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CHAPTER 12 the Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism, 1812–1824

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CHAPTER 12 the Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism, 1812–1824 12 The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism ᇻᇾᇻ 1812–1824 The American continents . are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. PRESIDENT JAMES MONROE, DECEMBER 2, 1823 he War of 1812, largely because of widespread On to Canada over Land and Lakes Tdisunity, ranks as one of America’s worst-fought wars. There was no burning national anger, as there had been in 1807 following the Chesapeake outrage. On the eve of the War of 1812, the regular army was The supreme lesson of the conflict was the folly of ill-trained, ill-disciplined, and widely scattered. It leading a divided and apathetic people into war. had to be supplemented by the even more poorly And yet, despite the unimpressive military outcome trained militia, who were sometimes distinguished and even less decisive negotiated peace, Americans by their speed of foot in leaving the battlefield. came out of the war with a renewed sense of nation- Some of the ranking generals were semisenile heir- hood. For the next dozen years, an awakened spirit looms from the Revolutionary War, rusting on their of nationalism would inspire activities ranging from laurels and lacking in vigor and vision. protecting manufacturing to building roads to The offensive strategy against Canada was espe- defending the authority of the federal government cially poorly conceived. Had the Americans cap- over the states. tured Montreal, the center of population and 233 234 CHAPTER 12 The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism, 1812–1824 Fort Michilimackinac . (Captured by British, 1812) R R Montreal BRITISH Montreal L ak e e c L ce BRITISH n a CANADA n H re k e w e wr u La La r 3 H o CANADA t. t. n S u S r o Lake n United States Champlain York force repulsed (Toronto) Lake Lake Ontario Lake Ontario Champlain Fort Niagara Battle of the Thames Fort Niagara 2 Albany Detroit 1 Detroit Albany Fort Maiden Lake Erie United States Lake Erie force repulsed Perry's route U.S. invasions Harrison's route U.S. invasions The Three U.S. Invasions of 1812 Campaigns of 1813 transportation, everything to the west might have managed to build a fleet of green-timbered ships on died, just as the leaves of a tree wither when the the shores of Lake Erie, manned by even greener sea- trunk is girdled. But instead of laying ax to the trunk, men. When he captured a British fleet in a furious the Americans frittered away their strength in the engagement on the lake, he reported to his superior, three-pronged invasion of 1812. The trio of invading “We have met the enemy and they are ours.’’ Perry’s forces that set out from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake victory and his slogan infused new life into the Champlain were all beaten back shortly after they drooping American cause. Forced to withdraw from had crossed the Canadian border. Detroit and Fort Malden, the retreating redcoats were By contrast, the British and Canadians dis- overtaken by General Harrison’s army and beaten at played energy from the outset. Early in the war, they the Battle of the Thames in October 1813. captured the American fort of Michilimackinac, Despite these successes, the Americans by late which commanded the upper Great Lakes and the 1814, far from invading Canada, were grimly defend- Indian-inhabited area to the south and west. Their ing their own soil against the invading British. In brilliant defensive operations were led by the Europe the diversionary power of Napoleon was inspired British general Isaac Brock and assisted (in destroyed in mid-1814, and the dangerous despot the American camp) by “General Mud’’ and “Gen- was exiled to the Mediterranean isle of Elba. The eral Confusion.’’ United States, which had so brashly provoked war When several American land invasions of behind the protective skirts of Napoleon, was now Canada were again hurled back in 1813, Americans left to face the music alone. Thousands of victorious looked for success on water. Man for man and ship veteran redcoats began to pour into Canada from for ship, the American navy did much better than the Continent. the army. In comparison to British ships, American Assembling some ten thousand crack troops, craft on the whole were more skillfully handled, had the British prepared in 1814 for a crushing blow into better gunners, and were manned by non-press- New York along the familiar lake-river route. In the gang crews who were burning to avenge numerous absence of roads, the invader was forced to bring indignities. Similarly, the American frigates, notably supplies over the Lake Champlain waterway. A the Constitution (“Old Ironsides”), had thicker sides, weaker American fleet, commanded by the thirty- heavier firepower, and larger crews, of which one year-old Thomas Macdonough, challenged the sailor in six was a free black. British. The ensuing battle was desperately fought Control of the Great Lakes was vital, and an ener- near Plattsburgh on September 11, 1814, on float- getic American naval officer, Oliver Hazard Perry, ing slaughterhouses. The American flagship at one Battles on Lakes and Land 235 point was in grave trouble. But Macdonough, unex- the Americans at Baltimore held firm. The British pectedly turning his ship about with cables, con- fleet hammered Fort McHenry with their cannon fronted the enemy with a fresh broadside and but could not capture the city. Francis Scott Key, a snatched victory from the fangs of defeat. detained American anxiously watching the bom- The results of this heroic naval battle were bardment from a British ship, was inspired by the momentous. The invading British army was forced to doughty defenders to write the words of “The Star- retreat. Macdonough thus saved at least upper New Spangled Banner.” Set to the tune of a saucy English York from conquest, New England from further dis- tavern refrain, the song quickly attained popularity. affection, and the Union from possible dissolution. He also profoundly affected the concurrent negotia- tions of the Anglo-American peace treaty in Europe. Andrew Jackson (1767–1845) appealed to the governor of Louisiana for help recruiting free Washington Burned blacks to defend New Orleans in 1814: and New Orleans Defended “The free men of colour in [your] city are inured to the Southern climate and would make excellent Soldiers. They must be for A second formidable British force, numbering about or against us—distrust them, and you make four thousand, landed in the Chesapeake Bay area them your enemies, place confidence in in August 1814. Advancing rapidly on Washington, it them, and you engage them by every dear easily dispersed some six thousand panicky militia and honorable tie to the interest of the at Bladensburg (“the Bladensburg races’’). The country, who extends to them equal rights invaders then entered the capital and set fire to and [privileges] with white men.” most of the public buildings, including the Capitol and the White House. But while Washington burned, 236 CHAPTER 12 The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism, 1812–1824 A third British blow of 1814, aimed at New Orleans, menaced the entire Mississippi Valley. Gaunt and hawk-faced Andrew Jackson, fresh from crushing the southwest Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, was placed in command (see map, p. 252). His hodgepodge force consisted of seven thousand sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, as well as militiamen from Louisiana, Kentucky, and Ten- nessee. Among the defenders were two Louisiana regiments of free black volunteers, numbering about four hundred men. The Americans threw up their entrenchment, and in the words of a popular song, Behind it stood our little force— None wished it to be greater; For ev’ry man was half a horse, And half an alligator. The overconfident British, numbering some eight thousand battle-seasoned veterans, blundered badly. They made the mistake of launching a frontal assault, on January 8, 1815, on the entrenched American riflemen and cannoneers. The attackers suffered the most devastating defeat of the entire war, losing over two thousand, killed and wounded, The Treaty of Ghent 237 in half an hour, as compared with some seventy for the Americans. It was an astonishing victory for Jackson and his men. News of the victory struck the country “like a VT. 8 N.H. clap of thunder,” according to one contemporary. N.Y. 8 MASS. Andrew Jackson became a national hero as poets 29 22 MICH. R.I. 4 and politicians lined up to sing the praises of the TERR. PA. CONN. 9 defenders of New Orleans. It hardly mattered when 25 N.J. 8 OHIO ILLINOIS word arrived that a peace treaty had been signed at MISSOURI IND. 7 DEL. 4 TERR. TERRITORY Ghent, Belgium, ending the war two weeks before VIRGINIA MD. 11 the battle. The United States had fought for honor KY. 25 12 as much as material gain. The Battle of New N.C. Orleans restored that honor, at least in American TENN. 8 15 S.C. eyes, and unleashed a wave of nationalism and 11 MISSISSIPPI Madison: self-confidence. GEORGIA Democratic– TERRITORY 8 Its wrath aroused, the Royal Navy had finally LA. Republican retaliated by throwing a ruinous naval blockade 3 Clinton: Federalist along America’s coast and by landing raiding parties SPANISH FLORIDA almost at will. American economic life, including Divided fishing, was crippled. Customs revenues were Presidential Election of 1812 (with electoral vote by state) choked off, and near the end of the war, the bank- The Federalists showed impressive strength in the North, and rupt Treasury was unable to meet its maturing their presidential candidate, DeWitt Clinton, the future “Father obligations.
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