Feasibility Study Concerning High-Speed Railway Lines in Norway Code Number: 200 602 481
WP 300: High-Speed-Railway-Specific Conditions
Editor: VWI Verkehrswissenschaftliches Institut Stuttgart GmbH
2006 - 12 - 19 Feasibility Study Concerning High-Speed Railway Lines in Norway
Contents
1 Preposition 1
2 WP 310 – Operation Basic Conditions 4
2.1 Crossing- and Passing-Sections 10 2.1.1 Crossing-Section with stop of one train 10 2.1.2 Crossing-Section without stops of one train 12 2.1.3 Double Track Sections for different velocities and operation functions 13 2.1.3.1 Crossing-Section – Type Trapezium 13 2.1.3.2 Crossing-Section – Type Rhomboid – Minimum of Length 16 2.1.3.3 Crossing-Section – Type Rhomboid – Minimum of Time 17 2.1.3.4 Passing-Section – Type Trapezium – Without Stop of the Freight-Train 19
2.1.4 Energy Use by different operation systems 20
3 WP 320 – Technical Basic Conditions 21
3.1 WP 321 – Technical Basic Conditions for High-Speed Railway Infrastructure in Norway 21 3.1.1 System Definition 21 3.1.2 Line Layout Parameters and Thresholds 24 3.1.2.1 Maximum Cant, maximum Cant Deficiency and horizontal Minimum Radius. 25 3.1.2.2 Longitudinal Grade and Transition Radii of gradient changes 28
3.1.3 Further system parameters 30 3.1.3.1 Minimum Clearance Gauge and tunnel cross sections 30 3.1.3.2 Minimum distance of track axis 30
3.1.4 Design of the Track Superstructure 31 3.1.4.1 Vertical Forces 31 3.1.4.2 Lateral Forces 31 3.1.4.3 Longitudinal Forces 32 3.1.4.4 Comparison of Rigid Slab Track and Ballast Superstructure 33 3.1.4.5 Dependence on the chosen Line Layout Parameters 33 3.1.4.6 The Dependence on Traffic Load 35 3.1.4.7 Dependency on the In-Situ Subsoil 40 3.1.4.8 The dependence on further parameters 41 3.1.4.8.1 Application of eddy current brake 41 3.1.4.8.2 Flying Ballast Stones due to high Velocities 42
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3.1.4.8.3 Noise Generation and Distribution 42 3.1.4.8.4 Deconstruction and modification of track layout 42 3.1.4.8.5 Derailments 43
3.1.5 Favourite Superstructure System 43 3.1.6 Requirements for High-Speed Turn-outs 44 3.2 WP 322 – Operation, Signalling Systems and Dispatching Systems 48 3.2.1 ERMTS and its components 48 3.2.2 Vehicle-based Equipment [45] 53 3.2.3 Infrastructure-based Equipment [45] 53 3.3 WP 323 – Analysing Technical Basic Conditions of Rail Vehicles 54 3.3.1 Technical basic conditions of existing High-Speed Trains 54 3.3.1.1 Assessment criterions 54 3.3.1.2 Assessment criterion: Starting tractive effort for low adhesion coefficient 55 3.3.1.3 Secure start on maximum gradient with a traction module out of service 56 3.3.1.4 Riding comfort and tilting technology systems 56 3.3.1.5 Conclusion 58
3.3.2 Specification of a new high-speed trainset 58 3.3.2.1 Main demands of the new rolling stock 58 3.3.2.2 Basic facts of the new High Speed Trains 60 3.3.2.2.1 Basic conditions of the new rolling stock 60 3.3.2.2.2 Traction and braking features 61 3.3.2.2.3 Drive concept of the tilting trains 62 3.3.2.2.4 Trainset configurations 62 3.3.2.2.5 Concept 1: Trainset with maximum speed 300 kph – 6 Cars 64 3.3.2.2.6 Concept 2: Trainset with maximum speed 300 kph – 5 Cars 65 3.3.2.2.7 Concept 3: HST Tilting train with maximum speed 250 kph – 6 Cars 66 3.3.2.2.8 Concept 4: HST Tilting trainset with maximum speed 250 kph – 4 Cars 67 3.3.2.3 Aerodynamic effects 67 3.3.2.3.1 Side and head wind 67 3.3.2.3.2 Aerodynamic resistance in long tunnels 68 3.3.2.4 Environmental conditions 71 3.3.2.4.1 Climate resistance 72 3.3.2.4.2 Thermal fluctuations 72 3.3.2.4.3 Snow conditions 72 3.3.2.4.4 Snow deposit 73 3.3.2.4.5 Front structure 73
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3.3.2.4.6 Adhesion coefficient 73
3.4 WP 324 – Further Railway-Technical Analysis 75 3.5 WP 325 – Electric Power Supply Analysis 79 3.5.1 Electric-Power-Supply 80 3.5.2 Power-Use of High-Speed-Trains 82 3.5.3 Overview about different Catenary-Types 82 3.5.4 Auto-Transformer-Technology – AT 86 3.5.5 Coupling of catenary by double-track-lines 87 3.6 WP 326 – Locations for Vehicle-Maintenance and their Concepts 88 3.6.1 Different Systematics of Maintenance [75] 88 3.6.2 Maintenance Systems of High-Speed-Train 89 3.6.3 Locations of Maintenance 92 3.6.4 High-Speed-Railway-Depots 94 3.6.5 Repair-Workshops – Industrial Factory for Maintenance 99 3.6.6 Requirements of a Industrial Workshop for Maintenance 104 3.6.7 Requirements of a Depot 104 3.6.8 Technical equipment 105 3.6.9 Operational systematics 105 3.6.10 Costs of Maintenance [75][76] 105 3.6.11 Systematic for Norway 106 3.6.12 Requirements in view of the vehicles 107 3.7 WP 327 – Base Data for Calculation of the Driving and Journey Times 109
4 Conclusions 110
5 Bibliography 112
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1 Preposition
The WP 300 is a chapter with detailed technical and operational aspects for planning of High-Speed-Railway-Systems. Therefore a lot of different fields are described. Following partners of the study-group are participating in the WP 300:
WP Title Partner Workmanship 310 Operation Basic Conditions VWI, Dr. Harry Dobeschinsky, IEV, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ullrich Martin, Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Rowas IGV Dipl.-Ing. Peter Sautter 321 Technical Basic Conditions for High- IVA Prof. Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Fengler, Speed Railway Infrastructure in Norway Dipl.-Ing. Dirk Stollberg, Dr.-Ing. Ulf Gerber, Dipl.-Ing. Torsten Anker, Dipl.-Ing. Holger Berthel 322 Operation, Signalling Systems and Dis- IEV Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ullrich Martin, patching Systems Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Rowas 323 Analysing Technical Basic Conditions of FGS Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Hecht, Rail Vehicles Dipl.-Ing. Thomas Thron 324 Further Railway-technological Analysis IEV-LFS Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dieter Bögle, Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Rowas 325 Electric Power Supply Analysis IEV-LFS Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dieter Bögle, Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Rowas 326 Locations for Vehicle-Maintenance and IEV-LFS Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dieter Bögle, their Concepts Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Rowas 327 Base Data for Calculation of the Driving IEV-LFS Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dieter Bögle, and Journey Times Dipl.-Ing. Jochen Rowas
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Directory of special Characters, Symbols and Abbreviations
Bf railway station
EU European Union
FAKOP® cinematic optimisation of vehicle run
FF rigid slab track
HGV high-speed traffic
KV cost ratio
LC life time cycle
NBS newly built line
TEN-T Trans European Railway Network
SchO ballast superstructure
TSI Technical Specifications for Interoperability
UIC (Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer) International Railway Union, Paris
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Directory of Terms and Definitions
av vertical acceleration aq transversal acceleration (lateral acceleration on track level)
α transversal scope angle of the track
D deficiency of superelevation in the track, cant deficiency
E excess of superelevation
F static force on the wheel set
FDYN dynamic force on the wheel set
G longitudinal grade of the line
I cant deficiency max ... upper threshold min ... lower threshold
R horizontal radius, radius in ground view
Rv vertical radius, radius in the vertical section reg ... regular value
Ve designed velocity zul ... threshold of discretion
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2 WP 310 – Operation Basic Conditions
The High-Speed-Network has to integrate Norway’s existing IC-Network to embed the poten- tials of the agglomeration area around Oslo and it has to use the already existing and the segment which are under construction to minimise operation and investment costs. As a re- sult out of that the High-Speed-Rail-Network will be with double track to Østfold, Vestfold and towards Hamar. All other lines should be single track lines due to the low investment costs. These single track High-Speed-Lines should be given a special consideration because they are only working with an operation concept which is already developed during the planning and with a very stabile schedule. A change of the schedule later is almost impossible. The following examples will explain this very clearly.
Figure 2-1: Schedule and crossing sections
n e o im m e r r h S e a d d lo r m n s a a ro O G H T 00 00
10 10
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A line from Oslo to Trondheim for instance needs almost five crossing sections (see figure 4- 3).
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If the departure of the trains in Oslo will change only for ten minutes each direction which is the next possible slot between the Gardermoen-Traffic or 20 minutes in one direction, that causes the necessity of moving the crossing-sections by around 40 kilometres (see figure 2- 2).
Figure 2-2: Effects of changing schedule to crossing sections
n NEW e o im m e r r h S e a d d lo r m n s a a ro O G H T 00 00
10 10
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00 00
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00 00
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30 30
It is also not that easy to plan some single stops for only a few trains as shown below, be- cause then the train has to start earlier and also the crossing sections are changing. So single not regular stops are only possible for the first and the last train a day (see figure 2- 3).
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Figure 2-3: Effects of additional stops to crossing sections
n e o im m e r r h S e a d d lo r m n s a a ro O G H T 00 00
10 10
20 20
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40 40
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00 00
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So a central part of the infrastructure planning is to think about the crossing sections, where they have to be located and as well how they have to be. They can be quite short, when one or both trains are stopping and have to be rather long when both trains continue with high speed. If at least one of the trains stops, the minimum length of a crossing section is about 3.5 to 4.0 km, but the stopping train then sustains a loss of running time of about 5.5 minutes when the maximum speed is 250 kph, so 6 stops for crossings mean half an hour loss of time. Does it then make sense to spend a lot of money for a High-Speed-Track when the average speed is going down because of stops at crossing sections. If for example a High-Speed-Train needs 2 hours for a 300 km long line with 2 stops at sta- tions in between which is an average speed of 150 kph (maximum speed 250 kph). With ad- ditional 6 stops at crossing sections the average speed is going down to 120 kph.
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Another very important part of the schedule are the buffer times. On single-track-lines the trains have to be absolutely in time and some delay has to be covered by buffer times. Es- pecially on single-track-lines buffers are of outstanding importance. Delays because of longer stops at a station (e.g. by a lot of more passengers of a skiing group), small technical prob- lems like a blocked door or a train which does not accelerate as usual must be taken into account. These delays have to be intercepted within the calculated timetable or it is ongoing for the whole day. With delay of one train the next accommodating train has to wait on the previous crossing section and also gets delay. This is building up and timetable will not return to normal operation until the end of the daily service. So there has to be a “normal” buffer time on every partial running time as well as an added “special” buffer time for extraordinary circumstances. The normal buffer time is about 5 % of the partial running time, the special buffer time should reach one to three minutes between two crossing sections (details will be fixed while building the timetable in phase 2).
There are different types of crossing sections possible. The first possibility is to construct crossing sections as rhomboid. Here both trains have to slow down to at least 160 kph (speed on the switches). This means longer running time for both trains. Here can be reached a shorter length of the crossing section if both trains slow down early at the beginning of the crossing section. If both trains are running with High- Speed until the necessary braking point for the switches there is a very small loss of running time but the crossing sections get even longer (plus 10 km). The second possibility are crossing sections as trapezium. Here only one train slows down to 160 kph. This means a longer running time only for one train but more length for the crossing section (compared with the type rhomboid with longer reduction of speed). The third possibility is also of type rhomboid. Assuming that one train stops it is possible to minimise the length of the crossing section by getting a greater loss of running time for the stopping train.
In Figure 2-14 operation on a crossing section of trapezium type with both trains running without stop is shown. Here a buffer time of two minutes is assumed.
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Figure 2-4: Operation on crossing section without stop
2588 m t0 = 0s 14406 m
250 250 16619 m
17319 m
t1 = 45,5s 11250 m
160 250
9844 m t2 = 65,7s 250
160
500 m t3 = 390,3s 12693 m
250
160 t4 = 506,5s 17119 m 20762 m
250 250
21183 m
If one of the trains is breaking down only to 160 kph which is the maximum speed on switches and the other train is passing with maximum speed, the crossing section then has to have a length of about 17.3 km and the loss of running time is 2 min 45 s.
Resulting length of crossing sections and loss of running time is shown in figure 2-5.
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Figure 2-5: Length of crossing sections and loss of running time
Type Speed [kph] Buffer time [min] Length [km] Loss of running time [min] Trapezium 250 1 13.2 2.4 250 2 17.3 2.7 Rhomboid (early 250 1 8.3 1.5 braking) 250 2 11.0 1.8 Rhomboid (late 250 1 15.3 0.7 braking) 250 2 19.4 0.7 Trapezium (with 250 1 4.2 4.5 stop) 250 2 4.2 5.5
So to plan a High-Speed-Network for Norway is not to think only about the planned High- Speed-Railway-Lines there are influences as well from the existing network by track- connections, feeder-traffic. As there are a lot of bottlenecks in the existing network like the Oslo-Tunnel and all single-track-sections, planning a High-Speed-Network means planning an operation concept almost for the whole Norwegian railway-offer.
In the following chapter, there are shown detailed tables and figures about the different crossing-sections-types and passing-section.
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2.1 Crossing- and Passing-Sections
The crossing-sections are classified in the types of rhomboid and trapezium. The passing- section is only in the form of a trapezium because the through-running train should not re- duce the speed.
Figure 2-6: Types of crossing- and passing-sections
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium
LT Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: rhomboid
LR Passing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium
LPT
2.1.1 Crossing-Section with stop of one train
By the following type of crossing-section, the train on the second track must stop and wait for the free way after the other train run ago. Thereby it is possible to build short second tracks with a length of 4.200 m. The loss of time of the stopping train is 5 min and 34 s by a chosen buffer time of 2 min. The loss of time is calculated in comparison to the unhindered run of a train. The chosen maximum speed of the line is 250 kph.
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Figure 2-7: Crossing-Section of type trapezium with stop of one train
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium 2588 m t0 = 0s 14906 m 4200 m 250 250 3500 m
t1 = 45,5s 11750 m
160 250
t2 = 65,7s 10344 m
250
160
500 m
t3 = 231,4s 1161 m
250
0
4000 m
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium
t4 = 385,2s 11876 m
250 250
9358 m
Loss of time of the green train: 333,7 s = 5 min 34 s (buffer time of 2 min)
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2.1.2 Crossing-Section without stops of one train
If one of the trains should not stop, then the length of the second track must be very longer. The following type of crossing-section, the train on the second track can drive with the re- duced velocity at the second track. Thereby it is necessary to build long second track with a length of 17.319 m. The reduction of the speed is necessary to pass the switches. The switches can pass with a velocity of 160 kph. The loss of time of the stopping train is 2 min and 44 s by a chosen buffer time of 2 min. In comparison to the crossing section with stop, the loss of time can be reduced at 2 min and 50 s. The chosen speed of the line is 250 kph.
Figure 2-8: Crossing-Section of type trapezium with stop of one train Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium
2588 m t0 = 0s 14406 m
250 250 16619 m
17319 m
t1 = 45,5s 11250 m
160 250
9844 m t2 = 65,7s
250
160
500 m t3 = 390,3s 12693 m
250
160 17119 m
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Figure 2-9: Crossing-Section of type trapezium with stop of one train Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium
t4 = 506,5s 20762 m
250 250
21183 m
Loss of time of the green train:
164,1 s = 2 min 44 s (buffer time of 2 min)
2.1.3 Double Track Sections for different velocities and operation functions
For the operational functions of crossing and passing of two trains, the infrastructure must be constructed in different types and lengths. Also various velocities (200kph, 250 kph, 300 kph) for the through-running train and for the branching train (120 kph, 160 kph) is included.
2.1.3.1 Crossing-Section – Type Trapezium
The necessary length of the crossing-sections is depended of the maximum speed at the second track. By a smaller velocity the length gets a little shorter, but the loss of time gets very high. The choice of the speed is 160 kph, because the difference between the length are not very significant. Thereby it can be recommended that switches with a maximum speed of 160 kph are the capable one. For the use of a maximum speed of 250 kph of the through-going track, the difference of the loss of time between the branching-velocities of 120 kph and 160 kph is 3,3 min in the case that the branching train is delayed. When through-going trains are delayed, the difference of loss of time between the two branching-velocities is 3,5 min. The comparison between the loss of time by branching with 160 kph is 0,1 min. Thereby the influence of the delay of an especial train (branching train or through-running train) is low.
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When the branching train should accelerate to 250 kph inside the second track, the second track gets longer. The values are shown in the following figures.
Figure 2-10: Crossing-Section – Type Trapezium – without Stops
Vmax [km/h]
LT
Figure 2-11: Loss of Time of Crossing-Section – Type trapezium
The slower train is delayed!
Æ Changing of the blanching track and direction! Æ The difference of the velocities should be not large!
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Figure 2-12: Loss of Time of Crossing-Section – Type trapezium
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium The faster train is delayed!
Æ Changing of the blanching track and direction! Æ The difference of the velocities should be not large!
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2.1.3.2 Crossing-Section – Type Rhomboid – Minimum of Length
An other way for construct of the crossing sections are the type of “rhomboid”. Thereby the reduction of the speed is relevant for both running-directions. The necessary length of this crossing-sections is depended of the maximum speed of the switches. By a lesser velocity, the length gets a little shorter, but the loss of time gets higher. The choice of the speed is 160 kph for the branching, because the difference between the length are not very significant. The difference of loss of time between the two velocities at the switches (120 kph, 160 kph) is 1 min. The trains runs in the crossing section with reduced velocity (velocity at the switches).
Figure 2-13: Crossing-Section – Type Rhomboid – without Stop of Train
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: rhomboid (minimum of length)
Vmax [km/h]
LR
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Figure 2-14: Loss of Time of Crossing-Section – Type rhomboid – minimum of length of crossing-section
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: rhomboid Only reduced velocities in the cross-section! (minimum of length)
This time-delays appies all two trains!
2.1.3.3 Crossing-Section – Type Rhomboid – Minimum of Time
The reduction of the speed inside of the double track section begins first shortly before the switch, which consolidate the two tracks. The necessary length of this crossing-sections is depended of the maximum speed of the switches. By a higher velocity in the crossing section the length gets higher, but the loss of time gets shorter. The choice of the speed is 160 kph for the branching track, because the difference between the length are not very significant. The difference between the two velocities at the switches (120 kph, 160 kph) is 0,5 min. The trains are running into the crossing section with maximum speed until before the second switch will be obtained by the train. The speed of the train will be reduced of the velocity of the switches. This different ways of operation by the type “rhomboid” shows a difference be- tween the loss of time of 1,1 min. When the train are later reduce his speed, the length of the crossing section gets 8.400 m longer.
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Figure 2-15: Crossing-Section – Type Rhomboid – without Stop of Train
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: rhomboid (minimum of time)
Vmax [kph]
LR
Figure 2-16: Loss of Time of Crossing-Section – Type rhomboid – minimum of time
Crossing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: rhomboid Only reduced velocities in the whole switch-section! (minimum of time)
This time-delays appies all two trains!
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2.1.3.4 Passing-Section – Type Trapezium – Without Stop of the Freight-Train
A passing section is necessary for the operation of different train types at the high-speed- infrastructure. In the passing section the branching trains do not stop. Both trains, (HSR- train, freight-train) don’t have a loss of time, because no reduction of velocity is necessary. The necessary length of this passing-sections is depended of the maximum speed of the switches and the maximum speed of the freight-trains. For the passing section the choise of velocity for freight-trains is 120 kph, because the freight-trains are not run faster.
Figure 2-17: Length of Passing-Section
Passing-Sections with two tracks: Æ Type: trapezium
Freighttrains also don‘t stop! (maximum length of freighttrains: 600 m)
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2.1.4 Energy Use by different operation systems
If the trains must reduce the speed (200, 250, 300 kph to 160 kph) for the double track sec- tions (passing and crossing sections) the following energy use is necessary. For the com- parison, the energy use of trains without speed reduction and with stop in the sections are also shown in the following figure.
Figure 2-18: Energy Use of ICE 3 by different operation types Energy Use of ICE 3
2400 Energy Use without Speed-Reduction Energy Use with Speed-Reduction 2200 Δ Energy Use by Reduction of Speed Δ Energy Use by Stopping of the Trains 2000 Energy Use with Stopping of the Trains
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800 Energy Use [kWh] 600
400
200
0 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 Velocity [kph]
Basis for the calculations are a 100-km-line without gradients. Following situation of opera- tional conditions are used: 1. by km 50,0 is a crossing section with 160 kph-speed-reduction, 2. by km 50,0: the trains must stopping for crossing of an other train and 3. no speed reduction and no stop.
The best energy use has the train without stop and speed reduction. This case will be fol- lowed of the energy use with speed reduction. When a train must be stopping, the additional acceleration from 0 kph to the maximum speed has the biggest energy use. The two blue lines shows the additional energy use of the case 1 and 2.
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3 WP 320 – Technical Basic Conditions
3.1 WP 321 – Technical Basic Conditions for High-Speed Railway Infrastructure in Norway
3.1.1 System Definition
The Choice of the applicable line layout parameters is basically depending on the following conditions and specifications of the system definition: - the existing topography and the land utilisation in the line corridors - the intended maximum velocity concerning passenger transport and, as the case may be, the freight transport - the intended train path types (pure passenger transportation or mixed transportation) - and the track superstructure system to be applied. In the beginning of the planning of the project at hand only the analysed relations and be- sides topography the land utilisation of Norway are known. Based on the analysed relations a derivation of potential line corridors with a known topography and land utilisation is possible (see WP 400). There are no given requirements for the maximum velocity, the type of train paths and the track superstructure to be applied. This means that these specifications are to be defined under the premises of a realistic and cost optimising planning. Generally this is done in several steps with feedback loops (see Figure 3-1).
Figure 3-1 : Methodology of iterative planning and design of public transportation systems
1.)Systemdefinition System Definition
7.) Cost & Revenues, 2.) Fixing of Stops microeconomic Evaluation
3.) Alignment 6.) Operating Concept
Refinement, Structural Planning 4.) Calculation of Journey 5.) Traffic Forecast Times Reserves
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Due to reasons of time and budget the planning, as pictured in Figure 3-1, can only be run through once in this project, that means linear and without major feedbacks. From this fol- lows that the underlying system definition cannot be optimised iteratively. A consequence of this approach is for instance that freight traffic can only use the high-speed trace in those sections, where it does not cause an essential rise of construction costs, as it is impossible to ensure that these additional construction costs can be generated by the expected freight traf- fic.
The existing topography is one of the considerably influencing variables in the first step of planning, whose characteristics are restricting the bandwidth of the potential line layout pa- rameters. Norway is an extremely mountainous country with numerous ranges and sparse tablelands. The line routing is furthermore complicated by the large number of rivers and the fjords reaching far into the inland. Still the corridors to be analysed differ from each other. The corridors Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stockholm have another characteristic as e.g. the corridors Oslo – Bergen or Oslo – Stavanger. The corridor Oslo – Trondheim shows e.g. gently ascents and the orientation of the valleys is nearly always the north – south – direction. Thus it is possible to follow the course of the riv- ers and to use the highlands when laying out a line (see WP 400). The line layout parame- ters can therefore be designed bounteous, so that the utilisation by mixed traffic can be con- sidered, too. For the rest of the line corridors it is expected, that most of the trace will not match the terrain and for this reason the altitude compensation between the terrain and the upper rail edge has to be accomplished by engineering work. But to minimise the construction costs it is essential to keep the number and length of cost- intensive engineering work such as bridges and tunnels to a minimum. Consequently the applied line layout parameters have to provide a maximum of flexibility to achieve an adjust- ment to the existing terrain at the best. To attain this, the thresholds of the line layout parameters have to be used to their full capac- ity having regard to the intended maximum speed, the intended mode of operation (pure passenger transportation or mixed transportation) and the applied type of track superstruc- ture. This can be proved by realised HGV-projects in low mountain ranges (Hannover – Wür- zburg, Köln – Rhein / Main). High mountains may require a specific and detailed analysis
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regarding the applicability of base tunnel solutions, which allow more bounteous line layout parameters.
By using this approach one forbears from setting the line layout parameters and the intended velocity respectively bounteous to have reserves for possible velocity increases. According to these principles the very first high-speed-railway-line located in Japan, the Tokaido- Shinkansen (Tokio – Osaka) was routed. Thereby the line routed for 250 kph and opened in 1964 with a maximum speed of 210 kph can nowadays be run with velocities up to 270 kph [6]. This approach was appropriate at that time, as there was no experience with railway high- speed traffic and both the railway superstructure and the vehicle technique still had a consid- erable potential for development. On account of this it was possible to slowly approach the thresholds acceptable for the maximum cant as well as for the maximum cant deficiency. On the basis of the number of high-speed-railway-lines in operation (see WP 100) a sufficient system experience is gained in the meantime whilst at the same time the exploitable poten- tial of development decreased. Consequently it was unwise not to use the thresholds of the line routing to full capacity, the more so as this would especially in topographic complicated terrain increase the construction costs substantially without generating an immediate value. But it is clear that, in coincidence with using the thresholds of the line routing to full capacity, the expenditure for the track maintenance is rising, especially for ballast superstructure. These additional costs have to be in due proportion to the saved construction costs. Thereto a more detailed analysis is inevitable. However, past experiences regarding the rigid slab track reveal that the maintenance costs for the rigid slab track do not rise significantly in spite of using the thresholds of the line routing to full capacity (see chapter 3.1.4.4). So, apart from the corridors Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stockholm, it is allowed and rec- ommended to utilise the strategy of using the scopes of the line layout parameters to full ca- pacity in this study.
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3.1.2 Line Layout Parameters and Thresholds
Almost each of the railway administrations providing high-speed traffic developed and im- plemented its own line routing regulations that to some extend differ considerably. Therewith the question comes up which the relevant thresholds for this study are (see WP 100). There are strong efforts at the European Union level to standardise the railway regulations. First priority is to create a trans European railway network (TEN-T, Railways), which allows a transboundary restriction- and discrimination-free railway traffic. A precondition is the so- called interoperability of vehicles and infrastructure. To ensure this it is necessary to comply with directive 96/98/EG regarding the technical specifications for interoperability (TSI) of the Trans European High-Speed-Railway-System when planning railway lines of the TEN-T. The TSI were developed with collaboration of the European railway companies; concerning this matter they represent the state-of-the-art. To secure the interoperable operation of the still to be planned lines in case of Norway joining the European Union and keeping the planning horizon 2020 in mind, it is recommended to apply the TSI, with particular attention to the “subsystem infrastructure”, especially the defined thresholds for line layout parameters [1].
The “TSI INFRASTRUCTURE” classifies the high-speed lines as follows [1]: - Category I: specially built or still to be built lines for high-speed traffic, designed for a maximum line speed of 250 kph, - Category II: specially upgraded or to be upgraded lines the high-speed traffic, de- signed for a maximum line speed of 200 kph, - Category III: specially upgraded or to be upgraded lines for high-speed traffic, which have to adapt the speed by reasons of a constraints such as the topography, terrain or urban vicinity.
As explained in chapter 3.1.1 the corridors Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stockholm can be planned with relatively bounteous parameters in compliance with category I. The remainder of the considered lines are largely to be assigned to category III due to the complicated to- pography, otherwise to category II. According to TSI the parameters of category II and III only apply to upgraded lines but exceptions for new lines are possible if the profitability was threatened. As the construction costs will rise extensively by using the line layout parameters of category I in complicated terrain, one can act in the case of Norway on the assumption that the profitability is affected. Negative effects for the interoperable operation of the line do not occur when the line layout parameters of category II and III are used. Therefore the spe- cial thresholds of the TSI can be applied there as well as a maximum line speed of 250 kph for new line sections and 200 kph for upgraded line sections. A maximum speed of more
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than 250 kph is not reasonable as the thresholds of category I would then have to be utilized and in consequence a line routing contiguous to terrain appears to be impossible. As a con- sequence considerable additional costs would occur with velocities exceeding 250 kph.
3.1.2.1 Maximum Cant, maximum Cant Deficiency and horizontal Minimum Radius.
Figure 2-1 illustrates the thresholds for the maximum cant and the maximum cant deficiency according to TSI as well as the resulting horizontal minimum radius. As expected the thresholds for lines of category III allow smaller horizontal radii than the thresholds for lines of category II. A further reduction of the horizontal radii can be attained by operating purely passenger traffic which is characterised by a maximum cant of 200 mm. As explained in chapter 3.1.4.4 such high cants should only be used for rigid slab tracks. According to TSI it is on rigid slab track furthermore possible to apply a cant deficiency of 150 mm for velocities up to 250 kph [1]. But it must be pointed out that applying increased thresholds leads to increased maintenance costs, which have to be opposed to construction costs. As earlier mentioned a variety analy- sis is therefore necessary which cannot be conducted within this project. Having regard to the qualitative approach of this study the application of the increased line routing thresholds according to category III (see Figure 3-2) appear reasonable especially to avoid a break-in of velocity at constrictions.
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Figure 3-2: Maximum cant, maximum cant deficiency and required radius recommended thresholds per category I velocities V 250 ≤ V ≤ 300 km/h > 300 km/h
v = 250 km/h v = 300 km/h v = 350 km/h max. installed superelevation Dmax [mm] 160 160 160 cant deficincy I [mm] 100 100 80 required radius R [m] 2837 4085 6023 recommended thresholds per category II velocities V ≤ 160 km/h ≤ 200 km/h ≤ 230 km/h ≤ 250 km/h
v = 160 km/h v = 200 km/h v = 230 km/h v = 250 km/h max. installed superelevation Dmax [mm] 160 160 160 160 cant deficincy I [mm] 160 150 140 130 required radius R [m] 944 1523 2081 2543 recommended thresholds per category III velocities V ≤ 160 km/h ≤ 200 km/h ≤ 230 km/h ≤ 250 km/h
v = 160 km/h v = 200 km/h v = 230 km/h v = 250 km/h max. installed superelevation Dmax [mm] 180 180 180 180 cant deficincy I [mm] 180 165 150 130 required radius R [m] 839 1368 1892 2379 recommended thresholds per category III velocities V (for pure passenger traffic and rigid slab track) ≤ 160 km/h ≤ 200 km/h ≤ 230 km/h ≤ 250 km/h
v = 160 km/h v = 200 km/h v = 230 km/h v = 250 km/h max. installed superelevation Dmax [mm] 200 200 200 200 cant deficincy I [mm] 180 165 150 150 required radius R [m] 795 1293 1783 2107
The values of the TSI infrastructure [1] primarily apply to pure passenger traffic, if need be complemented by light freight traffic. The TSI does not give any details on medium-heavy and heavy freight trains. By contrast the Euronorm EN 13803-1 [2] contains the following details for the thresholds of cant deficiency of mixed-traffic-lines:
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Figure 3-3: Unbalanced superelevations I as per EN 13803-1 traffic modes, recommended value threshold velocity in kph I in mm I in mm goods passengers goods passengers 1 2 3 4 5 mixed-traffic-lines 110 150 160* 165 120 < V ≤ 160 mixed-traffic-lines 110 150 160* 165 160 < V ≤ 200 mixed-traffic-lines 100 100 150* 150 200 < V ≤ 250 mixed-traffic-lines 80 80 130* 130 250 < V ≤ 300
*) These values apply only to freight cars with specific mechanical properties whose operating characteristics are similar to railway passenger cars.
To avoid restrictions for the freight traffic regarding the car material it is advisable not to ex- ceed the recommended values according to Figure 3-2, column 2.
To determine the cant D and the corresponding radius R the maximum cant for freight trains
DF max is given by
DF max=11,8•VF²/R+EF (1)
and the minimumcant for passenger trains DP min is given by
DP min=11,8•VP²/R-IP (2)
This results in the smallest possible radius Rmin for mixed traffic according to [11]:
Rmin=11,8•(VP²-VF²)/(EF+IP) (3)
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The appropriate cant to be installed is calculated as follows:
D=D0,P–IP=D0,F+EF (4)
Should D be greater than DMAX, the radius has to be enlarged as follows:
min R = 11,8• VP²/DMAX+IP (5)
Figure 3-4 illustrates the resulting minimum radii for mixed traffic if the velocity of the freight trains is stated with 100 kph.
Figure 3-4: Minimum radius and superelevation for mixed traffic
mixed traffic velocities VP (VF=100km/h) ≤ 160 km/h ≤ 200 km/h ≤ 230 km/h ≤ 250 km/h ≤ 300 km/h
v = 160 km/h v = 200 km/h v = 230 km/h v = 250 km/h v = 300 km/h
unbalanced superelevation of railway passenger cars IP [mm] 150 150 100 100 80
excess superelevation of freight trains EF [mm] 110 110 100 100 80 required radius according to formula (4) R [m] 708 1362 2531 3098 5900 required superelevation D [mm] 277 197 147 138 100
required radius with DMAX = 160 mm according to formula (5) R [m] 974 1523
This reveals that the minimum radii of mixed traffic with velocities below 200 kph are located slightly above the thresholds given by the TSI (Figure 3-2) or even correspond. In contrast the minimum radii for velocities of more than 200 kph are located clearly above the values given by the TSI. This is due to their smaller acceptable cant excess and cant deficiency in conjunction with the influence of the speed gap between passenger and freight trains.
Concerning length and design of the transition curves no details are given in the TSI. The length and type of transition curves are also irrelevant for the rough line determination within this study, therefore no further details are given.
3.1.2.2 Longitudinal Grade and Transition Radii of gradient changes
On a new line for passenger traffic (and only light freight traffic) main tracks must not exceed an upper threshold of 35 ‰ for slopes under the following restrictions: - The slope of the moving average profile over 10 km is less than or equal to 25 ‰,
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- the maximum length of the continuous 35 ‰ gradient does not exceed 6000 m. The longitudinal gradient of existing lines to be upgraded is generally below these values.
On mixed-traffic-lines the maximum longitudinal gradient depends on the specific haulage force overplus at the designated velocity and therefore eventually on the type of traction as well as on the maximum weight of the freight trains to be hauled. In this study it is assumed that freight trains will use the new lines only partially on certain suitable sections in order to limit the construction costs. For this reason it is useful to match the slope of such sections to the maximum longitudinal grade of the connected existing lines. These longitudinal grades amount between 18 ‰ and 20 ‰. Solely the line corridors Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stockholm can differ in this respect. The predominating topography there allows a limitation of the maximum longitudinal grade to 12,5 ‰. As a result these lines can be used by heavy freight transport.
For transition radii of gradient changes the TSI infrastructure only gives information concern- ing the tracks in depots and the sidings. DIN EN 13803-1 [2] names the following values and thresholds for radii of gradient transitions:
Figure 3-5: Radius of the gradient changes according to DIN EN 13803-1
lines with lines with lines with high-speed-lines for mixed traffic mixed traffic mixed traffic pure passenger traffic entworfen für eine Geschwindigkeiten Geschwindigkeit der Reisezüge Reisezüge von *)
1 2 3 4 5
velocity [km/h] 120 ≤ v ≤ 200 200 ≤ v ≤ 300 v ≤ 230 (bzw. 250) 250 ≤ v ≤ 300
recommendes value for R V 0,35 V² Max 0,35 V² Max 0,35 V² Max 0,35 V² Max [m]
*2 1 *2 1 minimum value for R V 0,25 V² Max 0,175 V² Max * 0,25 V² Max 0,175 V² Max * [m]
*1 With a permitted undershooting of 10 % at humps and 30 % at depressions respectively. *2 The radius must not fall below the value of 2000 m. For transistions of track switches and junctions the values of prEN 13803-2 have to be taken into account. *) for vehicles with specific technical properties
The following values for the transition radii of gradient changes result from Figure 3-5Figure 2-1 using the different categories (column 2 to 5).
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Figure 3-6: Transition radii of gradient changes
1 2345 velocity V [km/h] 160 200 250 300
transition radius Rv [m] 8960 14000 21875 31500 minimum transition radius Rv [m] 6400 7000 15625 15750
3.1.3 Further system parameters
3.1.3.1 Minimum Clearance Gauge and tunnel cross sections
The TSI specifies the clearance gauge diagram GC for new high-speed-lines. Tunnels have to be designed for a maximum pressure variation of 10 kPa. Based on this value the required tunnel cross section can be identified with subject to the operational velocity. The lower threshold of the tunnel cross section can be calculated from the proportion of train cross sec- tion to tunnel cross section. According to the TSI ROLLING STOCK [20] this proportion must not exceed a value of 0,18. To keep the option of mixed traffic, a single-track tunnel section is assumed, even if a multiple-track line is at hand. If the vehicle cross section of the clear- ance gauge diagram GC is put up with 12 m² as per [1], the minimum tunnel cross section of a single-track tunnel results to 67 m². High speed lines in operation or under construction come with the following values of tunnel cross sections [19]: Tokaido-Shinkansen Tokio – Osaka (two tracks) 63,8 m² Direttisima Rom – Florenz (two tracks) 53,8 m² Hannover – Würzburg / Mannheim - Stuttgart (two tracks) 82 m² ABS/NBS Karlsruhe – Basel (Katzbergtunnel, one track) approx. 65 m²
3.1.3.2 Minimum distance of track axis
The minimum distance of track axis of high-speed lines in operation or to be constructed amount to 4,50 m [1]. Taking into consideration the expected hauling capacity and opera- tional mode of the line, the minimum distance of tracks can be suited to the following values: V ≤ 250 kph 4,00 m 250 kph < V ≤ 300 kph 4,20 m
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3.1.4 Design of the Track Superstructure
3.1.4.1 Vertical Forces
According to TSI the maximum static wheel set load F of high-speed trains on the track must not exceed a value of: - F ≤ 170 kN / wheel set at V > 250 kph, - F ≤ 180 kN/ wheel set at V = 250 kph for a motor axle and - F ≤ 170 kN/ wheel set for a non-powered axle.
The maximum dynamic wheel set load FDYN must not exceed a value of: - 180 kN for vehicles with a maximum velocity over 200 kph and less or equal to 250 kph, - 170 kN for vehicles with a maximum velocity over 250 kph and less or equal to 300 kph and - 160 kN for vehicles with a maximum velocity of more than 300 kph.
3.1.4.2 Lateral Forces
Lateral forces are caused by forces transverse to the direction of the track, e.g. by the trans- versal acceleration in a curve which is not compensated by a superelevation as well as by the dynamic wheel – rail interaction between vehicle and track. As per [2] the threshold of lateral forces caused by a wheel set is described by the formula of Prud´homme:
⎛ F ⎞ (6) Ylim α ⎜10 +⋅=Σ ⎟ in kN ⎝ 3 ⎠ with α = 1 for passenger cars and locomotives; α = 0,85 for freight wagons (to consider higher tolerance differences in construction and maintenance states)
∑Ylim exactly represents the maximum lateral force which a wheel set is allowed to effect on a rail without causing a lateral displacement of the track.
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The earlier mentioned threshold of Prud’homme is valid for a track with the following parame- ters: - weight of rail: 46 kg/m; - wooden sleepers with a maximum clearance of 0,65 m; - crushed stone ballast superstructure with a particle size of 25/70; - condition of a not stabilised track right after the packing.
A modification of the parameters rail profile, type of rail fastening and speed do not influence the value of ∑Ylim significantly.
Because of the higher resistance of a track with concrete sleepers versus transverse dis- placement formula (6) changes to:
⎛ F ⎞ (6a) Ylim α ⎜15 +⋅=Σ ⎟ in kN ⎝ 3 ⎠ with α = 1 for passenger cars and locomotives; α = 0,85 for freight wagons (to consider higher tolerance differences in construction and maintenance states)
The track superstructure has to be laid out in such a way that it can withstand these expo- sures. The limitation of the lateral forces by the threshold of Prud’homme ought to inhibit a displacement of the track skeleton especially regarding the ballast superstructure.
3.1.4.3 Longitudinal Forces
Longitudinal forces are effected by temperature-caused tensions in consequence of averted elongations of the rails as well as by accelerating and braking forces of the vehicles. The track superstructure has to withstand accelerations and brakings of interoperable high- speed-trains up to 2,5 m/s².
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3.1.4.4 Comparison of Rigid Slab Track and Ballast Superstructure
The choice of the track superstructure system to be implemented is of great importance for the subsequent profitability and availability of the railway line. It is known that the ballast su- perstructure is less expensive than the rigid slab track however more costly to maintain. The decision which superstructure is more suitable and therefore more efficient depends on vari- ous factors such as line layout parameters, traffic load and underground conditions. These interrelations will be described in the following chapters. As the basic conditions of each sec- tion of the line are different, the suitability of the superstructure systems has to be analysed separately for each section of the line.
3.1.4.5 Dependence on the chosen Line Layout Parameters
The applied line layout parameters have a significant influence on the forces which effect the superstructure. So the maximum allowed cant deficiency max I determines the extend of the lateral acceleration to the outside of the curve whereas the maximum allowed cant max D determines the force to the inside of a curve caused by a standing vehicle. In the case of mixed-operation-lines also the maximum allowed exceed of cant max E of freight trains at their maximum speed is relevant for the lateral track load. The superstructure system has to absorb these forces and then to transfer them into the un- derground. The railway-typical permanently appearing dynamic exposures lead to a worsen- ing of the track level and position especially regarding the ballast superstructure. This leads to increasing dynamic forces, which accelerate the process of deterioration. A duly track maintenance, e.g. by track packing, can counter this process. A rigid slab track suffers inferior settlements because the lateral and vertical forces are ab- sorbed and distributed better due to the monolithic track construction, and therefore the posi- tion stability is higher. Inevitable precondition however is a sustainable substructure and un- derground respectively. It is very important to assess the maximum allowed cant deficiency prudently for each super- structure system. In doing so a line-specific proportion of construction costs and mainte- nance costs at a given maximum velocity can be influenced purposefully. The definition of the maximum cant deficiency for ballast superstructure is based on experience. Long-term experience is not yet available for the rigid slab track. But with regard to its expected larger
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position stability the line Köln – Rhein/Main was built with a higher maximum cant deficiency than common for ballast superstructures. Measurements since start of operations show that despite a deficiency of I = 150 mm (aq = 1 m/s²) the recorded transversal accelerations of the new line Köln – Rhein/Main are lying below recorded transversal accelerations of compara- ble HGV-lines with ballast superstructure and a cant deficiency of only I = 80 mm. The track level is almost steady after nearly four years of operation [5]. This circumstance is also respected in the TSI. That is why lines of category III with velocities of more than 230 kph on a rigid slab track are limited to a maximum cant deficiency of I = 150 mm, whereas lines with a ballast superstructure can only have a maximum of 130 mm [1]. Figure 3-7 shows the cant deficiencies of HGV-lines with ballast superstructure and rigid slab track. One should act on the assumption that the allowed cant deficiency for rigid slab tracks could from a technical point of view possibly be increased even in the high speed range. Therefore continuative analyses have to be conducted and more experiences need to be gained. As today’s limit of 150 mm is due to comfort, an application of higher cant deficiencies de- mand the obligatory use of tilting technology.
Figure 3-7: Cant deficiencies of HGV-lines in the comparison FF to SchO
max uf 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
SchO TGV-Atlantik TGV - Südost Nuovo Direttissima Tokaido - Shinkansen NBS Mannheim/Stuttgart
FF Sanyo - Shinkansen Tohuku - Shinkansen NBS HannoverBerlin - NBS Frankfurt/Main - Köln
At least as important for the flexibility of the line routing is apart from the cant deficiency the maximum allowed longitudinal grade max G. The maximum longitudinal grade is limited by the relative haulage force overplus of the employed train configurations that means by the ratio of installed haulage force to train load to be hauled. In addition it must be provided that the trains are able to start-up at slopes after a stop and reach a certain minimum accelera- tion. These demands limit the train masses (mostly of freight trains) and have an influence on the layout of high-speed trains regarding the maximum slope in case of pure passenger traf-
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fic. To cope with this problem it e.g. was decided that the train type for the HS-line Köln – Rhein/Main was to be designed with a distributed traction system (ICE 3, every second bogie propulsed). To supply the needed braking deceleration on long and steep slopes the eddy- current brake now is state-of-the-art for an effective and wear-free technology. See chapter 3.1.4.8 for interdependencies of the eddy-current brake and the superstructure system.
3.1.4.6 The Dependence on Traffic Load
The section in hand deals with the influence of traffic load on the system decision between ballast superstructure and rigid slab track. This system decision should be taken based on the life cycle costs KLC. In this framework the type of superstructure should be chosen which is assumed to have less life cycle costs under the predominant constraints like e.g. traffic load. Thus the cost ratio KV of the life cycle costs of ballast superstructure KLC_SchO related to the ones of rigid slab track KLC_FF are significant for the system decision. K (7) KV = _ FFLC K _ SCHOLC
The life cycle costs KLC [€/(m·a)] consist of the annual replacement costs KE [€/(m·a)] and the annual maintenance costs KI [€/(m·a)]: += KKK (8) LC IE
The annual replacement costs KE e are composed of the purchase costs KA [€/m] and the economic life-time of the track L [a]: K (9) K = A E L
In Europe the life cycle costs of ballast superstructure amount to approx.
KLC_SchO = 64 €/(m·a) (see Figure 3-8).
The purchase costs of ballast superstructure are approx. KA = 400 €/m ([8] page 506).
The medium life-time of ballast superstructure is nearly LSchO = 30 a ([8] page 350).
According to (9) the annual replacement costs of ballast superstructure are KE = 13 €/(m·a).
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Figure 3-8 : Life cycle costs of ballast superstructure [8]
The purchase costs of rigid slab track are between 750 €/m ≤ KA ≤ 2000 €/m depending on the route length. (see Figure 3-9).
Figure 3-9: Purchase costs of rigid slab track [7]
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In the context of life cycle costs the costs for deconstruction have to be added to the pur- chase costs. These deconstruction costs are assumed to be 50 % of the pure purchase costs. Assuming pure purchase costs of 800 €/m the final purchase costs of rigid slab track being completed by the deconstruction costs accumulate to KA = 1.5·(800 €/m) = 1200 €/m. Until now there is no certain cognition on the life-time of rigid slab tracks in operation. In gen- eral it is assumed to be LFF = 60 a. According to (7) the annual replacement costs therewith are KE = 20 €/(m·a). As a general rule the life cycle costs of ballast superstructure in the case of “medium traffic load” are assumed to be equal to the ones of rigid slab track (certain experience not yet available). According to this assumption and (8) the annual maintenance costs of ballast su- perstructure add up to KI_SchO_0 = 51 €/(m·a) and the ones of rigid slab track to
KI_FF_0 = 44 €/(m·a). Traffic load influences maintenance costs. It consists of three determining factors. The “me- dium traffic load” of main lines (i. e. the traffic load being related to the aforementioned main- tenance costs) is made up of the “medium determining factors” (index 0). These medium determining factors or rather parameters are: 1. the layout velocity V [kph]: In general the layout velocity of Western European
main lines is V0 = 200 kph ([10], page 56) 2. the load of wheelset F [kN]: the medium load of wheelset is according to the UIC
load category C F0 = 200 kN ([10], page 55)
3. the annually accumulated traffic mass BJ [Mio t/a]: The daily accumulated traffic
mass is nearly d = 27.000 Mio t/d on an average ([10], page 56) which is equal to
an annual accumulated traffic mass of BJ0 = 10 Mio t/a.
The maintenance costs of ballast superstructure may be expressed in dependence on the dynamic load of wheel set Fdyn and the accumulated annual load BJ_0 ([9], page
510).Thereby it is simplifying distinguished between maintenance costs of tracks KI_S and the ones of track bedding KI_B: 3 3 3 1 (10) ⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ KK ⋅= ⎜ dyn ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ K ⋅+ ⎜ dyn ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ _ SCHOI SI 0__ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ BI 0__ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ Fdyn 0_ ⎠ ⎝ BJ 0_ ⎠ ⎝ Fdyn 0_ ⎠ ⎝ BJ 0_ ⎠ 1424444 4314444 424444 434444 K _ SI K _ BI The dynamic load of wheel set shows a linear dependence on velocity ([12], page 380). With that in mind (10) can be expressed in dependence on the complete traffic load.
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3 ⎛ v − 60 ⎞ (11) 3 5.01 ⋅+ 3 ⎛ F ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ B ⎞ KK ⋅= ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ 140 ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ + _ SCHOI _ SI ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ L F ⎜ v0 − 60 ⎟ B ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎜ 5.01 ⋅+ ⎟ ⎝ J 0_ ⎠ ⎝ 140 ⎠
3 ⎛ v − 60 ⎞ 3 5.01 ⋅+ 1 ⎛ F ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ B ⎞ K ⋅+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ 140 ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ _ BI ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ F ⎜ v0 − 60 ⎟ B ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎜ 5.01 ⋅+ ⎟ ⎝ J 0_ ⎠ ⎝ 140 ⎠ There are no certain factors available for the cost distribution between track and track bed- ding. Provided that maintenance costs of rigid slab track are solely caused by the costs for corrective maintenance of tracks then the following equations may be derived. € (12) KK == 44 SI 0__ FFI 0__ ⋅ akm
€ BI 0__ = KK SCHOBI K SI 0__0__ =− 7 ⋅ akm Considering that that „track bedding” of a rigid slab track does not necessitate maintenance the life cycle costs in dependence on traffic load derive from (8), (11) and (12) as follows:
3 ⎛ v − 60 ⎞ (13) 3 5.01 ⋅+ 3 ⎛ F ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ B ⎞ K 4413 ⋅+= ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ 140 ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ + _ SCHOLC ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ K F ⎜ v0 − 60 ⎟ B ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎜ 5.01 ⋅+ ⎟ ⎝ J 0_ ⎠ ⎝ 140 ⎠ 3 ⎛ v − 60 ⎞ 3 5.01 ⋅+ 1 ⎛ F ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ B ⎞ 7 ⋅+ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ 140 ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ F ⎜ v0 − 60 ⎟ B ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎜ 5.01 ⋅+ ⎟ ⎝ J 0_ ⎠ ⎝ 140 ⎠ 3 ⎛ v − 60 ⎞ 3 5.01 ⋅+ 3 ⎛ F ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ B ⎞ K 4420 ⋅+= ⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ 140 ⎟ ⋅⎜ J ⎟ _ FFLC ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ F ⎜ v0 − 60 ⎟ B ⎝ 0 ⎠ ⎜ 5.01 ⋅+ ⎟ ⎝ J 0_ ⎠ ⎝ 140 ⎠ Inserting (13) into (7) delivers the cost ratio KV from rigid slab track related to ballast super- structure. The application of rigid slab track seems to be justifiable regarding traffic load when the cost ratio is KV < 1. With the figures below it becomes apparent that the application of rigid slab track is only prof- itable by high traffic loads if it is not justified by other reasons.
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Figure 3-10: Cost ratio KV in dependence on layout velocity
1,2 F = 200 kN
B J = 10 Mill. t/a 1,1 KV 1,0
0,9 0 100 200 300 v [km/h]
Figure 3-11: Cost ratio KV in dependence on load of wheel set F
1,2 v = 200 km/h
B J = 10 Mill. t/a 1,1 KV 1,0
0,9 0 100 200 300 F [kN]
Figure 3-12: Cost ratio KV in dependence on annual accumulated traffic intensity
1,2 F = 200 kN v = 200 km/h 1,1 KV 1,0
0,9 0 102030
B J [Mill. t/a]
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The cost ratio KV (Ratio of life cycle costs of rigid slab track related to ballast superstructure) in dependence on traffic load (layout velocity v, load of wheel set F, annual assumulated traf- fic mass BJ) according to (13).
3.1.4.7 Dependency on the In-Situ Subsoil
In the course of planning a construction measure extensive subsoil testing is necessary: This potentially results in measures of subsoil-related techniques in order to achieve the required loading capacities and density values. These measures might be compactions, soil stabilisa- tion (e. g. using lime or cement), vibrating tamping pillars or soil replacement as well [13]. The requirements for bearing capacities and densities of subsoil for new lines with rigid slab track or with ballast superstructure differ only marginally.
In Germany for example there are special guidelines for the bearing capacity of soil formation with respect to the trough main tracks of lines of the category P300. The bearing capacity of the subsoil is specified by its deformation module Ev2. The subsoil bearing capacity of a rigid slab track may with Ev2 = 60 MN/m² slightly be smaller than the one of ballast superstructure with Ev2 = 80 MN/m² [14].
Further requirements as for example the degree of compression Dpr (newly laid lines down to a depth of 3 m should have Dpr = 1) are almost identical [15]. A big difference between both superstructure systems is given by the required adjustability which e.g. is important for the adjustment of belated settlements. Because in case of a rigid slab track a settlement adjustment would only be possible within the rail fastening system this superstructure system should only be applied if the expected settlements of the subsoil was maximally equal to the adjustability of the rail fastening system. Otherwise extensive construction measures with accordant operational interferences might occur [13]. Thus an underground which is expected to settle/move relevantly over the whole life-time (e. g. moor) may be an exclusion criterion for rigid slab track [16]. In contrast settlements of a ballast superstructure usually can be compensated without earthwork. Bearing capacity and the settlement insensibility on engineering works such as tunnels or bridges are normally provided due to their construction. Basically both systems are insofar suitable. An advantage of rigid slab track mounted on engineering works is its less installa-
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tion height and its less system weight. Thus the share of engineering works is an essential decision criterion for the choice of superstructure system. Figure 3-13 gives an overview on the suitability of the superstructure system in dependence on significant subsoil characteris- tics.
Figure 3-13: Suitability of superstructure system in dependence on subsoil
Characteristics of subsoil rigid slab track ballast superstruture good capacity x x less capacity x (x) sensitive to settlement (x) x engineering works x (x)
3.1.4.8 The dependence on further parameters
3.1.4.8.1 Application of eddy current brake
In order to reach the required braking deceleration from high velocities on lines with a steep downhill grade the wear-free eddy current brake comes more and more into operation (see section 3.1.4.5). But by the use of this brake type the rail temperature is arising resulting in an additional rail tension. Furthermore, in curves and in sections with a bad rail level and position, the in- creased longitudinal rail forces cause additional transversal forces. The rigid slab track is able to assimilate these additional forces in a much higher amount. Ballast superstructure is less suitable for these additional loads or respectively has to be especially upgraded for this purpose. This is to be done by installing larger and heavier sleepers like for example sleep- ers of the type B90 [21] and by a ballast broadening in front of the sleeper heads as well. The advantage of ballast superstructure regarding construction costs would accordingly decrease compared to rigid slab track. Should the eddy current brake be applied as service brake then the range of expectable increases in rail temperature has to be determined and verified in dependence on train number and expectable frequency of brake applications in order to en- sure that the intended superstructure system is able to assimilate the additional forces. Be- fore applying the eddy current brake it also has to be verified that there are no negative im- pacts on signalling technology, e. g. in the form of undesired influences on track circuits.
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3.1.4.8.2 Flying Ballast Stones due to high Velocities
Around high speed at full speed suction forces are generated because of swirled air masses and air turbulences. Their amplitude is influenced by the vehicle aerodynamics. Caused by the suck ballast stones might be hoicked and might destroy components of infrastructure and vehicle. This risk can be reduced by special aerodynamic modifications of the bottom side and the crossover areas between the vehicles. But these modifications are not able to fully remove the risk of flying ballast especially at velocities above 250 kph. The described prob- lem does not exist in case of rigid slab track.
3.1.4.8.3 Noise Generation and Distribution
Regarding ballast superstructure approx. 2/3 of the required rail elasticity is provided by the roadbed and the subsoil, whereas approx. 1/3 is provided by relatively hard rail pads directly below the rail foot. In case of a rigid slab track all of the rail elasticity has to be delivered by the rail pads, which therefore have to be elastic. The smoother the elastic rail pads directly below the rail foots are the stronger are the rail vibrations and thus the noise generation. Furthermore the sur- face of a rigid slab track is hard and thus reflects more airborne noise than a ballast super- structure. The differences between both systems are so dominant that expenses for passive and active noise reduction measures may be influenced significantly. The stronger reflexion of airborne sound on the reverberant surface of rigid slab track can be reduced by absorption elements or – in the lower speed range – by ballasting.
3.1.4.8.4 Deconstruction and modification of track layout
Ballast superstructure allows modifications of the track position in level and height in a cer- tain range, and besides those modifications of the track layout as well as track deconstruc- tion with comparatively low effort. In contrast rigid slab tracks require high constructional efforts for track deconstruction as well as for track position modification measures as far as they exceed the adjustability of the rail
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fasteners. The application of rigid slab tracks in stations should therefore be restricted to the through main tracks.
3.1.4.8.5 Derailments
Derailments might induce higher damages to a rigid slab track than to a ballast superstruc- ture leading to a longer line closure for damage removal. Since derailments of freight wagons occur more often compared to passenger cars the application of rigid slab track on lines for freight transport is among these aspect rather disadvantageous.
3.1.5 Favourite Superstructure System
As described in the previous chapters the investigated corridors may be classified into two groups:
1. corridors admitting the application of relatively broad parameters of line layout be- cause of the topographic conditions
The corridors Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stockholm are both in this group.
The future lines of these corridors show the following characteristics (compare WP 400): - large radii, - little cant deficiencies, - little longitudinal gradients (max. 12,5 ‰), - relatively small share of engineering works (e. g. tunnels), - and mixed traffic of passenger and freight trains. Having regard to these line characteristics (especially the mixed traffic mode) and the afore discussed aspects of superstructure system suitability the application of ballast superstruc- ture provides more benefit to these lines outside of longer tunnels and bridges as far as the high-speed vehicles may be aerodynamically designed to control the problem of flying ballast stones.
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2. corridors requiring the full range of line layout parameters up to the tresholds due to the topographic conditions
The corridors Oslo – Kristiansand or - Stavanger respectively as well as Oslo – Bergen be- long to this second group. The future lines of these corridors show the following characteristics (compare WP 400): - relatively small radii, - high cant deficiencies (max. 150 mm) - steep longitudinal gradients (max. 35,0 ‰), - relatively high share of engineering works, - predominantly pure passenger transport, eventually coming with premium, light freight transport These characteristics, especially the application of the tracing thresholds, argue for the appli- cation of rigid slab track. This is effective despite the reduced traffic load without freight trains or with only light freight transport.
The identified tendencies have to be founded by quantitative studies during the project con- cretion.
3.1.6 Requirements for High-Speed Turn-outs
Turn-outs which are intended to be run with high velocities have far in excess to the usual requirements to be adapted to the appearing higher loads by geometric, constructive, signal- technical and as the case may be by metallurgic turn-out components. Regarding the high velocity it has thereby to be differentiated between major track and branch track. If a higher velocity (at least) is intended to be run in the major track the turn-out will have to be equipped as follows: constructive
- Inclination of running surface
In order to achieve a smooth and preferably undisturbed vehicle run leading to low wear a track-typical equivalent conicity should be provided by the installation of an expedient inclina-
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tion of the running surface (e. g. 1:40, even though according to TSI Infrastructure Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. up to 250 km/h permissible without inclina- tion).
- Wear-minimising blade device
The installation of so-called wear-minimising blade devices (e. g. WITEC® [23]or FAKOP® [24]) advances the vehicle run and thus avoids the wear of the blade devices as well. constructive:
- Application of big rail profiles (e. g. UIC60)
The great dynamic loads induced by high velocities require flexural resistant and well load distributing rail profiles with a huge wear reserve.
- Application of turn-out sleepers made of concrete
Concrete Sleepers are cheep, durable and provide a high track stability due to the large weight.
- Divided long sleepers with vibration-obliterating coupling
Using divided long sleepers the transport of totally pre-assembled turn-out corpuses may be carried out from the turn-out production plant to the installation site with standard wagons. The construction of vibration-obliterating coupling is well-suited to influence long sleepers vibration-technically positive. The turn-out installation becomes eased. The main track is ac- cessible without the necessity of a fully mounted branch track.
- Adjusted track stiffness in the turn-out
In order to transfer the turnout-specific higher dynamic loads preferably damage-less into the ballast the track stiffness in certain turn-out areas has especially to be adjusted (stiffness in the track approx. 135 kN/mm; required stiffness in the blade device and in the crossing frog of a turn-out 85 kN/mm). Regarding rigid slab track the typical track stiffness of 62 KN/mm can be installed over the total turn-out length.
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- Adjusted transition track – turn-out
The transition zones between track and turn-out have necessarily to be designed specificly in order to avoid stiffness leaps (e. g. by sleepers B90 with elastic rail pads Zw 900).
- Special locking sleepers
Locking sleepers contain besides the rail fastening system a range of facilities which are necessary for the turn-out actuation such as locking parts, shifting parts and heating devices. By use of locking sleepers weak points in the roadbed, caused by poor tamping, may be avoided.
- Movable point of crossing [18]
In order to remove the discontinuity of the running edge (and to avoid impacts) leading to a bad vehicle run, high loadings and wear it is suitable to install movable points of crossing (even though according to TSI up to 280 km/h fixed points of crossing are permissible).
Signalling technology:
- Save and secure shifting system
The shifting system has to be able to recognise obstacles in the moving area of movable turn-out components (e. g. using blade detectors)
- Suitable locking device, possibly with vertical suppression
A maintenance-free, self-regulating locking should be applied (e. g. ratchet locking) [22].
- Blade roller devices
In order to minimise the shifting forces the application of blade roller devices is suitable. The blade roller devices have furthermore not to be lubricated leading to a reduction of mainte- nance efforts.
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metallurgic:
- metallurgic conditioning of turn-out components
A metallurgic conditioning (e. g. heat conditioning of rail heads) is recommendable in order to minimise wear.
In the case that the branch track shall be run with a high velocity as well: geometric:
- geometry of branch track
The geometry of the branch track should designed with clothoids before and if applicable behind the circular arcs of the branch track or otherwise as compound curves. This design enables branch track speeds of 200 km/h and more (e. g. 220 km/h using the turn-out type EW 60-17 000/7300-1:50 fb with a length of 180 m).
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3.2 WP 322 – Operation, Signalling Systems and Dispatching Systems
For the year of the prognosis is 2020, conventional Safety and Signalling Systems from to- day are not a good way for application. The big number of different safety systems in Europe is a barrier for a generous application of one type of train in many countries. Thereby it is in respect of interoperability necessary to use a generally European safety system.
3.2.1 ERMTS and its components
[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45]
ERMTS is a combination of GSM-R, ETCS and Dispatching-System. The “Global System for Mobile Communications - Rail(way)” (GSM-R) is the System for exchange of data and lan- guage-information as a replacement for analogue train radio and will be applianced in Nor- way. The dispatching-system serves the traffic regulation. At the corridor Rotterdam – Milano it will be tested.
The ETCS is a part of the “European Rail Traffic Management System” (ERMTS).
The “European Train Control System” (ETCS) for High-Speed-Railways is the future of sig- nalling systems. This system will be tested e.g. by “Deutsche Bahn”, „Schweizerische Bundesbahnen“ (SBB), „Trenitalia“ (FS) and other railways. The SBB has realised this sys- tem in a small part of their network. A further realisation is planned.
Figure 3-14: Overview about the important Train-Control-Systems of Europe [39]
Name of System Transmission-System Country Systems with punktual transmission of informations Indusi / PZB 90 Inductive Resonance System Germany, Austria Crocodile Sliding Contact France, Belgium, Luxembourg Signum Magnetic System Schweiz ZUB 121 Transponder, Short Loop Schwitzerland ZUB 123 Transponder, Short Loop Denmark TBL 1, TBL 2 Transponder Belgium KVB Transponder France AWS Magnetic System Great Britain ASFA Induktive Resonance System Spain EBICAB 2 Transponder Norway, Sweden L 10 000 Transponder Sweden Systems with continuous linear transmission of Informations LZB Cable-Line Conductor Germany, Austria, Spain TVM 300, TVM 430 Coded Track Electric Circuit France, Belgium ATB Coded Track Electric Circuit Netherlands BACC 1, BACC 2 Coded Track Electric Circuit Italy
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ETCS has the following advantages:
- interoperable System, - is enabling a better efficiency of the utilisation of tracks, - reduction of costs by investments, maintenance and operation because it is not nec- essary to have so much safety equipment of the lines by large spread of ETCS, - simplification of cross-border operation, - upper safety, - permanent controlling of allowed velocity, - controlling of the enabled track for the train, - smoothly execution of the railway operation in network-points, - increase of line-efficiency, - increase of maximum velocity and - better passenger information by real-time transmission. A very important advantage is the continuous transmission of stopping and driving com- mands like a conventional continuous safety system. In the following figure the necessary reduction of speed by using of a continuous (blue line) or a punctual safety system (black line) is shown. The moment of getting the driving command (t1 to t5) is varying and shows the potential of minimising loss of time.
Figure 3-15: Necessary speed reduction by conventional safety systems and by ETCS [45]
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In the next figure the minimising of loss of time by using ETCS in opposite to conventional punctual safety systems is shown. If the free-driving command will be earlier transmitted to the drivers cab, then it is possible to minimise the speed reduction and the loss of time is getting smaller.
Figure 3-16: Loss of time by different transmission-moments of free-driving command by conventional safety and by ETCS [45]
The implementation of the ETCS will be executed in three levels. In the level 1 following properties are installed:
- the stationary signalling system will be staying obtained, - ETCS is in this level a harmonised punctual train safety system – the commands of national systems will be translated in the language of ETCS by vehicle components, - the trains are running in the block-distance, - the lines will be equipped with Euro-Balises, which are working as a transponder, - the vehicles read the informations of the balises, - conventional rail clearance signal, - conventional train integrity test, - for a better and faster transmission of commands, it will be used Euro-Loop for a par- tial continuous transmission.
The Level 1 of ETCS is the first step to integrate the ETCS in the network by using the old and also the new safety systems. The following figure shows the necessary equipment of infrastructure.
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Figure 3-17: ETCS - Level 1 [45]
The Level 2 of ETCS is enabling the following functions additional to Level1:
- several speed-profiles for e.g. tilting-trains and conventional trains, - flexible speed-adaption (faster running) over complex area with switches, - utilisation of the ETCS-Informations for the continuous, precise and safe tracing of movement of trains, - assistance of the tracing of movement of trains, - succession of train will be implemented by fixed block sections, - the signalling is also in the drivers cab, - conventional rail clearance signal, - conventional train integrity test, - continuous running recommendation and - increasing of the capability with flexible parameterised braking curves.
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The following figure shows the necessary equipment of the second ETCS-Level.
Figure 3-18: ETCS - Level 2 [45]
The Level 3 of ETCS have following properties:
- radio-based distance headway control of trains, - fixed rail clearance equipment is not necessary, the trains are locating them self by balises or by odometers, - the train integrity test will be made self by the trains, - the fixed blocks will be changed to moving blocks, - the rail clearance signal will be given in cycle of location messages, - if the location messages are effectual short, then a quasi continuous running com- mands is possible, - running of train in absolutely in braking distance and - continuous and safe speed control with signalling in to drivers cab.
A disadvantage is, that no fixed signalling system is existing as a redundancy. The following figure shows the infrastructure equipment of level 3.
Figure 3-19: ETCS - Level 3 [45]
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3.2.2 Vehicle-based Equipment [45] The vehicle-based equipment (EUROCAB) includes:
- the ETCS-Bus, an adapted bus-system, which guarantee the communication be- tween the different control elements and enables the data-exchange between ETCS and conventional continuous signalling systems, - the ETCS-vehicle-computer, - the ETCS-antenna and - the signalling-system in the drivers cab und other small components.
3.2.3 Infrastructure-based Equipment [45]
The requirements of the implementation of ETCS is the completely modernisation of the con- trol- and safety-technology of the lines.
The equipment of the lines are:
- the Euro-Radio-/GSM-R-transmitter locations, - the railway control centres must be in elektronical technology, - the line-control-centres, often combined with big electronical railway-control-centres, - the Radio Block Centres / (GSM-R-Centres), - the Balises (Eurobalises) at the track with different frequenzies without power supply (no costly cables) and - the Infill-Loops (EURO-Loop).
Per kilometre of double track, it will be necessary to have ca. 6 balises.
Figure 3-20: Functional block diagram [45]
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3.3 WP 323 – Analysing Technical Basic Conditions of Rail Vehicles
3.3.1 Technical basic conditions of existing High-Speed Trains
Figure 3-21 shows the technical basic conditions of existing High-Speed Trains with different traction configurations. The target is to clarify, which concept could be adapted to a high- speed train for the new routes. The first two trains (ICE 2 and TGV POS) are motor-coach trains with 2 motorcars and various non driven wagons. The ICE 3 is a multiple-unit set. The ICE T is a tilting train and also a multiple-unit set. Two different versions are shown. The X2000 is also a tilting train but with a motorcar.
Figure 3-21: Relevant technical basic conditions for existing trainsets
ICE T [25] ICE T [25] X2000 [27] ICE 2 [25] TGV POS ICE 3 [26] 5-car unit 7-car unit 5-car unit Train configuration motor-coach motor-coach multiple-unit multiple-unit multiple-unit motor-coach Maximum speed [kph] 280 320 330 230 230 200 Number of seats 389 380 441 250 381 302 Continous power [kW] 4800 6880 8000 3000 4000 3300 Starting tractive effort [kN] 200 400 300 150 [28] 200 [29] 160 Tare weight [t] 410 386 410 273 366 318 Gross weight [t] 440 [30] 423 440 [30] 298 [28] 402 [28] 343 Adhesion weight [t] 78 136 240 90 115 73 Maximum axle load [t] 19,5 [30] 17 < 17,0 15,0 16,6 17,5 Number of crank axles 4 8 16 6 8 4 Number of axles per [1/m] 0,15 0,13 0,16 0,15 0,15 0,17 trainlength
3.3.1.1 Assessment criterions
To clarify, which concept could adapted for the new trains, the existing high-speed trains analysed to various main criterions.
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3.3.1.2 Assessment criterion: Starting tractive effort for low adhesion coefficient
The motor-coach trains need very high adhesion coefficients μ>0,25 to achieve the maxi- mum starting effort. The multiple-unit sets required clearly lower coefficients. The ICE 3 need the lowest adhesion coefficient μ=0,13, due to the high adhesion weight.
Figure 3-22 shows the dependencies on the adhesion coefficient, tractive effort and starting acceleration. If the adhesion coefficient is 0,13 for all trains, due to unfavourable friction con- nection, the starting acceleration is insufficient for the motor-coach and the tilting trains. Only the multiple unit train with distributed traction is able to accelerate at the low adhesion coeffi- cient.
Figure 3-23 shows the effort/speed diagram of the analysed trains, with a adhesion coeffi- cient μ=0,13.
Figure 3-22: Starting acceleration for a high and a low adhesion coefficient ICE 2 TGV POS ICE 3 X2000 adhesion coefficient µ 0,26 0,13 0,30 0,13 0,13 0,13 0,22 0,13 starting tractive effort F [kN] 200 100 400 173 300 300 160 90 max. starting acceleration amax [m/s²] 0,40 0,20 0,85 0,37 0,63 0,63 0,41 0,24 ave. starting acceleration aave [m/s²] 0,27 0,16 0,39 0,24 0,36 0,36 0,27 0,19
Figure 3-23: Tractive effort/speed diagram with a adhesion coefficient µ=0,13 for all trains
350,0 red: motor-coach trains ICE 2 blue: multiple-unit trains TGV ICE 3 ICE 3 300,0 ICE T 5car ICE T 7car X2000 more tractive effort 250,0 due to the distributed traction configuration
200,0 TGV POS
150,0 Tractive effort [kN]
100,0
50,0
0,0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Velocity [km/h]
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3.3.1.3 Secure start on maximum gradient with a traction module out of service
Figure 3-24 shows, what happened if one traction module of the train failed, according to the TSI High speed. The motor-coach trains ICE 2 and X2000 could no start on the maximum gradient. Due to the high starting tractive effort by µ=0,30, the TGV POS is able to start on the maximum gradient.
If the adhesion coefficient is lower, only the multiple unit train can start, with a traction mod- ule out of service. The residual acceleration is higher than 0,05 m/s² according to the TSI
High Speed.
Figure 3-24: Secure starting on the maximum gradient with one traction module out of service
ICE 2 TGV POS ICE 3 X2000 adhesion coefficient µ 0,26 0,13 0,30 0,13 0,13 0,13 0,22 0,13 starting tractive effort with FT [kN] 100 50 300 130 225 225 80 45 one traction module failed
Gradient force force 35 ‰ FG [kN] 151 151 145 145 151 151 118 118 secure starting (FT>FG ?) no no yes no yes yes no no
3.3.1.4 Riding comfort and tilting technology systems
Through the use of tilting technology, which allows the car bodies to tilt up to 8°-10° when negotiating curves, the speed and the ride comfort is higher. The journey time can be short- ened by as much as 20 % on high-curvature routes. For new lines less structure (tunnels, bridges ...) is necessary.
Various tilting technologies are used:
1. passive: utilisation of gravity, tilt angle: 3°-5°, used by TALGO Pendular 2. active: control unit regularised an actuator, tilt angle: 8°-10°
- electromechanic, used by ICN SBB
- hydraulic, used by X2000 SJ, ICE T DB Figure 3-25 illustrates the running-speed in relation to the radius of curvature for conven- tional and tilting trains.
Figure 3-25: Running speed in relation to the radius of curvature for conventional and tilting trains
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350
300
250
200
150 Running speed v [km/h] 100
50 tilting train non-tilting train 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Radius of curvature R [m]
Figure 3-26: Increment of various tilting technolgies
Tilting system none anti-roll device passive active unbalanced lateral acceleration at bogie [m/s²] 0,65 0,8 1 1,4 1,8 2 v [kph], R = 300 m 80 83 88 300 225 225 v [kph], R = 700 m 122 127 134 147 159 164 increment [%] 0 4 9 20 30 34
Figure 3-26 shows the increment for various tilting systems. According to the maximum al- lowable lateral acceleration on the infrastructure, the running speed in curves raise up to 40 kph, so the speed is 34 % higher than the speed of a conventional train.
Figure 3-26 shows also, that the track forces are higher, due the higher curving speed. An other problem is the more sophisticated and heaver drive and bogie. According to the envi- ronmental conditions the snow deposit is also a problem for the bogies and it could happen, that the tilt mechanism is constricted.
Other factors also offer a higher ride comfort. For fewer vibrations and shocks, secondary airspring suspensions should be used. With pressure-tight doors and pressure-tight car bod- ies including the air condition the pressure variation in tunnels is more gentle. Flush windows and doors, optimised aerodynamically nose section and pantographs optimised the inside and outside noise behaviour.
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3.3.1.5 Conclusion
As a result of these treatments, only a multiple-set train is relevant for further treatments.
According to the TSI High-Speed only a multiple-train with distributed drive is able to start at maximum grad at a low adhesion coefficient. The starting tractive effort of the motor-coach trains is not high enough for a high starting acceleration at low adhesion coefficients.
3.3.2 Specification of a new high-speed trainset
Based on the achievements of the last section, four concepts for new high-speed trainset are introduced. First the main demands and most relevant TSI facts are shown. Afterwards the four concepts are shown detailed. Aerodynamic effects of side or head wind, the aerody- namically situation in long tunnels and the environmental conditions also discussed.
3.3.2.1 Main demands of the new rolling stock
The new rolling stock must meet the following main demands, according to operate on the new lines:
- rolling stock according to the TSI – high speed [31] - maximum speed of up to 250 – 300 kph - climbing gradients up to 30 ‰ or 35 ‰ according to the TSI - capacity 300 – 400 seats - maximum axle load 18 t for operating on Gardermoen high-speed-line - high starting effort at low adhesion coefficients - high reliability at low adhesion coefficients and climatic conditions - operation as multi-section trains - feasible assignment of tilting technology Figure 3-27 shows selective relevant specifications of the Technical Specification for Interop- erability for new High-Speed trains relating to the rolling stock subsystem (TSI).
Based on these demands and according to the analyses of the last chapter, four train con- cepts developed.
Figure 3-27: Specific requirements of TSI High-Speed
Minimum accelerations calculated over time
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0 < v ≤ 40 kph 0 < v ≤ 120 kph 0 < v ≤ 160 kph
0,58 m/s² 0,32 m/s² 0,17 m/s²
Residual acceleration at maximum service speed: 0,05 m/s².
A failed traction module shall not deprive the trainset of more than 25 % of its rated output.
Maximum traction adhesion coefficient at start up at 100 kph at 200 kph at 300 kph
0,25 0,25 0,175 0,10
Maximum brake adhesion coefficient
50 ≤ v ≤ 200 kph 200 < v ≤ 350 kph
0,15 0,10
Minimum average decelerations, normal service braking (time of application 2 sec)
330 ≥ v ≥ 300 kph 300 > v ≥ 230 kph 230 > v ≥ 170 kph 170 > v ≥ 0 kph 0,35 m/s² 0,35 m/s² 0,6 m/s² 0,6 m/s²
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3.3.2.2 Basic facts of the new High Speed Trains
3.3.2.2.1 Basic conditions of the new rolling stock
Based on the analyses, four multiple-unit train concepts are proposed for the new high-speed lines.
The four concepts characterised by:
- multiple-unit trains with distributed traction configuration - maximum speed up to 300 kph or 250 kph also in long tunnels with higher aerody- namic resistance - high starting/braking efforts - needed adhesion coefficient: 0,13 - high percentage of driven axles und low axle loads - up to 2 units can be coupled up to each other as multi-section train - up to 500 – 600 seats of a multi-section train
The basic technical conditions are listed in Figure 3-28.
Figure 3-28: Relevant technical basic conditions for the new trainsets
Concept 1 Concept 2 Concept 3 Concept 4 Basic datas Non-tilting trains Tilting trains Train configuration multiple-unit multiple-unit multiple-unit multiple-unit Maximum speed [kph] 300 300 250 250 Number of seats 300 250 300 200 Number of units 6 5 6 4 Continous power [kW] 7000 7000 4400 4000 Starting tractive effort [kN] 300 250 300 150 Tare weight [t] 310 260 310 220 Gross weight [t] 335 280 335 225 Adhesion weight [t] 240 200 240 115 Number of axles 24 20 24 16 Number of crank axles 16 12 16 8 average acceleration up to 80 kph [m/s²] 0,81 0,81 0,75 0,57 average acceleration up to vmax [m/s²] 0,46 0,50 0,40 0,37
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3.3.2.2.2 Traction and braking features
The trains will be specially assigned to operate on the new high speed lines. Due to the dis- tributed traction configuration, the trains can climbed grades of up to 35 ‰ according to the TSI High-Speed and allows high traction and braking forces by a low adhesion coefficients μ=0,13.
The tractive/electrical braking – velocity diagram for the four trainsets is shown in Figure 3-29.
Figure 3-29: Tractive and electrical braking efforts for the four trainset concepts, adhesion coefficient µ=0,13
350,0 maximum service speed of the non-tilting trains, acceleration 0,05 m/s² 250,0 and head wind maximum service speed of the tilting trains, acceleration 0,05 m/s² and head wind 150,0
50,0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 -50,0
-150,0 Concept 1 Concept 2 -250,0
Electrical braking effort kN] Tractive effort [kN] Tractive effort [kN] Electrical braking effort kN] Concept 3 Concept 4
-350,0 Velocity [km/h]
Due to the high starting efforts of the concepts, all trains have high starting accelerations, also for higher gradients. Figure 3-30 shows the distance as a function of the gradient to en- able train speed starting from zero to reach the maximum speed for the 4 concepts.
According to the higher gradient force, the speed differences at the same distance should raise up to 100 kph. The average acceleration of concept 1and 2 is higher than 0,5 m/s² and higher than 0,3 m/s² for concept 3 and 4 up to v=100 kph at 30 ‰ gradient.
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Figure 3-30: Starting distance as a function of maximum speed and gradient
300
100 km/h grad: 0 ‰ 250
200 grad: 30 ‰ maximum service speed and 60 km/h starting distance for grad 0 ‰ and 30 ‰ 150
Velocity [km/h] Velocity speed difference at the same distance: 60 km/h due the higher gradient force 100 Concept 1, 0 ‰ Concept 2, 0 ‰ Concept 3, 0 ‰ Concept 4, 0 ‰ 50 Concept 1, 30 ‰ Concept 2, 30 ‰ Concept 3, 30 ‰ Concept 4, 30 ‰
0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000 Distance [m]
3.3.2.2.3 Drive concept of the tilting trains
The drive concept of the tilting trains is different to the existing concepts with an axle drive, articulated drive shaft and traction motor under the car. The new concept will determine, that the traction motors are being installed in the production bogies, similar to the non-tilting HST. This concept is also used by the tilting train BR 605 for German Railways. To realize the high friction mass due the high traction and brake efforts, this drive concept is necessary.
The concepts 3 and 4 could be also non-tilting trainsets with a maximum speed 250 kph.
3.3.2.2.4 Trainset configurations
The basic trainset configurations with the distributed traction configurations are shown in Figure 3-31.
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The following configuration investigated:
1. trainset with maximum speed 300 kph and 300 seats
2. trainset with maximum speed 300 kph and 250 seats
3. tilting trainset with maximum speed 250 kph and 300 seats
4. tilting trainset with maximum speed 250 kph and 200 seats
Figure 3-31: Basic trainset configurations for the 4 concepts
Concept 1 + 3
EC 1 TC 1 CC 1 CC 2 TC 2 EC 2
●● □ ●● ○○ ■ ○○ ●● □ ●● ●● □ ●● ○○ ■ ○○ ●● □ ●●
Concept 2
EC 1 TC 1 CC 1 TC 2 EC 2
●● □ ●● ○○ ■ ○○ ●● □ ●● ○○ ■ ○○ ●● □ ●●
Concept 4
EC 1 CC 1 CC 2 EC 2
○○ ■ ○○ ●● □ ●● ●● □ ●● ○○ ■ ○○
Symbols:
● powered axle EC – End car
○ non-powered axle TC – Transformer car
□ traction converter CC – Converter car
■ transformer
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3.3.2.2.5 Concept 1: Trainset with maximum speed 300 kph – 6 Cars
The top speed of this trainset concept is up to 300 kph. The 6-car train seats approx 300 passengers. The three-phase asynchronous traction motors develops a power output of 7000 kW, high traction efforts of up to 300 kN by a low adhesion coefficient 0,13. The adhe- sion weight of the train is high, because of two-thirds axles are driven.
The power output allowed for the higher aerodynamic resistance in long tunnels, so the maximum speed in tunnels can be achieved (see
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Figure 3-33). According to the TSI High-Speed the residual acceleration at maximum service speed in open field is 0,06 m/s². Up to 80 kph the starting acceleration is higher than 0,8 m/s². Because of that, the train can reach high service speed and short journey time also by short stop distances.
Figure 3-32 shows the tracting effort/speed diagram for concept 1 for various adhesion coef- ficients with typical train resistances: gradients up to 40 ‰ and in long tunnels. Thanks to the distributed traction configuration the train can climb grades up of 40 ‰ while a very low ad- hesion coefficient µ=0,08 with an maximum speed of 170 kph.
Figure 3-32: Tractive effort/speed diagram with typical train resistance values for different gradients in open air and tunnel situation
350,0 tractive effort by various adhesion coefficents train resistance for various gradients open air µmax = 0,13 train resistance tunnel situation 300,0
250,0 µmax = 0,10
grad 40 ‰ 200,0 µmax = 0,08 grad 30 ‰
150,0 grad 20 ‰ Tractive effort [kN] grad 10 ‰ grad 0 ‰, 100,0 tunnel situation grad 0 ‰
50,0
0,0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Velocity [km/h]
3.3.2.2.6 Concept 2: Trainset with maximum speed 300 kph – 5 Cars
The drive concept is equivalent to the first concept. The train consists of 5 cars, so the train seats 250 passengers. The lower train length has no important bearing on the aerodynamic resistance in tunnels. Due to that fact, the power output is similar to the first concept.
The average acceleration of the 5 car train is higher than the 6 car train, due to the lower weight.
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The maximum starting effort is lower than the first concept, because of the lower adhesion weight. The maximum speed is higher for high gradients, due to the lower overall weight.
This concept allows high service speed also by high gradients and a high accelerations up to the maximum speed.
3.3.2.2.7 Concept 3: HST Tilting train with maximum speed 250 kph – 6 Cars
The 6 car concept 3 is equipped with a tilting technology and reached a maximum service speed of 250 kph. According to concept 1, two-thirds axles are driven, so the traction motors should installed in the production bogies, due to the high starting acceleration. The maximum power output is 4,4 MW. The maximum speed of 250 kph achieved also in long tunnels with a higher aerodynamic resistance. The residual acceleration at maximum service speed in open field is higher than the TSI limit.
These trains specially assigned to operate on new high-speed lines and also on the high cur- vature lines of the existing electrified network with a high service speed.
It is also possible to design these trains as non-tilting trains with a maximum speed of 250 kph.
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3.3.2.2.8 Concept 4: HST Tilting trainset with maximum speed 250 kph – 4 Cars
The concept 4 shows a 4 car tilting train, so it is designed for lower passenger quantities. Because of that, these units could be coupled together to permit flexible adjustment to ever changing ridership demands.
The 4-car train seats approx 200 passengers.
Both intermediate cars of a trainset are driven, with a converter for each car. Because of this traction configuration 50 % of the axles being driven, with a high friction weight.
The maximum service speed is up to 250 kph with a power output of 4 MW. Because of the low overall weight of the train and the starting effort of 150 kN by a adhesion coefficient of 0,13 the maximum acceleration raise up to 0,57 m/s².
It is also possible to design these trains for non-tilting trains with a maximum speed of 250 kph and lower passenger quantities.
3.3.2.3 Aerodynamic effects
3.3.2.3.1 Side and head wind
The traction effort must consider the aerodynamic effects of side and head wind [32]
Side winds effects forces in transverse and longitudinal directions. The transverse forces effects additional wheel relieving forces while striking of the flange against the rail head and could causes derailments, particularly by driving trailers with low weights.
The longitudinal forces works against the direction of traffic. This is considered by a head wind speed coefficient Δv = 15 kph. For the maximum speed the rolling resistance raised up approx 6 kN (shown in
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Figure 3-33 for concept 1).
Additional ascending forces occurs at the front because of depression at the top of the driv- ing trailer.
Rounding the longitudinal edges (side wall – roof, front – roof and the roof) effects lower transverse and ascending forces. Increasing the weight of the driving trailers should avoid derailments by heavy side or head winds.
3.3.2.3.2 Aerodynamic resistance in long tunnels
The aerodynamic resistance of a train passing through long tunnels is higher than on open track. The main factors are:
1. cross-sectional area of tunnel and train (train/tunnel blockage ratio),
2. length of tunnel and train,
3. frictional drag of tunnel and train surface.
These factors expressed by a tunnel factor:
Tf=aerodynamic drag in the tunnel / aerodynamic drag in the open air.
The train/tunnel blockage ratio for the proposed trains can be calculated to:
2 2 B=Str/Stu= 11,47m /67m =0,171
According to [33] and [34] the effect of tunnel length and train speed is very low for this blockage ratio. A high blockage ratio increased the aerodynamic resistance especially for high speeds.
For length of tunnels between 2 and 20 km, a train length of 100 m and train speeds up to
350 kph the tunnel factor is Tf=1,7. For a train length of 300 m the factor is Tf=1,6.
According to [35], the tunnel factor Tf=1,4 was measured for the ICE 1 train for all tunnels (double track) and all train lengths.
Due to these studies, a Tf=1,5 will be accepted for the proposed trains. According to the EN
14067 [33] the whole rolling resistance of the train in the tunnel is: Fw=a+b*v+TF*c*v²
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The coefficient of the aerodynamic resistance for the whole train increased about the factor 1,5. This is shown in
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Figure 3-33 for higher speeds of concept 1. For the maximum speed the rolling resistance in the tunnel is 25 kN higher than in open air and the possible speed in the tunnel is 300 kph.
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Figure 3-33: Tractive effort/speed diagram (extract) for concept 1 with typical train resistance values in tunnels and head wind influence
tractive effort 120,0 train resistance for various gradients open air train resistance tunnel situation train resistance with head wind
100,0
80,0
grad 10 ‰ 25 kN
Tractive effort [kN] Tractive 60,0 maximum grad 0 ‰, tunnel speed by maximum situation grad 0 ‰, head head wind wind speed in tunnels and maximum service speed incl. 0,05 m/s² 40,0 acceleration in open field (according TSI) maximum speed in open field grad 0 ‰
20,0 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 Velocity [km/h]
3.3.2.4 Environmental conditions
The trainsets must be able to withstand secure and reliable the rigorous Nordic winter. The following environmental conditions should be considered:
- outside temperatures up to –40°C, climate zone III for Norway according to the UIC 553,
- thermal fluctuations from a wet maritime climate with temperatures near zero to dry and cold climate,
- extrem snow conditions of the Norwegian winter,
- high wind speed and
- high risk of animal collisions. Based on these boundary conditions some recommendations of the vehicle design and con- struction are given.
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3.3.2.4.1 Climate resistance
The vehicle and the equipment must have a climate resistance up to low temperatures. The materials must have the necessary attributes also by low temperatures.
If the electric power supply interrupted, the inside temperature of the train does not decrease under a minimal value over a specific period. So a closed heating could be necessary.
For a failure-free door function also a special heating may be installed.
According to UIC 553, a sufficient heat insulation must be installed, to keep the limiting tem- perature values of the window panes and frames and exterior walls. In this context it is nec- essary to keep the fire protection regulation according UIC 779-9 and 564-2.
3.3.2.4.2 Thermal fluctuations
The thermal fluctuations between long tunnels/open air and maritime climate/cold and dry climate lead to heavy condensations in the air pipes. On this account a powerful air drying system is needed. Also the isolation system must consider this fact.
The air condition must work fast and reliable under the thermal fluctuations to assure a con- stant ambient temperature.
3.3.2.4.3 Snow conditions
According the snow conditions, the surface of the filters for traction motors, power electron- ics, contingency operations, air conditions… should be as huge as possible, so enough cool- ing air is available by frosted or snow covered filter surface. The fan inlets should be at the upper part of the train, so they’re more protected against snow. It could also necessary to install heatings to defrost the filters.
The trainset must a have sufficient dimensioned snow-plough blade and the underfloor area should be protected by laggings, to reduce snow deposit. The underfloor equipment should be arranged in closed boxes.
After long straight track running or after running in long tunnels with higher temperatures in- side or close to warm surfaces inside the bogie (traction motor), it could happen, that some
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parts of the bogie frosted, so the turnability could be constricted. So tests and optimisations in the Vienna Climate Chamber is recommended [36][37].
3.3.2.4.4 Snow deposit
Snow deposit inside of the bogies should not influence the function of springs or dampers. If necessary, they could protected by bellows. Sensors esp. wheel slips should not be located outside of the axle boxes.
For tilting trains it is important, that snow deposit does not constrict the tilt angle.
3.3.2.4.5 Front structure
The trainset must have a sufficient side wind stability, particular the driving trailer. The rating of the train must be laid out that way, that a heavy headwinds not produce out-of-course run- nings. According to this and aerodynamic effects in tunnels the front of the train must be op- timised.
The end cars of the first 3 concepts are driven. In concept 4 the transformers are located at the end cars. The weight of these cars should high enough to guarantee a sufficient side and head wind stability.
Further more the front structure must be constructed that way, that animal collisions not in- volve heavy disadvantages or cancellations of the train. Reinforced front structures should be necessary.
3.3.2.4.6 Adhesion coefficient
Corresponding to the environmental conditions, it is assumed, that the adhesion coefficient is frequently low. The adhesion coefficient depends mainly on climatic conditions but also on train speed, shown in Figure 3-34.
The maximum adhesion coefficient needed by the train should be in the range of 0,08 up to 0,2 to achieve a high reliability. Due to that fact the train must have a sensitive wheel-track adhesion control. The traction control must afford an optimal adhesion utilisation. For an op-
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timal utilisation it would be the best to divide the traction system into separate traction mod- ules (per bogie), so the slip and the tractive/brake efforts can adjusted according to the real adhesion coefficient. So the maximum efforts assigned also for unfavourable friction connec- tions (start by maximum gradient or alternating situations between tunnels and open air).
Figure 3-34: Adhesion coefficient in relation to train speed and climatic conditions
0,2 acceleration
0,18 deceleration average values for wet conditions 0,16
0,14
0,12
0,1
0,08 adhesion coefficient µ coefficient adhesion 0,06 minimum values in frost 0,04
0,02
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 velocity [km/h]
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3.4 WP 324 – Further Railway-Technical Analysis
The utilisation of trains is very dependent on the offer of High-Speed-Railway-Service. Be- side this important aspect there are many other aspects, which can influence positive the utilisation of the offer. Therefore following aspects should be integrated in an integral plan- ning (infrastructure, operation, vehicle):
Accessibillity
Under accessibility must be analysed the way to the platforms. The stairs must be wide enough and also elevators or lifts must be available for persons who are limited in their mo- bility. The entrance into the trains must be in the same level. The quota of passengers with luggage is about 50% and passengers with destination Oslo-Lufthavn Gardermoen (10 – 20%) usually have large luggage. Therefore each stair is complicated for handling with large and heavy luggage. The train BM 73 (Gardermoen-Express) gives a solution, where the en- trance area is constructed wide and with only one stair. Also this area and the doors are wide and permit a fast exchange of passengers. The width of doors should be more than 900 mm. Entrance- and exit-areas should have only low stages (less than 200 mm). The better way is when the train don’t have stairs like the S-Bahn-situation at Germany. For a fast exchange of passenger each passenger-car should have two doors per vehicle side.
Figure 3-35: Seats per door
Train Seats per Door Train Seats per Door X 2000 23 Krengetog BM73 26 ICE 1 29 ICN 33 ICE 2 37 Talgo 350 26 ICE 3 33 ETR 470 30 ICE T 36 ETR 500 28 TGV Atlantique 49
A lower value of seats per door has the advantage of a faster exchange of persons. A higher value of seats per lenght of train (passenger cars) shows a better utilisation of the vehicle area. These two aspects are contrary but for trains with a small number of stops a higher quota of seats per door is acceptable.
An other kind of analysing is the quota of seats per length of the vehicle. This shows the utili- sation of the vehicle-area. A high value is a good utilization of the car-area but it is also a
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question of the comfort by seat-distances or additional multi-purpose area. Concerning the comfort the distances of the seats is the best aspect.
Figure 3-36: Seats per length of vehicle
Train Seats per Lenght Train Seats per Lenght of Vehicle of Vehicle [Seats/m] [Seats/m] X 2000 1,8 Krengetog BM73 2,3 ICE 1 2,1 ICN 2,7 ICE 2 2,4 Talgo 350 4,3 ICE 3 2,1 ETR 470 2,0 ICE T 2,1 ETR 500 2,1 TGV Atlantique 2,5
Luggage Rack
Applicative luggage racks over seats for hand-luggage and separate areas for situating of large luggage are necessary for the high quota of passengers with luggage.
The width of doors should be more than 900 mm. For getting the place to sit down with lug- gage the aisle width should be in the minimum 550 mm.
Media-Supply
For the long ways (Trondheim / Bergen / Stavanger to Oslo) the passenger-cars should have the newest interface for notebooks for the application of internet and energy. There should be given also a detailed information of the passengers about the punctuality of the train, the next stations with their connections and offers in the train.
Restoration
The trains should have one car with bistro and restaurant. By length of travel-times about one hour a catering service provides an additional quality in the trains.
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Sanitary Area
The toilettes and wash-areas should be easy to clean and all corners should be round that the dirt can not be getting closed. Also it must be possible that a handicapped person can use these areas.
Seating
The seating in the wagons should have a minimum of distance. This is a scale of comfort.
The following distances between the seats should be used:
First Class:
- Vis-á-Vis-Seating: 1950 – 2000 mm - Serial Seating: 1000 – 1100 mm
Second Class:
- Vis-á-Vis-Seating: 1850 – 1900 mm - Serial Seating: 900 – 1000 mm
Figure 3-37: Criteria of Comfort – Seat-Distances of different Trains
Quota of second and first class
The quota of first and second class is dependent on the demand of both classes. The exist- ing High-Speed-Trains have following proportion of first and second class-areas and the av- eraged quota of first class seats is 25 – 30 %.
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Figure 3-38: Quota of first and second class of existing high-speed-trains
Train-Configuration
For the general partition of the train-concepts the concepts of “FGS” are the base of it. The 6- pieced train has the highest quota of the first class with 33 %.
Figure 3-39: Train-Configuration
Train-configuration:
First class quota: Second Class First Class Concept 1 + 3 Æ 33% Restaurant/Bistro Concept 2 Æ 30% Concept 4 Æ 25%
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3.5 WP 325 – Electric Power Supply Analysis
The electric power supply is partitioned in two thematic sections:
- the power supply and
- the catenary.
Figure 3-40: Electric Power Systems for Railways in Europe [45]
In Norway the power system of 15 kV and 16,7 Hz is established. The decision for this sys- tem was at the time of implementation electrotechnical aspects, because the motors of this time had better properties by this frequency. The fire at the collector was by this frequency
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reduced and this was a positive impact of the maintenance of the electric motors. Other state railways have chosen the system of 25 kV and 50 Hz, of 3.000 V DC or 1.500 V DC.
The System of 25 kV and 50 Hz is the typical power frequency of all public applications. Thereby it is easy to transform this electricity into the specific voltage of 25 kV. The today’s locomotives with their electrotechnical equipment have no problem with the fire of collectors and the application of this system is for an implementation of a new electric system the best variant.
The direct current systems are chosen because these motors are very simple also the han- dling of this power system. The disadvantages of this system are the short distances of power sub stations and the necessary return conductor because it would be given a corro- sion of all metal components (track, pipes, etc.) in the near of the line.
The in Norway established system (15 kV / 16,7 Hz) will be hold. The next country with a land connection is Sweden. The Swedish Rail has also the same power system. In this con- text it is not necessary to change the power system for interoperability.
The next figure shows the different power systems of railways in Europe.
3.5.1 Electric-Power-Supply
Each electric railway line must have equipment for the feed-in of energy. Thereby it is neces- sary to build electric-power-sub-stations (EPSS).
HSR-Line Köln-Rhein/Main [47][50][51]:
Ø-Distance between EPSS: 18,95 km Number of EPSS: 8 + 2 EPSS Maximum Current: 3 kA (4 ICE-3-Trains with maximal power-demand in one sec- tion of a elctric-power-sub-station; two coupeled ICE 3: 1460 A by acceleration over 100 kph and by persist-velocity in gradi- ents) Maximum of Power: 3 kA • 15 kV = 45 MVA = 45 MW Frequency-changer: for the biggest lenght of the line with (6+2) • 15 MW = 120 MW (Power from 110 kV / 50 Hz to 110 kV / 16,7 Hz)
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HSR-Line Madrid-Lérida [49]:
Ø-Distance of EPSS: 53,63 km Number of EPSS: 8 + 1 EPSS Ø-Distance of AT-Stations: 10,0 km Number of AT-Stations: 47 AT-Stations
HSR-Line Netherlands Zuid [65]:
Number of EPSS: 2 Power of EPSS: 1. EPSS: 44,91 km with 2 x 65 MVA (84 Trains per day and direction) 2. EPSS: 45,37 km with 2 x 50 MVA (67/77 Trains per day and direction)
Line Athen-Thessaloniki [67]:
Ø-Distance of EPSS: 51,6 km Number of EPSS: 10 EPSS Power of EPSS: 2 x 15 MVA
HSR-Line Switzerland Rothrist-Mattstetten [48]:
Ø-Distance of EPSS: 17,3 km Number of EPSS: 3 EPSS Power of EPSS: 2 x 20 MVA Maximum Current: 900 A constant and 1.800 A at 150 s in a cycle of 30 min
AlpTransit GotthardBaseTunnel [71]:
Ø-Distance of EPSS: 19,0 km Number of EPSS: 3 EPSS Power of EPSS: 180 MVA Maximum Current: 2 kA
Ligne-Grande-Vitesse POS – Paris-OstEuropa: (in construction)
Figure 3-41: Electric-Power-Supply of the HSR-Line Paris – Osteuropa [72]
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3.5.2 Power-Use of High-Speed-Trains
The SNCF has published the following values for the use of power at the -HSR-Lines:
Paris – Marseille: 0,4 TWh/a SNCF complete: 8,0TWH/a Biggest Middle in 1 hour: 1850 MWh/h
Figure 3-42: Power-Use and Performance of EPSS [59][68]
3.5.3 Overview about different Catenary-Types
For High-Speed-Lines there are existing a lot of different catenary types [69][70]. The differ- ences are not so large, but few properties are important for Norway.
The following planning-parameters for catenary should be considered by a planning:
- High ampacity demands big profil of contract-line.
Æ This is important by using of long distances of power sub-stations and high succession of train.
- Closely distances of catenary-pylons (under 65 m) with a sufficient tension of contact- line (15 – 27 kN) and of catenary-wire (15 – 21 kN).
Æ reduction of disequality and gives better wind-stability.
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- Observance of ice-load at catenary in winter-months.
Æ A constant demand of power in each section of catenary (end-points of cate- nary by the restraint) will be heating the catenary of temperatures higher than the freezing point. This is necessary for the complete day in the winter (24 h).
Æ A constant operation (in the day with passenger trains, in the night with freight trains) can also effect a heating of the catenary. Through the constant use of the catenary the pantograph prevents beginning of an ice-formation.
- Additional catenary-wire gives more equality of elasticity, but it is complex and not the state of technology.
- Y-Wire is used by all new hig-speed-catenary-types.
- Feeder-Lines are necessary by using auto-transformer-systems and
- Active Return-Line improved a better electromagnetical compatibility.
The catenary should be constructed for this specific conditions in Norway.
Aspects of Wind-Stability
The stability of the catenary concerning the wind is a very important aspect for Norway. In the highlands of Norway, it is possible to have high velocity of wind. Therefore the excentric- ity must be limited.
A straight-line track should have an excentricity of 0,3 m. In a radius of 1.000m the excentric- ity usually is 0,35 m. If the radius is higher than for example 5.000 m an excentrticity of 0,4 m is necessary. The base is the use of the 1.600 mm Euro-Pantograph. [ ]
Pylon-Distances
By using of the catenary-Typ “Re 250” with DB-Pantograph the following pylon-distances are necessary:
Velocity of Wind: 26 m/s 29 m/s 33 m/s Pylon-Distances: 79,1 m 70,8 m 62,1 m
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By using of the 1.600mm Euro-Pantograph the following pylon-distances are necessary :
Velocity of Wind: 26 m/s 33 m/s Pylon-Distances: 65,6 m 62,1 m Catenary-Typ: Re 200 Re 250
In the following tables are shown the different technical aspects of variant catenary-types [46][47][48][50][51][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][64][67][66][68]:
Figure 3-43: Catenary types for High-Speed-Lines
Figure 3-44: Catenary types for High-Speed-Lines
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Figure 3-45: Catenary types for High-Speed-Lines
Figure 3-46: Catenary types for High-Speed-Lines
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Figure 3-47: Catenary types for High-Speed-Lines
3.5.4 Auto-Transformer-Technology – AT
The advantage of the At-technology [73] is that by lines with problems of the power supply this technology can reduce the voltage drops. It is qualified by long electric-sub-station- distances and long ending railway-lines. For example, a 100-km-railway-line with a power system of 15 kV / 16,7 Hz can reduce the voltage-drop with AT-technology to ~ 3 kV (green line). Without AT-technology the voltage drop is ~ 6 kV (red line).
Figure 3-48: AT-technology and the advantages
Feeder-Line -15 kV Voltage Contact-Line +15 kV Drop Track 15 kV
12 kV
9 kV
50 km 100 km
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3.5.5 Coupling of catenary by double-track-lines
The coupling [74] of catenary by double-track-lines in stations and through-connection be- tween the electric-power-sub-stations is a possibility to reduce the voltage-drop. Thereby the catenary of the two tracks is balancing the voltage. One train with a 300-A-Power-Demand can get a voltage of 14,5 kV using this system. Without this coupling it would be only possi- ble to get a voltage of ~ 13 kV.
Figure 3-49: Coupling of the catenary of a double-track-line
Contact-Line right Track
Contact-Line left Track Voltage Drop 15 kV
14,5 kV
14 kV
13 kV
50 km 100 km
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3.6 WP 326 – Locations for Vehicle-Maintenance and their Concepts
3.6.1 Different Systematics of Maintenance [75]
The maintenance of trains can be differentiated in two specific parts:
- preventive maintenance and
- corrective maintenance.
Figure 3-50: Systematic of Maintenance [75]
Systematic of Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance Corrective Maintenance
Systematic Maintenance Conditional Maintenance Failure or Damage Visitation Visitation, Inspection, Control Fractional Outfall Diagnosis Diagnosis Failure or Damage Systematic Inspection or Revision under Revision Conditions Fault Repair Repair
Train goes back to Train goes back to operation until next time operation until next time of systematic or of systematic or Train goes back to operation until next time corrective maintenance corrective maintenance of systematic or corrective maintenance
The preventive maintenance must be made for a high level of availability of the trains. Fail- ures or damages should be very rarely through a balanced systematic of preventive meas- ures. Important components like wheels, bogies, brakes, traction components, safety com- ponents must be controlled in qualified time distances with a specific test and preventative correction. For example, the wheels will be re-profiled in dependence of their running activity and the state of abrasion.
The corrective maintenance gives input to improve the preventative measures. Then it is possible to get an optimised system of maintenance. The increase of availability of the trains
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lowers the costs and the necessary numbers of trains including the reserve for maintenance. In the next figure is shown a comparison of the maintenance-schedule between TGV- and ICE-Trains. The part of the preventative measures of maintenance are the following concepts for maintenance of TGV- and ICE-Trains.
3.6.2 Maintenance Systems of High-Speed-Train
The maintenance systems [76] of the two important train types, TGV and ICE, are very simi- lar. A lot of small differences between the chronologies is given by marginal differences of the maintenance philosophy.
In the following figure is shown the maintenance system of the TGV-Trains of SNCF.
Figure 3-51: Maintenance System of TGV-Trains [SNCF]
Optimisation des cycles de maintenance – TGV SE
GVG ES ECC ATS ECF/EMN ATS 1 ATS 2 VL VG GVG
5 000 km
8 jours
22 jours
37 jours
52 jours
225.000km ou 168 jours
450 000 km ou 10 mois
900 000 km ou 19 mois
1 800 000 km ou 37 mois
ES : examen de service VG : visite génér ale ECC : exa men conf ort client ATS : autr es travaux systématiques EMN: exame n mécaniq ue GVG : grande visite gén érale VL : visite limitée OP mi- vie : 15 ans modulable
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The shortcuts are:
- ES Æ Service Inspection - ECC Æ Inspection of Comfort - ECF/EMN Æ Mechanical Inspection - ATS Æ Further Inspection of Systems - VL Æ Limit Revision - VG Æ General Revision - GVG Æ Big General Revision
The “Service Inspection”, the “Inspection of Comfort”, the “Mechanical Inspection” and the “Further Inspection of Systems” will be made in the depots. The “Limit Revision”, the “Gen- eral Revision” and the “Big General Revision” will be executed by the “Etablissement Indus- triel du Materiel et Maintenance” (repair workshops).
The different maintenance steps include:
Service Inspection: control of wheel-sets, braking, pantorgraph cleaning inside and outside, clearance of the vacuum toilets, feed of fresh water and opera- tional material reserve, filling of the restaurant- waggon, reservation of seats. Inspection of Comfort: control of interieur, general cleaning inside, brake control. Mechanical Inspection: servicing and control of the whole train, revision of brakes, intensive cleaning. Further Inspection of Systems: general brake revision, main cleaning of the train. Limit Revision: control of all technical components, change of components with relevance of safety General Revision: Change of important components and their re- conditioning, Big General Revision: Change of all components and their recondition- ing, reconditioning of the car body and interieur.
The maintenance system of the ICE is shown in the following figure:
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Figure 3-52: Maintenance System of ICE-Trains [45][78][79][80][84]
Accom- Type of Time- or Volume of Work plishment Mainte- Kilometre- nance Distance Depot Bogie-Inspection 4.000 km control of wheel-sets, braking, pantorgraph, cleaning inside and outside, (ca. 2,3 days) clearance of the vacuum toilets, feed of fresh water and operational material reserve, filling of the restaurant-waggon, reservation of seats, servicing of train during: 60 minutes wheel-diagnosis at every 4. day Depot technical Inspec- 20.000 km analogue to bogie-inspection tion (ca. 14 days) additional maintenance of the traction unit, inside cleaning during: 2 hours Depot Short Periode of 60.000 km revision of brakes, control different components, Maintenance (ca. 6 weeks) servicing of complete train, cleaning of the train during: 16 hours Depot Big Periode of 240.000 km like short periode of mantenance with higher profundity of inspection and Maintenance (half-yearly) with higher use of personnel, brake revision during: 26 hours Repair- General Revi- 1,2 Mio km inspection of all important components for operation and all components Workshop sion all 8 years with abrasion (e.g. bogies, brakes, couplers and drawgear, heating, lighting, doors); repair by diagnosis of interieur and other vehicle-components, inspection of car bodies, traction components (motor, transmission, et al.) during: 13,5 days Small Revision 1,2 Mio km like General Revision with reduced working volume (specific revision) all 8 years Main Revision 1,2 Mio km General Revision with painting conditioning by requirement
The chronological cycle of measures of maintenance is shown in the following two figures for TGV- and ICE-Trains. The TGV-Trains have a more frequently service than ICE-Trains. It is a question of the costs in dependence to the level of availability and organisation. By con- tinuous preventative measures, it is not necessary to have revisions very often. This figure is made on the basis of 500.000 km per year and train.
Figure 3-53: Big inspections and revisions [45][75][76]
168d 305d 580d 1130d
Further Inspection of Systems Limit Revision General Revision Big General Revision
175d 870d
Big Periode of Maintenance General Revision
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Figure 3-54: Small inspections[45][75][76]
1d 8d 22d 37d 52d
Service Inspection Inspection of Comfort Further Inspection of Systems Mechanical Inspection Further Inspection of Systems
2,5 14d 42d
Boogie-Inspection Technical Inspection Short Periode of Maintenance
3.6.3 Locations of Maintenance
For the maintenance of High-Speed-Trains, it is necessary to have specific locations for this. In Germany there are 8 depots at Hamburg, Berlin, Dortmund, Köln, Frankfurt, Leipzig, Mün- chen and Basel. This depots effect the operational maintenance. Repair-workshops exist in Krefeld and Nürnberg.
In France the depots at Châtillon, Paris-Sud-Est Saint Georges Villeneuve, Le Landy and l’Ourcq are concerned with the operational maintenance. The repair-workshops Strasbourg- Bischheim and Lille-Hellemmes are locations for heavy maintenance. At the endpoint of the running ways of TGV there are many locations called “Centre de Maintenance”. Their func- tion is verification of the technical and safety status of the trains and the periodic servicing. Locations are: Lille, Le Mans, Rennes, Nantes, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Beziers, Marseille, Nice, Chambery and Lyon.
The following maps show the locations of maintenance.
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Figure 3-55: Locations for maintenance of High-Speed-Trains in Germany
Figure 3-56: Locations for maintenance of High-Speed-Trains in France [SNCF] [75]
These depots and repair-workshops in Germany have registered the following numbers of trains:
- 59 ICE-1-Trains, - 44 ICE-2-Trains, - 72 ICE-3-Trains and - 76 ICE-T-Trains.
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These depots and repair-workshops in France have registered the following numbers of trains:
- 107 TGV-SE-Trains, - 155 TGV-Atlantique-Trains, - 80 TGV-Réseau-Trains, - 89 TGV-Duplex-Trains, - 27 Thalys-Trains and - 38 Eurostar-Trains.
3.6.4 High-Speed-Railway-Depots
In the following table characteristic data of different depots is shown. Further the depots of Hamburg and l’Ourcq are described with their aspects.
Figure 3-57: Data of different Depots [81][82][83][87][88][86]
ICE-Depot Hamburg ICE-Depot München TGV-Depot l’Ourcq Number of tracks 8 6 6 Length of the hall 430 m 435 m 520 m Width of the hall 65 m 50 m 105 m Height of the hall 14 m 14 m > 10 m Working levels 3 3 3 Area 220.000 m² 36.000 m² 28 ha (hall: 23.000 m²) Costs for building: 154 Mio. € - 240 Mio. € Workers ca. 800 ca. 650 - Track-bridges yes yes no underfloor wheel profil- yes - - ing maschine wheelset-diagnosis yes - - outside train-cleaning yes (220 m length) yes (212 m length) yes hall Trains ICE 1, ICE 2, ICE-T ICE 1, ICE 2, ICE 3 and 52 train TGV EST Eu- ICE-T ropéen + 140 vehicles «Corail»
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Figure 3-58: Location plan of ICE-Depot Hamburg [77]
The figure shows the area of ICE-maintenance in Hamburg. The main hall is the train-hall with 8 tracks for maintenance. “Ufd-Halle” means the hall for re-profiling of the wheels. “Au- ßenreinigungsanlage” is the washing-hall. „Radsatzlager“ has a necessary reserve of new axles.
The trains come after the operational trip, which ends in Hamburg into the hall. Within 60 minutes the train must get all service of the maintenance-level “bogie-inspection”. Therefore it is necessary to know, which faults the train has before the train comes into the depot. At Hannover a maintenance-data-connection send the status of the train. In the time between call and ariving all components for changing and all materials for refill are prepared. When the train has no complicated fault or damage, then the time of 60 minutes is enough for checking and servicing enough. Within the 60 minutes a bogie can be changed. The follow- ing systematic shows the principle for this. Therefore it is necessary to have track-bridges and specific air-cussion vehicles, which carry the old and the new axles. In other depots of the ICE-maintenance, there are no air-cussion vehicles, because the floor of the hall must be very clean and flat. This equipment and requirements are expensive, that the ICE-depot Dortmund use a fork-lift with a specific adapter for axles.
Figure 3-59: Change-Systematic of Axles [77]
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Figure 3-60: Three-Level-Depot Hamburg [77]
In these three levels, there will be made following workings:
- 1.Level: Operations at bogies and other technical systems in the bottom of vehicles - 2.Level: Operations of doors or of the interieur of vehicles - 3.Level: Operations of the top of vehicles (pantograph, air-condition, etc.)
Figure 3-61: Profile of the ICE-Depot-Hall Hamburg [82]
Figure 3-62: Crane-sector of the ICE-Depot Hamburg [82]
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For the change of heavy components of the engine end car a crane is necessary with a load of 2 t. The main-components like transformators will not be changed in a depot. This will be made in a repair-workshop.
Figure 3-63: Profile of the ICE-Depot München [93]
The constructional difference between the depot at Hamburg and München is the lower height of the underground-floor. With a better level for the workers from 0,95 m under track is also possible to change axles or bogies.
The following figure shows the data-management. Before a train comes into the depot the different data of this train will be used for a specific planning of the works at this train. There- with it is possible to get a continuous utilisation of the depot. [85]
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Figure 3-64: Planning of maintenance in a depot [93]
Figure 3-65: Planning of maintenance in a depot [93]
Figure 3-66: Planning of maintenance in a depot [93]
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The first step is the planning of the works at a train. Then the disposition of material and tracks must be calculate. Also the time for maintenance is necessary to know for further op- erational trips of the train. The next phase is the allocation of the works to the workers. Dur- ing the maintenance activities the workers note all times and all material which they used.
The new maintenance hall of TGV-Est-Europeen near Paris in L’Ourcq has 6 tracks, which are built on stilts. The train can be lifted for the change of bogies. The working levels are un- der the train, in the livel of the doors and on top of the trains for working at components at the top of the trains. A separate track for outside cleaning is built.
Figure 3-67: Technicentre l’Ourcq – hall with 6 tracks (left) and the track with lifting equipment (right) [88]
3.6.5 Repair-Workshops – Industrial Factory for Maintenance
Repair-workshop Hellemmes [94]
The repair-workshop Hellemmes was expanded in 2003 for re-design of existing TGV-trains. The complete interieur of the trains will be adapted for the todays passenger demands in 4 days. For this function, it was necessary to build a new hall at the area of the existing idus- trial factory for maintenance in Lille-Hellemmes. For this new hall, SNCF had to invest 9,122 Mio. €. A cause why the “EIMM Hellemmes” was chosen as the location for this new hall, was the shortness to the operation of the high-speed lines to the TGV-Station Lille-Europe. This workshop is closely connected organisational with the big workshop in Strasbourg- Bischheim. The hall has a length of 215 m, a width of 17,7 m and a height of 11 m. An un- separated train can be processed into this hall. The re-design includes:
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- new carpet at the first and second class, - outlets for 220 V for using of notebooks etc., - Lighting with 3 levels (low, normally, full intensity of light), - new painting by adhesive foil, - locating of trains with GPS and - bridging of emergency brake of doors.
These works will be made in 2.700 working-hours in this location. The following figures show the new hall at Hellemmes. This hall has two working levels (under the train and at the level of the doors).
Figure 3-68: View to the new hall of EIMM Hellemmes [94]
Figure 3-69: Profile of the new hall of EIMM Hellemmes [94]
Repair-workshop Strasbourg-Bischheim [90]
The EIMM Bischheim was founded in 1875. Since the first tests of high-speed in France (1978), the EIMM Bischheim was the centre of competence for TGV-Trains. The area of this EIMM (Établissement industriel du maintenance et materiel) is 230.000 m². There of 100.00 m² are canopied. At this location 920 persons are working. For the general revision, the trains are 53 days in Bischheim. In the future this will be reduced to 42 days. In the average 12 – 15 trains come to Bischheim for revisions, additional trains coming by faults or dam- ages, which can not repaired by the depots. Bischheim has two big halls. In the south hall
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there is the repair of components. In the north hall is the hall for the bodies and engine end cars. The electronic components will be repaired by the EIMM Anvers.
Why in 1978 Bischheim was chosen as the location for TGV-maintenance, because the loca- tion is not in the near to the today’s high-speed-network?
The area in Bischheim has halls with a large length. Therefore the trains can be partitioned in two parts and not each wagon must be shunted. The large workshops are in the east or north of France. The locations in the south have smaller length of halls (< 150 m).
Figure 3-70: Area of EIMM Strasbourg.Bischheim – Halls of Maintenance and their workingstations
Repair-Workshop Krefeld-Oppum [89][91][92]
The repair-workshop of Krefeld is the competence centre of the heavy ICE-maintenance. Also all bodies of electric-trains with the material “Aluminium” are getting for maintenance to Krefeld. This workshop has a few very old halls and one new hall for maintenance of ICE- Trains. In the new hall, revisions will be executed. This hall has 3 tracks for 8-piece-trains. One track is built on stilts and two tracks have continuous collieries and top working stands. An electrical area for control for different power-systems (ICE Class 406) is at one track in- stalled. For the installation of the bogies the hall has small bogie-turntables for giving the
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right direction of the bogie. The crane installation under the top of hall can be used for lifting heavy components. On an area of 25.000 m² is this new hall with a length of 255 m and a width of 41 m.
Figure 3-71: Bogie-turntable [92] and lifting equipment [91]
Figure 3-72: New ICE-Hall at Krefeld [92]
Figure 3-73: Area of Krefeld-Oppum – Halls of Maintenance and their workingstations
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For small and middle-sized revisions of ICE-Trains the new hall will be used. The trains come into this hall. All works will be done at the same track through different assembly sections. The end of a revision is the test of the train, a the electric test field and the test run near Kre- feld. If a train gets a big revision with works at the bodies, then the train will be completely separated in his different cars. The cars must go into the old hall to the welding shop, to the painting and to the montage and finishing. Then the wagon will be shunted on a track outside for combe with the other wagons. The test of the revisioned train will be made in the new ICE-Hall. The test run is the last step of the works.
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3.6.6 Requirements of a Industrial Workshop for Maintenance
It is important for the execution of revisions that the train can be brought carried into a hall without parting of the wagons. The parting will be done in the hall. This is the best way for small and middle revisions without extensive measures of the bodies. When the bodies must be handled, then the different cars are get a separate place on the specific mechanical work- ing stations. In the best case this is also in the same hall. With transfer-tables the bodies can be moved. A crane for moving bodies is not the state of operation in an industrial workshop, because it is necessary to have a high hall for this. The cranes should be chosen for moving heavy components like transformers. The useful equipment of an industrial workshop for maintenance is the following one:
- blasting plant, - painting plant, - electronic repair shop for components, - high-voltage-test-track for trains, - brake-test-plant, - welding shop for steel or aluminium, - wheel-, axle- and bogie-maintenance centre with ultra-sonic-test-systems, - re-profiling-machines for wheels, - spring-test-centre, - magnet-powder-testing of axles and wheels, - roentgen-test-centre of welds, - epoxy-glass resin maintenance-centre, - cranes and lifts until 80 t, - measure-centre for bogies and bodies and other components and - for each components specialised testing-centres.
3.6.7 Requirements of a Depot
The choise and number of locations should be in the near of operation main focus. This pre- vents long ways for driving into the depot. Preferable it should be chosen a location of a de- pot with good technical equipment. Also the utilisation prefers existing not used area of JBV/NSB or as an expansion of an existing depot. The size of a depot is depended to the number of trains and the kilometric performance. Also the length of the trains gives the re- quirement of the length of the maintenance hall.
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3.6.8 Technical equipment
The following equipment is necessary to realise an optimised maintenance.
- Track-bridges for change of wheelsets, - continuous Track in the maintenance halls all over the lenght of the trains, - all tracks must have a catenary, - drop-free, closed, hygienic and odourless disposal of the toilet reservoir (central sys- tem for disposal), - top working stands for maintenance of components in the top of vehicles, - especial safety-system by working on the top working stands (deactivation of the power supply of catenaries), - air-cussion-vehicles for the haulage of components on the ground floor and - cranes for changing of components on top of vehicles.
3.6.9 Operational systematics
For a fast process of maintenance, the following systematics should be implemented:
- change of wheelset in one hour, - Trains must be staying in an unit (pressure tightness), - dedication of air-cussion-vehicles (for assistance), - shunting of trains without shunting locomotives, - quick supply of change-components from the store, - using of the change-component-principle, - short ways of transportation of components, - accomplishment of employment protection (working in top of vehicles) and - during the trip of a train, a diagnosis-system of the train signalled the depot the error
3.6.10 Costs of Maintenance [75][76]
The costs of the maintenance include the operational (preventive and corrective) measures and the hard works at the industrial workshops.
The costs of maintenance of electric motor units of the German Rail (DB AG) is a calculated value with data base 1994 [Deutsche Bundesbahn: Statistische Angaben]. The ICE 1 was in operation in this time. The prices are extrapolated to year 2006. The cost of maintenance is between 1,50 €/km and 2,50 €/km. This is an estimated value which includes high-speed- trains and regional-trains. The costs are strictly dependent on the kilometric performance.
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By SNCF this value is in the area between 1,60 €/km and 4,50 €/km. Also this value is strictly dependent on the kilometric performance. This data is calculated from the base of SNCF [96].
In a UIC/SNCF-Chart a value for maintenance costs of TGV-Trains in the frame of 1,50 €/km to 3,0 €/km is given [75].
3.6.11 Systematic for Norway
There is a workshop for trains in Drammen. This workshop is too small for additional func- tions. The maintenance should also be divisioned in the operational section and the heavy maintenance. Different steps of maintenance and servicing of the trains need the following structure:
1. Service-Stations at the end of lines in Trondheim, Bergen, Stavanger, Kristiansand, Gøteborg and Stockholm. 2. Operational maintenance centre in Oslo. 3. Industrial maintenance centre near Oslo. If it is possible to combine the Depot (2.) and the workshop (3.) it depends on the number of trains and on the location of the workshop. When it can be combined then the location must be in close proximately to Oslo because long running times for driving into the depot are ex- pensive and unfavourable for operation.
The following figures show the different ways for choice of possible locations. The choice of locations is dependent on from the areas which can be used.
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Figure 3-74: Locations of Maintenance in separate places
Service Station Depot Industrial Workshop for Maintenance
Figure 3-75: Locations of Maintenance in combined place for depot and workshop
Service Station Depot and Industrial Workshop for Maintenance
3.6.12 Requirements in view of the vehicles
The maintenance systematic must be orientated to the typical high-speed requirements but also it must include the specific situation of Norway.
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Therefore it is necessary to specify in maintenance the following aspects:
- The mechanical components for running of the trains have a priority in maintenance. - The bogies, the axles, the brakes and the wheels must have a high frequency check, - The pantograph has also often to be checked, - The traction-units have to be checked concerning their function, - The safety systems must have also a frequently inspection. In difference to middle of Europe, Norway has much snow and relatively deep temperatures. Therefore the components (bogies, wheels, brakes, pantographs, doors, etc.) must be con- structed for this additional high impacts and they have to be includes in special maintenance steps with detailed inspection and reconditioning.
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3.7 WP 327 – Base Data for Calculation of the Driving and Journey Times
The program for calculation of running times is “PULZUFA” [95]. This program needs data of infrastructure and vehicles.
Infrastructure-data:
- length of line,
- gradients,
- radius of curves,
- allowed velocities in different sections and
- stations.
Vehicle-data:
- length of train,
- mass of train,
- friction-mass of train,
- running-resistances,
- acceleration,
- deceleration,
- traction-power-velocity-diagram and
- braking-power-velocity-diagram.
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4 Conclusions
WP 300 shows a lot of conditions for High-Speed-Railway-Lines in general and specific for Norway as well.
The question now is: How to use the shown parameters for the project of High-Speed-Rail- way-Lines in Norway?
First of all there is no doubt about regarding technical rules of alignment parameters due to the proposed maximum speed on parts of the lines. The rules of TSI must be satisfied.
But there are also a lot of single parameters that could be used one way or the other.
The conclusion of WP 300 is not a pre-definition of which parameter has to be used for the overall planning. The conclusion is: There are parameters that have to be used when the input of the operation planning is specified and when some questions of usage of the align- ment are fixed also for every part of a line.
The following basic suggestion can be made according to the results of WP 100 to WP 300:
¾ The lines Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Gøteborg should be served with a connection every hour in peak times and every two hours out of peak times.
¾ Maximum speed is set to 250 kph, parts of the lines will be served with 200 kph or 220 kph. This maximum speed allows competitive travel times to the plane in these relations and reduces energy consumption as well as investment and operation costs for the trains.
¾ The lines should use the already existing or planned alignment within the greater Oslo area.
¾ The lines will be build as double track lines in the greater Oslo area and as single track lines outside this area.
¾ Crossing sections will be put to stopping stations where possible and will be build as type rhomboid on single track parts with reducing maximum speed to 160 kph for both directions on the switches.
¾ At the first maximum gradients are set to 12.5 ‰ to allow regular freight traffic. Due to the operational planning (if and how much freight trains are running on part of the line) gradients may be increased (up to the maximum of 40 ‰) to save investment costs.
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¾ New alignment with maximum speed greater than 200 kph will be build as rigid slab track.
¾ Tunnels are build with interior lining to avoid rock fall when running with 250 kph.
¾ Long tunnel parts of a line will be build as double track line even if there is no cross- ing section within. This is to build a safety system with using the second tube as es- cape route in case of accident. Therefore no emergency exits to the surface must be build and the problems of reaching these departure gates with rescue cars can be avoided.
¾ ETCS level 2 should be installed as signalling system. Older systems with continuous linear transmission of information are also possible (e.g. LZB, TVM 300, ATB etc.) but mean investment in old technique.
¾ A High-Speed-Train has to be chosen with the characteristics of existing systems. There is no need for a specific Norwegian development of a new train. Additional elements may be integrated in the existing trains regarding snow and frost parame- ters. The project will be worked out with train configurations according to ICE3 and TGV as basis for running time calculations and passenger capacity.
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