Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Case of Police Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
By Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah
Registration No. 3156
Research Thesis Submitted to the Department of Management Sciences, Abasyn University, Peshawar in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D)
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, Abasyn University Peshawar Campus, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
December, 2018
Certificate of Approval
This is to certify that the research work presented in this thesis, entitled “Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A case of Police Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa” was conducted by Mr. Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah under the supervision of Prof Dr. Qadir Bakhsh Baloch.
No part of this thesis has been submitted anywhere else for any other degree. This thesis is submitted to the Department of Management Sciences Abasyn University Peshawar in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Field of Management Sciences (HRM) Department of Management Sciences Abasyn University Peshawar
Student Name: Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah Signature: ______
Examination Committee:
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Supervisor Name:
Prof. Dr. Qadir Baksh Baloch Signature:______
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan (AWKUM)
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Associate Prof. Dr.Waqar Alam
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Abasyn University Peshawar
DETERMINANTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR: A CASE OF POLICE DEPARTMENT KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate whether organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment are the important determinants of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in KP Police and to check whether the relationship of organizational justice and OCB is mediated in serial by job satisfaction and affective commitment.
Multi stage cluster sampling technique which is a type of probability sampling was employed and eight police stations were finally selected and considered as clusters.
Questionnaires were distributed among all the available 386 policemen working in these eight police stations. 300 dully filled questionnaires were received making an active response rate of 78%. SPSS and PROCESS softwares were used data.
The results of the study confirm previous findings that organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment are related to OCB however, the relationship between organizational justice and OCB is partially mediated by job satisfaction and affective commitment in serial. The study found KP Policemen highly dissatisfied with the extrinsic factors such as duty hours, and working conditions, etc. In order to promote OCB among KP Policemen, concrete steps shall be taken to improve working conditions and justice perceptions among KP Police.
Key Words: Organizational citizenship behavior, OCB, organizational justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Police, KP Police
i Acknowledgments
Starting with the name of ALLAH the Most Merciful and the Most Beneficent, all Praises and Glories are for ALLAH Who sent Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a Blessing for the whole universe. His is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth and to Allah return all the matters (for decision). I believe that ALLAH almighty has helped me in every step and introduced me to certain organizations and individuals without the help and support of whom the study would not have been possible.
First and foremost, I thank Higher Education Commission (HEC) and Government of Pakistan for providing me a scholarship for PhD, and my college friend Zafar Hayat who advised and helped me in applying for this scholarship.
Next, I would like to thank KP Policemen who participated in this study. Apart from special thanks to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Qadir Baksh Baloch, I deeply acknowledge Dr. Saima Batool for her support and help in the analysis of data. Special thanks go to my colleagues Dr. Noman, Sir Irshad, Aziz Jan and all other who helped me complete this study.
No appropriates words can encompass and express my gratitude for my Murshid (spiritual mentor) Dr. Hazrat Syed Muhammad Arif Ali Shah Qalander, and his son Dr. Hazrat Syed Muhammad Shafaat Shah custodian of the holy throne of Hazrat Sakhi Lal Shehbaz Qalander, Sehwan Shareef. It was my Murshid-e-Karim‘s order to get enrolled in PhD and made me realize that I can do it. He supported me and continuously encouraged me. He never let me fall and for me he is always a hope in despair.
Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah
ii Author’s Declaration
I, Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah hereby state that my PhD thesis titled ―Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Case of Police Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa‖ is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for taking any degree from Abasyn University, or anywhere else in the country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate the university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree.
Name of Student: Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah
Date: 03-01-2017
iii Plagiarism Undertaking
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled ―Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Behavior: A Case of Police Department Khyber Pakhtunkhwa‖ is solely my research work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me.
I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University (Abasyn University) towards plagiarism. Therefore I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is properly referred/cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled thesis even after award of PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right to publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Student /Author Signature:______
Name: Syed Muhammad Shaukat Shah
iv
Dedication
I dedicate this thesis to my Murshid Kareem Dr. Syed Muhammad Arif Ali
Shah Qalandar, and his son Dr. Syed Muhammad Shafaat Shah, custodians of the holy throne of Hazrat Syed Usman Marvandi popularly known as
Sakhi LaL Shehbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Sharif, Sindh.
v Table of Contents
Abstract ...... i Acknowledgments ...... ii Author‘s Declaration ...... iii Plagiarism Undertaking ...... iv Dedication ...... v Table of Contents ...... vi List of Tables ...... x Table of Figures ...... xi List of Abbreviations ...... xii Chapter 1 ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 5 1.4 Significance of the Study ...... 8 1.4.1 Contributions to Theory ...... 8 1.4.2 Contributions to Practice ...... 9 Chapter 2 ...... 10 Literature Review ...... 10 2.1 Introduction ...... 10 2.2 Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) ...... 10 2.2.1 Positive Outcomes of Organizational Citizenship Behavior...... 11 2.2.2 Negative Outcomes of OCB ...... 15 2.2.3 Is OCB Good or Bad? ...... 16 2.3 Dimensions of OCB ...... 16 2.4 Determinants and Antecedent of OCB ...... 1 2.4.1 Organizational Justice ...... 1 2.4.2 Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)4 2.4.3 Job Satisfaction ...... 6 2.4.4 Job Satisfaction and OCB ...... 10 2.4.5 Organizational Commitment ...... 11 2.4.6 Affective Commitment and OCB ...... 15 2.5 Interrelation of the Morale Factors with Each Other ...... 16
vi 2.5.1. Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction ...... 16 2.5.2. Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment ...... 18 2.5.3. Organizational Justice and Affective Commitment ...... 20 2.5.4. Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment as mediators between Organizational Justice and OCB...... 22 2.6 Summary of Literature Review and Gap Identification ...... 24 2.7 Theoretical Foundation for the Relationship of Variables ...... 26 2.8 Theoretical Frame work ...... 27 2.9 Hypotheses ...... 28 Chapter 3 ...... 30 Research Methodology ...... 30 3.1 Introduction ...... 30 3.2 Philosophy or World View of the Research ...... 30 3.3 Ontology and Epistemology ...... 33 3.3.1 Ontology ...... 33 3.3.2 Epistemology ...... 35 3.4 Research Approach ...... 36 3.5 Research Strategy ...... 37 3.6 Methods of Data Collection ...... 39 3.7 Operationalization of the Study Variables ...... 40 3.7.1 Organizational Citizenship Behavior ...... 42 3.7.2 Affective Commitment ...... 43 3.7.3 Job Satisfaction ...... 43 3.7.4 Organizational Justice ...... 43 3.7.5 Demographic Variables...... 44 3.8 Research Population ...... 45 3.9 Sampling of the Research ...... 46 3.9.1 Sampling Stage One ...... 47 3.9.2 Sampling Stage Two ...... 47 3.9.3 Sampling Stage Three ...... 48 3.9.4 Rationale of Sample Size: ...... 49 3.9.5 Procedure and Rate of Return ...... 50 3.10 Data Collection Instrument ...... 51 3.10.1 Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale ...... 51 3.10.2 Affective Organizational Commitment Scale ...... 52
vii 3.10.3 Job Satisfaction Scale ...... 52 3.10.4 Organizational Justice Scale ...... 53 3.10.5 Open Ended-Question ...... 54 3.11 Tools for Data Analysis ...... 55 3.11.1 Reliability and Validity of Data ...... 55 3.11.2 Correlation Analysis ...... 55 3.11.3 Regression ...... 55 3.11.4 Testing of Model and Establishing Relationship among Variables .... 57 Chapter 4 ...... 60 Analysis and Findings ...... 60 4.1 Introduction ...... 60 4.2 Preliminary Analysis (Distribution of Respondents) ...... 60 4.3 Reliability Analysis ...... 63 4.4 Validity Analysis ...... 63 4.4.1 Factor Analysis ...... 64 4.5 Descriptive Statistics ...... 66 4.5.1 Descriptives for OCB ...... 66 4.5.2 Descriptives for Affective Commitment ...... 68 4.5.3 Descriptives for Job Satisfaction...... 69 4.5.4 Descriptives for Organizational Justice ...... 71 4.5.5 Summary of Descriptive Statistics ...... 73 4.6 Correlation Analysis ...... 74 4.7 Assumptions of Regression ...... 75 4.7.1 Sample Characteristics (Normality of Data): ...... 76 4.7.2 Multi-Collinearity ...... 76 4.7.3 Auto Correlation ...... 77 4.7.4 Homoscedasticity ...... 77 4.8 Testing of Hypotheses ...... 77
4.8.1 Hypothesis (H1, H2 & H3) ...... 78
4.8.2 Hypothesis (H4) ...... 79
4.8.3. Hypothesis (H5 & H6) ...... 80
4.8.4 Hypothesis (H7, H8, H9, & H10) ...... 80 4.9 Results from Open Ended Question...... 84
viii Chapter 5 ...... 86 Discussion & Conclusion ...... 86 5.1 Introduction ...... 86 5.2 Discussion of the Research Findings ...... 87 5.2.1 Relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB ...... 87 5.2.2 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB ...... 87 5.2.3 Relationship between Affective Commitment and OCB ...... 88 5.2.4 Relationship between Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction ...... 89 5.2.5 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment ..... 89 5.2.6 Relationship between Organizational Justice and Affective Commitment ...... 90 5.2.7 Relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB with the Mediation of Job Satisfaction ...... 90 5.2.8 Relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB with Mediation of Affective Commitment ...... 91 5.2.9 Direct and Indirect relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB ...... 92 5.3 Conclusion ...... 93 5.4 Implications of the Study ...... 95 5.4.1 Implications for Theory ...... 95 5.4.2 Implications for KP Police ...... 96 5.5 Limitations and Directions for Future Studies ...... 101 REFERENCES ...... 104 Appendix ...... 131
ix List of Tables
Table 2.1 Summary of Various Dimensions of OCB ...... 20 Table 2. 2 Summary of the Literature Review and Gap Identification ...... 25 Table 3. 1 Operational Definitions of Variables ...... 41 Table 3. 2 Population before Sampling ...... 47 Table 3. 3 Sampling Stage 1 ...... 47 Table 3. 4 Sampling Stage 2 ...... 47 Table 3. 5 Sampling Stage 3 ...... 48 Table 3. 6 Details of Clusters ...... 48 Table 3. 7 Sample Sizes for Different Sizes of Population...... 49
Table 3. 8 Summary of Scales Used in the Study ...... 54 Table 4. 1 Distribution of Respondents ...... 61 Table 4. 2 Reliability Analysis ...... 63 Table 4. 3 Communalities ...... 64 Table 4. 4 Total Variance ...... 65 Table 4. 5 Descriptives for Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) ...... 67 Table 4. 6 Descriptives for Affective Commitment ...... 69 Table 4. 7 Descriptives for Job Satisfaction ...... 70 Table 4. 8 Descriptives for Organizational Justice ...... 72 Table 4. 9 Summary of Descriptive Statistics ...... 74 Table 4. 10 Correlation Table ...... 75 Table 4. 11 Kolmogrov-smirnov Shapiro- Wilk ...... 76 Table 4. 12 Organizational Justice, Job Satisfaction, Affective Commitment and OCB (Regression Analysis) ...... 79 Table 4. 13 Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction ...... 79 Table 4. 14 Job Satisfaction, Organizational justice and Affective Commitment 80 Table 4. 15 Direct and Indirect Effects of Organizational Justice on OCB ...... 82 Table 4. 16 Summary of Results for Hypothesis ...... 83 Table 4. 17 Results from Open-ended Question ...... 85
x Table of Figures
Figure 2. 1 Theoratical Frame work ...... 28
Figure 3. 1 KP Police Strength ...... 46
Figure 3. 2 Proposed Model ...... 57
Figure 4. 1 Summary of Results ...... 83
xi List of Abbreviations
AC Affective Commitment AIG Additional Inspector General ASI Assistant Sub-Inspector ASP Additional Superintendent of Police CTD Counter Terrorism Department DSP Deputy Superintendent of Police DSP Deputy Superintendent of Police FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas FC Constable HC Head Constable IGP Inspector General of Police ISAF International Security Assistance Force JS Job Satisfaction KP Police Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Police KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa NACTA National Counter Terrorism Authority NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization OCB Organizational Citizenship Behavior OJ Organizational Justice PATA Provincially Administered Tribal Areas RPO Regional Police Officer SHO Station House Officer SI Sub-Inspector SP Superintendent of Police SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences UNSC United Nations Security Council
xii Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
The first chapter is an introduction to the study that includes the problem statement, research questions, and significance of the study.
1.2 Background of the Study
Organizational citizenship behavior holds a special place among other work behaviors such as attendance at work, turnover and retirement decisions, psychological withdrawal behaviors, unionization activity etc., as it involves working beyond job description and regulations (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, & Hui, 1993). Organ (1988) defined OCB as ―OCB is individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization‖
(p.4). Examples of OCB include helping new entrants and co-workers by knowledge sharing, voluntarily changing shifts, achieving difficult targets or promoting a positive picture of the organization to others (Bowling, Wang & Li, 2012; Lee & Allen, 2002).
OCB holds benefits for both individual employees and the organization. For example, at the individual level employees who display OCBs are more positively evaluated by their managers and when experienced employees help their less experienced peers in performing tasks, their productivity is improved (Werner, 1994). Similarly employees who exhibit OCBs take greater share of rewards than their counter parts (Johnson, Erez, Kiker, & Motowidlo,
2002).
1 Organizational level out comes such as organizational effectiveness including quality and quantity of production, reduction in manufacturing costs, and profitability are attributed to
OCB (Hsiao, 2011; Karambayya, 1990; Morrison, 1996 Wu, 2010). OCBs also develop coordination, cohesiveness and motivation in teams which results in greater retention (Podsakoff et al., 2009). It was found in Turkish National Police that OCB of police force is linked with the performance of police (Tongur, 2011). Administrative staff displaying OCB in university were playing outstanding role in administrative committees (Farris, 2018). OCBs are also negatively related to absenteeism at work (Podsakoff et al., 2009). In a latest study in Australian public services, it was found that performance of employees was associated with their OCB such as working extra hours (Taylor, 2018).
OCB also contributes to the customer satisfaction because it result in better teamwork, coordination, and support among coworkers which culminates in to customer satisfaction. In addition, OCBs such as keeping one-self well informed about his/her job results in greater customer satisfaction. Lastly, they proposed that workers who display civic virtue by forwarding suggestions for improvement in customer services may also increase customer satisfaction (Yen
& Niehoff, 2004). Organizational units whose employees reported greater OCBs usually have more satisfied customers than those possessing lower levels of OCBs (PodsaKoff et al., 2009).
Kuo (2012) found that OCB serves as a moderator variable strengthening the relationship of managerial innovation and service quality.
Despite the predominant positive evaluation of OCB some critics also focus on the negative outcomes of OCB (Bolino, Klotz, Turnley, & Harvey, 2013; Rubin, Dierdorff, &
Bachrach, 2013). The main theme of the criticism is that OCB is more beneficial to the organization than the employees. Employees who undertake multiple roles by displaying
2 individual initiative may face stress, burden of role, and work-life conflict (Bolino & Turnley,
2005). Most of the organizations pay for task performance and OCB may affect employee task performance. Hence, they may inadvertently compromise their performance appraisal and careers by helping their organizations (Bergeron, 2007; Rapp 2013). Some mangers even get used to OCB and consider it mandatory for employees. This phenomenon is called compulsory citizenship behavior (CCP) (Vigoda-Gadot, 2006). OCB may lead to work-family conflict
(Cooper, Coyle, MacDougall, & Bagdasarov, 2018). The dark sides of OCB however does not make the need of OCB redundant. The over whelming effect of OCB is positive for both individuals and organizations. However the managers must be aware of the side effects of OCB and shall take all possible interventions that may help avoiding work-family conflict. In addition managers shall ensure assessment of OCB performed by employees and shall consider such behaviors in appraisal and promotion of employees.
Now the question arises how OCB can be promoted among employees? Organizational justice can promote OCB (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Moorman, 1991; Moorman &
Blakey, 1995; Moorman, Niehoff & Organ, 1993; Niehoff & Moorman, 1993; Podsakoff et al.,
2000). Organizational justice is defined as ―ways in which employees determine if they have been treated fairly in their jobs, and the ways in which those determinations influence other work-related variables‖ (Moorman, 1991, p.845). In a meta-analysis covering 25 years of research it was found that organizational justice is a vital antecedents of OCB (Colquitt et al.,
2001). 536 police officers in Buenos Aires, reported that organizational justice is positively associated with officers‘ compliance with supervisors and policies. This is synonymous to
―organizational compliance‖ dimension of OCB (Haas et al., 2015). The meta-analysis of
Podsakoff et al., (2000) found a profound role of organizational justice. In a study conducted
3 among government employees of Korea, procedural justice was found to be important antecedent of OCB (Shim & Faerman, 2017).
Job satisfaction is also reported as an important determinant of OCB (Murphy,
Athanasou, & King 2002; Foote & Tang, 2008; Nguni, Sleegers & Denessen, 2006; Chan, & Lai,
2017). Locke (1976 defined Job satisfaction as ―a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting for the appraisal of one‘s job or job experiences‖ (p.1304). This pleasurable emotional state leads to performance of citizenship behaviors. A study conducted in Turkish National
Police concluded that jab satisfaction has a significant effect on policemen‘ OCB perception
(Bez, 2010). Similarly another study exploring the determinants of OCB in Indian Police found that job satisfaction and OCB were strongly linked (Qureshi, 2015).
Another important determinant of OCB is affective commitment (Gautam et al., 2005;
Organ & Ryan, 1995; Schappe, 1998; Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Meyer and Allen (1991) defined it as ―Affective commitment is the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization‖ (p.67). It seems that when employees get emotionally glued to the organization they would act in a manner beneficial for the coworkers and organization such as OCB. For example, In China, Allen and colleagues (2011) identified a positive association between affective commitment and OCB. Ibrahim and Aslinda (2013) studied 176 employees of Indonesian public telecom sector and found affective commitment to be associated to OCB. In Japan, affective commitment was significantly found associated to voluntary involvement and personal industry dimensions of OCB (Wang, 2015). The association between affective commitment and OCB sustained irrespective of high- unemployment environment or full employment environment (Devece, Palacios-Marqués, &
Alguacil, 2016). Organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment are
4 variables that lead to OCB due you to emotional attachment and are collectively called moral factor (Organ & Ryan, 1995). While these variables have been extensively studied separately as antecedents of OCB, very few studies, have studied these variables simultaneously and it is not clear from these studies how the morale factors interplay play while developing OCB. This is a gap that exists in the existing literature and needs to be filled. Organizational justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment and OCB need to be integrated as a model so that the relationship and order among these determinants can be established.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Organizational justice plays an important part in the making of OCB yet it is not always sufficient for promoting OCB alone. Job satisfaction can act as a necessary immediate step as past studies have found that job satisfaction mediates the association between organizational justice and OCB (Hooi, 2015; Rauf, 2015; Chan & lai, 2017). Apart from job satisfaction, affective commitment also mediates the link between organizational justice and OCB (Lavelle et al, 2009; Lehmann‐Willenbrock, Grohmann, & Kauffeld, 2013; Le, J. Zhang, S. Zhang, & Zhou,
2017).
Some studies have even studied the variables of organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment simultaneously with OCB. For example Rifai (2005) studied 383 nurses in Indonesia and found that organizational justice leads to job satisfaction which then creates affective commitment. Affective commitment then subsequently culminates into OCB.
However it cannot be established from the study that job satisfaction and affective commitment, mediate the association between organizational justice and OCB, as the direct effect
(organizational justice-OCB) is not tested. In another study conducted by Zeinabadi and Salehi
(2011) it was concluded that procedural justice was linked to OCB through the mediation of job
5 satisfaction. However contrary to other studies procedural justice found unrelated to organizational commitment (Zeinabadi & Salehi, 2011). Another study worthy to mention was conducted by a police officer on the antecedents of OCB in Indian Police. It found that along other variables, affective commitment, job satisfaction, distributive and procedural justices were strongly related to OCB (Qureshi, 2015). However the interrelationship between these antecedents cannot be established from the study.
The above discussion shows that there is lack of consistency among past studies and it is also not clear how these antecedents interplay and culminate into OCB and what comes first?
The theory of social exchange may help in this regard as it is often used as an explanation for the development of OCB (Cropenzo & Mitchell, 2005). A recent study giving detail account of development in social exchange theory reported that in social exchange an actor (employer, manager) acts in a specific manner (positive or negative) towards a target (employee) thus initiating an action. The target (employee) then reacts in two separate ways; behavioral and relational. If the action was positive then the reciprocating behaviors will be such that will help and benefit the actor such as OCB. Similarly for positive action relational response will be generated such as better interpersonal relationship and commitment (Cropanzano, Anthony,
Daniels, & Hall, 2017). We may propose on the basis of above discussion and theory of social exchange that if management positively behaves by fairly treating employees, the employees will develop a positive perception of organizational justice and will get satisfied from their jobs. The employees will reciprocate in both ways by developing a relationship with the organization in the form of affective commitment and subsequently performing beneficial behaviors such as OCB.
In such case, organizational justice will be the predictor in the social exchange relation, the two
6 mediators, job satisfaction and affective commitment will be indicators of the quality of social exchange relationship and OCB will be the consequence of social exchange relationship.
However this claim is not established from the past literature and need to be probed. For this purpose a model is developed and tested in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Police (KP Police).
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) is a province of Pakistan which was previously called North West
Frontier Provence (NWFP). Pakistan is facing the menace of terrorism and as per Global
Terrorist Index (GTI) report issued by Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) Pakistan ranks top 5th position in terrorist attacks (IEP, 2017). KP Police is bravely fighting the menace of terrorism and it has sacrificed the most number of 1304 policemen from 2006 to 2018, in which predominantly 900 of were constables (Khan, 2018).
According to researcher‘s knowledge no prior study is ever conducted on OCB in
Pakistan or KP, and this study not only explores and present the current picture of OCB and its determinants in KP Police, but also presents suggestions for improvement of OCB. The need of the time dictates KP Police to perform above and beyond the job description to the extent of self- sacrifice and this falls in the domain of OCB. On the theoretical front, KP Police presents unique ground for testing the theory of social exchange and associated relationships between OCB and its determinants.
The purpose of the study is multi fold: (1) to probe whether organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment are determinants of OCB in KP Police, (2) to find out whether job satisfaction and affective commitment mediate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB concurrently and in serial and (3) to suggest motivational measures for enhancing OCB in KP Police.
7 Therefore this study concentrates on the following questions:
1. What is the relationship of organizational justice, job satisfaction, and affective
commitment with OCB in KP Police?
2. Do job satisfaction and affective commitment mediate the organizational justice-OCB
link individually and concurrently in serial or the effect or organizational justice on OCB
is direct without the inclusion of mediators?
3. How can OCB be promoted in KP Police?
Drawing from prior research in the area of OCB, hypotheses are generated regarding the relationship between organizational justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment and OCB.
These hypothesis are tested in field setting of KP Police.
1.4 Significance of the Study
The study is contributing to existing OCB literature and KP police department and other stake holders in multiple ways.
1.4.1 Contributions to Theory
The study is investigates job satisfaction and affective commitment concurrently
and in serial between the link of organizational justice and OCB. No past study to
date has investigated the relationship concurrently in serial in the past.
Secondly, most of the studies on OCB are being conducted in the west and
developed countries. This study is conducted in a unique context of a developing
country Pakistan and especially in the police department of its terrorism affected
province, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP). It verifies that the theory of social
8 exchange and the existing associations among organizational justice, job
satisfaction, affective commitment and OCB in developed countries sustain
themselves in the unique circumstances of KP.
The study identifies new areas worthy of research related to OCB.
1.4.2 Contributions to Practice
On the applied side it is the first ever study related to OCB in Pakistani Police.
The study informs us that organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective
commitment are important determinants of OCB in KP Police and if these
variables are properly addressed OCB can be improved.
The study presents pragmatic suggestions for the improvement of organizational
justice, job satisfaction, and affective commitment so that KP policemen can be
motivated to perform OCB.
Apart from police department, the study is beneficial for various stake holders
including government, citizens, local and international think tanks, our
international allies in war against terror etc.
9 Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The study aims at investigating and integrating the relationships between OCB and its important determinants namely organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment in KP Police. This chapter presents evolving account of past studies on OCB and its determinants and the interrelation of these determinants with each other. The literature review helped in deriving theoretical framework of the constructs which leads to the development of hypotheses to be tested.
2.2 Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
Chester Barnard (1938) in his famous book ―The Functions of the Executive‖ introduced the notion of willingness to cooperate which laid the initial base of today‘s organizational citizenship behavior. Barnard suggested that one of the functions of executive shall be to create such an environment where employees willingly cooperate for the achievement of organizational objectives. Katz (1964) argued that it is difficult for an organization to forecast and address all situations in advance and therefore need some voluntary behaviors beyond job description that facilitate the achievement of organizational objectives. He named such behaviors as innovative and spontaneous behaviors. These behaviors are typically outside the primary content dimensions of an individual's job. Typical examples are helping co-workers, safeguarding the organization, give positive proposals, self-development, and spreading goodwill (Katz & Kahn,
1978).
10 The word OCB was primarily devised by Smith, Organ & Near (1983) on the basis of
Barnard‘s and Katz‘s work. Organ (1988) defined OCB as ―individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization‖ (p.4). It means that these behaviors are not compulsory and their exclusion is not punishable. However, later, Organ
(1997) refined OCB as ―performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place‖ (p. 95). To Lee and Allen (2002) ―OCB are employee behaviors that, although not critical to the task or job, serve to facilitate organizational functioning‖ (p.132).
Lambert (2006) defined OCB as ―behavior that (a) goes beyond the basic requirements of the job, (b) is to a large extent discretionary, and (c) is of benefit to the organization‖ (p.503).
One distinctive property of OCB is that it is not demarcated by job descriptions and policies
(Podsakoff, Mackenzie & Hui 1993). Examples of OCB are helping a recruit to accustomed with the job and organization, helping a coworker in completing a difficult task, and willingly exchanging shifts. Notably, OCB include acts of organizational importance such as working for extra hours without the expectation of compensation, performing extra duties, and showing a positive picture of the organization to others (Bowling, Wang, & Li, 2012; Organ & Konovsky,
1989; Williams &Anderson, 1991).
2.2.1 Positive Outcomes of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
OCB plays a leading part in the employee and organizational outcomes. The benefits of displaying OCBs for individual employees include better performance ranking, greater rewards decisions. On the organizational level OCBs improves performance indicators such as production, reduced costs, and greater income.
11 Effects of OCB at the individual Level
Literature suggests that employees who display OCBs are more positively evaluated by their managers (MacKenzie et al., 1991). Similarly employees who exhibit OCBs take greater share of rewards than their counter parts (Johnson, Erez, Kiker, & Motowidlo, 2002). There are different reasons due to which managers consider OCBs in the performance evaluation and distribution of rewards (Allen & Rush, 1998; Podsakoff et al., 2000). First and foremost when employees perform OCBs it makes the job of the managers easier. As a reciprocal mangers may likely reciprocate (Blau, 1964; Homans, 1961) by ranking and rewarding those employees higher who display OCBs (Podsakoff et al., 2009). Second, managers may consider OCBs as symbol of an employee‘s motivation and commitment for the organization and incorporate such behaviors in the assessment of employee job performance (Shore, Barksdale, & Shore, 1995). Finally,
Managers develop liking for those employees who display OCBs and this affection transforms into higher performance ratings and reward allocations for such employees (Lefkowitz, 2000).
OCBs also have effects on the employee withdrawal behaviors such as turn over intentions and absenteeism. Chen and her colleagues narrates that OCBs are comparatively voluntary behaviors and the reduction of these behaviors is a signal of an employee‘s withdrawal from the organization (Chen, 2005; Chen, Hui, & Sego, 1998). Similarly lower level of OCBs are indications of employee turnover intentions and actual turnovers (Mossholder, Settoon, &
Henagan, 2005). OCBs are also reported to have been negatively related to absenteeism at work
(Podsakoff et al., 2009).
Effects of OCB at the Unit and/or Organizational Level Apart from the effects of OCBs on individual-level outcomes these behaviors also have effects on organizational level out comes such as organizational effectiveness and customer
12 satisfaction. Several studies relate OCBs and organizational effectiveness such as Karambayya
(1990) established that employees in work units with greater productivity showed more citizenship behaviors as compared to employees in less productive units.
Some scientists have explained how OCBs may contribute to organizational effectiveness for example, Podsakoff and Mackenzie (1997) suggested that OCBs can contribute in achieving organizational goals by; increasing individual and group performance through better coordination; attracting and retaining best workers and; helping organization to quickly respond to the environmental changes. Similarly, other researchers suggested that experienced employees improve the productivity of their less experienced peers when they help them in performing their tasks. Employees who give their supervisors improvement suggestions result in greater unit effectiveness, reduction of costs, and sparing time for managers to plan. Similarly OCBs also develop coordination, cohesiveness and motivation in teams which also results in greater retention (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Podsakoff et al., 2009).
Due to these and other reasons yet to be explored, studies have revealed that OCBs are positively linked to various aspects of organizational effectiveness such as quality and quantity of production, reduction in manufacturing costs, and profitability (Dunlop & Lee, 2004;
Podsakoff et al., 2009) have revealed that OCBs are positively linked to various aspects of organizational effectiveness such as quality and quantity of production, reduction in manufacturing costs, and profitability. An important study by Ehrhart (2004) revealed that ―OCB explained approximately 20% of the variance in store profitability‖ (p. 64). Wu (2010) found significant positive relationship between OCB and firm‘s performance in Taiwan whereas Hsiao
(2011) found vital associate between these variables in a non-profit organization. A study in the
Turkish National Police of Turkey concluded that OCB of Police force is linked with the
13 performance of police (Tongur, 2011). In a latest study it was found that administrative staff displaying OCB in university were playing outstanding role in administrative committees (Farris,
2018).
OCB and Customer Satisfaction
The demonstration of OCBs also effect external measures of organizational effectiveness such as customer satisfaction. The employees who extend their help to other fellows encourage teamwork and cooperation among coworkers, which culminates into better performance and enhanced customer satisfaction. In addition, OCBs such as keeping one-self well informed about his/her job results in greater customer satisfaction. Lastly, employees who display civic virtue by forwarding suggestions for improvement in customer services may also increase customer satisfaction (Yen & Niehoff, 2004).
A chain of studies were carried out in four separate organizational settings consisting of insurance agency, paper mill, pharmaceutical sale persons, and limited-menu restaurants to identify the relationship of OCB with the quality and quantity of performance. The results were summarized by PodsaKoff et al. (2000) ―OCB accounted for about 19% of the variance in performance quantity; over 18% of the variance in performance quality; about 25% of the variance in financial efficiency indicators (operating efficiency, food cost percentage, and revenue full-time-equivalent); and about 38% of the variance in customer service indicators
(customer satisfaction and customer complaints‖ (p.546). The meta-analysis of PodsaKoff et al.
(2009) also reported that organizational units whose employees reported greater OCBs usually have more satisfied customers then those possessing lower levels of OCBs. Kuo (2012) found that OCB act as a moderator variable strengthening the relationship of managerial innovation and service quality.
14 2.2.2 Negative Outcomes of OCB
Despite the overwhelming positive evaluations of OCB, some critics focus on the negative outcomes of OCB (Bolino, Klotz, Turnley, & Harvey, 2013; Cooper, Coyle,
MacDougall, & Bagdasarov, 2018; Rubin, Dierdorff, & Bachrach, 2013). These critics believe that OCB is more beneficial to the organization than the employees. At the individual level, it is difficult for employees to differentiate between ―in-role‖ and ―extra-role‖ performance, leading to confusion (Bolino, Turnley & Niehoff, 2004). Employees who undertake multiple roles by displaying individual initiative may face stress, role overload, and work family conflict (Bolino
& Turnley, 2005). Bergeron (2007) reported that most of the organizations pay for task performance and OCB may affect employee task performance. Hence, they may inadvertently compromise their performance appraisal and careers by helping their organizations. Rapp,
Bachrach, and Rapp (2013) also found that OCB has negative effects on long term career success.
The pressure to perform OCB is reported to be linked to job stress and work-life conflict.
As in OCB, taking additional roles will add additional stress and overload on employee (Organ,
Ryan, 1995). This will allow less time and zeal for spouse and family responsibilities and will result in a conflict (Hochschild, 1997). This conflict is more prevalent in the life of women as compared to men (Bolino & Turnley, 2005; Gutek et al., 1991). Another important criticism over
OCB is that managers may get used to OCBs and start considering such behaviors compulsory, resulting in greater job stress for employees. These compulsory behaviors are termed as compulsory citizenship behavior (CCB) (Vigoda-Gadot, 2006).
15 2.2.3 Is OCB Good or Bad?
For individual OCB is beneficial as it generally has positive effects on the mood of employees as it satisfies the desires of autonomy and affiliation (Bono, Glomb, Shen, Kim, &
Koch, 2013). It also improves self-appraisal. Helping other also carries a satisfaction of social significance in to other life (Grant & Sonnentag, 2010). However, these positive effects also depend on the personal dispositions of employees. Employees who follow their aspirations and do tasks related to their advancement (promotion focus) may feel up when they perform OCB activities such as helping others. However employees who focus on completing their assigned tasks (prevention focus) may not feel comfortable if pressurized to engage in OCB and may lead to stress and emotional exhaustion (Koopman, Lanaj, & Scott, 2016).
In some situations OCB can also affect attaining organizational goals. For example, a recent study reports that when employees feel obliged to perform OCB they feel psychologically entitled for having done beyond their duty. This psychological entitlement gives a moral freedom to involve in interpersonal and organizational aberration (Yam, Klotz, & Reynolds, 2017).
Organizations that want to reap the benefits of OCB ought to regularly assess their employees for exhaustion and ensure their well-being. They shall avoid placing prevention focus employees in areas requiring citizenship behaviors such as helping a fresh recruit to socialize in the organization. Furthermore organizations need to promote promotion focus among employees by teaching learning and progress and reduce prevention focus by reducing regulations and accepting errors and mistakes (Kark & Van Dijk, 2007).
2.3 Dimensions of OCB
The OCB and its constructs or dimensions has been discussed and researched with different names without consensus. Various researchers have done tremendous work in
16 developing consensus over the title and dimensions of OCB. Earlier researchers figured out altruism and conscientiousness to be the two dimensions of OCB (Organ & Konovsky, 1989).
Later three more dimensions: sportsmanship; courtesy; and civic virtue were travelled (Organ,
1988, Organ & Ryan, 1995). These five dimensions are widely used for determining OCB, and a valid and reliable scale (Podsakoff et al. 1990) is available for measurement of these dimensions.
Another famous scale measures OCB with two dimensions, OCB-I, and OCB-O
(Williams & Anderson 1991).These were also confirmed later by Lee and Allen (2002). OCBI encompass behaviors meant for helping individuals in the organization whereas OCBO include behaviors for the good of overall organization. According to Williams and Anderson (1991)
OCBI refers to behaviors that directly help some fellow individuals and subsequently indirectly lead in contribution to the organization. Whereas OCBO denotes those behaviors that advantage the overall organization.
The work of various authors have been summarized to seven dimensions by PodsaKoff,
MacKenzie, Paine, and Bachrach (2000) and given in Table 2.1.
1) Helping Behavior: The helping behavior dimension summarizes the earlier
almost similar construct of altruism, courtesy, peacemaking and cheer leading,
,interpersonal helping, OCB-I, helping coworkers, helping and cooperating with others,
and interpersonal facilitation (PodsaKoff, 2000). Helping behavior involves helping a co-
worker in their work as well as in their personal problems. The dimension of helping
behavior also involves helping a customer (Podsakoff et al., 2000).
2) Sportsmanship: This dimension summarizes earlier dimensions of ‗helping and
cooperating with others‘, and ‗sportsmanship‘ (PodsaKoff, 2000). Sportsmanship is
17 defined by Konovsky and Organ (1996) as ―the inclination to absorb minor inconveniences and impositions accruing from the job without complaints or excessive demands for relief or redress‖ (p. 255). An employee scoring high on sportsmanship would not complain about the disliked potion of their jobs and would also think about others work challenges (Konovsky & Organ, 1996).
3) Organization Loyalty: According to PodsaKoff (2000) organization loyalty inundates the earlier dimensions of ‗endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives‘, ‗spreading goodwill‘, and ‗organizational loyalty‘. ―Organizational loyalty consists of spreading goodwill and protecting the organization and the endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives. Essentially, organizational loyalty entails promoting the organization to outsiders, protecting and defending it against external threats, and remaining committed to it even under adverse conditions‖(p.517).
4) Organizational Compliance: Organizational Compliance encompasses the earlier terms of ‗OCB-O‘ (Williams & Anderson, 1991), ‗organizational obedience‘
(Graham, 1991), and ‗generalized compliance‘ (Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983). According to Organ and Ryan (1995) ―it refers to more impersonal contributions to the organization such as excellent attendance, and adherence to organizational rules and policies‖ (p.782).
Such actions are not targeted at any single employee or colleague, rather than beneficial to all employees (Smith et al., 1983). An employee scoring high on this dimensions will be law abiding noble citizen of an organization (Podsakoff et al., 2000).
5) Individual Initiative: It summarizes earlier constructs of ‗job dedication‘,
‗persisting with enthusiasm and extra effort, volunteering to carryout task activities‘,
18 ‗making constructive suggestions‘, ‗personal industry‘, ‗Individual Initiative‘, and
‗conscientiousness‘. Individual initiative includes discretionary actions of ingenuity, novelty in individual and organizational activities and processes. It involves exerting at high energy level, persistence, and taking and encouraging other to take extra responsibilities (Podsakoff et al., 2000)
6) Civic Virtue: It recaps the earlier constructs of ‗protecting the organization‘,
‗organizational participation‘, ‗civic virtue‘ (Organ (1988, 1990a, 1990b). It encompass behaviors that show active participation in the affairs of organization (Organ & Ryan,
1995). For example voluntarily participating in meetings, participating in seminars, keeping aware of organizational changes, and playing an active role in the decision making and performance of overall organization (Konovosky & Organ, 1996).
7) Self-Development: It summarizes the earlier similar constructs of ‗developing oneself‘ (George & Brief, 1992; George & Jones, 1997). This dimension include behaviors like voluntarily indulging in enhancing knowledge, keeping apprised of the innovations in their respective areas and learning new skills and techniques for the benefit of organization. The study has developed a scale for OCB consisting of these seven themes or dimensions. Up to the knowledge of the researcher OCB is not measured earlier with these seven dimensions.
19 Table 2.1 Summary of Various Dimensions of OCB Studies Dimensions Smith, Organ, Altruism - - Generalized - - - & Near (1983) Compliance Organ (1988, Altruism, Sportsmanship - - Conscientiousness Civic Virtue - 1990a,1990b) Courtesy, peacemaking, cheer leading Graham (1989); Interpersonal - Loyalty - Personal - - Moorman & helping Boosterism Industry, Individual Blakely (1995) Initiative Graham - - Organizational Organizational - Organizational - (1991) Loyalty Obedience Participation Williams & OCB-I - - OCB-O - - - Anderson (1991) George & Brief Helping - Spreading - Making Constructive Protecting the Developing (1992); coworkers Goodwill Suggestions Organization Oneself George & Jones (1997) Borman & Helping and Helping and Endorsing, Following Persisting with - - Motowidlo Cooperating Cooperating Supporting, Organizational Enthusiasm and (1993, 1997) With Others with Others and Defending Rules and Extra Effort, Organizational Procedures Volunteering to Objectives Carryout Task Activities Van Scotter & Interpersonal - - Job Dedication Job Dedication - - Motowidlo Facilitation (1996) Podsakoff et al., Helping Sportsmanship Organizational Organizational Individual Civic Self- (2000) Behavior Loyalty Compliance Initiative Virtue Development
20 2.4 Determinants and Antecedent of OCB
Most of the research studies of the past, which were reviewed, found concentrating on four main classes of determinants of OCB: Individual (or employee) characteristics, task characteristics, organizational characteristics, and leadership behaviors or styles (Podsakoff et al.,
2000). Among individual characteristics, morale factors and individual dispositional factors are two main causes of OCB (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith et al., 1983).
Employees‘ perception of fairness, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and perceptions of leader supportiveness are variables that lead to OCB due you to emotional attachment or moral factor (Organ & Ryan, 1995). They also found strong support for the relationship between these variables and OCB. Podsakoff et al., (2000) in their meta-analysis found a profound role of organizational justice, job satisfaction, and affective commitment in the development of OCB. All of these morale factors have significant relationships with OCB of almost similar power (from .23 to .31) (Podsakoff et al., 2000, p.530). Thus, perception of organizational justice, job satisfaction, and commitment seems to be important determinants of citizenship behaviors.
2.4.1 Organizational Justice
Justice refers to "oughtness" or "righteousness", and in the organizational context ―an act
is defined as just if most individuals perceive it to be so on the basis of empirical research‖
(Colquitt, Canlon, Wesson, & Porter, 2001, p. 425). A group of earlier researchers (Adams,
1965; Homans, 1961; Leventhal, 1976) worked on the fairness of distribution of outcome
typically called distributive justice. Procedural justice characterizes fairness of procedures used
in the distribution of these outcomes (Leventhal, 1980; Thibaut & Walker, 1975). Interactional
1 justice was introduced by Bies and Moag (1986) whereas Greenberg (1990a, 1993b) further divided it into interpersonal and informational justice.
Organizational justice is defined by Moorman (1991) as ―ways in which employees determine if they have been treated fairly in their jobs, and the ways in which those determinations influence other work-related variables‖ (p.845). More recently an extensive meta- analysis and concluded that organizational justice has four dimensions: distributive justice; procedural justice; interpersonal justice; and informational justice. Interpersonal justice and informational justice were previously collectively called Interactional justice (Colquitt et al.,
2001).
1. Distributive justice: It can be trailed back to traditional balance theories (Festinger, 1957;
Heider, 1958). Imbalance exist when employees are comparatively more rewarded with equal contribution which leads to dissatisfaction and low performance. Homans (1961) theory of social exchange also implicitly speaks of the appropriate distribution of resources. Perhaps the most famous contributor to the distributive justice theory is Adams (1965). According to equity theory of Adams (1965), individuals try to compare their input (education, hard work) to output
(rewards such as pay) ratio with that of others and strive for equilibrium. Or simply employees‘ strive for an equity with similar employees.
Leventhal (1976) identified another rule of equality and need in distribution. Distributive
Justice mainly centers on the equality of distribution of rewards such as salary, but it also include the distribution of interesting tasks among the employees.
2. Procedural justice: The study of process of imparting justice which focuses on the fairness of formal procedures was introduced by Thibaut and Walker (1975). They explained that
2 employees viewed the procedure as fair if they perceived their dispute resolution mechanism as such which provided enough time for preparation of their case and have freedom in presenting arguments. Procedural justice of today is equivalent to the process control of Thibaut and Walker
(Folger & Cropanzano, 1998). The work of Thibaut and Walker was limited to the legal aspects whereas Leventhal and colleagues expanded the notion of procedural justice from mere process and legal aspect to other settings like organizational (Leventhal, Karuza, & Fry, 1980). The work of Tyler (1989; 1990) like Thibaut and Walker also focuses on legal fairness of procedures.
3. Interactional Justice (interpersonal and informational): Bies and Moag (1986) concentrated on personal conduct individuals receive during the execution of procedures, and called it interactional justice. Greenberg (1990a) further expanded interactional justice into interpersonal justice and informational justice.
a) Interpersonal justice: Colquitt and colleagues (2001) defines it as ―interpersonal
justice reflects the degree to which people are treated with politeness, dignity, and respect
by authorities and third parties involved in executing procedures or determining
outcomes‖ (p. 427).
b) Informational justice: It is related to informing employees regarding decisions that
affect them. Colquitt and colleagues (2001) define it as ―informational justice, focuses on
the explanations provided to people that convey information about why procedures were
used in a certain way or why outcomes were distributed in a certain fashion‖ (p.427).
3 2.4.2 Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
Organizational justice is a widely studied determinant of organizational citizenship behaviour (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Moorman & Blakey, 1995; Niehoff & Moorman,
1993; Podsakoff et al., 2000). Skarlicki and Latham (1996) conducted a quasi-experiment in which labor union members showed more OCB after their leaders were trained for fairness.
Employees who consider OCBs as extra role behavior feel freedom in the increase or decrease of
OCBs. When employees are fairly treated their OCB performance increase (Tepper et al., 2000).
In a meta-analysis covering 25 years of research, it was found that perceived organizational justice is one of the important antecedents of OCB (Colquitt et al., 2001). Tepper and Taylor (2003) in their classic work found in a study of National Guard Members and their officers, that the procedural justice perception of supervisors results in the supervisors‘ engagement in OCBs. Supervisors‘ OCBs result in the subordinates‘ perception of procedural justice which influences subordinates‘ OCB. Similarly, Ehrhart (2004) established that procedural justice climate was associated to unit-level OCB.
In Israel, a research involving 1035 registered nurses in the public sector hospitals, concluded that distributive justice, interactional justice, and procedural justice mediated the association between professionalism and OCB (Cohen & Kol, 2004). The results of a study conducted in five large service organization concluded that the perception of fairness affects employees‘ involvement in OCB. It was also found out that Perception of fairness has more enduring effect on OCB as compared to their mood (Messer & White, 2006).
In hospitality industry of Malaysia distributive justice was found related to intentions of performing OCBs (Hemdi & Nasurdin, 2008). Fassina, Jones and Uggerslev (2008) investigated the conceptual relationship between perceived fairness, job satisfaction and OCB through meta-
4 analytically derived coefficients. Both job satisfaction and justice perception created diverse variances in OCB. Abdesonboli, Gilaninia, and Goudarzvandchegini (2011) studied public hospital employees in Iran and found that all dimensions of organizational justice were positively linked to OCB. Similar results were found by Abdul Rauf (2014) in Sri Lanka. Ismail (2014) studied the relationship of organizational justice and OCB in private bank employees of Syria.
The conclusion confirmed the earlier results and showed positive and strong relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
Organizational compliance is a dimension of OCB which involves complying organizational rules and procedures even in the absence of supervision. Employees who perceive the processes of their organization to be fair may engage in greater organizational compliance.
For example, 536 police officers in Buenos Aires, reported that procedural justice is positively associated with officers‘ compliance with supervisors and policies. Fairly treated officers also follow given guidelines (Haas et al., 2015).
Daly and colleagues studied employees of two manufacturing plants in South Korea.
They probed the effect of organizational justice on the dimesions of OCB. Results show that distributive justice and procedural justice were related to loyal boosterism and interpersonal helping respectively. Whereas interactional justice was related to all the studied dimensions of
OCB. (Daly et al., 2015). In a latest study conducted among government employees of Korea, procedural justice tuned out to be important antecedent of OCB (Shim & Faerman, 2017).
Although Pakistan in a developing country with unique South Asian culture, yet we assume that organizational justice will affect OCB like past studies. We developed the first hypothesis of the study, that is, H1: Organizational justice leads to OCB.
5 2.4.3 Job Satisfaction
Locke (1976) defined job satisfaction as overall happiness from the job. He defines it as
―a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting for the appraisal of one‘s job or job experiences‖ (p.1304). Whereas Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) consider it gratification from specific aspects of the job. Cranny, Smith, and Stone (1992) defined it as ―… job satisfaction is an affective (that is an emotional) reaction to a job that results from the incumbent‘s comparison of actual outcomes with those that are desired expected, deserved, and so on‖ (p. 1). Lambert,
Barton, and Hogan (1999) defined it as ―the fulfillment of gratification of certain needs that are associated with one‘s work‖ (p. 97).
Two factor theory of motivation was presented by Herzberg and colleagues. They concluded that different set of factors were related to employees‘ satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
The factors related to satisfaction were called motivators. Motivators were usually intrinsically related to the job its-self for example achievement, recognition, responsibility, work itself, and growth. The dissatisfying or hygiene factors were mostly related to the environment of a job such as organizational policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working environment, pay etc., (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Adams equity theory (1965) concentrated on the importance of justice in the satisfaction of employees. It explains that if an employee perceive inequity between their inputs to outputs ratio with that of other they will be dissatisfied and they will strive for equity. Another well accepted model of job satisfaction is Locke‘s value- percept model. The model propose that the more value (expectations) of an employee are met regarding a job, lower will be discrepancies and greater will be his satisfaction (Locke, 1976).
Job characteristics model propose that if a job is designed while taking care of five prime qualities of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback, it will be
6 satisfying and challenging (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Another approach to job satisfaction is dispositional which claim that employee satisfaction is more of an individual trait (such as neuroticism) rather than the result of job or organizational characteristics (Staw, Bell & Clausen,
1986). Three meta-analyses show that job satisfaction is the consequence of personality characteristics such as Big Five traits (Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2001), core self-evaluations
(Judge & Bono, 2001), the positive affectivity (PA), negative affectivity (NA), and affective disposition (Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000).
The affective events theory (AET) propose that affect (subjective feelings, emotion) has equal role along with cognitive (rational) evaluations in deciding job satisfaction or dissatisfaction which results in certain job behaviors. AET hypothesizes that affect-driven behaviors influences short term behaviors such as withdrawal or organization citizenship behavior. Whereas judgment-driven behaviors (cognitive) effect long term behaviors such as turn over or retirement. Job-events, dispositions and with-in-persons relations lead to affect driven behaviors (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Miner (2001) also found workers having positive emotions as compared to others have greater propensity to display citizenship behaviors.
In Pakistan most of the studies relating to job satisfaction are undertaken in services sector especially education, for example, Malik and Naeem (2011) found in the higher education institutions of Pakistan that organizational justice strengthened the job satisfaction of faculty.
Similarly Nazim Ali (2012) found that most of the teachers or private sector colleges were over all dissatisfied and job satisfaction was inversely linked to turnover intention.
Within police and related services such as correctional staff or security guards, job satisfaction is the outcome of promotion policy, affect satisfaction and citizens' support (Bennett,
1997); procedural and distributive justice (Farmer, Beehr, & Love, 2003); Procedural justice
7 (Lambert, Hogan, & Griffin, 2007); demographic characteristics, such as age, sex, qualification,
designation, and tenure (Brunetto & Farr-Wharton, 2003; Ercikti, Vito, Walsh, & Higgins, 2011;
Hoath, Schneider, & Starr, 1998). Female officers report lower job satisfaction than their male
counterparts as police is traditionally viewed as men force (Burke & Mikkelsen, 2005). This is
especially true in the third world country like Pakistan where females are considered weak and
their roles are often reduced to family affairs (Arain, 2014).
A very extensive and informative study in Dubai Police (Abdulla, 2009) found that
environmental forces were more important indicators of job satisfaction as compared to
individual characteristics. The factors relating to job satisfaction were ―salary and incentives,
nature of the work, public perception, organizational policy and strategy, relationships with co-
workers, supervision, promotion opportunity, performance appraisal, professional development,
communication, job stress, nationality, sex, shift work and public contact‖ (p.259). Stress
negatively affects police job satisfaction. Shane (2010) found that organizational stress is
inversely related to police performance. In Turkish Police greater stress resulted in low
satisfaction and burnout (Kula, 2011). Same results were found by Ercikti and colleagues (2011).
Yao Wu (2010) found in Taiwan that police task characteristics, personality, and work
values collectively have significant impact on overall job satisfaction. A study concurrently
analyzed the relationship between police officers‘ demographic characteristics, task
characteristics, and environment characteristics found that task characteristics were a major
cause of job satisfaction as compared to environmental characteristics. (Johnson, 2012).
Organizational and family support along with leadership style, working conditions and technology also contribute towards police job satisfaction (Koper, Lum, Willis, 2014;
Tomaževič, Seljak, & Aristovnik, 2014). Along with relationship with colleagues and officers,
8 promotional opportunities were found related to job satisfaction of police officers in Korea (Kuo,
2015). Similarly Job autonomy, financial and non- financial rewards, and support from colleagues were again found related to police job satisfaction in New Zealand (Nalla, Paek, &
Lim, 2016).
Present study is using short version of Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). The
full length MSQ consist of 100 items and measures satisfaction with twenty sub scales targeting
individual aspects of job such as ―ability, utilization, achievement, activity, advancement,
authority, company policies and practices, compensation, co-workers, creativity, independence,
moral values, recognition, responsibility, security, social service, social status, supervision-
human relations, supervision-technical variety, and working conditions‖ (Fields, 2002, p. 7). The
shorter form of MSQ consists of 20 items and it measures job satisfaction with three sub scales
of intrinsic and extrinsic and general satisfaction (Weiss, Dawis, & England, 1967).
Job satisfaction is related to attendance (Scott & Taylor, 1985), turnover Intentions
(Hom, 2001; Hom, Katerberg, & Hulin, 1979), retirement choice (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990, 1991),
organizational commitment (Meyer et al.1993), prosocial and OCBs (Farrell, 1983), and
performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001). Satisfied correctional staff indulge in
desirable relationships with prisoners and present constructive approaches toward recovery,
whereas job dissatisfaction is related with undesirable behaviors of absenteeism, sluggishness,
and higher turnover (Lambert et al., 1999). Job satisfaction from salary, promotion, benefits,
colleagues, and recognition along with code of ethics were found strongly related to integrity
(honesty, ethical behavior) of police men in Malaysia (Othman et al., 2014).
9 2.4.4 Job Satisfaction and OCB
Significant connection of job satisfaction and OCB was reported as early as 1983
(Bateman & Organ, 1983; Farrell, 1983). In an important meta-analysis conducted in 1991,
Williams and Anderson (1991) reported that among other antecedents of OCB, job satisfaction is most frequently investigated and found correlated to OCB. One year later another study which is frequently referred, concluded that job satisfaction and OCB are related (Roznowski et al.,
1992). Similarly, Organ and Lingl (1995) summarized 15 past studies and found significant relationship between the two variables. They also noted that job satisfaction generated a substantial increase in the altruism dimension of OCB. Yet another meta-analytic review by
PodsaKoff and colleagues (2000) established the job satisfaction-OCB link.
In a research conducted in Australia, Murphy, Athanasou, and King (2002) identified moderate relationship between the two variable. Job satisfaction most probably affects OCB through organizational commitment, for example Nguni, Sleegers and Denessen (2006) reported that job satisfaction mediated between leadership style, organizational commitment and OCB.
Manufacturing workers were found to perform OCBs when they were satisfied from their jobs
(Foote & Tang, 2008). In a study of diverse organizations of Zimbabwe, similar significant relationship between these variables were reported (Chiboiwa, Chipunza, & Samuel, 2011).
Mohammad, Habib, and Ilyas (2011) reconfirmed the already established relationship. Zeinabadi and Salihi (2011) reported that organizational justice influenced teachers‘ commitment and OCB through job satisfaction. They also added that organizational justice also affects OCB through trust, but organizational trust affects OCB directly through another independent path, not through job satisfaction and commitment. They found that that more satisfied teachers showed greater committed to schools and successively displayed greater OCB.
10 A comparative study undertaken in two police regions of Turkish National Police, probed the effects of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational justice on OCB.
The results revealed that jab satisfaction has strong influence on policemen‘ OCB perception in
Turkey (Bez, 2010). Job satisfaction was significantly associated to OCB in workers of Korean manufacturing plants (Daly et al., 2015). A recent study found a link between communication satisfaction and OCB. Communication satisfaction is a subset of overall job satisfaction (Chan,
& Lai, 2017). Another study exploring the determinants of OCB in Indian Police found that job satisfaction and OCB were strongly linked (Qureshi, 2015). As Pakistani and Indian Police force are the branches of same legacy (British) and cultures and economic conditions share many similarities the results may replicate in Pakistan. The previous discussion points to the given proposed hypothesis:
H2: Job satisfaction leads to OCB.
2.4.5 Organizational Commitment
Kanter (1968) defined organizational commitment as ―commitment is the process through which individual interests become attached to the carrying out of socially organized patterns of behavior which are seen as fulfilling those interests, as expressing the nature and needs of the person‖ (p.450). Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979) defined it as ―the relative strength of an individual‘s identification with and involvement in a particular organization‖ (p.225).
Organizational commitment shows employee's alignment with organizational goals and working hard for it (Miller & Lee, 2001). Cohen (2003) argue that ―commitment is a force that binds an individual to a course of action of relevance to one or more targets‖ (p.11). Lambert (2004) defined organizational commitment as ―loyalty to an organization, identification with an organization, and a desire for involvement in an organization‖ (p. 211).
11 According to Kimpakorn and Tocquer (2007), employee commitment can be assessed through the performance of employees and their turn over intentions. Narteh (2012) stated that employee commitment is synonymous to the employees‘ emotional attachment with their organizations, grouped with willingness to adopt the values of the organization and following its rules and regulations. There are various approaches towards defining organizational commitment but the most famous of these approaches are attitudinal, behavioral, normative, and multidimensional.
Attitudinal Approach: Commitment is consider to be an attitude according to this approach.
Attitudinal commitment exists if ―the goals of the organization and those of the individual become increasingly integrated or congruent‖ (Hall, Schneider, & Nygren, 1970, p. 176).
Organizational commitment is ―the relative strength of an individual‘s identification with, and involvement in a particular organization‖ (Mowday et al., 1979, p.225). The people with attitudinal commitment will be aligned with the organization goals, they will put strong effort and will retain with the organization (Mowday et al., 1979). Attitudinal commitment targets the procedure that results in the development of individual mindset that consider their own goals and values in alignment with the organizational. This commitment is evolved prospectively.
According to prospective view when individuals believe in the aim and values of organization they get involved and develop loyalty (Singh, Gupta, & Venugopal, 2008).
Behavioral Approach: Behavioral approach concentrate on the visible symptoms of commitment. Becker (1960) is perhaps the pioneer of behavioral approach towards organizational commitment. He contends the workers stay committed to the organization after comprehending the changing costs. Kanter (1968) also defined commitment as behavior. He
12 considers commitment as profit that employees get from their investment in the organization and
cost that employee will bear by leaving.
Employees continue with their organizations as they have invested their valuable time
and effort with it, they have developed relationships and want to reap the fruits of longer
employment. So ―sunk costs‖ restrict employees to continue with the organizations. Mowday and
colleagues (1979) term such commitment as commitment ―bound by his actions‖ or ―Sunk
Costs‖ (p.225). Scholl (1981) also advocate behavioral approach and explains that employees
are committed to organization on the basis of their investments which act as a tying force to the
organizations. According to behavioral approach, commitment is supported by the relationship
between behaviors and cognitions that reinforce future behaviors (Menezes, Bastos, Duran,
Veloso, & Almeida, 2015).
Normative Approach: Weiner (1982) defines organizational commitment with a normative approach as ―the totality of internalized normative pressures to act in a way which meets organizational goals and interests‖ (p. 421). Workers remain committed if there is alignment between personal and organizational goals (Becker, Randall & Reigel, 1995).
Multidimensional Approach: The multidimensionality of organizational commitment was discussed earlier (Etzioni, 1961; Kelman, 1958). Etzioni proposed that there were three dimensions of commitment, Moral involvement, Calculative involvement, and Alienative involvement. Meyer and Allen (1984) suggested two types of commitment: affective; and continuance commitment. Meyer and Allen (1991) defined affective commitment as
―Affective commitment is the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization‖ p. 67). Continuance commitment is remaining with the
13 organization for the economic reasons. Employees having continuous commitment do not leave their organization due to fear of loss of salary or pension.
Allen and Meyer subsequently in 1987(a) increased a third component in their model
called normative commitment which ―refers to a feeling of obligation to continue employment‖
(Meyer and Allen, 1991, p. 67). It means that workers perceive a burden of moral compulsion to
stay. Allen and Meyer (1990) have beautifully explained these dimensions of commitment
―Employees with strong affective commitment remain because they want to, those with strong
continuance commitment because they need to, and those with strong normative commitment
because they feel they ought to do so‖ (p.3).
Affective commitment is the most important one of the three dimension, as it involves
emotions, identification and involvement in the organization. Affective commitment increase
workers performance, and continuance commitment decreases it (Meyer et al., 1989). Solinger,
Van and Robert (2008) reported that the core dimension of organizational commitment is
affective commitment. Some recent studies even propose that OC should be reduced to a uni-
dimensional affective commitment. Responding to proof confirming the negative correlation
between the continuance and affective commitment, Solinger, Van and Robert (2008) and
Menezes (2006) suggested that staying with an organization due to the lack of job opportunities
shall be excluded from the definition of OC and attitudinal OC can best be characterized as a
uni-dimensional construct, composed only of the affective dimension.
Some authors contend that the affective commitment reported greater reliability and
validity when compared to normative and continuous commitment (Cohen, 2003; Meyer et al.,
2002). Organization commitment is found associated to various individual and organizational
14 consequences, for example, enhanced performance, greater satisfaction, fewer turnover, lesser absenteeism, and OCB (Fornes, Rocco, & Wollard, 2008; Babnik et al., 2014)
2.4.6 Affective Commitment and OCB
Organ (1988) found that organizational commitment was positively associated to OCB.
When employees are committed they perform frequent OCBs. Among the three types of commitment, affective commitment is the most studied determinant of OCB. Organ and Ryan
(1995) reported significant association between affective commitment, and altruism and generalized compliance. These are two dimensions of OCB. Whereas no relationship was found between continuance commitment and OCB.
Affective commitment produced significant change in organizational citizenship behaviour (Schappe, 1998). Similarly Meyer and Herscovitch (2001) identified a substantial link between affective commitment and OCB. This trend was reaffirmed by Meyer and his associates (2002) in their meta-analysis. They established that affective commitment was significantly linked to performance and OCB as compared to normative commitment, which was weakly attached to OCB. Continuance commitment was not linked or negatively linked to
OCB. In Nepal, a study in five organizations concluded that a significant association between affective commitment, normative commitment and OCB (Gautam et al., 2005).
Neininger, Willenbrock, Kauffeld and Henschel (2010) also found positive impact of affective commitment on OCB. In China, Allen and colleagues (2011) reported that affective organizational commitment was positively related to OCB. However this relationship was moderated by equity sensitivity. Affective commitment also stands as a determinant of OCB in public sector organizations. Ibrahim and Aslinda (2013) studied 176 employees of Indonesian
15 public telecom sector and found a significant relationship between affective commitment and
OCB.
Kim (2014) found in the public sector of South Korea, that affective commitment is positively linked to OCB. A study conducted in Japan by Wang (2015) suggests that affective commitment was positively associated to OCB and this relationship remained unchanged irrespective of high-unemployment environment or full employment environment (Devece,
Palacios-Marqués, & Alguacil, 2016). Based on the literature only affective commitment was selected and used in our study as it shown consistent relationship with OCB in comparison to other dimensions of commitment. The foregoing discussion leads to the following proposed hypothesis:
H3: Affective commitment leads to OCB.
2.5 Interrelation of the Morale Factors with Each Other
As discussed above organizational justice, affective commitment and job satisfaction are important antecedents of OCB yet past studies have shown that these antecedents also interplay each other while developing OCB. It seems that organizational justice create OCB through job satisfaction and affective commitment (see Rifai, 2005). Let us explore the interrelation among these variables in previous literature.
2.5.1. Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction
Adams (1965) was one of the pioneering researcher who worked on equity and highlighted its importance in satisfaction and motivation. Goodman (1974) identified how perception of unfair pay leads to dissatisfaction. Lawler (1977) identified that fair organizational rewards like salary, promotion etc. are linked to job satisfaction. Alexander and Ruderman
16 (1987) found strong connection between job satisfaction and procedural and distributive justice.
People will accept even negative decision such as salary cuts if they are framed through fair procedures (Greenberg, 1990).
Schwarzwald, Koslowsky, and Shalit (1992) found that employees who failed to be promoted had greater perception of inequity and dissatisfaction from their jobs, lower commitment and higher absenteeism. The promoted employees obviously were receiving higher pays which lead to perceived inequity among non-promoted. Other studies have also found that people with perception of unfair outcomes are less satisfied than those with fair perception of their outcomes (Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997). Tremblay, Sire, and Balkin (1998) studied 600 employees from different organizations in Canada and found out that distributive justice was linked to worker benefits satisfaction as well as pay satisfaction. A meta-analysis across 196 studies concluded that distributive, procedural and interactional justices are linked to job satisfaction (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001). Similarly the classic meta-analysis of Colquitt and colleagues (2001) shows that organizational justice is a consistent antecedent of job satisfaction. Distributive and procedural justice among correctional staff have significant relationship with job satisfaction (Lambert, Hogan, & Griffin, 2007).
A study investigating the connection of organizational justice, turnover intention, job satisfaction and OCB was conducted among employees and managers of hotels in North Cyprus.
The results revealed that distributive justice was strongly associated to all the three outcome variables as compared to procedural justice (Nadiri & Tanova, 2010). The reason perhaps may be that employees may likely to be more aware and interested in the end result such as salary increase and promotions as compared to the process and procedures.
17 DeConinck (2010) reported that distributive and procedural justices were associated to various individual and organizational facets of job satisfaction. A recent study worthy to mention reported that overall justice create more variance in overall job satisfaction as compared to specific dimensions (Holtz & Harold, 2009). Al-Zu‘bi (2010) also verified that perception of justice was linked to job satisfaction. Employees from 17 different industries in Croatia reports that job satisfaction is a direct outcome of justice perceptions from employees (Sušanj, &
Jakopec, 2012).
Akbolat and colleagues (2015) studied justice perceptions and workers satisfaction in the health sector in Turkey and established that distributive and interactional justices are positively linked to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. A recent study conducted among 827 Indian police officers revealed that distributive and procedural justices are associated to job satisfaction as well as affective commitment (Qureshi, Frank, Lambert, Klahm, & Smith, 2016). The discussion leads to the Hypothesis H4: Organizational justice leads to job satisfaction.
2.5.2. Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment
A majority of past studies conclude that job satisfaction stands as a determinant of organizational commitment (Currivan, 1999; Mowday et al., 1982; Shin & Reyes, 1995;
Vandenberg & Scarpello, 1990; William & Hazer, 1986; Zeinabadi, 2010). Job satisfaction is micro determinant of organizational commitment (Rusbult & Farrell, 1983) as it produces immediate affective reactions to the job and (locke, 1976). Thus it develops more quickly as a specific response towards a job than organizational commitment, which is a holistic response to the entire organization (Zeinabadi & Salihi, 2011).
18 Job satisfaction leads to affective and normative commitment (Meyer et al., 1993). The meta-analysis of Meyer and colleagues (2002) reported that along with other variables job satisfaction is a pertinent predictor of organizational commitment. Job satisfaction mediated between job insecurity and affective commitment (Buitendach, & De Witte, 2005). Gender also plays a role in the relationship of job satisfaction and commitment. For example, in a study of sales-persons, affective commitment among men had the strongest relationship with satisfaction from pay and promotion, where as in women satisfaction with co-workers was strongly correlated to affective commitment (Boles et al., 2007).
Kotze and Roodt (2005) explored a robust correlation between job satisfaction, employee commitment and retention. Pay satisfaction leads to affective commitment whereas satisfaction with supervisor leads to normative commitment in employees of tourism industry of
Malaysia (Yew, 2007). In Australia, a survey of police force involving 193 police officers deducts that, emotional intelligence creates job satisfaction and well-being. The job satisfaction and well-being then develop employee engagement and organizational commitment (Brunetto et al. 2012). A study was conducted in 17 diverse industries of Croatia and found that organizational justice leads to job satisfaction, which then generates organizational commitment
(Sušanj & Jakopec, 2012).
In South Korean police organizational justice predicted affective commitment (Crow, Lee
& Joo, 2012). Patric and Sonia (2012) in Indian IT industry and Miarkolaei (2014) in Iranian textile industry concluded that job satisfaction leads to affective commitment. Relationship with peers, supervisors and promotional opportunities are job stressors that are found related to job satisfaction of Taiwanese Police. In addition, job satisfaction partially mediates among these stressors and affective commitment (Kuo, 2015). Similarly, in Indonesia job satisfaction was
19 found related to affective commitment (Budihardjo, 2017). We can conclude from the literature that job satisfaction precedes affective commitment and draft the following hypothesis:
H5: Job satisfaction leads to affective commitment.
2.5.3. Organizational Justice and Affective Commitment
Organizational justice especially procedural justice is repeatedly identified as important predictor of OCB. For example Tyler (1990) reported that in comparison to distributive justice, procedural justice appeared stronger predictor of organizational commitment. Conversely some studies establish that distributive justice is more important predictor of commitment, than procedural justice (e.g., Lowe & Vodanovich, 1995; Greenberg 1994). The bond of procedural justice and organizational commitment was stronger than that of interactional justice (Masterson et al., 2000). Meyer and Allen (1997) contend that equitable salary has a direct relationship with affective organizational commitment. Two meta-analyses examining the consequences of organizational justice reported that distributive justice and procedural justice were positively related to affective commitment (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001).
Other researches also reported that perceived organizational justice leads to affective commitment (Harvey & Haines, 2005; Schappe, 1998). Rifai (2005) studied 383 nurses in
Indonesia and found that organizational justice leads towards job satisfaction which then creates
OCB through affective commitment. Managers usually report low commitment in mergers of corporations. For example, a study involving 128 managers from 37 European companies involved in mergers or acquisition, investigated whether procedural, distributive and interactional justice has any relationship with frequently reported low commitment in corporate mergers. The results show that although all types of justice perceptions are linked to commitment, interactional justice shows unique importance. The results emphasize the role of
20 effective communication and explanation of decision especially in uncertain times like mergers
(Klendauer & Deller, 2009). Both distributive and procedural justices were found associated to affective commitment in India (Kumar, Bakhshi, & Rani, 2009).
A study involving 57 senior officers of police force in United Kingdom, determined that performance evaluation, procedural justice and interpersonal trust have positive relationship with commitment (Sholihin & Pike, 2010). The results of a research including 198 knowledge workers of small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs) in Switzerland revealed that organizational support, perception of procedural justice and organizational image significantly influence commitment among knowledge workers (Giauque, Resenterra, & Siggen, 2010). Fair interpersonal treatment from supervisors and cordial relationship with co-policemen were the two most important factors contributing in commitment among police officers in Ghana
(Tankebe, 2010).
In another important study, it was found among 418 police officers of South Korean
Police that job satisfaction mediated the link of organizational justice and organizational commitment (Crow, Lee, & Joo, 2012). Organizational justice results in the increase of identification with their organization among police officers, encourages officers to shoulder new responsibilities, enhances positive evaluation of community policing, and develops organizational compliance (Bradford, 2013). Colquitt and colleagues (2013) in their second meta-analysis found that the association between organizational justice and OCB is mediated by organizational commitment. Ohana (2014) examined the impact of organizational size on the association of organizational justice and affective commitment. He studied massive 20,936 employees from 1,496 companies and found that organizational justice and affective commitment were strongly linked irrespective of the size of organizational.
21 The results replicated in a study conducted by Lambert and colleagues (2015) in India.
The participants were 837 police officers in India. Job variety training and fair supervision were linked to job satisfaction, job involvement and affective commitment. A recent study conducted in Haryana, Indian among police officers found that distributive and procedural justices created affective commitment (Qureshi et al., 2016). The preceding debate leads to the hypothesis H6:
Organizational justice leads to affective commitment.
2.5.4. Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment as mediators between Organizational Justice and OCB.
Few studies have probed the mediation of job satisfaction and affective commitment in the organizational justice-OCB link and there is also lack of consensus whether this mediation is partial, full or null. For example, In Sri Lankan employees the relationship between organizational justice and OCB is partially mediated by job satisfaction (Rauf, 2015). Whereas it fully mediated between organizational justice and OCB in Malaysia (Hooi, 2015). A recent study in China reported that communication satisfaction which is a part of overall job satisfaction mediate the organizational justice-OCB relation (Chan & lai, 2017).
Furthermore, commitment especially affective commitment also mediate the association of organizational. Justice and OCB (Hassani, & Aghlmand, 2017; Lavelle et al, 2009;
Sjahruddin, Armanu, Sudiro & Normijati, 2013). Colquitt and colleagues in their second meta- analysis (2013) found that the effect of organizational justice on OCB is mediated by the indicators of social exchange quality for example organizational commitment. Another study reported that affective commitment mediated between procedural justice and OCB
(Lehmann‐Willenbrock, Grohmann, & Kauffeld, 2013).
22 Some studies have even investigated the variables of organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment simultaneously with OCB in a single study. For example
Rifai (2005) studied 383 nurses in Indonesia and found that organizational justice leads to job satisfaction which then creates affective commitment. Affective commitment then finally culminates into OCB. However the study does not establish the mediation of job satisfaction and affective commitment in organizational justice-OCB relation. Zeinabadi and Salehi (2011) reported that procedural justice was linked to OCB through the mediation of job satisfaction.
However contrary to other studies it was found that procedural justice was not linked to organizational commitment. One more study worthy to mention was conducted by a police officer on the antecedents of OCB in Indian Police. The study reported that along other variables, affective commitment, job satisfaction, distributive and procedural justices were strongly related to OCB. However the interrelationship between these antecedents cannot be established from the study (Qureshi, 2015). Keeping in view the afore-mentioned studies, it seems probable that organizational justice may affect OCB via the two mediators of job satisfaction and affective commitment in serial, however no study to date has investigated this effect. It can be anticipated that if KP
Policemen perceive their organization to be fair, they would develop satisfaction from their jobs and will subsequently develop emotional attachment or affective commitment with their organization which will lead to the performance of OCB.
The foregoing debate points to the given hypotheses H7: Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
H8: Affective commitment mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
H9: Organizational justice affects OCB through the mediators of job satisfaction and affective commitment in serial.
23 H10: Total Indirect effect of organization justice on OCB through job satisfaction and affective commitment is greater than the direct effect of organizational justice on OCB.
2.6 Summary of Literature Review and Gap Identification
Table 2.2 shows the summary of literature review and identification of gap.
Organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment are the regularly reported antecedents of OCB. However these antecedents interact with each other according to a set pattern. For example, organizational justice predicts job satisfaction and affective commitment
(rows 4, & 5). Job satisfaction mediates job organizational justice-OCB link (row 6). Similarly affective commitment also mediates between organizational justice and OCB (row 7). Yet no study so far has investigated the effect of organizational justice on OCB with the serial mediation of two variables, that is, job satisfaction and affective commitment (row 9). It also needed to be explored whether the total indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB through the two mediators is greater than its direct effect on OCB. This total indirect effect is the sum of indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB through job satisfaction, indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB through affective commitment, and indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB via both variables: job satisfaction; and affective commitment in serial (row, 10). This study filled this specific gap by developing a model that tested the mediation of job satisfaction and affective commitment separately and in serial between the relationship of organizational justice and OCB.
24 Table 2. 2 Summary of the Literature Review and Gap Identification S.No Relationship among Variables Literature 1 OJ→OCB Cohen & Kol, 2004; Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Daly et al., 2015; Erturk, 2007; Fassina, Jones & Uggerslev, 2008; Haas et al., 2015; Messer & White, 2006; Moorman, 1991; Moorman & Blakey, 1995; Moorman, Niehoff & Organ, 1993; Niehoff & Moorman, 1993; Podsakoff et al., 2000; Shim & Faerman, 2017. 2 JS →OCB Chiboiwa et al., 2011; Daly et al., 2015; Foote & Tang, 2008; Zeinabadi & Salihi, 2011 China, Allen & colleagues, 2011; Devece, 3 AC →OCB Palacios-Marqués, & Alguacil, 2016; Ibrahim & Aslinda, 2013; Kim, 2014; Neininger et al, 2010; Wang, 2015; Akbolat et al., 2015; Al-Zu‘bi, 2010; Cohen- 4 OJ→JS Charash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001; DeConinck, 2010; Kumar, Bakhshi, & Rani, 2009; Lambert, Hogan, & Griffin, 2007; Nadiri & Tanova, 2010; Shim & Faerman, 2017; Sušanj, & Jakopec, 2012. Bradford, 2013; Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; 5 OJ→ AC Colquitt et al., 2001; Colquitt et al.,2013; Crow, Lee, & Joo, 2012; Giauque, Resenterra, & Siggen, 2010; Klendauer & Deller, 2009; Kumar, Bakhshi, & Rani, 2009; Lambert et al., 2015; Ohana, 2014; Riketta, 2002; Sholihin & Pike, 2010; Tankebe, 2010 Chan & lai, 2017; Partial mediation (Rauf, 2015), 6 OJ→JS→OCB Full mediation (Hooi, 2015) Lavelle et al, 2009; Lehmann‐Willenbrock, 7 OJ→AC→OCB Grohmann, & Kauffeld, 2013; Sjahruddin, Armanu, Sudiro & Normijati, 2013; Unal, 2013; Budihardjo, 2017; Shin & Reyes, 1995; 8 JS →AC Vandenberg & Scarpello, 1990; William & Hazer, 1986; Zeinabadi, 2010;
9 OJ→JS→AC→OCB GAP exists
10 (OJ→JS→OCB) + > (OJ→OCB) GAP exists (OJ→AC→OCB) Direct + Effect (OJ→JS→AC→OCB) Total Indirect Effect Organizational Justice (OJ), Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB), Job Satisfaction (JS), Affective Commitment (AC), Relationship (→), Greater than (>).
25 2.7 Theoretical Foundation for the Relationship of Variables
Social exchange theory is used for explaining the development of OCB (Cropanzano &
Mitchell, 2005; Cropanzano, Anthony, Daniels, & Hall, 2017; Elstad, Christophersen & Turmo,
2011). Social exchange theory was presented in 1958 by Homans in his famous work "Social
Behavior as Exchange". Stafford (2008) reported that social exchanges consist of a link with others; is based on trust not on lawful compulsions; are not rigid; and do not involve open bargaining. Social exchange differs from economic exchange as it emphasize on investment in relationship and is based on reciprocity. The exchange process is grounded on feelings of debt and its survival depends upon trust. On the contrary ―Economic exchange do not imply long- term or open-ended and diffuse obligations, but rather emphasis is on economic agreement such as pay for performance‖ (Shore, Tetrick, Lynch, & Barksdale, 2006, p. 839). Only the perceptions of social exchange affects OCB as by definition OCB involves discretionary behaviors (Organ, 1988).
A recent study giving detail account of development in social exchange theory reported that in social exchange an actor (employer, manager) acts in a manner (positive or negative) towards a target (employee) thus initiating an action. The target (employee) then reacts in two separate ways; behavioral and relational. If the action was positive then the reciprocating behaviors will be such that will help and benefit the actor such as OCB. Similarly for positive action relational response will be generated such as better interpersonal relationship and commitment (Cropanzano, Anthony, Daniels, & Hall, 2017). We may propose on the basis of theory of social exchange that if management positively behaves towards employees by establishing organizational justice, the employees will get satisfied from their jobs and
26 reciprocate in both ways by developing an attachment with the organization in the shape of affective commitment and subsequently performing beneficial behaviors such as OCB.
Organizational justice will be predictor in the social exchange relation, job satisfaction and affective commitment will be indicators of the quality of social exchange relationship. OCB will be the consequence of social exchange relationship as shown in theoretical frame work (Figure
2.2).
2.8 Theoretical Frame work
Figure 2.2 shows the theoretical frame work of the study. It shows that the Independent variable of organizational justice (OJ) will tentatively influence the dependent variable of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) through either of the four paths;
Path 1) indirectly through the mediator job satisfaction (JS) only (OJ→JS→OCB) = a1b1
Path 2) indirectly through the mediator affective commitment (AC) only (OJ→AC→OCB) = a2b2
Path 3) indirectly through the two mediators job satisfaction (JS) and affective commitment
(AC) in serial (OJ→JS→AC→OCB) = a1a3b2
Path 4) directly (OJ→OCB) = c'1
27 Figure 2. 1 Theoretical Frame work
2.9 Hypotheses
The following hypotheses are drawn from the given literature review and theoretical frame
work:
H1: Organizational justice leads to OCB.
H2: Job satisfaction leads to OCB.
H3: Affective commitment leads to OCB.
H4: Organizational justice leads to job satisfaction.
H5: Job satisfaction leads to affective commitment.
H6: Organizational justice leads to affective commitment.
H7: Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between organizational justice and
OCB.
28 H8: Affective commitment mediates the relationship between organizational justice
and OCB.
H9: Organizational justice affects OCB through the mediators of job satisfaction and
affective commitment in serial.
H10: Total Indirect effect of organization justice on OCB through job satisfaction and
affective commitment is greater than the direct effect of organizational justice on
OCB.
29 Chapter 3 Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the philosophy, ontology, epistemology, approach, strategy and methods of the research, followed by the operational definitions of the variables involved in the study. Then comes the description of population, sample size and sampling techniques. Data collection instruments are also discussed in detail. In the end, statistical tools used for data analysis are also discussed.
3.2 Philosophy or World View of the Research
According to Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill (2008) ―The term research philosophy relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge‖ (p.128). Some call it world view for example Creswell (2014) opines ―Worldviews are a general philosophical orientation about the world and the nature of research that a researcher brings to a study‖. Yet other scholars called them paradigms (Hallebone, & Priest, 2008; Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011; Mertens,
2010).
Although it is difficult to classify research philosophy, scientists have tried to categorize it.
For example, Guba and Lincolin (1994) categorized research philosophies into positivism, critical theory, constructivism, and post- positivism. Whereas Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill
(2008) identified four broad categories of philosophies used in management research: positivism; realism; interpretivism; and Pragmatism. Creswell (2014) categorizes the research philosophies into post-positivism, constructivism, transformative, and pragmatism. All these philosophical
30 stances have corresponding ontologies and epistemologies. It must be remembered that apart from positivism all other philosophies are continuously evolving and defined inconsistently by scholars (Guba & Lincolin, 1994).
Positivism or positivist philosophy was introduced by French Philosopher Auguste Comte
(1798-1857) and is the negation of theism and metaphysics. It assumes that the only way
to truth is science. It is also called, scientific method, or empirical science. It involves
quantitative observations and allow statistical calculations (Creswell, 2003). In 2010,
Collins asserted that ―as a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist
view that knowledge stems from human experience. It has an atomistic, ontological view
of the world as comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an
observable, determined and regular manner‖ (p.38). The observation is objective,
quantifiable, with non-involvement of researcher feelings, results are true, replicable and
verifiable (Guba and Lincolin, 1994; Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2008). Purists like
Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) ask quantitave scientists to ―eliminate their biases,
remain emotionally detached and uninvolved with the objects of study and test or
empirically justify their stated hypotheses‖ (p.14). Usually theories are tested with
hypothesis using close-ended questions (Creswell, 2003, 2014).
Post-Positivism follows positivism and developed due to the criticism and short comings
in positivism. Post-Positivism defy the claim that truth can be fully knowledgeable
(Phillips & Burbules, 2000). In positivism reality is considered perfectly apprehend able
whereas post-positivists argue that although reality exists independently all observations
are naturally imperfect (Gray, 2014). In post-positivism truth is subjected to continuous
critique as the reality is considered partly visible and methods are considered almost
31 right, and results are possibly true but continuously reviewed for possible alterations
(Guba & Lincolin, 1994).
The advocates of post-positivism posit that knowledge is created by testing
hypotheses rather than observation. Hypotheses are framed on the bases of theories and
tested to deductively infer results whether the theory sustain its self or not. In conclusion,
while positivism asserts that reality can be precisely known, the post-positivists claim
that reality is roughly knowable (Al-Saadi, 2014).
Contructivism or Social-constructivism is the underlying paradigm of qualitative
approach. The research conducted with this world view especially accommodate
participants‘ views of the situation being studied. It involve open-ended questioning to
have a better understanding or interpretation of others view. The subjective meanings are
developed through interaction with others. Unlike starting with a theory, researchers
inductively develop a theory (Creswell, 2003, 2014; Crotty, 1998).
Transformative inquirers feel that a research shall include an action agenda to help
marginalized peoples. Research ought to be entangled with a change agenda to fight
oppression against marginalized class like children female etc. (Neuman, 2009; Mertens,
2010).
Pragmatism is not limited to any one philosophy. It refers to mixed methods where the
researchers freely use both quantitative and qualitative assumptions in solving a problem
(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). Pragmatism concentrate on solving the problem rather
than the method and utilizes both objective and subjective observations and a range of
analysis to find solution (Morgan, 2007; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Creswell, 2014).
32 The world view or philosophy of the present study coincides with post-positivism. As a researcher, I believe that every observation is inherently fallible and the truth can only be known approximately. However we must try to be as objective and scientific as possible. The study tries to determine the reality objectively by testing of hypotheses with close-ended statements without involving personal biases and emotional attachments of the researcher.
3.3 Ontology and Epistemology
Ontological and epistemological orientations are philosophical positions that need be set out clearly in a doctorial study. Ontology and epistemology are means of thinking about a research philosophy (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2008).
3.3.1 Ontology
According to Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2008) ―Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality‖ (p.110). Ormston, Spencer, Barnard, and Snape (2014) assert that ontology concerns the question ―whether or not there is a social reality that exists independently from human conceptions and interpretations and, closely related to this, whether there is a shared social reality or only multiple, context-specific ones‖ (p.4). One can easily identify his ontological position by answering the ontological question put up by (Guba & Lincolin, 1992).
Researcher can ask himself ―What is the form and nature of reality and, therefore what is there that can be known about it? For example, if a real world is assumed what can be known about it
―how things rally are‖ and ―how things really work.‖ … other questions such as aesthetics or moral significance, fall outside the realm of legitimate scientific inquiry‖ (p.128).
33 Guba and Lincolin (1994) differentiated ontology into four different types depending upon the views about reality:
Relative realism contends that reality depends upon individual perception and thus vary
from observer to observer (Drummond, 2005, Gray, 2014).
Historical realism imply that reality is shaped by the values created through the
influences of society, politics, culture, economy and experience (Killam, 2013).
Realism holds that there is an objective reality out there, detached from human behavior.
It is the scientific or objective stance of reality, and involves natural laws, replication and
generalization (Killam, 2013). Killam further reports that according to realists reality is
stable or permanent and do not alter after discovery.
Critical realism is also an objective view about reality however it originated as a result of
criticism over positivism. Unlike realism which consider reality to be completely
comprehendible critical realists hold that although reality exists, it can only be known
approximately due to inherent flaws in human observation (Guba & Lincolin, 1994).
Critical realism imply that reality shall be continuously exposed to critical investigation,
to help defining the reality nearest to the possible (Cook & Campbell, 1979).
The ontology of the present study is objective and it stems from the philosophy of post- positivism. The researcher believes in critical reality or critical realism. In line with critical realism, the study believes that reality is objective, and can be approximately discovered with scientific methods. It is therefore better to use multiple methods of exploration of reality.
34 3.3.2 Epistemology
Epistemology relates ―what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study‖
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2008, p.112). Bryman (2016) defines epistemology as ―…what is
(or should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline‖ (p.24). According to Cohen,
Manion and Morrison (2007) epistemology shows ―the very bases of knowledge – its nature and form, how it can be acquired and how communicated to other human beings‖ (P.7). Putting it simply, epistemology answers ―how‖ reality can be identified. It shows which kind of data is appropriate and how to collect it. Epistemological stances are either objective or subjective.
Objective epistemological stance like that of natural sciences matches positivism and post- positivism whereas subjective epistemological stance matches interpretivism, constructivism etc.
A researcher whose epistemological stance aligns with that of objective philosophy will like quantitative data presented in statistical form for decision making. The objects will be considered
―real‖, separate from the researcher, and less open to bias. On the other hand a researcher with a subjective epistemology would perceive reality as a function of the interaction of researcher and subjects, where reality is not separated from researcher rather it is socially constructed
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2008).
The epistemological stance of this study is based on objective philosophy of post- positivism with emphasis on maintaining dualism with a view that complete dualism is impossible. The researcher tries his best to remain unbiased and objective by studying the subjects without influencing them or being influenced by them and remained neutral by adopting quantitative tools of data collection that is questionnaire. Special emphasis is placed on whether the findings relate with the existing body of knowledge, and acceptable to research community.
35 The finding will be approximately true and can be nearly replicated and generalized in other organizational settings.
3.4 Research Approach
Two different approaches are usually used in management studies. For objective philosophies such as positivism deduction is used whereas for subjective philosophies such as constructivism or interpretivism inductive approach is used (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill,
2008).
Deductive approach involves testing of theories objectively. Robson (2002), Identified
five steps for deduction approach, a) deducing variables from a theory, b)
operationalization of the variables and hypothesis, c) testing of hypotheses, d) analysis of
the results, and e) proving or modification of the theory. Deduction involves
characteristics like establishing causal relationship between variables, permits controls
that eliminate the impact of other variables, highly structure methodology for replication,
operationalization (quantitatively measuring variables) and generalization (adequate
sample) (Gill & Jhonson, 2002; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2008).
Inductive approach is defined by Strauss and Corbin (1998) as such ―The researcher
begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge from the data‖ (p. 12).
Unlike deductive approach, Inductive approach is less rigid and usually involves
qualitative data. It accommodates how different people interpret their social world. It
usually starts from interviews from a limited sample and ends in the development of
theory (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2008).
36 The present study adopted deductive approach where a model built on the theory of social exchange was tested with the help of hypotheses. These hypotheses assessed the relationship between the variables used in the model.
3.5 Research Strategy
This section will concisely introduce most common research strategies each of which can be adopted to serve the varying purposes (Yin, 2003). Others call them strategies of inquiry (Denzin
& Lincoln, 2011).
Experiment is a research strategy usually used in natural sciences however it is also used
in social sciences. Experiments aims at establishing causality and explain the variance
in dependent variable with the change in independent variable. (Hakim, 2000). A
distinguishing feature of experiments is that subjects are divided into experimental and
control group. Experiments strive for establishing if a particular intervention affects a
result (Creswell, 2014).
Survey strategy is often adopted for deductive approach. Survey allows to collect large
amount of quantitative data (usually through questionnaire) from an ample population
very economically (Saunders, Lewis & Thornill, 2009). Surveys present a quantitative
account of tendencies, attitudes, or views of a population. It aims at generalizing the
findings from a representative sample to overall population (Babbie, 1990; Fowler,
2008). The data collected through survey can lead to explain relationships between
variables and modelling them (Saunders, Lewis & Thornill, 2009). Quantitative data
collected through survey can be analyzed quantitatively through supportive computer
based softwares (Creswell, 2014).
37 Case study is described by Robson (2002) as such ―a strategy for doing research which
involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its
real life context using multiple sources of evidence‖ (p.178). Case study method usually
utilize different types of qualitative data often referred to as triangulation (Saunders,
Lewis & Thornill, 2009).
Grounded theory is the most widely adopted strategy for inductive approach. The main
emphasis is upon building theory. A series of observation results in some predictions
which are tested again in subsequent observations. If confirmed it becomes theory
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornill, 2009).
The present study used the strategy of cross-sectional survey for data collection, with the help of questionnaire to reach a large number of subjects cost effectively. ―Cross-sectional studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time.‖ (Cooper & Schindler,
2012, p.128). Although cross-sectional studies do carries some disadvantage such as the attitude of workers may vary over time but the limitations of time and budget often compel for cross- sectional analysis as compared to longitudinal studies (Cooper & Schindler, 2012). Survey was conducted in a single organization that is, KP Police, however such precedence can be found in other studies such as Tongur (2011) conducted his PhD research in Tukrish Police. Similarly
Qureshi (2015) investigated antecedents of OCB in Indian police. The questionnaire contained mostly closed-ended questions apart from the one open-ended question which was added for the better understanding and interpretation of other results. The results of the study can be generalized.
38 3.6 Methods of Data Collection
Data collection methods are an essential portion of any research design, hence use of suitable methods significantly enhances the value of the study (Creswell 2014; Sekaran, 2000).
Researchers often adopt either quantitative, qualitative or mix methods in their study. However these methods should not be considered as strict, separate types. In fact, these methods resemble diverse ends on a range (Newman & Benz, 1998). In mixed method study incorporates both methods. However the proportion of the use of both methods depends upon purpose and can be mixed differently. One study can be equally distributed or more quantitative and less qualitative or vice versa (Creswell, 2014).
Quantitative method is based on positivist philosophy, it is objective, hypothesis driven,
and measurable including use of close-ended questions. It usually involves testing of
theories or phenomena, and yields greater generalizability of results (Creswell, 2003;
2014). Purists like Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) ask quantitative scientists to
―eliminate their biases, remain emotionally detached and uninvolved with the objects of
study and test or empirically justify their stated hypotheses‖ (p.14). Quantitative studies
use data collection techniques such as questionnaires and use graphs and statistics for the
numeric interpretation of results (Saunders, Lewis & Thornill, 2009).
On the contrary qualitative studies are either based on the constructivist philosophy
(developing a theory from social interaction with participants), or advocacy/participatory
perspectives (i.e., advising a strategy of change for a marginalized class) (Creswell,
2003). Qualitative method inductively develop a theory from interaction with participants
usually through in-depth interviews. The generalizability of qualitative studies are limited
to the context of the study (Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009).
39 According to Creswell (2014) ―Mixed methods is a research approach, popular in the
social, behavioral, and health sciences, in which researchers collect, analyze, and
integrate both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study…‖ (p.4). This method
provide complete understanding of research problem through in-depth exploration yet
simultaneously yield greater generalizability (Creswell, 2014). Teddlie and Tashakkori
(2009) have explicitly described various combinations of mix method approach.
The study adopted quantitative method as this method suits the objective philosophy of post- positivism. In line with deductive approach, operationalized variables of a model based on the theory of social exchange was tested with hypotheses. Personally administered questionnaires were distributed among KP Policemen. The hypothesis were quantitatively tested in line with the established scientific procedures. The results are quantitatively presented, nearly replicable, and yield generalizability.
3.7 Operationalization of the Study Variables
Operationalization means explaining what the variables specifically mean in the study and how were they measured. The present study contains one independent variable two mediators and a dependent variable. Organizational justice is the independent variable, job satisfaction and affective commitment are the mediators, and OCB is the dependent variable.
Field, Designation, Tenure, Qualification, Gender, Age, Marital Status, Kids, Pay are control variables.
40 Table 3. 1 Operational Definitions of Variables
Variable Dimensions Attribute Operational Definition Organizational Helping Behavior Dependent Sub scales for each Citizenship Behavior Sportsmanship dimension of OCB (OCB) Organizational Loyalty included items that asked Organizational KP Policemen if they Compliance perform the mentioned Individual Initiative behaviors. Civic Virtue Self-development
Affective Commitment Mediator Six items determined participants‘ self-reported emotional attachment to the organization. Job Satisfaction Intrinsic Mediator Participant perception Extrinsic about their intrinsic, General extrinsic and general satisfaction from police job was determined with the help of questionnaire.
Distributive Participants opined about Organizational Justice Scale Procedural the state of various types (COJS) informational of justices their interpersonal organization imparts. These justices contribute to the overall justice.
Control variables Field These variables provide Designation information about the Tenure demographics of Qualification participants. Gender Age Marital Status Kids Pay
41 3.7.1 Organizational Citizenship Behavior
OCB scale consisted of seven sub-scales measuring seven dimensions of OCB. These dimension are already explained in the literature review section however a brief refresher is given:
―Helping behavior‖ in our study determines help and support offered by KP Policemen to
each other and the citizens.
―Sportsmanship‖ determines the tendency of accepting organizational decisions
positively, and continuance of suggestion making even after prior rejections.
―Organizational loyalty‖ determines intention of retention with KP Police, and behaviors
such as defending department in public, and trying to improve its image.
―Organizational Compliance‖ shows the following of organizational guidelines and
procedure even without supervision and advising colleagues to follow it too.
―Individual initiative‖ includes behaviors such as voluntarily taking additional
responsibilities, informing superiors about an improvement opportunity, and completing
tasks well before time.
―Civic virtue‖ involves behaviors showing interest and active involvement in the affairs
of the organization, for example, apprising one-self of the changes in police rules or
participating in non-compulsory but beneficial seminars and meetings.
―Self-development‖ encompasses behaviors like voluntarily indulging in enhancing
knowledge, keeping apprised of the newest advances in the police field and mastering
new skills and techniques for the benefit of organization.
42 3.7.2 Affective Commitment
Six items identify the emotional component of commitment that is affective commitment of KP Police. KP Policemen will have affective commitment if they report to be self-motivated, their jobs provide diverse opportunities and are able to keep them busy and earn them a respect in the society. The style and competency of officers also contribute towards affective commitment.
3.7.3 Job Satisfaction
The scale identifying job satisfaction included three further sub scales identifying intrinsic extrinsic and general job satisfaction. Intrinsic satisfaction comes from public serving, achievement, social significance and recognition, working according to conscience, enjoying credibility and trust etc. Extrinsic satisfaction comes from the context of the job such as pay, benefits, policies and procedures, working conditions, officers‘ behavior, duty timings, co- workers etc. Items regarding general job satisfaction present overall picture.
3.7.4 Organizational Justice
Four types of organizational justices were addressed to find the variable of organizational justice in KP Police.
―Distributive justice‖ shows policemen perception about the equity in distribution of
work load, duty timings, responsibilities and salaries.
―Procedural justice‖ shows the policemen perception about the method of decision
making regarding important factors of jobs such as listening before deciding, explaining
decisions, equal application of decisions, keeping ethical consideration in decisions, and
right of appeal against decisions.
43 ―Inter-personal justice‖ shows personal consideration for policemen such as respect,
taking care of personal needs, being truthful and polite.
―Informational justice‖ shows the policemen perception about the information such as
taking policemen into confidence before taking decisions concerning them, explaining
the implications of decisions, giving adequate and acceptable justifications for decisions
such as transfers etc.
3.7.5 Demographic Variables
Policemen described themselves by selecting from a list of various personal characteristics. A brief over view is given below.
―Field‖ presented different wings with in KP Police such as Operations, Investigations,
and Special Branch etc. Policemen selected their own from the list.
―Designation‖ shows the ranks from Constable to ASP/DSP.
―Tenure‖ shows years of experience in KP Police.
―Qualification‖ means highest qualification.
―Gender‖ means male or female.
―Age‖ means chronological age.
―Marital Status‖ included married, single, and divorced
―Kids‖ from none to seven and above
―Pay‖ ranged from 10000 to 40000 and above
44 3.8 Research Population
KP Police consists of 68176 personnel (KP Police, 2015). Exclusion criterion was set to exclude all the high level KP Policemen above Grade 17 (Superintendent of Police SP and above) from the population. The reasons were multi folds. First, it was very difficult to access top leadership due to very busy schedule and security. Second, the study employed multi stage sampling technique and collected data from 8 police stations as clusters. In practice top officials are not placed in police stations. Usually inspector and sub inspector, or in rare cases deputy superintendent of police (DSP) is appointed as station house officer (SHO). Third, top officials usually join service through commission (apart from the very few ranker SPs) and their perks and privileges are quite different from that of lower staff, hence apparently their responses may have altered the general opinion. Deployment in police stations was the only criteria for inclusion as police stations were used as clusters.
Based on exclusion criterion 137 high level police officers were excluded from the population. The excluded police officer included IGP, Additional IGs, DIGs, SSPs, AIGs and
SPs. Finally the study‘s target population consisted of all 68039 KP police employees up to the ranks of ASP/DSP distributed in six Police Regions, i.e., Hazara, Malakand, Bannu, Kohat,
Hangu, DIKhan, Mardan, and capital city Peshawar. To include Peshawar city police we also considered it a region for the research purpose. It shall also be noted that before the police order
2002, Peshawar city police was administratively considered a region.
45 Figure 3. 1 KP Police Strength
3.9 Sampling of the Research
The present study used Multi-stage cluster sampling, which is a method of probability sampling. Saunders, Lewis and Thornill (2009) explained multi-stage cluster sampling as ―It is normally used to overcome problems associated with a geographically dispersed population when face-to-face contact is needed or where it is expensive and time consuming to construct a sampling frame for a large geographical area…The technique involves taking a series of cluster samples, each involving some form of random sampling‖ (p.231).
The population is distributed into 6 police regions Hazara; Malakand; Bannu; Kohat;
Hangu; D.I. Khan; Mardan; and into a capital city (Peshawar), of KP province. KP consists of 26 districts (The Express Tribune, 2014). All the police regions are run by Regional Police Officers
(RPOs), whereas Peshawar which the capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is headed by Capital City
Police Officer (CCPO). Peshawar has a police strength of 8000 police force (Khyber
46 Pakhtunkhwa, 2016). As we used probability sampling and to include the police of Peshawar in our study we also considered it a region.
Table 3. 2 Population before Sampling Regions Districts
7 26
3.9.1 Sampling Stage One
In the first stage thirty percent sample was randomly selected in seven regions. Two regions (rounded off) Mardan and Peshawar were selected as sample. In these two regions there is a total of five districts. Mardan region contains four districts i.e., Mardan, Charsadda, Swabi, and Nowshera and Peshawar region consists of Peshawar district only.
Table 3. 3 Sampling Stage 1 Regions 30% of Regions Districts in Sampled (Rounded off) Regions 7 2 5
3.9.2 Sampling Stage Two
The study randomly selected 30% sample from the previous selected five districts for stage one. Hence two districts (rounded off), Peshawar and Swabi were selected for second stage. These two districts contains 39 Police stations (KP Police, 2015).
Table 3. 4 Sampling Stage 2 Districts 30% of Districts Total Police Stations in (Rounded off) Peshawar & Swabi
5 2 39
47
3.9.3 Sampling Stage Three
In the third and last stage, the study randomly taken 20% as a sample from the previously available 39 Police Stations which resulted in eight police stations. The sampling was reduced from thirty to 20% in this stage because 20% sampling provided more than required subjects
(426). The details are given in the section (3.8.4). These eight police stations served as clusters.
There are 426 policemen/women working in these clusters, all of them were considered as sample for the study.
Table 3. 5 Sampling Stage 3 Total Police Stations in 20% of Police Stations Number of Peshawar & Swabi (Clusters)(Rounded off) Policemen/women working in eight clusters 39 8 426
Table 3. 6 Details of Clusters Police Station (clusters) Region District Sampling Frame
1) Kabli (Khan Raziq) Peshawar Peshawar 74
2)Shah Qabool 53
3)Nasir Bagh 63
4) Campus Police 67
5) Badaber 33
6) Lahore Mardan Swabi 50
7) Tordher 39
8) Yar Hussain 47
Total 426 Source: Respective Police Stations
48 3.9.4 Rationale of Sample Size:
The sample size of 426 out of 68039 employees truly represents the population with confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 5%, as shown in Table 3.6 (Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill, 2009). The table shows that for 5% margin of error, a sample of 383 is enough for a population of 100,000, thus for a population of 68039 KP Policemen a sample of 383 will be more than enough, yet we took a greater sample size of 426. This sample size also comply the standards of Israel (1992). The rationale for administering questions to 426 people instead of statistically proven sample of 383, was to reduce chances of error, cover up for the attrition rate and loss of return. All selected clusters (police stations) are externally homogenous (same rules and regulations, etc.) and internally heterogeneous (have police personnel of diverse ranks and backgrounds). This homogeneity among the police stations makes the need of a larger sample redundant.
Table 3. 7 Sample Sizes for Different Sizes of Population at a 95 Confidence Level (Assuming Data are Collected from All Cases in the Sample).
49 3.9.5 Procedure and Rate of Return
An authorization letter provided by the university helped a lot in getting permission from police officials. The researcher accessed SHOs through references in order to take facilitation in research as it was almost impossible without their permission and cooperation. Most of the questionnaires were personally administered however some of them were distributed by trained colleagues.
Questionnaires were mostly filled in the presence of researcher and were collected back.
However those policemen who were not available at the time of questionnaire distribution received their questionnaires from their friends. The sealed envelopes containing filled questionnaires were submitted to one or two responsible persons in the police posts. The researcher personally visited police stations and posts multiple times or sent friends to collect the questionnaires. Few questionnaires were received through mail. Return postal address and tickets were pasted in advance on the questionnaires‘ envelops.
The questionnaire distribution and collection process took more than a month. During the distribution of questionnaires it was noticed that out of 426 policemen around 40 police men were unreachable in the selected police stations. These unreachable policemen were assigned to police officers on special duties and were not reporting to their sanctioned police stations. Hence out of 426, only 386 policemen received the questionnaires. 300 dully filled questionnaires were received back. This led to an active response rate of 78%. The formulas for total and active response rates are given below.
50
(Source: Saunders et al., 2009, p.220)
Ineligible are those who do not qualify on some grounds with in the sample and unreachable are those who despite repeated attempts were unreachable (Saunders et al, 2009).
We do not had ineligible but had 40 unreachable policemen in our sample.
3.10 Data Collection Instrument
The questionnaire consisted of two parts. Part first was regarding demographic characteristics of the participant. Part second consisted of four subscales determining OCB, affective commitment, job satisfaction and organizational justice. Apart from the one open-ended questions at the end all other questions were close-ended. Most part of the questionnaire was adapted, and was translated into Urdu through steps of cross-cultural adaptation. Cross-cultural adaptation looks at both translation and cultural adaptation (Beaton, Bombardier, Guillemin, &
Ferraz, 2000). The translation was conducted through the steps of content validation by experts, translation and back translation to ensure the content validity. Keeping in view the participants, the target questionnaire was made as simple as possible. The adapted questionnaire was pilot tested and questionnaires were distributed among 40 policemen yielding a reliability of (.71).
3.10.1 Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale
The scale used in this study for assessing OCB was a modified form of Podsakoff et al.
(1990) scale. Earlier in 1990, Podsakoff and colleagues proposed that OCB have five dimensions of altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue. In 2000, Podsakoff and
51 colleagues from their meta-analysis recommended to raise the number of dimensions of OCB from five to seven. These are 1) helping behavior 2) sportsmanship 3) organizational loyalty 4) organizational compliance 5) individual initiative 6) civic virtue, and 7) self-development. All these dimensions have been briefly defined in section (3.6.1) and discussed in detail in literature review.
After a thorough literature review, it was found that no prior study has measured OCB with these seven dimensions. For this reason some changes were made to the existing scale of
Podsakoff et al. (1990) incorporating the suggestions of Podsakoff et al. (2000). The scale include seven sub-scales measuring helping behavior, sportsmanship, organizational loyalty, organizational compliance, individual initiative, civic virtue, and self-development. The scale was translated into Urdu. Items no 1 to 22 of the questionnaire (Appendix, Part-b) determines
OCB. The instrument was pilot tested. The final reliability of OCB scale was (.736) in our study and it is given in Appendix at the end.
3.10.2 Affective Organizational Commitment Scale
The study the portion relating to affective commitment containing six items of Meyer and
Allen revised scale of 1997. Allen and Meyer originally in, 1990 developed 24 items scale asking eight questions for each dimension. Meyer and Allen (1997) revised their original scale and reduce it to 6 items for each one. Items no 23-28 in the questionnaire of the present study
(Appendix, Part-B) are regarding affective commitment. The reliability value for affective commitment in our study is (0.722).
3.10.3 Job Satisfaction Scale
Job satisfaction of KP Police force in this study was assessed with short form of
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). It
52 consists of 20 items that ask subjects what they believe about various facets of their jobs and measure responses on a five-point Likert type scale starting from 1 very dissatisfied to 5 very satisfied. Of the 20, 12 items determined intrinsic satisfaction. Whereas six items identify extrinsic satisfaction and two items along with the above mentioned 18 items collectively report the picture of general job satisfaction. Items no 29-48 in the questionnaire are regarding job satisfaction of KP Policemen (Appendix, Part-B).
MSQ is a time tested questionnaire, widely used for determining job satisfaction.
Schleicher, Watt, and Grequras (2004) found that the reliability of MSQ to be (α = .88). The present study adapted and translated the scale according to the culture and target. The reliability of MSQ in the study is (α = .844) and is given in Appendix.
3.10.4 Organizational Justice Scale
A number of scales measuring organizational justice had been used in previous studies, such as Distributive Justice (Price & Mueller, 1986); Procedural Justice and Distributive Justice
(Konovsky, Folger, & Cropanzano, 1987); Procedural Justice and Interactional Justice
(Moorman, 1991); and Interactional Justice (Aquino, 1995). Greenberg (1993) suggested four- factor structure which was tested by Colquitt that resulted in a new organizational justice measure named as Colquitt‘s Organizational Justice Scale (COJS).
The present study measured organizational justice with COJS (Colquitt et al, 2001). This scale measures four dimensions of organizational justice: distributive; procedural; informational; and interpersonal. This scale has been widely used in various studies showing a consistent internal reliability of around 0.90. The scale yielded a reliability of (0.890) is the present study.
53 Items no. 49-68 in questionnaire represent portion for organizational justice, and is given in
Appendix.
3.10.5 Open Ended-Question
One open-ended question in the end empowered KP policemen to share their feelings and suggestion. It was asked for aid in understanding of other results. 170 respondents answered this question. The responses were organized according to frequency in broad categories. The question is given in (Appendix)
Table 3. 8 Summary of Scales Used in the Study
Scale Original author Sub-Scale No of of Scale Items
Organizational citizenship Self-developed Helping Behavior 3 behavior (OCB) Sportsmanship 3 Organizational Loyalty 3 Organizational Compliance 4 Individual Initiative 3 Civic Virtue 3 Self-development 3 22 Affective Organizational Meyer and Allen ------6 Commitment (1997) Intrinsic 12 Minnesota Satisfaction (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Extrinsic 6 Questionnaire (MSQ) (Short Lofquist, 1967) General 2 Form) 20
Distributive 5 Organizational Justice Scale Colquitt et al. (2001) Procedural 6 (COJS) informational 4 interpersonal 5 20 Demographic variables Self-items Field 08 Designation Tenure Qualification Gender Age Marital Status Kids Pay
54 3.11 Tools for Data Analysis Contemporary statistical software such as SPSS, and PROCESS were used to analyze and interpret the data. The data from the open-ended questions were analyzed and presented according to frequency.
3.11.1 Reliability and Validity of Data
The reliability shows the consistency and goodness of a measure (Sekaran 2000).
Cronbach‘s Alpha () was used to identify the reliability of the scales. Time tested scales were culturally translated and adapted to ensure content and face validity. To determine the construct validity, exploratory factor analysis for the scale of OCB was performed. Details are given in next chapter.
3.11.2 Correlation Analysis
Correlation analysis is a statistical technique undertaken with the objective of assessing the strength of relationship between two variables. The coefficient of correlation shows the strength of (linear) association (Gujarati, 2004). Although there are different methods of assessing correlation the present study used Pearson‘s coefficient of correlation r, with the help of SPSS. This method was developed by Professor Karl Pearson in 1869. The values of coefficient of correlation ranges between -1 and +1. r=1 would mean perfect positive relationship between variables. In the present study relationship among the various variables of interest and their respective dimensions were determined and discussed with the help of
Pearson‘s correlation coefficient.
3.11.3 Regression
Francis Galton (1877) introduced the term regression, however the modern use of regression is quite different. Gujarati (2004) defined it as ―Regression analysis is concerned with the study
55 of the dependence of one variable, the dependent variable, on one or more other variables, the explanatory variables, with a view to estimating and/or predicting the (population) mean or average value of the former in terms of the known or fixed (in repeated sampling) values of the latter‖ (p.18).
The strength of reliance of one variable on other/others does not necessary suggest causation
(Kendall & Stuart, 1961). When two or more than two regressors are related to the dependent variable or regressand the regression is called multiple regression (Gujarati, 2004). However before conducting regression analysis the following assumptions need to be ensured to make the results reliable (Al-Matari, Al-Swidi & BtFadzil, 2014):
The data shall be normally distributed
The data is free from multi-collinearity
Data is free from auto-correlation
The data has homoscedasticity
The following tests were used to fulfill the assumptions of regression before conducing it: a. Normality of Data: Skewness and Kurtosis along with Shapiro Wilk test (1965) were used through SPSS to check the normality of the data. b. Multi-collinearity: Another assumption for the regression analysis is that there shall be no collinearity among the independent variables. The test of variance inflation factor (VIF) was used to determne multi-collinearity among explanatory variables. c. Auto Correlation: Another assumption of the regression test is the checking of auto correlation in the data. In the current study this assumption does not apply because our data is cross- sectional where there is usually no probability of correlations between the error terms of two
56 subjects. The said assumption should be checked if the data under consideration is time series
(Gujarati, 2004, p.441). d. Homoscedasticity: This assumption states that variance remains same over the time but, the current study data uses cross section type which has nothing to do with time. As advised by
Gujarati (2004) the assumption of Homoscedasticity is not tenable for the present study.
3.11.4 Testing of Model and Establishing Relationship among Variables
PROCESS is an add-on which is written by Hayes for SAS & SPSS for the purpose of analyzing statistical moderation, mediation, and conditional process analysis. PROCESS is programmed in such a manner that it uses logistic regression or ordinary least square method for estimating both the effects i.e., direct and indirect in single as well as multiple mediator models such as serial and parallel mediator models. PROCESS implements both the Monte Carlo and
Bootstrap confidence intervals for drawing inference, concerning indirect effect (Hayes, 2015).
The present study used PROCESS sixth model in order to the test the variables. This model was selected because we needed to check mediation of two variables in serial according to the gap identified in the literature review. This model served our purpose in an authentic and convenient way.
57 Figure 3. 2 Proposed Model
(Source: Hayes, 2012, p.36)
The model presented is a serial multiple mediator model having two mediators. Using this model, the study attempts to estimate the direct & indirect effects of X using the coefficients from the three equations e.g. one for each of the mediator M1 and mediator M2 and one for the Y.
This model shows four paths
Path (1) Independent variable X may affect dependent variable Y indirectly through mediator M1. If this indirect effect (coefficient products, a1b1) is significant and make the direct effect of X on Y, c’1 (equation 5) insignificant, M1 will stand as a full mediator between X and Y.
On the contrary if this indirect effect is significant but doesn‘t make the direct effect c’1 insignificant, the mediator M1 will stand a partial mediator between X and Y.
58 Path (2) Variable X may affect dependent variable Y indirectly through mediator M2. This path is shown as (a2b2). If this indirect effect (a2b2) is significant and make the c’1 (equation 5) insignificant, M2 will stand as a full mediator between X and Y. On the contrary if this indirect effect is significant but doesn‘t make the direct effect c’1 insignificant, the mediator M1 will stand a partial mediator between X and Y.
Path (3) Predictor variable X may affect variable Y indirectly through both mediators M1 and M2 in serial. If this indirect effect (a1a3b2) is significant and make the direct effect c’1 insignificant, both the mediators M1 and M2 will fully mediate the relationship between X and Y in series. On the contrary if this indirect effect is significant but doesn‘t make the direct effect c’1 insignificant, the mediation through mediators M1 and M2 will be partial.
Path (4), shows the direct effect (c'1) of X on Y. This effect may be greater or smaller than the total indirect effect. If this direct effect (c'1) is added with the total indirect effect of X on Y
(a1b1 + a2b2 + a1a3b2), the outcome is the total effect of X on Y, from c1 of equation (5).
Specifically c1 = c'1 + a1b1 + a2b2 + a1a3b2, and hence c1 – c'1 = a1b1 + a2b2 + a1a3b2 (Hayes,
2012).
59 Chapter 4 Analysis and Findings
4.1 Introduction
The present chapter is regarding the findings of the study. It is divided into four parts.
The respondents are introduced in the part first according to various personal characteristics. Part second presents reliability of the data. Third part is regarding descriptive statistics where the counts, percentages and means for all the variables are presented. Fourth portion shows results for hypotheses and includes summary of overall model.
4.2 Preliminary Analysis (Distribution of Respondents)
Active response rate of the respondents was 78%. Respondents were divided according to various personal characteristics i.e., wing, gender, marital status, age, education, designation, experience, and pay. These are given in the Table 4.1 which shows information about diverse characteristics of the participants. 95% of the respondents were from operation wing whereas 5% were from investigation wing. Respondents predominantly were male i.e., 95.3% whereas only
4.7% percent were female. Most of them i.e., 76.7% were married. A majority i.e., 30% had
FA/FSC degree (twelve) years of education, and 40.7% of the respondents were between the ages of 29-38.
Most of the respondents i.e., 68.7 % were constables followed by head constables i.e.,
16.3%. 35.7% of the respondents had 6-10 years of experience with in the organization. A majority of respondents i.e., 69.3% were taking a monthly salary that fell in the range of 30000 to 40000 Pakistani rupees.
60 Table 4. 1 Distribution of Respondents Variable No of respondents Percentage Wing
Investigation 15 5.0
Operation 285 95.0
Total 300 100
Gender
Male 286 95.3
Female 14 4.7
Total 300 100
Age
18-28 82 27.3
29-38 122 40.7
39-48 32 10.6
Above 48 64 21.3
Total 300 100
Marital Status
Married 230 76.7
Single 70 23.3
Total 300 100
Education
Under Matric 27 09
Matric 73 24.3
FA/FSC 90 30
Bachelor 75 25
Master 35 11.7
Total 300 100
61 Designation
Constable 206 68.7
Head Constable 49 16.3
ASI 15 5.0
SI 25 8.3
Inspector/SHO 3 1.0
ASP/DSP 2 0.7
Total 300 100
Work Experience in the Present Organization
Less than 1 years - -
1-5 years 50 16.7
6-10 years 107 35.7
11-15 years 79 26.3
Above 16 years 64 21.3
Total 300 100
Pay/Salary
10000-20000 - -
20001-30000 71 23.7
30001-40000 207 69.0
Above 40,000 22 7.3
Total 300 100
62 4.3 Reliability Analysis
Reliability analysis helps us decide regarding the reliability of data. Cronbach's Alpha () was used to determine the reliability of data. There are no strict rules about the value of
Cronbach‘s Alpha to be considered as reliable, however literature suggests that data with
Cronbach's Alpha greater than 65% can be considered reliable. The results are displayed in
Table 4.2. The findings shows that all sections of the questionnaire the Cronbach's Alpha is greater than 70%. These outcomes encouraged to pursue forward.
Table 4. 2 Reliability Analysis S.NO Variable Number of Cronbach's Alpha () Items
1 OCB 22 0.736 2 Affective Commitment 6 0.722 3 Job Satisfaction 20 0.844 4 Organizational Justice 20 0.890 Overall Reliability 68 0.926 Overall shows the combined data that measure the given four variables.
4.4 Validity Analysis
Reliable and valid scales were used to assess organizational justice, job satisfaction, and affective commitment. These scales were translated to URDU and back translated in order to ensure content validity. The scale was culturally adapted according to Pakistani culture. The part determining OCB was personally developed. The content and face validity of the questionnaire was checked by veteran research scholars who validated the questionnaire and gave the permission for data collection. The construct validity of the OCB questionnaire was determined with factor analysis.
63 4.4.1 Factor Analysis
Exploratory factor analysis is a reduction technique commonly used to condense the number of variables (Hinkin, Tracey, & Enz, 1997). As the OCB scale was self-developed exploratory factor analysis was conducted through SPSS to check the factors of the latent variable OCB.
Table 4. 3 Communalities Initial Extraction
OCB1 1.000 .938 OCB2 1.000 .853 OCB3 1.000 .957 OCB4 1.000 .927 OCB5 1.000 .954 OCB6 1.000 .918 OCB7 1.000 .862 OCB8 1.000 .938 OCB9 1.000 .906 OCB10 1.000 .867 OCB11 1.000 .963 OCB12 1.000 .957 OCB13 1.000 .864 OCB14 1.000 .529 OCB15 1.000 .898 OCB16 1.000 .642 OCB17 1.000 .959 OCB18 1.000 .970 OCB19 1.000 .763 OCB20 1.000 .834 OCB21 1.000 .934 OCB22 1.000 .609
64
Table 4. 4 Total Variance Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % 1 5.111 23.234 23.234 5.111 23.234 23.234 2 4.028 18.309 41.543 4.028 18.309 41.543 3 3.021 13.730 55.273 3.021 13.730 55.273 4 2.466 11.211 66.484 2.466 11.211 66.484 5 2.071 9.413 75.897 2.071 9.413 75.897 6 1.342 6.099 81.997 1.342 6.099 81.997 7 1.002 4.555 86.552 1.002 4.555 86.552 8 .881 4.004 90.556 9 .510 2.317 92.873 10 .480 2.182 95.055 11 .288 1.310 96.366 12 .205 .930 97.296 13 .164 .745 98.041 14 .157 .713 98.754 15 .134 .609 99.363 16 .071 .324 99.687 17 .041 .186 99.873 18 .017 .075 99.948 19 .011 .052 100.000 20 2.860E-005 .000 100.000 21 1.118E-015 5.081E-015 100.000 22 -4.418E-016 -2.008E-015 100.000
As shown above OCB is composed of 7 factors based on Kaiser Criterion, that is,
Eigenvalue > 1 (Kaiser, 1960). These factors were named as 1) organizational loyalty 2) organizational compliance 3) self-development 4) helping behavior 5) civic virtue 6) individual initiative, and 7) sportsmanship.
65 4.5 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics include counts, percentages and mean average score (MAS) for individual items and over all variables.
4.5.1 Descriptives for OCB
Tables 4.5 shows the number of each items asked for OCB. These items addressed different dimension of OCB starting from helping behavior. For each item, frequency, percentage and mean average score of replies are given. The numbers with in parenthesis is percentage. 1 is the minimum and 5 is the maximum for mean average score (MAS). The mean average score of 1 to 2 mean ―low‖, from 2.1 to 3 mean ―moderate‖ and from 3.1 to 5 mean
―high‖. The mean average score (MAS) of 3.21 for helping behavior shows that most of the participants scored ―high‖ for the dimension of helping behavior. This means that policemen cooperate and help each other perhaps due to the collectivist nature of society.
The MAS of 1.92 for sportsmanship shows that employees reported ―low‖ on this dimension. This shows a non-sporty behavior as policemen stop giving suggestions when their suggestions are not incorporated. The mean average score of 4.35 for organization loyalty shows that participants scored ―high‖ on this dimension. It means that policemen defend their organization in public and will not switch over to other jobs. For the dimension of organizational compliance, the MAS of 3.535 falls in the ―high‖ range. This is understandable as police is a disciplined organization and its rules and procedures need to be strictly complied.
The MAS of 2.5 for individual initiative shows that the policemen are scoring ―moderate‖ on this dimension. This imply that policeman do not feel high social obligation of suggesting and initiating improvement initiatives or they are not encouraged to take initiatives.
66 The MAS of 2.827 for civic virtue shows that participants are scoring ―moderate‖ on this dimension. This mean the policemen do not actively participate in organizational matters such as voluntarily attending meetings and seminars and keeping aware of organizational changes. The
MAS of 3.53 for self-development shows that participants are reporting ―high‖ for this dimension. This is a healthy sign showing that KP policemen avail the opportunity of learning and training when available and learn new skills valuable for the organization. It is also worthy to mention here that training is also linked to promotion in KP Police. This result is synonymous to Herzberg‘s two factor theory which found that employees enjoyed new learning and growth.
The overall MAS of 3.085 for OCB shows that employees are ―moderate‖ in the display of OCB behaviors, whereas the need of the time dictates that policemen shall be ―High‖ on OCB.
Table 4. 5 Descriptives for OCB Item No/Dimension Response MAS*
1 2 3 4 5
1 - (-) -(-) -(-) 180(60) 120(40) 4.4
2 - (-) - (-) - (-) 217 (72.3) 83 (27.7) 4.28
3 71(23.7) 193(64.3) - (-) 30(10.0) 6(2.0) 2.02
Helping Behavior 3.21
4 108(36.0) 156(52.0) - (-) 24(8.0) 12(4.0) 1.92
5 71(23.7) 199(66.3) -(-) 24(8.0) 6(2.0) 1.98
6 111(37.0) 159(53.0) -(-) 24(8.0) 6(2.0) 1.85
Sportsmanship 1.92
7 -(-) -(-) -(-) 206(68.7) 94(31.3) 4.31
8 -(-) 24(8.0) -(-) 117(39.0) 159(53.0) 4.37
9 -(-) -(-) -(-) 186(62.0) 114(38.0) 4.38
67
Organizational Loyalty 4.35
10 -(-) 24(8.0) -(-) 264(88.0) 12(4.0) 3.88
11 -(-) -(-) -(-) 180(60.0) 120(40.0) 4.4
12 -(-) -(-) -(-) 217(72.3) 83(27.7) 4.28
13 134(44.7) 163(54.3) -(-) 3(1.0) 1.58
Organizational Compliance 3.54
14 108(36.0) 177(59.0) -(-) 3(1.0) 12(4.0) 1.78
15 179(59.7) 109(36.3) -(-) 6(2.0) 6(2.0) 1.5
16 -(-) 24(8.0) -(-) 162(54.0) 114(38.0) 4.22
Individual Initiative 2.5
17 -(-) 24(8.0) -(-) 85(28.3) 191(63.7) 4.48
18 71(23.7) 135(45.0) 82(27.3) -(-) 12(4.0) 2.16
19 71(23.7) 217(72.3) -(-) 6(2.0) 6(2.0) 1.84
Civic Virtue 2.83
20 111(37.0) 153(51.0) -(-) 24(8.0) 12(4.0) 1.91
21 -(-) 3(1.0) -(-) 177(59.0) 120(40.0) 4.38
22 -(-) -(-) -(-) 214(71.3) 86(28.7) 4.29
Self-Development 3.53
Overall 3.14
1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3(undecided), 4(agree), 5(strongly agree). The numbers in brackets are percentages; * shows mean average score. Item No is the number of statement in the questionnaire (Appendix)
4.5.2 Descriptives for Affective Commitment
Tables 4.6 shows the number of each question asked for affective commitment. For each item, frequency, percentage and mean average score of replies are given. The numbers with in parenthesis is percentage. 1 is the minimum and 5 is the maximum for mean average score
68 (MAS). The mean average score of 1 to 2 mean ―low‖, from 2.1 to 3 mean ―moderate‖ and from
3.1 to 5 mean ―high‖. The mean average score of 3.085 for affective commitment shows that participants reported their commitment only to a ―moderate‖ level. We can say that a major contributor to this average is the spill-over effect of ―high‖ intrinsic job-satisfaction see Table
4.5. Had the intrinsic job satisfaction among the police been lower the affective commitment would have been lower.
Table 4. 6 Descriptives for Affective Commitment Item No Response MAS*
1 2 3 4 5
43 - (-) 13(4.3) 115 (38.3) 163 (54.3) 9(3) 3.56
44 72 (24.0) 222 (74.0) -(-) 6 (2.0) -(-) 1.80
45 - (-) 34 (11.3) 113 (37.7) 147 (49.0) 6 (2.0) 3.42
46 -(-) 15 (5.0) 237 (79.0) 43 (14.3) 5 (1.7) 3.13
47 - (-) 22 (7.3) 129(43.0) 145 (48.3) 4 (1.37) 3.44
48 -(-) 28 (9.3) 117 (39.0) 138 (46.0) 17 (5.7) 3.16
Total 3.085
1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3(undecided), 4(agree), 5(strongly agree). The numbers in brackets are percentages; * shows mean average score. Item No is the number of statement in the questionnaire (Appendix)
4.5.3 Descriptives for Job Satisfaction
The Tables 4.7 shows the number of item determining for job satisfaction. These items are used for intrinsic, extrinsic and general job satisfaction. Two item (39 and 40) represent general satisfaction. For each item, frequency, percentage and mean average score of replies are given. The numbers with in parenthesis is percentage. 1 is the minimum and 5 is the maximum
69 for mean average score (MAS). The mean average score of 1 to 2 mean ―low‖, from 2.1 to 3 mean ―moderate‖ and from 3.1 to 5 mean ―high‖.
The mean average score (3.475) for intrinsic satisfaction shows that police employees‘ intrinsic satisfaction level is ―high‖. On the contrary the MAS (1.833) for extrinsic satisfaction shows that their satisfaction from the environmental factors is ―low‖. It is the ―high‖ MAS
(3.475) for intrinsic satisfaction that has improved the average for job satisfaction. It shows that the social significance and meaningfulness of police job is intrinsically satisfying otherwise policemen are not satisfied from the extrinsic factors. The MAS score (2.911) for ―over all‖ job satisfaction depicts that the police are happy with their jobs only to a ―moderate‖ level which is a sign of concern.
Table 4. 7 Descriptives for Job Satisfaction Item No Response MAS* 1 2 3 4 5
23 - (-) -(-) -(-) 99 (33.0) 201(67.0) 4.67
24 71(23.7) 222 (74.0) 1 (.3) - (-) 6 (2.0) 1.83 25 - (-) 6 (2.0) 1(.3) 213 (71.0) 80(26.7) 4.22 26 -(-) -(-) 74 (24.7) 213 (71.0) 13 (4.3) 3.80 29 108 (36.0) 185 (61.7) 1(.3) 6 (2.0) -(-) 1.68 30 -(-) -(-) -(-) 105(35) 195 (65) 4.65 31 -(-) -(-) 1(.3) 74 (24.7) 225 (75) 4.75 32 -(-) -(-) -(-) 84 (28) 216 (72) 4.72 33 -(-) -(-) -(-) 269 (89.7) 31 (10.3) 4.10 37 80.0 (26.7) 213 (71) 7 (2.3) -(-) -(-) 1.76 38 266 ( 88.7) 28 (9.3) 6(2.0) - (-) - (-) 1.13 42 -(-) -(-) -(-) 183(61) 117(39) 4.39
Intrinsic 3.475 27 75 (25) 213 (71) -(-) 6 (2.0) 6 (2.0) 1.85 28 72 (24) 216 (72) -(-) 6(2.0) 6(2.0) 1.86
70 34 72 (24) 216 (72) 6 (2.0) 6 (2.0) -(-) 1.82 35 111.0(37.0) 183 (61.0) -(-) 6 (2.0) -(-) 1.67 36 108 (36.0) 162 (54.0) -(-) 30(10) -(-) 1.84 41 74(24.7) 195(65) 1(.3) 30 (10.0) -(-) 1.96 Extrinsic 1.8333 39 71(23.7) 222(74.) 1(.3) 6(2.0) -(-) 1.81 40 - (-) -(-) -(-) 91 ( 30.3) 209 (69.7) 3.70 Overall Satisfaction 2.911 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3(undecided), 4(agree), 5(strongly agree). The numbers in brackets are percentages; * shows mean average score. Item No is the number of statement in the questionnaire (Appendix)
4.5.4 Descriptives for Organizational Justice
The Tables (4.8) presents the number of each items used for assessing perceptions organizational justice. These items represent four different dimension starting from Distributive
Justice. For each item, frequency, percentage and mean average score of replies are given. The numbers with in parenthesis is percentage. 1 is the minimum and 5 is the maximum for mean average score (MAS). The mean average score of 1 to 2 mean ―low‖, from 2.1 to 3 mean
―moderate‖ and from 3.1 to 5 mean ―high‖.
71 Table 4. 8 Descriptives for Organizational Justice Item No/Dimension Response MAS* 1 2 3 4 5 49 85(28.3) 125(41.7) - (-) 69(23.0) 21 (7.0) 2.39 50 19 (6.3) 149 (49.7) 69(23.0) 26(8.7) 37(12.3) 2.71
51 88(29.3) 128 (42.7) - (-) 71 (23.7) 13(4.3) 2.31 52 153(51) 117(39) - (-) 30(10) - (-) 1.69 53 183(61) 111(37) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.43
Distributive Justice 2.106 54 288(96) 6(2) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.08 55 183(61) 111(37) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.43 56 177(59) 117(39) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.45 57 177(59) 117(39) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.45 58 159(53 141(47) - (-) - (-) - (-) 1.47 59 193(64.3) 95(31.7) - (-) - (-) 12(4) 1.48 Procedural Justice 1.393 60 153(51) 141(47) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.53 61 106(35.3) 182(60.7) - (-) 12(4) - (-) 1.73 62 180(60) 114(38) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.44 63 177(59) 117(39) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.45 64 180(60) 114(38) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.44
Interpersonal Justice 1.518 65 217(72.3) 77(25.7) - (-) 6(2) - (-) 1.32 66 112(37.3) 188(62.7) - (-) - (-) - (-) 1.63 67 177(59) 123(41) - (-) - (-) - (-) 1.41 68 109(36.3) 179(59.7) - (-) 12(4) - (-) 1.72
Informational Justice 1.52 Organizational Justice 1.628 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3(undecided), 4(agree), 5(strongly agree). The numbers in brackets are percentages; * shows mean average score. Item No is the number of statement in the questionnaire (Appendix)
72 The mean average score of 2.106 for distributive justice shows that the participants‘ perception of ―distributive justice‖ falls on the lower side of ―moderate‖ range as the MAS is closer to two. This means that the duties, workload, and other rewards are perceived by policemen as unfair. The respondents disclosed during informal discussion that their workload is very cumbersome sparing no time for rest and family. KP Policemen are working 12 hours in 24 hours in two sifts of 6 hours each. The mean average score of 1.393 for ―procedural justice‖ shows that the policemen perception of procedural justice is ―low‖. The MAS of 1.518 for
―interpersonal justice‖ shows that employees‘ perception of interpersonal justice is also ―low‖.
Similarly the MAS of 1.52 for informational justice shows that the perception regarding informational justice is ―low‖ which is understandable as reasons of decisions are not always explained in disciplined organizations like Police. In congruence to the four dimensions, the
MAS of 1.628 for ―over all organizational justice‖ also shows a gloomy picture of ―low‖. It means dissatisfaction of participants from organization on justice grounds.
4.5.5 Summary of Descriptive Statistics
The Table 4.9 presents the summary of descriptive statistics for the four variables and all its individual dimensions. For each item, frequency, percentage and mean average score of replies are given. The numbers with in parenthesis is percentage. 1 is the minimum and 5 is the maximum for mean average score (MAS). The mean average score of 1 to 2 mean ―low‖, from
2.1 to 3 mean ―moderate‖ and from 3.1 to 5 mean ―high‖.
73 Table 4. 9 Summary of Descriptive Statistics Std. S.NO. Variables S.NO. Dimesions MAS* Deviation 1. Helping Behavior 3.57 .336 2. Sportsmanship 1.92 .838 3. Organizational Loyalty 4.35 .347 4. Organizational Compliance 3.54 .276 5. Individual Initiative 2.50 .494 6. Civic Virtue 2.83 .522 7. Self-development 3.53 .375 1. OCB 3.18 .287 1 Intrinsic Satisfaction 3.47 .227 2. Extrinsic Satisfaction 1.83 .507 2. JS 2.91 .282 3. AC 3.14 .371 1 Distributive Justice 2.11 .705 2 Procedural Justice 1.39 .452 3 Inter-Personal Justice 1.52 .574 4 Informational Justice 1.52 .432 4. OJ 1.63 .428 * shows means average score.
4.6 Correlation Analysis
Table 4.10 presents the correlations among main variables (bold), and their sub dimensions. Pearson Correlation test was conducted using SPSS for assessing the correlations among variables. The table shows main variable of interest, that is, OCB and all its seven individual dimensions starting from helping behavior. Similarly job satisfaction along with its
74 two dimesions, intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction can be seen. Correlations for affective commitment and organizational justice along with its four dimensions are also given.
Table 4. 10 Correlation Table 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 Helping Behavior 2 Sportsmanship .568** 3 Organizational Loyalty .311** .496** 4 Organizational Compliance .237** .275** .371** 5 Individual Initiative .516** .316** .502** .431** 6 Civic Virtue .488** .060 .569** .476** .793** 7 Self-development .722** .739** .254** .239** .535** .210** 8 OCB .745** .575** .213** .423** .904** .769** .751** 9 Intrinsic Satisfaction .568** .279** .093 .106 .397** .674** .023 .484** 10 Extrinsic Satisfaction .767** .827** .150** .125* .616** .488** .654** .795** .501** 11 Job Satisfaction .771** .585** .061 .102 .542** .618** .390** .692** .919** .918** 12 Affective Commitment .446** .253** .138* .154** .497** .445** .353** .517** .353** .449** .443** 13 Distributive Justice .527** .540** .203** .049 .353** .221** .496** .483** .325** .587** .503** .293** 14 Procedural Justice .864** .115* .010 .515** .573** .586** .499** .641** .452** .450** .551** .424** .334** 15 Inter-Personal Justice .768** -.082 .056 .553** .460** .592** .325** .510** .451** .292** .467** .365** .224** .573** 16 Informational Justice .578** .184** .072 .748** .391** .431** .406** .425** .002 .001 .063 .257** .098 .546** .573** 17 Organizational Justice .854** .205** .058 .470** .555** .550** .557** .655** .417** .482** .543** .425** .623** .934** .892** .788** *p<.05, **p<.01
4.7 Assumptions of Regression
In, 1877 Francis Galton used the term regression, however the modern use of regression is quite different. In the words of Gujarati (2004) ―Regression analysis is concerned with the study of the dependence of one variable, the dependent variable, on one or more other variables, the explanatory variables, with a view to estimating and/or predicting the (population) mean or average value of the former in terms of the known or fixed (in repeated sampling) values of the latter‖ (p.18).
The strength of reliance of one variable upon other/others does not essentially points causation (Kendall & Stuart, 1961). When two or more than two predictor variables or regressors are related to the dependent variable or regressand the regression is called multiple regression
75 (Gujarati, 2004). However before conducting regression analysis the following assumptions need to be ensured to make the results reliable (Al-Matari, Al-Swidi & BtFadzil, 2014):
The data shall be normally distributed
The data is free from multi-collinearity
Data is free from auto-correlation
The data has homoscedasticity
4.7.1 Sample Characteristics (Normality of Data):
The table 4.11 presents the findings for normality of data. Two famous measures of normality: Kolmogorov-Smirnov; and Shapiro-Wilk were used to check the normality of data.
Shapiro-Wilk test is viable for a sample size of less than 50, but may be used for sample size up to 2000. The sample size of the present study was 426. The data collected about OCB is normally distributed as the results suggest that the caring value of OCB 0.751 is much greater than the threshold normal value of 0.05.
Table 4. 11 Kolmogrov-smirnov Shapiro- Wilk Statistic Df Sig Statistic Df Sig OCB .14 10 .230 .987 10 .751
4.7.2 Multi-Collinearity
Another assumption for the regression analysis is that there shall not be any multi- collinearity among the independent variables in a model. The correlation matrix (Table 4.10) shows the correlations between organizational justice and job satisfaction (r=0.543), organizational justice and affective commitment (r=.425), and job satisfaction and affective commitment (.443) all are less than 0.80 suggesting no multi-collinearity in the model. In
76 addition the variance inflation factor (VIF) values for all the independent variables are less than
10 and tolerance values are greater than 0.2 suggesting no multi-collinearity (see Table 4.12).
Furthermore the R2 value is less than 0.80 and all the independent variables are significant confirming that multi-collinearity does not exist.
4.7.3 Auto Correlation
The last assumption of the regression test is the checking of auto correlation in the data.
In the current study this assumption does not apply because the present study involves cross- sectional data in which usually no chance of correlations exists between the error terms of two subjects. The said assumption should be checked if the data under consideration is time series
(Gujarati, 2004, p.441).
4.7.4 Homoscedasticity
This assumption states that variance remains same over the time but, the current study data uses cross section type which has nothing to do with time. As advised by Gujarati (2004) the assumption of Homoscedasticity is not tenable for the present study.
4.8 Testing of Hypotheses
Most hypotheses were tested with a program called PROCESS. It is a macro for SPSS often used as a computation tool for moderation and mediation. It uses ordinary least square regressions to determine direct and indirect effects between the independent and dependent variables (Hayes & Preacher, 2013). The study used sixth Model of PROCESS which is about serial mediation. Hayes (2012) noted ―The serial multiple mediator model assumes a causal chain linking the mediators, with a specified direction of causal flow…the presumed direction of
77 causal flow often is based only on theoretical justification‖ (p. 14). As per recommendations the model presumed a causal link on the basis of theory of social exchange. Organizational justice was the independent variable, job satisfaction and affective commitment were two serial mediators, and OCB was dependent variable (OJ → JS → AC → OCB). We explored the effects between the variables to check the individual and serial mediations. If the estimated confidence intervals exclude zero then the effects will be statistically different from zero and would mean mediations.
4.8.1 Hypothesis (H1, H2 & H3)
Table 4.12 shows the regression coefficients among the three explanatory variables, organizational justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment, and dependent variable OCB.
Organizational justice (b=.23, 0.0000<.01), job satisfaction (b=.43, 0.0044<.01) and affective commitment (b=.14, 0.0000<.01) are significantly related to OCB proving first three hypotheses of the study. R-square of 0.6151 for the model shows that 61.5% variation in dependent variable
OCB is explained by explanatory variables: job satisfaction; affective commitment; and organizational justice. The regression coefficients are also drawn as paths a1, a2 and c`1 respectively in Figure 4.1. The supported hypothesis are H1: organizational justice leads to
OCB, H2: Job satisfaction leads to OCB, and H3: affective commitment leads to OCB.
78 Table 4. 12 Organizational Justice, Job Satisfaction, Affective Commitment and OCB (Regression Analysis) Outcome: OCB Model Summary R R-sq 0.7843 0.6151 F P Model 35.1570 0.0000 Coeff Constant 1.0983 Job Satisfaction 0.4310 VIF Se T P Affective commitment 0.1406 0.2047 5.3666 0.0000 Organizational justice 0.2340 1.537 .0510 8.4515 0 .0000 Overall model is statistically significant with p value of 0.0000 (<0.01)
4.8.2 Hypothesis (H4)
Table 4.13 shows a significant and positive association between organizational justice
and job satisfaction (b=0.3575, .0000<.01). This coefficient is also shown as path a1 in Figure
4.1. The results show that the fourth hypothesis of the study H4 is proven i.e., Organizational
justice leads to job satisfaction.
Table 4. 13 Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction Outcome: Job Satisfaction Model Summary R R2 F P 0.5427 0.2945 112.5603 0.0000
Model
Coeff Se T P Constant 2.3263 0.0586 39.6932 0.0000 Organizational 0.3575 0.0337 10.6094 0.0000 Justice
Overall model is statistically significant with p value of 0.0000 (<0.01)
79 4.8.3. Hypothesis (H5 & H6)
Table 4.14 presents a positive and significant association between two explanatory variables job satisfaction (b=0.3957, 0000<.01), organizational justice (b=0.2271, .0001<.01) and dependent variable affective commitment. These coefficients are also shown as paths a3 and a2 respectively in Figure 4.1. The results supports the fifth and sixth hypotheses of the study i.e.,
H5: Job satisfaction leads to affective commitment, and H6: Organizational justice leads to affective commitment.
Table 4. 14 Job Satisfaction, Organizational justice and Affective Commitment Outcome: Affective Commitment Model Summary R R-sq F P 0.4942 0.2442 28.2284 0.0000
Model Coeff Se T P Constant 1.6143 0.2216 7.2845 0.0000 Job Satisfaction 0. 3957 0.0808 4.8987 0.0000 Organizational 0.2271 0.0590 3.2215 0.0001 Justice Overall model is statistically significant with p value of 0.0000 (<0.01)
4.8.4 Hypothesis (H7, H8, H9, & H10)
Table 4.15 shows the confidence interval and indirect effect of organizational justice on
OCB with mediation of job satisfaction and affective commitment individually and in serial. A non-zero effect would mean a mediation between the variables. Path 1 shows the specific indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB through job satisfaction. This effect is significant
80 (0.1541) as the confidence interval is statistically different from zero (does not include zero).
This specific indirect effect is the product of a1 = 0.3575 and b1 = 0.4310 (see Figure 4.1) with a confidence interval of (0.1096 to 0.2068).
Although the indirect effect is significant but it is not strong enough to make the direct effect (c`1) insignificant (b=0.2340). Preacher and Hayes (2004) suggest that mediation will be partial if the inclusion of mediating variable reduces the effect of predictor variable on outcome variable in magnitude, but still remains significant. Basing on the results we conclude that the seventh hypothesis of study is partially supported i.e., H7: Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
The specific indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB via affective commitment
(0.0319) is significant as the CI does not include zero. This indirect effect Path 2 (a2b2) is the product of paths a2 = 0.2271 and b2 = 0.1406, having a confidence interval of (0.0148 to 0.0677), see also Figure 4.1. As both the indirect effect (Path 2) and direct effect (b=0.2340) of organizational justice on OCB are significant, partial mediation exists. Thus the eight hypothesis of our study is partially supported, that is, H8: Affective commitment mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
The specific indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB via job satisfaction and affective commitment (0.0199) is statistically marginally different from zero, and hence marginally significant. This effect is the product of a1 = 0.3575, a3=0.3957 and b2 = 0.1406, having a confidence interval of (0.0067 to 0.0437). This effect is shown as Path 3 (a1a3b2) in
Figure 4.1. On the basis of results we can say that the ninth hypothesis of the study is partially sustained i.e., H9: organizational justice affects OCB through job satisfaction and affective commitment in serial.
81 Total indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB (a1b1+ a2b2+ a1a3b2) is also significant with a non-zero total indirect effect (0.2059) with confidence interval of (0.1306 to
0.2757). However in contrast to our prediction total indirect effect of organizational justice on
OCB is lower than the direct effect (c'1) of organizational justice on OCB (.2059<0.2340). This
th leads to the rejection of our last and 10 hypothesis i.e., H10: Total Indirect effect of organization justice on OCB through job satisfaction and affective commitment is greater than the direct effect of organization justice on OCB.
Table 4. 15 Direct and Indirect Effects of Organizational Justice on OCB Direct effect of OJ on Effect Boot SE P CI * OCB (c'1) 0.2340 0.0401 0.0000 0.1550, 0.3130
Total Indirect effect of OJ on OCB Effect Boot SE CI 0.2059 0.0363 0.1306, 0.2757 Path 1 (a1 b1): Through JS alone 0.1541 0.0250 0.1096, 0.2068 Path 2 (a2 b2): Through AC alone 0.0319 0.0148 0.0148, 0.0677 Path 3 (a1a3b2): Through JS and AC 0.0199 0.0092 0.0067, 0.0437 Note: The number of bootstrap samples for the bias-corrected interval is 1,000. Variables involved in the product term were mean-centered. CI = Confidence Interval. *p < 0.05
Figure (4.1) presents the model of this study, drawn with the help of PROCESS. This model is synonymous to the sixth model of PROCESS. The figure shows the regression coefficients among the variables, organizational justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB).
82 Figure 4. 1 Summary of Results
The figure shows that Organizational justice (b=.23, p<.01), job satisfaction (b=.43, p<.01) and affective commitment (b=.14, p<.01) are significantly related to OCB proving first three hypothesis of the study. The relationship of organizational justice with OCB (b=.23) is the direct effect.
Table 4. 16 Summary of Results for Hypothesis No. Statement Result H1 Organizational justice leads to OCB. Supported
H2 Job satisfaction leads to OCB. Supported
H3 Affective commitment leads to OCB. Supported
83 H4 Organizational justice leads to job satisfaction. Supported
H5 Job satisfaction leads to affective commitment. Supported
H6 Organizational justice leads to affective commitment. Supported
H7 Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between organizational justice Partially and OCB. Supported
H8 Affective commitment mediates the relationship between organizational Partially justice and OCB. Supported
H9 Organizational justice affects OCB through the mediators of Job Partially satisfaction and affective commitment in serial. Supported
H10: Total Indirect effect of organization justice on OCB through job satisfaction Not and affective commitment is greater than the direct effect of organization Supported justice on OCB.
4.9 Results from Open Ended Question.
Data from open ended question was summarized in broad categories according to counts and percentage and is give in Table 4.17. These suggestions are concisely presented under
―implications for KP Police‖ in chapter 5. 170 respondents out of 300 answered open-ended question. 121 respondents out of 170 i.e., 71.2 % suggested to reduce the duty timings to eight hours, 48.9% reported unfair distribution of duties. 47.64% policemen were not satisfied from personal protection gears primarily bullet proof jackets, which are very heavy to wear especially in summer. 47.05% policemen demanded schools run by police department in every district.
45.9% demanded family accommodation. The views of 42.35% policemen imply lack of trust in officers (top leadership). The personal opinion of the researcher is that this attitude can be more
84 negative than reported, as it can be dangerous to report against officers in a disciplined organization.
38.32% demanded more support during duties such as pick and drop and provision of food and water. Similarly personal backups during attacks is demanded. 32.94% policemen demanded hospitals like Combined Military Hospital (CMH). 29.41% demanded to significantly increase monthly food allowance.
Table 4. 17 Results from Open-ended Question Categories No of Respondents Percentage of Total (170) Duty Timings 121 71.2% Unfair Distribution of Duties 83 48.9% Personal Protection Gears 81 47.64% Police Schools 80 47.05% Family Accommodation 78 45.9% Trust in leadership 72 42.35% On Duty Support 65 38.23% Hospitals 56 32.94% Food Allowance 50 29.41%
85 Chapter 5 Discussion & Conclusion
5.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study was to integrate the existing research on the important determinants of OCB, organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment and investigate and establish an order between these determinants and OCB as an integrated model.
The primary goal was to investigate whether organizational justice-OCB, link is mediated by job satisfaction and affective commitment individually and in serial. To add some pragmatism it was also probed how OCB can be promoted in KP Police?
To serve the purpose, the study organized these determinants in a proposed model based on the theory of social exchange, and past literature. It was tested, with the help of PROCESS which is a macro for SPSS. For the profound insight into relationships among variables and their individual factors Pearson‘s correlational tests were also conducted. One open-ended question was asked to further enrich the study qualitatively with the identification of problems and suggestion from participants. This chapter contains discussion on the research findings, conclusion, recommendations, limitations and directions for future studies.
86 5.2 Discussion of the Research Findings
Following sections contain concise discussion on the important findings.
5.2.1 Relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB
As hypothesized in the first hypothesis (H1) the regression coefficient for the direct effect of organizational justice on OCB (c'1, figure 4.1) shows a significant positive relationship between the variables (b=0.2340, p<.01, Table 4.15). Organizational justice is established as an antecedent to OCB in past studies and this study conforms to them (Cohen-Charash & Spector,
2001; Colquitt et al., 2001; Moorman, 1991; Moorman & Blakey, 1995; Podsakoff et al., 2000).
The correlational analysis also supports a positive and strong relationship between organizational justice and OCB (r =0.655, p < 0.1, Table 4.8). The individual dimensions of organizational justice are also linked to OCB but the strongest positive relationship exists between procedural justice and OCB i.e., (r =0.641, p <.01). The result is synonymous to previous studies (Shim & Faerman, 2017).
5.2.2 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB
As hypothesized job satisfaction was found significantly linked to OCB (b=0.4310, p<.01, Table 4.15). The results are synonymous to the past literature reporting job satisfaction as an explanatory variable of OCB (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Farrell, 1983; Mohammad, Habib, &
Ilyas, 2011; Murphy, Athanasou, & King (2002) Organ & Ryan 1995; Roznowski et al., 1992).
However, in this study job satisfaction appeared to be stronger predictor of OCB (r= 0.692,
Table 4.10) as compared to the past studies having a relationship of around 0.2 to 0.3
(PodsaKoff, 2000). It is the extrinsic satisfaction that plays a major part in the development such
87 stronger relationship (r =0.795, p < 0.01), as compared to intrinsic satisfaction (r =0.484, p <
.01).
KP Policemen basic needs are not fulfilled which is evident from the ―low‖ extrinsic satisfaction with MAS of 1.833 (Table 4.9). As per findings job satisfaction especially extrinsic satisfaction must be improved in order to increase the performance of OCBs. Leading police force by objectives as claimed by the KP Police may work in short run as tight supervision and assigned targets may compel policemen to achieve stated objectives, but to make policemen work willingly above and beyond stated objectives their justified needs must be identified and addressed.
5.2.3 Relationship between Affective Commitment and OCB
In line with our expectations affective commitment turned out to be related to OCB
(b=0.1406, p<.01, Table 4.12). The results are comparable to the prior studies that investigated the relationship (Kim, 2014; Meyer & Herscovitch 2001; Meyer et al., 2002; Neininger et al.,
2010; Organ & Ryan 1995; Schappe, 1998). The correlational analysis of the present study also shows that affective commitment and OCB are closely related (r=0.517, p < .01) (see Table
4.10).
The mean average score of affective commitment (3.14) falls in ―high‖ range but this is just a little above the moderate range (2.1 to 3 both inclusive) and shall be improved. High affective commitment would mean strong emotional attachment and strength of social exchange relationship. This strength will compel employees to perform behaviors such as OCB as a consequence to the relational obligation (Lavelle et al., 2009; Colquitt et al., 2013).
88 5.2.4 Relationship between Organizational Justice and Job Satisfaction
As expected organizational justice appeared as a positive predictor of the attitude of job satisfaction (b=0.3575, p < 0.01) in this study (see Table 4.15). The results confirm earlier studies which concluded that organizational justice leads to job satisfaction (Colquitt et al., 2001;
DeConinck, 2010; Greenberg, 1990b; Schwarzwald, Koslowsky, & Shalit, 1992; Tremblay, Sire,
& Balkin, 1998).
The mean average score (MAS) of 1.628 for organizational justice falls in the ―low‖ range and shows overall a gloomy picture of perceived injustice. In the light of findings, the perception of organizational justice especially shall be improved in KP Police in order to improve their job satisfaction especially extrinsic satisfaction which is in ―low‖ range (MAS=
1.83) at the moment. Distributive justice needs special attention as it is strongly linked to extrinsic satisfaction (r=.587). Responses to the open ended question shows that KP Policemen are dissatisfied from their 12 /24 hours duty against the Punjab Police duty of 8/24 hours.
5.2.5 Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Affective Commitment
As hypothesized, job satisfaction positively predicted affective commitment (b=0. 3957, p < 0.01). Job satisfaction develops more quickly as it is specific response towards a job than organizational commitment, which is a holistic response to the entire organization (Zeinabadi &
Salihi, 2011). In other words, if the employees of an organization feel satisfaction from their jobs, this satisfaction will influence the emotional component of organizational commitment i.e., affective commitment. The results are synonymous to earlier studies that investigated job satisfaction and affective commitment (Meyer et al., 1993; Roodt, 2005; Patric & Sonia 2012).
Thus in order to improve affective commitment, job satisfaction especially extrinsic satisfaction
89 must be improved as extrinsic satisfaction is strongly related to affective commitment (r=.449, p
<.01).
5.2.6 Relationship between Organizational Justice and Affective Commitment
As hypothesized organizational justice leads to affective commitment (b=0.2271, p<.01).
Pearson correlation coefficient also shows that organizational justice was strongly linked to affective commitment (r=.425, p < .01). The results are similar to earlier studies which demonstrated that perceived organizational justice leads to affective commitment (Harvey &
Haines, 2005; Schappe, 1998). Among the four dimensions of organizational justice the strongest relationship exists between procedural justice and affective commitment (r=0.424). This trend is visible in the previous studies for instance, Masterson and colleagues (2000) reported that procedural justice is strongly linked to organizational commitment in comparison to interactional justice. We can say in the light of the results that to enhance affective commitment the perception of organizational justice shall be improved especially procedural justice.
5.2.7 Relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB with the Mediation of Job Satisfaction
Contrary to our hypothesis, the results show that job satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. The specific indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB via job satisfaction (0.1541) is significant and is the product of a1
= 0.3575 and b1 = 0.4310, with a confidence interval of (0.1096 to 0.2068) (Table 4.15).
However indirect effect is not stronger enough to make the direct effect insignificant (b=.2340).
This shows partial mediation of job satisfaction (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Organizational justice
90 affect OCB predominantly directly and to a lesser extent indirectly through job satisfaction. The direct effect is stronger than the indirect effect.
The result rejects the previous findings of Hooi (2015) which reported that job satisfaction fully mediate between organizational justice and OCB. The present results also reject the findings of Fassina and colleagues (2008) where the total and partially mediated model were rejected and independent model for the relationship between organizational justice and OCB was accepted. Our findings however endorse Rauf (2015) who established that job satisfaction partially mediates organizational justice-OCB link.
5.2.8 Relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB with Mediation of Affective Commitment
Against our expectations, and the proposed hypothesis, affective commitment proved only a partial mediator between the relationship of organizational justice and OCB in this study.
The indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB via affective commitment (0.0319) is significant with confidence interval of (0.0148 to 0.0677).
However this indirect effect is not stronger enough to make the direct effect of organizational justice on OCB insignificant (b=0.2340, Table 4.15). When both the indirect effect and direct effect of organizational justice on OCB are significant, partial mediation exists.
The results do not match most of the earlier studies where affective commitment fully mediated between organizational justice and job satisfaction (Unal, 2013; Zeinabadi & Salihi, 2011,
Colquitt et al., 2013).
91 5.2.9 Direct and Indirect relationship between Organizational Justice and OCB
The present study drawn and studied four different possible paths built on the basis of theory of social exchange for the relationship of the antecedents of organizational justice, job satisfaction, and affective commitment with OCB. Two of the paths investigating the indirect effects were explained in the previous sections and are represented as Path 1 (OJ→JS→OCB) and Path 2 (OJ→AC→OCB). The results for Path 3 (OJ→JS→AC→OCB) shows that organizational justice affects OCB through job satisfaction and affective commitment in serial but this effect is quite weak to make the direct effect Path 4 (OJ→OCB) insignificant. The specific indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB via job satisfaction and affective commitment (0.0199) is marginally significant with confidence interval of (0.0067 to 0.0437).
Thus we can say that the ninth hypothesis of the study partially sustains itself as the indirect effect is quite weak.
The fourth path (c'1) showing the direct effect of organizational justice on OCB
(OJ→OCB) is also significant (0.2340, p<.01) (see Table 4.15; Figure 4.1). However none of the indirect paths, Path 1, Path 2 and Path 3 or their sum which is the total indirect effect could make the Path 4 (c`1) insignificant or smaller. It means that in contrast to our prediction in the tenth hypothesis, direct effect of organizational justice on OCB is greater than the total indirect effect of organizational justice on OCB (0.2340>.2059).
The results show that organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment play a pivotal role in the development of OCB as these variables collectively cause a variance of
61.51% in OCB (see Table 4.10). But these variables affect OCB predominantly separately and not in serial. This imply that the total effect of organizational justice on OCB can only be partly explained with job satisfaction and affective commitment. In order to fully explore the effect of
92 organizational justice on OCB, other variables such as trust etc., can also be added to the present model.
5.3 Conclusion
Despite some criticism and ethical issues regarding OCB, its benefits are much greater than disadvantages and the display of such behaviors benefit the employees, organization and customers. Considering the importance of OCB, this study tried to explore how OCB is developed especially with reference to the three antecedents of organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment. Past studies have separately investigated job satisfaction and affective commitment as mediators between organizational justice-OCB link however this study integrated all these variables in a single model. The study was conducted in KP Police where no prior study on OCB was ever conducted and the findings yield both theoretical and applied significance.
The model consisted of four paths showing different possible combination of these variables. It shows that the independent variable of organizational justice (OJ) will influence the dependent variable of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) through either of the four paths;
Path 1) indirectly through the mediator job satisfaction (JS) only (OJ→JS→OCB) = a1b1
Path 2) indirectly through the mediator affective commitment (AC) only (OJ→AC→OCB) = a2b2
Path 3) indirectly through the two mediators job satisfaction (JS) and affective commitment
(AC) in serial (OJ→JS→AC→OCB) = a1a3b2
Path 4) directly (OJ→OCB) = c'1
93 The results show that Path 1 (OJ→JS→OCB) exists but the effect is weak and job satisfaction only partially mediate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
There is lack of consistence regarding the mediation of job satisfaction in the past literature for example some scholars reported that it partially mediated the association between organizational justice and OCB (Rauf, 2015; Zeinabadi & Salehi, 2011). Whereas it fully mediated between organizational justice and OCB in Malaysia (Hooi, 2015). Our results supports Rauf‘s finding that job satisfaction partially mediate organizational justice-OCB link.
Path 2 (OJ→AC→OCB) exists but the effect is weak and implies that affective commitment partially mediate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB.
However this finding is in contrast to a majority of studies that reported affective commitment as full mediator between the link of organizational justice and OCB (Colquitt et al, 2013; Hassani,
& Aghlmand, 2017; Lavelle et al, 2009; Lehmann‐Willenbrock, Grohmann, & Kauffeld, 2013)
Sjahruddin, Armanu, Sudiro & Normijati, 2013). Perhaps the lack of justice as perceived by KP
Policemen is the main cause for this variance, and organizational justice appears more important determinant for the display of OCBs when compared to affective commitment.
Similarly Path 3 (OJ→JS→AC→OCB) also exists but the effect is weak and shows that job satisfaction and affective commitment partially mediate the organizational justice-OCB link.
Although the effect is marginally significant but cannot be neglected and is thus is a unique contribution to the theory.
Path 4 also exist (OJ→OCB), and the direct effect (0.2340, p< .05) is stronger than the total indirect effect (.2059, p <.05) which is the sum of all the three indirect effects (P1, P2 and
P3. It means that the mediators of job satisfaction and affective commitment only explain some part (.2059) of the total organizational justice-OCB effect (.43, p<.05). Majority of effect is
94 direct (0.2340) and this direct effect remains unexplained. It is recommended on the basis of results that another mediator such as trust etc., may also be added to the existing model so that the organizational justice-OCB link can be fully explained.
The findings of the study also shows that organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective commitment turned out to be important antecedents of OCB in KP Police as they collectively produce a variance of 61.5% in OCB. This variance is much higher as compared to a study conducted in Indian Police where five control variables and eleven independent variables collectively explained only 30% variation in OCB (Qureshi, 2015). This can be attributed to the changed context or setting of the study. The study reveals to all managers in general and police officer in specific, that in order to improve OCB, special care shall be given to the variables of organizational justice, job satisfaction, and affective commitment as these variables are in the control of officers.
5.4 Implications of the Study
The study has implications for the theory and practice
5.4.1 Implications for Theory
Just like past studies organizational justice, job satisfaction and affective
commitment appeared as determinants of OCB in KP Police. This shows that
theory of social exchange holds its-self true in the unique context of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa which is facing the menace of terrorism.
The collective variance these three determinants produce in OCB i.e., 61.5% is
much higher than past studies and shows the importance of context upon results.
Employee‘s perception of justice is strongly linked to OCB (r =0.655, p < 0.1) in
95 KP as compared to studies in other countries. One of the possible reasons for this
deviation can be the negative justice perception in KP Police as it falls in the
―low‖ range. Employees give greater importance to justice perception when they
are unfairly treated, and give less importance to it when treated fairly.
This is the first ever study conducted on OCB in Pakistani Police. The study
serves as a major source of information for the interested community of scholars
who want a more profound insight into this topic and region.
This study for the first time investigated the mediation of job satisfaction and
affective commitment concurrently and in serial between organizational justice-
OCB link. It was concluded that both job satisfaction and affective commitment
partially mediate the relationship between organizational justice and OCB. A
unique finding is the partial serial mediation of job satisfaction and organizational
justice between the organizational justice-OCB relationship.
The findings show that some part of the OJ-OCB link can be explained with
mediators of job satisfaction and affective commitment however major part of the
effect remains unexplained and needs to be probed further.
5.4.2 Implications for KP Police
The study is giving certain important implications based on the quantitative results and
suggestions provided by the participants to an open-ended question.
Police is considered very important agency of Pakistan, however it does not enjoy a good
image. Pakistan allied with US in war against terror after 9/11 and faced a severe brunt of
terrorism thereafter. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and its police was specially affected
96 as it bordered tribal areas adjoining Afghanistan and sacrificed around 1304 policemen from 2006-2018 besides leaving thousands of injured (Khan, 2018). After the elections in KP in May, 2013 a new political party Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) won the elections. PTI‘s chairman Imran khan placed special emphasis on reforming KP Police under the then Inspector General of Police (IGP) Nasir khan Durrani, who claimed to reform KP Police by adopting the strategy of ―Policing by Objectives‖ (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Police, 2015).
Discussing all the initiatives taken in this era of change are beyond the scope of this work, however, special emphasis was placed on the modernization and automation of processes, training, and capacity building of police. But unfortunately the soft or human aspect was not properly addressed. The aim was to make efficient use of the existing resources through strict control which only works in short run. In the longer run performance of consistent desirable behaviors can only be achieved by changing the attitudes. Unfavorable and unpredictable situations which KP Police is facing due to terrorism, requires doing above and beyond the stated objectives to the level of self- sacrifice. This falls in the realm of OCB as it involves doing above and beyond the job description. It is apparent from the findings of this study that in order to promote OCB among KP Policeman which at present is only at ―moderate‖ level, special emphasis shall be placed on providing a motivating and just environment for the improvement of justice perceptions, and attitudes of job satisfaction and affective commitment. A good news is that this is quite possible because all these variables are in the control of the officers.
Right now the perception about organizational justice is negative as it falls in ―low‖ range. This is a sign of serious concern and shows that the policemen perceive severe
97 injustice and dissatisfaction on part of their department. All the dimensions of justice
need improvement but special attention shall be paid to the procedural and distributive
justices as these appeared to be main players in the development of various dimensions of
OCB. Job satisfaction of KP Police shall also be addressed as they reported ―low‖
extrinsic satisfaction showing dissatisfaction from the environment of their jobs. Intrinsic
satisfaction scored ―high‖ showing that police job is intrinsically satisfying.
Duty timings is one of the major source of dissatisfaction for KP Police. Policemen are
over worked and tired, perhaps to the extent of burn out. KP Police is doing 12/24 hours
duty. From constable to sub inspector (SI) police force is working in two shifts of six
hours out of 24 hours in routine, whereas emergency duties are apart from this. No
overtime like other organizations is paid for extra duties. The six hours break do not spare
them a time for rest and family. The situation is even worse at the top because along with
SHOs all higher level officers are performing 24 hours duty. In contrast Punjab police is
doing only 8/24 hours duty and are also taking greater salaries. This has led to a
perception of injustice. This perceived inequity needs to be removed and pay and duties
shall be equated with Punjab Police. If the situation is erroneously perceived by KP
Police, it shall be clarified to the KP Police as perceived injustice is as lethal as actual
injustice. It is suggested that according to international and local practices, KP Police
duties shall also be reduced to 8 hours.
Participants repeatedly asked to end the unfair distribution of duties. According to
policemen, officers are keeping a large number of police men for themselves and their
relations. They used a term ―mama kaka‖ which means maternal and paternal uncle in
Pashto. One police officer on the terms of anonymity disclosed that one DIG has kept 17
98 constables for his personal service. Policemen who have developed links with officers are
enjoying their time where as those who have no reference are sacrificed in their place. A
clear and transparent mechanism of duty distribution shall be made.
Personal protection gears like light bullet proof jackets, head safety, and secure
transportation (bullet proof) shall be arranged for the force. Bullet proof jacket currently
in use of police are above 15 kg in weight, which makes it almost impossible for them to
stand, walk, or run with such a heavy jacket in severe hot and humid temperatures. As a
solution police men take the concrete plates out of their jackets and fill it with papers to
deceive their officers. One police man claimed that ―officers have sold our heads‖, ―even
after changing we cannot sleep due to cramps in our legs and backs due to the weight of
these jackets‖. Bullet proof jackets weighing 5.5 KG (along all accessories as weighted
by the researcher himself) are available in market and some police officers have
personally bought them. These light weight jackets shall be provided to the whole police
force.
From the results we know that extrinsic satisfaction, distributive and procedural justice
showed strong correlations with OCB and most of its dimensions. To address these
variables, postings, transfers, training and promotion shall be carried out on merit.
Although the previous administration of KP Police under the leadership of IGP, Nasir
Khan Durrani has created some goodwill among the policemen regarding promotions and
transfers, yet persistent merit for years is needed to restore faith on department.
Participants reported that police men are transferred on the pressure of media, influential
politicians and even criminals. Constables inducted in grade five retires in grade five after
99 25 years of service without promotion. Constables shall be promoted to grade seven
before retirement irrespective of whether they have completed their sixty years or not.
Water and food shall be provided to policemen on routine duties and special duties. From
the past two decades monthly food allowance given to constables stands at 680 rupees
which is not less than a joke. Similarly pick and drop arrangements shall be provided to
policemen for reaching and getting back from their duties, timely and safely (a lot of
police men have been targeted while trying to reach their duty station or getting back).
Responses to the open ended questions show KP Policemen‘s severe lack of trust on their
officers. Food was announced for ―Sehat ka Insaf‖ program (a mass polio immunization
program), but according to policemen, officers have even devoured their break fasts and
lunches.
Number of police force needs to be doubled in areas such as Sarband, Mathani and
Badaber. These posts have been attacked by hundreds of militants. Police shall have their
own helicopters to carry their injured from far flung areas, reinforce their personnel in
terrorism attacks, and provide air cover against terrorist. Sindh police is provided with
latest drones, such drones shall also to provide to KP Police. Similarly like army‘s CMH
hospitals, police hospitals shall be developed in every district to provide quick relief to
the injured.
Sufficient family accommodations shall be provided to KP Police in every district. If that
is not possible at least market commensurate house rent shall be provided. Like army
official, police officers shall also be provided plots in cities to discourage corruption. It is
impossible for any police officer to buy a residential plot or house in city like Peshawar
in his salary.
100 There is only one school for the children of KP Police in the whole province. Police
public schools shall be built in every district to educate the children of Policemen. If that
is not possible in the short run then government shall pay for their educational expense.
How can we expect a policeman to sacrifice his life for a school, college or university
where he cannot send his own kids?
Steps need to be taken to create sympathy among public for the sacrifices of police. The
situation is such that public do not mourn and celebrate the sacrifices and success of
police. To achieve this communities shall be apprised of the sacrifices and achievements
of KP Police, and the problems they are facing, through media and other platforms. This
will reduce police community gap, and KP Police will win the trust and sympathies of
common man. When police start getting respect, esteem and support from the
community, they will take more interest in their jobs, and will show greater commitment
with the department. KP Policemen will even present themselves for sacrifices, above
and beyond their job description.
5.5 Limitations and Directions for Future Studies
As like other researches this study also has some limitations. Employees were asked to
report themselves. Self-rating measures may lead to common method variance that may
possibly distort the results (Podsakoff, 2000). Donaldson and Grant-Vallone (2002)
contended that respondents over rate themselves for wanted attitude and behaviors and
under report the undesired attitudes and behaviors. The study would have been more
reliable if employees were evaluated by their supervisor. However as the study was about
the invisible perception and attitudes it was decided to use self-reported data.
101 The study was cross-sectional in nature although longitudinal studies yield better
reliability. It was felt by the researcher during informal discussions that the policemen
were confused about the new administration of KP Police, and were not sure that the
present leadership will behave like past or some realistic permanent change will occur. It
would have been better if a longitudinal study extending over few years was conducted.
However due to lack of time and financial resources, it was not possible.
Just one organization i.e., KP Police was selected, compromising the study‘s
generalizability to some extent to other service organization.
The study has collected the views of officers up to DSPs due to lack of access. It would
have been better to include all officers including IGP.
Comprehension level of some of the policemen was very low, and faced difficulty in
comprehending the questionnaire in Urdu. We tried our best to make the questionnaire as
easy and simple as possible yet we believe that group discussion or interviews would
have been a better method of research in KP Police.
Mediator explains the mechanism how independent variable affects dependent variable.
In the current study job satisfaction and affective commitment partially mediated the
organizational justice-OCB link. This only explains some of the effect of organizational
justice on OCB, but the major portion of the effect remains unclear. To understand the
relationship fully trust may also be added as the third mediator in the present model as
KP Policemen showed severe lack of trust in their top leadership during informal
discussions and past literature also supports the mediation of trust.
102 This study just used affective commitment as an antecedent as it was consistently related
to OCB in past literature. However a descriptive study exploring all the three dimension
of commitment can also be conducted in KP Police.
A comparative study based on this model can be replicated in police departments of all
provinces of Pakistan.
The high dissatisfaction from duty hours points towards a possible burn out in KP Police.
A study can also be conducted on burn out in KP Police.
Future studies for the identification and solution of problems in KP Police shall utilize
qualitative tools of exploration such as interviews. As it was observed during the research
that policemen even faced difficulties in comprehending questionnaires in Urdu.
When decisions are not explained to employees they see it with suspicions and may lead
to perception of inequity and dissatisfaction. A study on the state of communication is
also needed in KP Police.
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130 Appendix
)الف( (Part (1 Please tick or encircle the option for each question that is relevant to you.
آپیک انیعتیت ?You work in .1 1. Investigation 2. Operation 3. Project Coordination Unit
ی سٹی گٹ رپاٹکیج اکرڈنشین آرپنشی اون شن 4. Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL) 5. Traffic Police 6. Frontier Reserved police
رفنٹی ئر رزیرو وپسیل رٹکفی وپسیل افرزنک
7. Elite Force 8. Special Branch 9. Directorate of Counter Terrorism
ڈارئرٹکیٹی آف اکورٹن ریٹ رزیل لشیپس رباچن ا ی وفرس 10. Bomb Disposal Unit 11. Telecommunicating 12. Anti-Corruption
ایٹنی رکنشپ یلیٹ مب ڈوپسزك ویٹن
آپاک دہعہ ?What is your designation .2 1. Constable (FC) 2. Head Constable (HC) 3. Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI)
اے اسی آیئ ڈیہ اکلبیٹسن اکلبیٹسن 4. Sub-Inspector (SI) 5. Station House Officer / 6. ASP / DSP Police Inspector (Inspector / SHO)
اے اسی یپ/ڈی اسی یپ اسی اچی او/ارٹکپسن بس ارٹکپسن
وپسیلںیم رھبیت وک انتک رعہص وہا؟ ?(How long you have been employed in police (Years .3 A. Less than 1 B. 1-5 C. 6-10 D. 11-15 E. More than 16
وسہل ےس زایدہ اسك ایگرہ ےس دنپرہ ھچ ےس دس اکی ےس اپچن اکی ےس مک
131 آپیکبس ےس زایدہ میلعت ایکےہ؟ ?What is your highest qualification .4 1. Diploma 2. Matric 3. FA/FSC 4. Bachelor 5. Masters
امرٹس رگوجینشی افی اے/افی اسی یس رٹیمک ڈولپہم 6. MS/M.Phil 7. Others
اس ےک العوہ امی لف
آپیک سنج ایک ےہ؟ ?What is your Gender .5
وعرت Female .2 رمد Male .1
آپیک رمع ایک ےہ؟ ?(What is your age (Years .6
ای اس ےس زایدہ A. 18-28 B. 29-38 C. 39-48 D. 49-58 E. 59 and above
آپیک ازدوایج تیثیح ایک ےہ؟ ?What is your marital status .7
الطق ایہتف Divorced .3 ونکارہ Single .2 اشدی دشہ Married .1
آپےک ےنتک ےچب ںیہ؟ ?How many kids do you have .8
ای اس ےس زایدہ B. 1 C. 2 D. 3 E. 4 F. 5 G. 6 H. 7 and above دنارد A. none
آپیک وخنتاہ ینتک ےہ؟ ?What is your salary .9
A. 10000-20000 B. 20001-30000 C. 30001-40000 D. Above 40000
132 )ہصح ب((Part (2
Please describe your personal views of the following statements as objectively as you can, by encircling number against each statement from the rating scale given below:
رباےئ رہمابین د ی ےئگ ولمجں ےک اسےنم اےنپ راےئ ےک اطمقب دنہےس ےک رگد دارئہ ای کیٹ اک اشنم اگلںیئ۔
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
لمکماافتق رکات وہں اافتق رکات وہں ہلصیفںیہن رک اتکس اافتق ںیہن رکات ابلکل اافتق ںیہن رکات SD D N A SA
1. I help my fellow police men in work-related problems SD D N A SA ںیماےنپاسویھتںیک ڈوییٹ ےس قلعتم دمد رکات وہں 2. I try my maximum to help citizens in need. SD D N A SA ںیمیتحاولعس وکشش رکات وہں ہک وعال یک دمد رکوں 3. I personally try to avoid any such act which may result in emotional or physical problems of my colleagues. SD D N A SA ںیمااسیوکیئدقلںیہنااھٹات سج ےس ریمے اسویھتں ےئلیک اسملئ دیپا وہں 4. I take organizational decisions positively SD D N A SA ںیم ادارے ےک ںوکطتب ولصیف رر رپ ہ ات وہں 5. If my seniors reject my suggestion I do not complain SD D N A SA ارگریمےارسفریمیوجتزی رتسمد رکدںی وت ںیم رباہ ںیہن انمات 6. I do not stop participating and giving suggestions if rejected, rather I always positively participate again. SD D N A SA وجتزیےک رتسمد وہےن ےک ابوجد ںیم آدنئہیھبطتب اجتوزی رضور داتی وہں 7. I always try to spread positive image of police department SD D N A SA ںیموکششرکاتوہں ہک وپسیل یک اسھک رتہب وہ 8. I defend my police department in public in case of any criticism SD D N A SA ںیمازلاامتیکوصرت ںیم وپسیل ڈاپیرٹنمٹ اک دافع رکات وہں 9. I will never leave police department in any circumstances SD D N A SA ںیمیھبکیھبوپسیل وک وھچڑ رک ںیہن اجؤں اگ 10. I always take care of my duty hours. SD D N A SA ںیمہشیمہاےنپ ڈوییٹ ےک اواقت اک ایخك راتھک وہں
133 11. I follow police rules and regulations even if no one monitors me SD D N A SA وکیئ وپےھچ ای ہن وپےھچںیماقونم اور وقادع یک اپدساری رکات وہں
12. I advise my colleagues to own police rules and regulation SD D N A SA ںیماےنپاسویھتںوکیھب وپسیل روزل رپ لمع رکےن یک نیقلت رکات وہں 13. I do not follow unnecessary rules and regulations(R) SD D N A SA ںیمریغرضوری وقانین رپ لمع ںیہن رکات 14. I voluntarily take extra responsibilities and encourage other to do the same. SD D N A SA ںیماایتخریرررپااضیفذہم دارایں ہ ات وہں اور اسویھتں وک یھب ااسی رکےن یک نیقلت رکات وہں 15. I inform officers of any opportunity of improvement in individual tasks or organizational improvement. SD D N A SA ںیماےنپارسفوںوکادارےیک ارفنادی اور اامتجیع رتہبی ےک ابرے ںیم وماعق ےس آاگہ رکات وہں 16. I often complete my tasks well before the dead line. SD D N A SA ںیمارثکاانپاٹکس وتق ےس ےلہپ لمکم رک ہ ات وہں 17. I keep my-self informed of changes in the police rules. SD D N A SA وپسیلروزلںیم دبتویلیں ےسابربخ راتہ وہں 18. I participate in meetings, which are not mandatory. SD D N A SA ںیمریغالزیمرگمدیفم زگنٹیم ںیم رشتک رکات وہں 19. I join the functions which are not obligatory but important for the better image of police. SD D N A SA ںیم ایسی ریغ الزیمزگنٹیمںیمرشتکرکاتوہں وج ہک وپسیل یک اسھک ےئلیک رضوری وہ 20. I voluntarily attend courses and trainings. SD D N A SA ںیم اایتخری رر رپ وکرزس اور رٹن ٹیگز ںیم ہصحہ ات وہں 21. I keep my self well informed of the latest development in my field SD D N A SA ںیموپسیلےکقلعتمیئن درایوتفں اور رطہقی اکر ےس اےنپ آپ وک ابربخ راتھک وہں 22. I learn new set of skills in the job to expand my contribution to the police department. SD D N A SA ںیم ڈوییٹےکقلعتمےئرناتھکیوہں اتہک وپسیل ڈاپیرٹنمٹ یک زایدہ مد ت رک وھکں 23 My job is being able to keep me busy all the time SD D N A SA ریمیونرکی ےھجم ہشیمہ وف رصمراتھک ےہ 24 My job provides me the chance to work alone on the job. SD D N A SA ںیم اےلیکیھب اینپ ڈوییٹ دےاتکس وہں
134 25 My job gives me chance to do different things from time to time SD D N A SA ریمی ونرکی ےھجمااجزتدیتیےہ ہک ںیم فلتخم مسق یک ڈویںایں رکوکسں 26 My job give me the chance to be ―somebody‖ in the community. SD D N A SA ریمی ونرکی یک وہج ےس اعمرشے ںیم ریمی اکی پ ہج ا م ےہ 27 I am satisfied the way my immediate officer handles his or her workers SD D N A SA سجرطحریمارگنامارسف اےنپ ام وتحتں ےس شیپ آات ےہ ںیم اس ےس نئمطم وہں 28 I am satisfied with the competence of my officer in making decision SD D N A SA ںیماےنپارسفےک ہلصیف یک الصتیح ےس نئمطم وہں 29 I am happy for being able to do things that don‘t go against my conscience. SD D N A SA ںیماسابترپنئمطموہںہکریمی ڈوییٹ ںیم اےسی اکل ںیہن رکےن ڑپےت وج ہک ریمی ریمض ےک اف وہں 30 I am satisfied the way my job provides for permanent employment. SD D N A SA ںیماینپونرکیےس وخش وہں ویکہکن ہی اکی یکپ ونرکی ےہ 31 My job provides the chance to do things for other people. SD D N A SA ریمیونرکی ےھجم دورسوں یک مد ت ےناک رکومعق دیتی ےہ 32 Police job provides the chance to tell people what to do. SD D N A SA ریمیونرکیےھجم اعل ولوگں وک وشمرہ دےنی ےک وماعق رفامہ یترک ےہ 33 I am able to do something that makes use of my abilities SD D N A SA اسونرکیںیم ےھجم اینپ ںےکربوےئ الصوتیح اکرالےن اک ومعق ا ےہ 34 I am happy the way Police rules are put into practice SD D N A SA ںیموپسیلروزل رپ لمع درادم ےس نئمطم وہں 35 I am satisfied with my pay and the amount of work I do SD D N A SA ںیماینپ وخنتاہ اور اکل ےکدقمار ےس نئمطم وہں 36 I have enough chances for promotion on this job SD D N A SA ریمیرتیق ےک اکیف ااکمانت ںیہ 37 I have enough freedom to use my own judgment SD D N A SA ےھجمولصیفں ںیم آزادی احلص ےہ 38 I have enough chances to try my own methods of doing the job SD D N A SA ےھجماینپ وہستل اور رمیض ےک اطمقب ڈوییٹےک رطۂقی اکر ےننچ یک ااجزت ےہ 39 I am satisfied with the working conditions SD D N A SA ںیم اینپ ڈوییٹ ےکاموحك ےس وخش وہں
135 40 I am happy the way my coworkers cooperate with each other SD D N A SA وپسیلواےلاکی دورسے ےس تہب اعتوم رکےت ںیہ 41 I am satisfied with the praise I get for doing a good job SD D N A SA ااھچاکلرکےنرپینتج رعتفی یتلم ےہ ںیم اس ےس نئمطم وہں 42 I am satisfied with the feeling of accomplishment I get from the job SD D N A SA ریمیونرکیےھجم ادنروین رر رپ لیمکت یک وخیش دیتی ےہ 43 Police has a great deal of personal meaning for me SD D N A SA وپسیلریمےےئل تہب اتیمہ یک احلم ےہ 44 I do not feel emotionally attached with Police (R) SD D N A SA ںیم ذجابیت رر رپ وپسیلےساگلؤ ںیہن راتھک 45 I really feel as if Police problems are my own? SD D N A SA ںیمًاتقیقحااسیوساتچوہں ےسیج وپسیل ےک اسملئ ریمے ذایت اسملئ وہں 46 I do not feel part of family in my duty (R) SD D N A SA بجںیمڈوییٹرپ وہات وہں وت ےھجم ااسی وسحمس یہ ںیہنوہاتہکںیم اےنپ اخدنام ںیم وہں 47 I do not feel strong sense of belongingness to my department (R) SD D N A SA ےھجموپسیلےس دیل اگلؤ ںیہن ےہ 48 I would be very happy to spend rest of my career with Police. SD D N A SA ںیموخبیش ابیق زدنیگ وپسیلےک اسھت زگاران اچاتہ وہں 49 I feel that my job responsibilities are fair SD D N A SA ریمی ڈوییٹ یک ذہمدارایں افصنمہن ںیہ 50 Overall, the rewards I achieve here are quite fair SD D N A SA وجااعنامتےھجم ےتلم ںیہ وہ افصنمہن ںیہ 51 I consider my work load to be fair SD D N A SA ریمےاکلیک دقمار افصنمہن ےہ 52 My level of pay is fair SD D N A SA ریم یوخنتاہ افصنمہن ےہ 53 My work schedule is fair SD D N A SA ریمیڈوییٹ ےک اواقت افصنمہن ںیہ 54 Job decisions are made by the officer in an unbiased manner SD D N A SA امہراارسفڈویویٹںےک قلعتم ولصیفں ںیم ااصنفےس اکل ہ اتےہ 55 My officer makes sure that all employee concerns are heard before job decisions are made SD D N A SA ہلصیفرکےنےسےلہپ ارسف بس المزنیم یک اتنس ےہ
136 56 To make job decisions, my officer clarifies decisions and provides additional information when requested by the employee SD D N A SA ارسفولصیفںیکووجاہتاتبات ےہ اور وپےنھچ رپ زمدی الیصفتت ےس ااگہ رکات ےہ 57 All job decisions are applied consistently across all the affected SD D N A SA امتلےلصیفبسرپ اسکیں الوگ ےیک اجےت ںیہ 58 Employees are allowed to appeal job decisions made by the officer SD D N A SA ڈوییٹےکقلعتمولصیفں ےک اف ںیمہ الیپ اک قح احلص ےہ 59 The procedures uphold ethical and moral standards SD D N A SA ولصیفں ےک رطۂقی اکر ںیماایق دقروں اک ایخك راھک اجات ےہ 60 When decisions are made about my job, the officer treats me with consideration SD D N A SA ڈویویٹں یک میسقت ںیم ارسف ہدردی ےس اکلہ ات ےہ 61 When decisions are made about my job, the officer treats me with respect SD D N A SA ڈوییٹےسقلعتمااکحامت ںیم ارسف ریمی زعت اک ایخك راتھک ےہ 62 When decisions are made about my job, the officer is sensitive to my personal needs SD D N A SA ولصیفںںیمارسف ریمی ذایت رضورایت اک ایخك راتھک ےہ 63 When decisions are made about my job, the officer deals with me in a truthful manner SD D N A SA ڈوییٹےسقلعتم ولصیفں ںیم ارسف چس وباتل ےہ 64 When decisions are made about my job, the officer shows concern for my right as an employee SD D N A SA ارسف ڈویویٹں ےکنیعںیمریمے قوقق اک ایخك راتھک ےہ 65 Concerning the decisions made about my job, the officer discusses the implications of the decisions with me SD D N A SA ریمےڈوییٹولصیفںےک وتمعق اتنجئ رپ ارسف ھجم ےس ابت رکات ےہ 66 The officer offers adequate justification for the decisions made about my job SD D N A SA ارسفریمےڈوییٹےکابرےںیم ےئک ےئگ ولصیفں یک افصیئ اور ووجاہت ایبم رکات ےہ 67 When making decisions about my job, the officer offers explanations that make sense to me SD D N A SA ارسف وہ اہتشیپرکاتےہ ووجوج ہکاقِلب وبقك وہےت ںیہ 68 My officer explains clearly any decisions made about my job SD D N A SA ریماارسفرہہلصیفوجہکریمیڈوییٹ ےک قلعتم ےہ ےھجم اھجمسات اور اامتعد ںیم ہ ات ےہ
137 How can the spirit of self-sacrifice be raised in KP police?
ربیخوتخپوخناہوپسیلںیم رقابین اک زجہب ےسیک دیپا ایک اجاتکس ےہ؟
______
______
______
138