), “Algeria under Bouteflika: Civil Strife and National Reconciliation.” 19. The Khalifa Group (including Khalifa Airways, Khalifa Bank and Khalifa pharmaceuticals) – owned by Khalifa Abdelmoumen, once the golden boy of the Algerian business world – was dissolved in 2003, following an inves- tigation by Algerian authorities that uncovered violations of the money transfer law. This turned out to be one of the biggest publicized financial scandal in Algerian history. One hundred and four people were involved, both in Algeria (and those included four ministers, several magistrates and top government officials) and in France (famous French actors among them), in the trial over the disappearance of more than 3.2 billion dinars (3.4 million euros, 4.5 million dollars) from the accounts of the Khalifa Bank. Jailed in London and waiting extradition to Algeria, Rafik Khalifa was tried in absentia. 20. Nedjma, one of the leading mobile phone companies in Algeria, signed a four-year sponsorship deal with the Algerian Football Federation for an annual contribution of 3 billion dinars. In exchange, Nedjma was the principal sponsor of three matches of the national team during the joint African Cup and World Cup 2010 qualification tournament, as well as sponsor of the referees for the 2009–2010 Algerian Football League and for the naming of the Algerian Football Cup. Nedjma also sponsors five Algerian football clubs in the premier league; see http://www.liberte- algerie.com/edit_archive.php?id=110570. 21. Following the example of Bouzizi in , whose self-immolation triggered the event in Tunisia that put an end to Ben-Ali’s regime, at the beginning of 2011, Algeria witnessed a number of attempts at self- immolation; at the time of writing, three victims had already died from severe burnings.

3 The Growth and Challenges of the Sport Broadcasting Market in the Arab World

1. The notions of “inside” and “outside” are in a process of transformation, or anyway they are challenged by transnational satellite broadcasting. 2. In the three years since Star Academy (the first reality show in the Arab world) was first broadcast, around 60 new music video and chatting chan- nels have hit the airwaves. Twelve -language reality TV shows were broadcast in 2005; see Reality TV Comes of Age in the Arab World, Arab Advisors Group newsletter, February 1, 2006, http://www.arabadvisors. com/Pressers/presser-010206-reality.htm. 3. It should be mentioned here that the owners/sponsors of music and other entertainment channels are in most cases the same as those of Islamic religious TV channels. 168 Notes

4. The theological and political debates between Sunna and Shi’a, the philo- sophical and cultural movement of Sufism, are emerging in the public sphere. 5. Some of the major broadcasters based at Dubai Media City are Reuters, CNN, BBC World, Voice of America (VoA), Showtime Arabia, Middle East Broadcasting Centre – MBC, Ten Sports – Taj Television Ltd. ARY Digital Network, Geo TV. 6. The MBC chairman and Chief Executive Officer is Sheikh Waleed bin Ibrahim Al-Brahim. MBC is the leading FTA Arab news and entertainment channel. It has recently moved its headquarters to Dubai Media City. 7. The world’s first fully digital, multi-channel, multi-lingual, pay television service (http://www.orbit.net). 8. Major international sports governing bodies such as International Olympic Committee and FIFA have their own TV and media rights commissions, or they are hiring private companies to evaluate and negotiate broadcasting (TV, Internet, mobile phone) rights on their behalf with giant transnational communication networks. 9. This was an indication of the subsequent and more serious disruption of the satellite broadcasting signal of Aljazeera and other Arab news channels during the popular Arab uprising in 2011.

4 Sport Policies and Politics in North Africa

1. They define a territory of 4,000 km from east to west, and of 6 km2 (the equivalent of 60 percent of the European ). Together, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia represent 50 percent of the territory and 90 percent of the population of the Maghreb (Lacoste, 1991). 2. The FLN team won 43 of its 57 matches, scoring 244 goals. 3. Mzali’s name was mentioned in relation to the “Olympic bribery” scandal (when Salt Lake was awarded the 2002 Winter Games). 4. The club, although newly initiated, started straight in the 2nd division rather than in the 4th division, as stipulated by the governing law of . 5. On July 13, 1971, about 250 rebels – mainly from the Ahermoumou cadet training school – stormed the royal palace at Sikharat, where King Hassan II was hosting a grand reception for his 42nd birthday. A total of 92 people were killed, including the Belgian ambassador, Minister of Jus- tice Muhammed Lazrak and Minister of Tourism Ahmed Bahnini. The second attempt took place in the next year, on August 16, 1972, when the “Officiers Libres,” led by General Oufkir, tried unsuccessfully to shoot down a Boeing let carrying King Hassan. 6. The war broke out in 1975 and ended in 1991, with a UN-negotiated cease-fire that called for a referendum on the region’s future (which is yet to take place). 7. Namely the impressive performance of Younes El-Aynaoui (highest Asso- ciation Professionals (ATP), ranking 14 in 2003), of Hicham Arazi Notes 169

(highest ATP, ranking 22 in 2001) and of Karim Alami (highest ATP, ranking 25 in 2000). 8. This expert was Saad Kettani, ex-president of Wafa Insurance, vice- president of WAFA bank and president of the Moroccan–Spanish Council of Trade (Ben El-Caïd, 2004, p. 77). 9. The other signs of this break with the past in political terms are the reform of family law and the setting up of a Human Rights Commission to inves- tigate human rights abuses under Hassan II, as well as a Commission of Equity and Reconciliation to pay compensations to the victims. 10. Appointed in October 2007 in the cabinet of Abbas El-Fassi, she was replaced in July 2010 by Moncef Belkayat. Born in 1970 (the youngest minister), the latter was appointed for his entrepreneurial skills and experience in business and marketing of sport. In January 2011, he led Morocco’s successful bid to host the 2015 African Cup of Nations.

5 The Business of Sport in the Arabian Peninsula

1. Major projects include Dubai International Exhibition Centre; DUBAILAND; Dubai Festival City; Saddiyat Island in ; King Abdullah City in Saudi Arabia; Amwaj Island project and the Durrat resort in ; Bahrain World Trade Centre; the Bahrain Financial Harbour, the Wave project and Blue City ; The Pearl Island in Quatar; and the Buobyan Island and the new Subiya City in Kuwait. 2. In exchange for a sum said to range from $800 million to $1 billion, France will rent the name, art treasures and expertise of the Louvre to a new museum to be built in Abu Dhabi. It is one out of five museums planned for a multibillion-dollar tourist development on Saadiyat Island, off Abu Dhabi (see http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/ 12/features/louvre.php; and, for more information about Saadiyat Island, visit the address at www.saadiyat.ae/). 3. Emirates Airlines paid £100 million (see Arsenal web page: http:// www.arsenal.com/). Emirates recently signed a US$ 195 million deal to become a FIFA Partner from 2007 to 2014. As a FIFA Partner, Emirates has rights to all FIFA events – including the 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups (http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/marketingtv/partners/emirates.html). 4. Anil Bhoyrul, Abu Dhabi seals deal to buy City, Monday, September 1, 2008 (http://www.arabianbusiness.com/). 5. Saudi completes Pompey takeover, Tuesday, October 6, 2009, retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/p/portsmouth/828 9279.stm. 6. Dubai Sport City, which is part of an even greater urban regenera- tion project, “Dubailand,” is the world’s first integrated purpose-built sports city. “DUBAILANDTM [a venture estimated at AED 235 billion/$64 billion], situated alongside the Emirates Road, will cover an area of three billion square feet. It will feature several attractions catering for the entire family. These include the The Restless Planet, a dinosaur 170 Notes

theme park being developed in cooperation with the Natural History Museum in the United Kingdom; a Sports City, featuring large state-of- the-art stadiums; the Tiger Woods Dubai” (Dubai Land strategy, http:// www.dubailand.ae/strategy_objectives.html). 7. The Soccerex Forum took place in Dubai from 2001 to 2006, first under the patronage of Sheikh Saeed bin Zayed Al-Nahyan and then under that of Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al-Maktoum, ruler of Dubai. Another link with Manchester United is that Soccerex was launched at the stadium in 1997. 8. FIA GT3, the final round of the European Championships, featuring 11 manufacturers like Ferrari, Lamborghini, Corvette, Aston, Martin, Porsche, Jaguar and more; SpeedCar (Speedcar Series International V8, featuring high-level drivers from Formula 1); and Formula Renault Cam- pus (final round of the international Championship, featuring the three HSBC Academy and UAE national drivers). 9. Each team uses Lola single-seater cars powered by 3.4-litre V8 Zytek engines. For more information, visit the A1 GP official web page: http:// www.a1gp.com/. 10. See the Dubai World Cup official web page (http://dubairacingclub.com/ dubaiworldcup/). 11. will receive countless benefits from hosting the 15th , DAGOC press release, online at www.-2006.com/en/ press_centre/press/press03.htm, accessed February 2005. Not available for access anymore. 12. Ibid. 13. DAGOC press release, December 28, 2003, online at http://www.doha 2006.com/en/press_centre/press/press03.htm, first accessed February 2005; currently not available for access. 14. Some media reported that Zidan was offered 3,5 million euro for his support of Qatar’s bid. The same is true for Guardiola, who was offered less 350,000 euro, whereas his team, FC, signed for a five- year sponsorship deal with Qatar Foundation worth 170 million euro (Kelly, 2011, p. 55). The president of Qatar Foundation is Cheikha Mouza Al-Misned.

6 The Arab World in the Global Sporting Arena: An Islamic Perspective

1. As an illustration of the global reach of sport today, the 2004 Olympics in were watched, at least in part, by 3.9 billion of the world’s population, producing a cumulative global audience of around 40 billion for the 17-day event. 2. Particularly by the adepts of culturalist interpretation – a culturalism that, according to Bayart (1996), maintains that a culture is composed of a stable, closed corpus of representations, beliefs or symbols, which is supposed to have an affinity with specific opinions, attitudes or Notes 171

modes of behavior. Orientalist notions portray as pas- sive, subservient and subject to gross inequalities, though treatment of women and rights varies across different Muslim (and western) societies. Such treatment is often legitimated by reference to Islamic tradition or requirements. 3. Al-Qniir (August 13, 2010). 4. The Saudi school system was accused of being one of the causes of radicalism in the region. 5. In 2001, Qatar Women’s Sports Committee (QWSC) was formed to improve the level of women’s involvement in sport in general and to build and develop the Qatari woman’s abilities in the different fields of sports. For information about QWSC, visit http://qwsc.org.qa/english/. 6. Hafsa Abdullah Mohamed Sharif Alulama used her position as Ambas- sador of the UAE in the Republic of to facilitate the par- ticipation a women football club from Montenegro, to participate in an international women’s football tournament in 2011 organized by Abu Dhabi women football club and sponsored by Abu Dhabi Sport Council. 7. Characterized by a simultaneous intrusion, through , of industrialization, capitalism, military power and social control, which affected not only social and political organizations but also mentalities (Cesari, 1997, p. 83). 8. Traditionalist: Strict reference to one or other of the schools of jurispru- dence (Sunni and Shi’a); Salafi: follower of the salaf, companions of the prophet and pious Muslims of the first three generations of Islam; reformist, interpreting the Quranic and Islamic facts in relation to “ratio- nal” science and modernity. Within these three groups there are other variations. 9. The Islamic Brotherhood movement in Egypt, under the famous slogan of “Islam Is the Solution,” won a historic 34 seats (representing 20 percent of the total seats) in the first round of the Egyptian parliamentary elections held on November 9, 2005. 10. Message of the president of the High Islamic Council (HIC) and member of the FLN Central Committee, in a conference about the national sports movement, April 15, 1985. 11. At least according to secular feminists’ accounts in Algeria. 12. Adopted from Islamic Shari’a legislation. 13. Algerian party El-Islah (http://www.elislah.dz). 14. Tunisian party El-Nahdha (http://www.nahdha.net/). 15. Kuwaiti Islamic Constitutional Movement (http://www.icmkw.org/). 16. Al-aqsa Radio sport channel (http://www.alaqsasport.ps). 17. The same could be said about Christianity and Judaism. 18. An example of this dominant discourse, which links performance/excellence to quality, is highlighted in the following adverts. Adidas running Apparel Bottoms: “Climacool fitted Capri tight with anatomically placed mesh insert and For Motion 3-D Engineered pattern for performance and com- fort Features bonding and flat lock stitching for reduced chaffing.” Nike 172 Notes

footwear: “Nike Mercurial Vapor III FG. With its anatomically contoured speed last and revolutionary new Teijin synthetic upper that adjusts to every curve and line in your foot, the Mercurial Vapor is built to accel- erate.” Speedo suits: “FS-PRO Legskin Based on physiological and biomechanical advantages of compression in the Fastskin FS-PRO, it provides 15% more power and compression than any lightweight suit on the market.” 19. Named after the large-scale clash between the Jordanian army and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in September 1970, which resulted in the death of thousands and in the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan. 20. One of the victims was Ahmed Bouchiki, an innocent Moroccan waiter, who had been living in Norway for five years (see Macdonald, 1999 documentary One Day in September). 21. Based on the motto: “The universal language of sport brings people together.” The United Nations General Assembly proclaimed 2005 to be the International Year of Sport and Physical Education. Following in the footsteps of the UN, the European Commission has designated 2008 as the “European Year of Intercultural Dialogue.”

General Conclusion and the Way Forward for Research on Sport in the Arab World

1. The Algerian government conditioned the re-opening of the borders on the settling of other dossiers, such as illegal immigration and smuggling. The Moroccan government accused Algeria of putting pressure on Morocco with regard to the question of . 2. Wales was selected as a partner in the project in order to learn from its experience as an autonomous region (nation) in the United Kingdom. 3. To capitalize on this trend, ’s Real Madrid and FC Barcelona opened in 2009 two sports centers in Morocco. FC Barcelona opened the FC Barcelona Centre for Education and Sports, which is affiliated to the Barça Foun- dation, to provide sports training and school support for 300 children between 8 and 16 years of age from six schools in Tangier. The Real Madrid Foundation, in partnership with the Spanish Society for Social Action for and Kenitra, opened the Moroccan–Spanish Sports School for Social Integration in Rabat for boys and girls aged 9–15 years (Maghrebia news, January 22, 2010). 4. He finally had to withdraw his candidacy from the FIFA presidential elec- tion a few days after election, amidst new investigations into cases of bribery that involve senior FIFA officials, including Bin Hammam himself. On May 29, FIFA suspended Bin Hammam and Warner, pending an inves- tigation into claims that they had offered financial incentives to members of the . Bin Hammam confirmed that he would appeal against his suspension from football activities. After a two-day hear- ing the governing body’s ethics committee made the decision on July 23 to ban Mohammed bin Hammam for life over attempted bribery claims. Notes 173

5. By 1988, 1.95 million Palestinians held Jordanian citizenship. Another 850,000 hold citizenship that former army men regard as illegal. Another 950,000 Palestinians from the West Bank live legally, but without citizen- ship, on the East Bank – in other words, in Jordan. Another 300,000 come from Gaza (Fisk, 2010). 6. Some of the players are recruited from the large Palestinian community in Chili, and particularly from the Chilean professional football club Diportivo Palistin, a two-time Chilean champion in 1955 and 1978. Founded in 1920s by Palestinian immigrants, the club took from the Palestinian flag a uni- form and a logo. As a strong symbol of the emotional bond between the club and the mother land, the Bank of Palestine was the exclusive sponsor of the club for 2009–2010 seasons. Furthermore, the club is said to be the only western company listed on the Palestinian stock exchange. 7. It was established in May 2003 and funded as a division of the Department of Defense, to oversee the country’s reconstruction after the 2003 invasion. 8. A series of programs were produced by Dubaisport to discuss the legacy of Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions in sport (“In Depth,” Dubai Sport Channel, 2011). 9. The name of Salim Chiboub is included on the list of members of Ben-Ali’s family whose assets in have been frozen. References

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Abu Dhabi F1 Theme Park, 118 Al-Shate FC (Israel), 146 AC Milan, 44, 50 Al-Thani (family), 95, 100, 110 African, 2, 15, 20–1, 37, 40, 52, 65, Al-Widad (Casablanca), 20 74, 76, 78, 83, 91, 111, 132, 147, Al-Wihdat FC (Jordan), 21, 141 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 160, Al-Zamalek FC (Egypt), 63, 160–1 166–7, 169 Amazighia, 45, 166 African Cup of Nations, 28, 39, 65–6, see also Berber 81, 132, 160, 166, 169 America (USA), 32, 44, 104, 139, , 2, 20, 27, 28, 39, 143, 154, 164, 168 78–9, 91 American hegemony, 126 Africanism, 7, 15, 91 American National Basket African nations, 76, 78 Association (NBA), 62, 107 , 91 , 7, 27, 40 Ajman (UAE), 95 anti-apartheid, 40 Al-Ahly FC (Egypt), 20, 60, 63, 160 anti-imperialism, 7, 40 Al-Faysali FC (Jordan), 21, 141 Arab countries, 7, 14, 16, 19, 23, 27, Algeria, 1, 2, 8, 12, 15, 21, 27–8, 30, 30, 32, 71, 78, 108, 117, 119, 32, 35, 37, 39–40, 42, 64, 67, 76, 134, 136, 140–1, 149, 154, 157, 78, 81, 83, 87, 89, 90–1, 92, 103, 165 115–16, 119, 123–5, 131, 133, 137, 140, 141, 148, 150–4, 160, Arab Digital Distribution (ADD), 59 165, 168, 171–2 Arab identity, 22, 113 Algerian Football Federation, 47, 48, (the) Arab League, 11, 23, 141 49, 51, 124, 167 Arab people, 22, 32–3, 162 Algiers, 28, 37, 38, 39, 43, 45, 47, 49, Arab regimes, 9, 162 51, 78, 125, 138, 141, 166 Arab World, 1–3, 4–6, 7–8, 9, 10–11, Al-Ghassra, Ruqaya, 120 13, 14, 15, 16, 18–19, 20, 21, 29, Al-Hilal FC (, Saudi Arabia), 33, 55, 56–7, 59, 63, 64, 65, 66, 20, 63 69, 71, 95, 101, 108, 115, 121–2, Al-Itihad FC (Jeddah), 63 125, 126, 133, 134–5, 137–8, Aljazeera, 2, 22, 55–6, 59, 74, 76, 82, 140–2, 147, 148, 149, 155, 161, 175, 182, 189, 193 162–3, 164, 167, 170, 172 Aljazeera Network, 59 Arabian Peninsula, 3, 16, 18, 23, see also Qatar 29–30, 94, 97, 103, 118, 122, Aljazeera Sport, 2, 55, 60, 62–3, 162, 169 65–78, 70–1, 162 see also Gulf (countries) Al-Maktoum (family), 97, 100, 102, , 119 104–5, 170 Arkoun, Mouhamed, 17, 73, 122, Al-Nahyan (family), 95, 105, 170 129, 133, 137 Al-Nasira FC (Israel), 143 ART Sport, 2

186 Index 187

Asian Games, 8, 22, 28–9, 108, 109, Canada, 153 110, 130, 137, 158, 170 Canal Horizon, 50, 67 ASPIRE (academy), 30, 113 Canal Plus, 44, 50, 67–8, 70 associations sportives de performance Chebel, Malek, 147 (ASP), 38 Cheikha Mouza Al-Misned, 110–11, Athletics, 30, 33, 74–5, 78–9, 81–3, 170 85, 87–8, 92, 101, 107, 116, 125, Chiboub, Salim, 161, 173 142 Christianity, 171 Australia, 43, 46, 98, 109, 111 Christians, 25, 136 citizen (ship), 18, 33, 36, 42, 69, 113, baathist, 2 115, 141, 143–4, 150–1, 166, 173 de-baathification (Iraq), 155, city branding, 33 157 CNN, 56, 59, 168 Bahrain, 95, 99, 103–4, 106–7, 114, Coca Cola, 50, 71 119, 120–1, 131, 169 colonialism, 1, 6, 8, 15, 53, 74, 122, Bahrain (Gulf Air) Grand Prix, 99, 148, 171 103, 106 colonization, 4 , 21–2, 76, 78, 83, 107, colonized societies, 5, 8 141, 145, 154 colonized women, 8 BBC, 59, 79, 112, 140, 161, 168–9 colonizer, 7–8, 15, 75, 140, 150 Ben Ali, Zine El Abidine, 77–8, 83, see also neo-colonial; post-colonial 93, 159, 161 commercialization, 2, 59, 61, 68, Ben-Bella, Ahmed, 90 70, 97 Ben Jelloun, Tahar, 10 commercial sport, 22, 53, 75–6, 90, Ben Talal, Al Waleed (Prince), 59 162 see also Fox News (Arabia); Cricket, 13, 98–9, 101, 106, Murdoch, Rupert 140 Bennabi, Malek, 133 Berber, 9, 45, 57, 73–4, 79, 148, 166 democratization, 18, 35, 46, 57, Berber women, 147 135 Berlusconi, Silvio, 50 developed countries, 11, 25, 27 Bidouane, Nezha, 81 developing countries, 25, 32 Bouderbala, Aziz, 85 development, 1, 2, 3, 5, 13, 15, 17, Boulmerka, Hassiba, 79, 116, 131 18, 19, 21–3, 25, 27, 30–1, 32–3, Boumedienne, Houari, 20, 37 35–7, 41, 43–4, 45, 49–50, 51–2, Bourguiba, Habib, 20, 77, 90 54–5, 69, 71, 77, 78, 85, 92, Bourguibism, 77 94–5, 97, 100, 102–4, 106, 108, Bouteflika, Abdelaziz, 48, 64, 79, 87, 113, 121, 123, 126, 149, 153, 89–90, 167 164, 169 branding, 3, 33, 98, 105, 108–9 see also city branding; regional see also city branding; marketing development; sport business of sport, 1, 26, 30, 48, 50, development; urban 54, 69, 94, 97, 105–6, 113, development 139–40, 169 development through sport, 1, 3, 14, see also commercialization; 25, 26, 33, 82–3, 85–6, 89–90, commercial sport 112, 121, 125, 136–7, 162, 164 188 Index

Diaspora, 50, 57, 77, 142–3, 149–50, Fatah (party), 126, 145–6 153–4, 162 see also Palestine see also immigrants fatwa, 130 , 21, 119 Fédération Internationale de Doha, 28, 29, 31, 58, 66, 96, 99, 106, Football Association (FIFA), 2, 113, 170 40, 72 Doha Asian Games, 29, 108, 109, FIFA World Cup, 3, 12, 27, 30, 61–2, 110 64–5, 68, 79, 81, 99, 102, Doustourian Socialist Party (Tunisia), 110–11, 129, 137, 139–40, 149, 77 152, 154, 169 Dubai, 31, 58–9, 60, 64, 78, 95–6, 97, female, 24, 89, 115–17, 121, 98–9, 101, 102, 105, 106–7, 113, 143, 151 131, 138, 161, 168, 169, 170, female participation, 23, 32 173 feminist, 8, 133, 148, 171 Dubai Autodrome, 104–5 , 14, 119 Dubai Sport City, 140, FLN-state, 35, 41, 43, 52 169 FLN-team (football), 76, 168 Football, 2, 11–12, 20–1, 25–7, 28, Egypt, 8, 12, 19, 20, 21, 27, 30, 33, 35, 37–40, 41, 45, 46, 48, 28, 29, 30, 32, 56, 60, 63, 54, 61–4, 65, 67, 69, 70–7, 78, 68, 69, 78, 103, 112, 115, 79, 80–3, 85, 87, 88–9, 98–9, 119, 121, 123, 125, 130, 132, 100–2, 111–12, 120–1, 124, 126, 140, 141, 142, 155, 159–60, 131, 133, 137–43, 145–6, 148–9, 161, 166, 171 151–5, 158, 160–2, 165–7, 168, El Guerrouj, Hicham, 132 171, 172–3 El ouafi, Bougera, 74 Formula 1, 99, 103, 104–7, 114, elite sport, 32, 73, 83, 84–5, 89–90, 170 92–3, 113 Fox News (Arabia), 59 see also performance France, 27, 37, 39–40, 44, 49–50, 59, El-Kenz, Ali, 17, 19, 41 62–3, 71, 78–9, 82, 111, 139, El-Mekhzen, 81 148–53, 164, 165, 167, 169 see also Morocco free-to-air (channels), 2, 55–6, 59, Elwani, Rania, 120 61, 66, 68, 168 Emirates Airlines, 98, 100, 102, Front de Libération National (FLN), 104, 169 2, 15, 20, 35–6, 43, 46, 48, 51–2, Equestrian, 89, 118 171 EspérencedeTunis,74 ESPN, 118 Gaddafi, Muammar, 20, 139–40 Europe, 4, 6, 15, 30, 43, 45, 57, 63, Gaza (strip), 126, 130, 137, 143, 70, 91–2, 104, 123, 126, 130, 145–6, 173 139, 141, 143, 154 , 10, 39, 41, 79 Eurocentrism, 126 globalization, 3, 9–10, 11, 19, 22, 29, 32, 43, 70, 115, 126, 133, 135, Fanon Franz, 148 137–8 fasting, 129 glocal, 94 see also Ramadan (Month) glocalization, 12, 101, 139 Index 189

Golf, 13, 31, 82, 92, 98–9, 101 International Olympic Committee government, 13, 37, 41, 44, 51, 54, (IOC), 2, 7–8, 21–2, 26, 72–3, 56, 64, 72, 80, 84, 87, 102, 104, 76–8, 80, 117, 119–21, 128, 132, 106, 110, 123, 135–6, 154, 157, 136, 143, 145, 156–8, 161, 164, 158–9, 164, 166–7, 172 168 , 27 international relations, 1, 14, 20, 73, Gulf (countries), 1, 13, 16, 19, 20, 76–7, 81, 91, 96, 162 22, 23, 29, 33, 56, 58–9, 61, 66, international sport federations, 22, 69–70, 78, 94–5, 96–7, 98–9, 145 102, 103–4, 106, 112, 118, 122, international sports events, 2, 25, 61, 138–9, 165 73, 90, 97, 108, 113, 131, 139 , 18, 23–4, Iran, 17, 25, 28, 115, 117–21, 130, 30, 118 136, 142, 164 Gulf Games, 11 Iraq, 8, 17–20, 21, 23, 32, 56, 60, 119, 121, 130, 136–7, 155–9, 164 halal, 71 Islam, 4–5, 9, 16–17, 24, 95, 117, haram, 65 122–5, 128–9, 146, 147, 171 Hamas (party), 123, 126, 146 Islamists, 3, 16, 18, 52, 115, 122–5, see also Palestine 126, 127, 133, 146, 148, 166 , 21, 30, 33, 75–6, 78–9, 83, see also political Islam 90, 107, 112, 154 Islamic Brotherhood (Egypt), 123, Hassan II, 20, 80, 82, 168–9 125, 171 High Islamic Council, 124, 171 Islamic Salvation Front (FIS, Algeria), hijab, 120–1 45 see also (the) veil , 24, 132 Horse riding, 30 see also Saudi Arabia hospitality, 12, 29, 69, 96, 102, 113, Israel, 8, 20, 102, 130–1, 143–5 138–9, 162 Italy, 46, 50, 78, 140, 152, 164 Hussein, Saddam, 18, 20, 155, 156 ITV (channel, UK), 63 Hussein, Uday, 155 see also Iraq Japan, 24, 111, 159 Jordan, 16–17, 21, 23, 28, 64, 68, ideological, 7, 13, 15, 17, 23, 35, 119, 121–3, 130, 134, 141–2, 39–40, 41–2, 45, 47–8, 55, 72, 145, 164–5, 172–3 73, 75, 77, 102, 128, 133, 161 , 75, 78–9, 83, 85, 89, 92, 119, ijtihad, 146 130, 155 see also Islam; Muslim Juventus FC, 44, 139–40 immigrants, 79, 97, 111, 150, 152–4, 173 Kateb, Yacine, 133 Indonesia, 8, 123, 130, 164 Kurdistan (Iraq), 135–6, 159, 164 international community, 52, Kuwait, 16, 21, 28, 49, 59, 60, 94–5, 136 117, 119, 123, 125, 141, 165, International Cricket Council, 106, 169, 171 140 international events, 26, 28, 92, 106, laïcité, 5, 151 108, 117, 166 Latin America, 32, 139, 143, 164 190 Index

Le Pen, Marine, 152 Mohamed V, 80 see also France monarchy-states, 6, 19 Lebanon, 20–1, 23, 28, 119, 121, Montréal, 143 123–4, 130, 137, 139, 141–2, Morceli, Noreddine, 131 147, 154, 165 Morocco, 2, 8, 16, 17, 18, 20–1, leisure, 31, 105, 113, 129 27–8, 30, 32, 60, 67, 73–6, liberalism, 18, 22, 75, 126 80–2, 83, 84–7, 88, 90–2, 119, liberalization, 19, 41, 58, 61 122–3, 134, 138, 153, 164, Libya, 16–19, 21, 28, 60, 64, 68, 74, 168–9, 172 115, 119, 140 Motor racing, 103, 105 localization, 3, 115, 137, 139 Mouloudia Club d’Alger, 20, 38, 44, London, 29, 98, 102, 105, 120, 137, 74 165, 167 Moutawakel, Nawel, 81, 85, 115 Losail International Circuit (Doha), Mubarek, Allaa, 160 106 Mubarek, Hosni, 160, 161 multinational, 1, 3, 58, 75, 94 Maccabi Games, 165 multinational companies, 12 Madjer, Rabah, 150 Murdoch, Rupert, 59 Maghreb, 18, 50, 67, 73–5, 83, 92, Muslim, 1, 3, 4–5, 8, 13, 15, 17, 21, 134, 137, 147, 151, 162, 168 23, 24, 25, 77, 81, 91, 115–16, Maghreb Union, 11, 18, 117, 119, 122, 123–4, 126, 127, 74–5 128–9, 130, 131–2, 133–5, 137, Maghreb Union Games, 11, 74 146–8, 152, 171 (Bahrain), 31, 96 Muslim believers, 3, 127 Manchester City, 22, 99–100, 139, Muslim communities, 116 162, 169 Muslim scholars, 129 Manchester United, 63, 101, 138, Muslim world, 3, 25, 91, 115, 126–7, 170 129, 131–3, 152 market economy, 1–2, 22, 25, 46, 52, Mzali, Mouhamed, 77, 168 53, 69, 91 marketing, 22, 26, 67, 70, 108, 109, 113, 162, 169 Nasser (Gamel Abdel-Nasser), 20, 71, , 33 100 Mashrek, 73, 91, 134, 162 national economy, 26 mass sport, 30, 36 national identity, 9, 10, 11, 17, 44, Mauritania, 16, 18, 21, 74, 119 53, 75, 94, 96, 139, 141, 144, , 17, 95, 129 150 Medina, 17, 95 national prestige, 14, 20, 27, 30, 33, , 19, 40, 41, 79 72, 149 Middle East Broadcasting Centre nationalism, 1, 5, 9, 12, 14, 15, 174, (MBC), 59, 62, 168 141, 143–4, 148 Middle East, 3, 9, 12, 20, 50, 55, 59, nationality, 11, 152 61–2, 65, 67–8, 71, 73, 103, 110, nation-state, 1, 3, 8–11, 13, 14–15, 112, 114, 121–2, 134, 142, 154, 17–18, 20, 22, 35, 53, 57, 69, 73, 156, 162, 165, 168 75, 76, 81, 91–2, 94, 121, 123–4, Middle Eastern Studies, 134 127, 129, 136, 141, 146, 161–2 Index 191

nation-state building, 1, 3, 8–9, 11, physical education, 36, 39, 86, 165, 15, 35, 53, 57, 73, 76, 92, 94, 172 127, 161 political agitation, 42, 53, 162 see also national identity; political Islam, 9, 122–4 nationalism political legitimacy, 14 National Democratic Party (Egypt), popular uprisings, 3, 69, 142, 155 160 Portsmouth FC, 100, 102 neo-colonial, 34, 127 post-colonial, 1–2, 8, 11, 19, 35, 73, neo-imperialism, 16, 22, 91 75, 165 Nessma TV, 50 post-conflict, 1–2, 35, 48, 79, 92, non-western, 5, 40, 131 136, 165 North Africa, 1, 2, 3, 9, 11–12, 20, post-modern(ity), 96, 113 27, 50, 55, 59, 61–2, 64–5, 67–8, post-national, 1, 14, 44 71, 72, 73, 122, 133–4, 151, 162, post-oil, 3, 33, 139, 162 165, 168 power boat (racing), 99, 107 Norway, 172 private sport channels, 64 privatization, 18, 41, 45, 55 Occident, 19, 122 professional sport, 51, 91, 113, 129, Occidentalism, 6 138–9 Olympic Games, 3, 7, 10–11, 20, 22, professionalization, 45, 54, 92, 133, 24–5, 27, 29, 32, 39, 52, 61, 165 84–5, 90, 92, 108, 115–16, 119–20, 126–9, 130, 131, 143, Qatar, 16, 21, 25, 28, 29–30, 31, 60, 148–9, 154–6, 158 68, 69, 70–1, 90, 99, 100, 106–8, Olympic Marseille, 67 109, 110–12, 116–17, 119, , 130 120–1, 138, 140, 145, 170, 171 Olympism, 115, 126–7, 128 Qatar airways, 99 Oman, 16, 21, 99, 117, 119, 169 Ouita, Saïd, 63 Rabat, 28, 82, 85, 88, 172 radio, 50, 57, 61, 65, 68, 105, 126, Palestine, 8, 21, 32, 56, 119, 121, 150, 166, 171 123, 130, 142–5, 154, 172–3 Ramadan (Month), 42, 124, 129 pan-American Games, 22 Ramadan, Tariq, 128 pan-Arab Games, 2, 11, 14, 22–3, 28, Real Madrid, 11, 63, 98, 138–9, 172 79, 132, 143 reformism, 5, 123 pan-Arabism, 15, 91 regional development, 3, 136 Paris Saint-Germain, 11, 71 religion, 4–5, 9, 11, 17, 24, 58, 117, Paris, 11, 71, 98, 150, 166 127–8, 146–7, 162 party-states, 6 religious, 2, 4–5, 10, 15–16, 17, 22, pay-per-view (channels), 63–4 32, 45, 57–8, 64–5, 71, 74, 94–5, performance, 2, 14, 23, 30, 32–3, 97, 117, 118, 122, 124, 127–8, 37–8, 46, 56, 63, 69, 73, 79, 81, 130, 136, 140, 142, 147–8, 158, 83, 84–5, 86–7, 89–90, 92, 93, 167 127–8, 138, 148, 154–5, 162, , 98 168, 171 ruling families, 16, 95, 97, 102, 107 Persian, 25 Russia, 24, 71, 91, 103 192 Index

Sakhnin FC (Israel), 143, 145 107, 113, 117, 119, 121, 130–1, Samir, Amin, 17 165, 170–1 satellite broadcasting, 2, 57, 59, 69, urban development, 113 167–8 satellite channels, 44, 56, 63, 65, 69 (the) veil, 9–10, 120–1, 148 Saudi Arabia, 8, 16–17, 21, 23–5, 31, violence, 15, 21, 33, 42, 46–8, 50, 52, 56, 59, 60, 63, 69, 95, 102, 107, 79, 89–90, 92, 124, 131, 133, 116–18, 119, 165, 169 140–1, 161, 166 secularism, 3, 5, 127–8 , 33, 75–6, 83, 90, 119, 154 secularization, 9, 23, 116 Sharjah (UAE), 95–6, 106 Sky TV, 70 war, 10, 19, 64, 79–80, 91, 94, 96, Somalia, 8, 21 130, 137, 139, 143, 146, 158–9, Souakri, Salima, 79 165, 168 , 7, 25, 27, 40, 66–7, 79, western, 4, 6–9, 13, 15–16, 18, 27, 140, 154 32, 39–40, 45, 47–8, 52, 56, 59, South Korea, 111, 149 75, 80, 91, 113, 115, 123, 126–7, sponsoring, 22, 49, 96–8, 106, 139, 131, 133–5, 140, 155, 165–6, 162 171, 172–3 sport development, 14, 32, 69, 85, westernization, 5, 57, 147–8 89, 136–7 western hegemony, 40 Sudan, 16, 20–1, 28, 119 Women (Iran), 118, Switzerland, 145 132 , 8, 16–21, 23, 25, 28, 32, 69, women, 8–9, 23–4, 78, 81, 87, 90, 70, 115, 119, 121, 136, 142 97, 108, 115, 119, 122, 125, 132, 147–8, 158, 164, 171 , 24, 119 Tlemçani, Rachid, 20, 79 Yacht racing, 98 Touraine, Alain, 4 , 16, 18–19, 21, 68, 119 , 81, 88, 89, 119 young people, 42–3, 165 , 28, 74, 77–8, 137, 160–1 younger, 36, 43, 82 Tunisia, 2, 8, 16, 18–20, 21, 27, 28, youth, 22, 24, 33, 37–8, 41–2, 46, 52, 30, 32, 50, 67–8, 73, 74–5, 76, 57–8, 69, 76, 79–80, 84–5, 87, 81, 83, 90, 91–3, 119, 123, 138, 88, 89, 92, 118, 120, 126, 134–5, 140, 151, 153, 155, 159, 161, 140, 142, 149, 155–63, 164, 167, 168 165–6 , 115, 123, 136 youth culture, 134 Ummah, 3, 18, 126, 127, 141 , 16, 21, 28, 31, Zidan, Zine eddine, 111 59, 60, 95, 98, 101–2, 104–5, Zionist, 131, 142–3