Deep Crustal Expressions of Exhumed Strike-Slip Fault Systems: Shear Zone Initiation on Rheological Boundaries

Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176

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Invited review Deep crustal expressions of exhumed strike-slip fault systems: Shear zone initiation on rheological boundaries

Shuyun Cao a,b,⁎, Franz Neubauer b a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, Center for Global Tectonics and School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China b Dept. Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria article info abstract

Article history: The formation of major exhumed strike-slip faults represents one of the most important dynamic processes af- Received 22 February 2016 fecting the evolution of the Earth's lithosphere. Detailed models of the potential initiation, their properties and Received in revised form 20 September 2016 architecture of orogen-scale exhumed strike-slip faults, which are often subparallel to mountain ranges, are Accepted 21 September 2016 rare. The initiation of strike-slip faults is at depth, where temperature-controlled rheological weakening mecha- Available online 23 September 2016 nisms play the essential role localizing future strike-slip faults. In this review study, we highlight that in pluton- and metamorphic core complex (MCC)-controlled tectonic settings, as end-members, the initiation of strike-slip Keywords: Exhumed strike-slip fault faults occurs by rheological weakening along hot-to-cold contacts deep within the crust and mantle lithosphere, Metamorphic core complex respectively. These endmember processes are potential mechanisms for the initiation of orogen-scale exhumed Pluton strike-slip faults at depth result in a speciﬁc thermal and structural architecture. Similar processes guide the over- Rheological weakening all displacement and ultimately the exhumation at such deep levels. These types of exhumed strike-slip dominat- Hot-to-cold contacts ed fault zones expose a wide variety of mylonitic, cataclastic and non-cohesive fault rocks on the surface, which Crustal thermal structure were formed at different structural levels of the crust during various stages of faulting and exhumation. Exhuma- tion of mylonitic rocks is, therefore, a common feature of such reverse oblique-slip strike-slip faults, implying major transtensive and/or transpressive processes accompany pure strike-slip motion during exhumation. A major aspect of many exhumed strike-slip faults is their lateral thermal gradient induced by the lateral juxtaposition of hot and cold levels of the crust controlling relevant properties of such fault zones, and thus the overall fault architecture (e.g., fault core, damage zone, shear lenses, fault rocks) and its thermal structure. These properties of the overall fault architecture include strength of fault rocks, permeability and porosity, the hydrological regime, as well as the nature and origin of circulating hydrothermal ﬂuids. © 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Contents

1. Introduction...... 156 2. Reviewofdeepstructureofcontinentalstrike-slipfaults...... 156 3. Characterizationofexhumedstrike-slipfaults...... 158 3.1. Temperatureanddepth-dependentchanges...... 158 3.2. Processesrelatedtostrike-slipfaults...... 159 4. Strike-slipfaultinitiationathot-to-coldcontacts...... 159 4.1. Pluton-controlledstrike-slipfaults...... 159 4.1.1. TypeI...... 159 4.1.2. TypeII...... 164 4.1.3. TypeIII...... 164 4.1.4. TypeIV...... 164 4.2. MCC-controlledstrike-slipfaults...... 164 4.2.1. TypeA...... 164 4.2.2. TypeB,pull-aparttypeMCCs...... 164 4.3. Transitionaltypesbetweenpluton-andMCC-controlledend-memberstrike-slipfaults...... 165

⁎ Corresponding author at: Dept. Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr. 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Cao).

4.4. Oroclines,syntaxesandexhumedstrike-slipshearzones...... 165 5. Faultingmechanismsofanexhumedstrike-slipfault...... 167 5.1. Dynamicweakeningmechanisms...... 167 5.2. Roleofthermalstructureofstrike-slipfaults...... 169 5.3. Impact of hot ﬂuidsinstrike-slipfaults...... 169 6. Initiation of major strike-slip faults: chicken or egg-ﬁrst?...... 170 7. Discussionandconclusion...... 170 7.1. Recognitionofexhumedstrike-slipfaultzones...... 170 7.2. Thermallyenhancedrheologicalweakeningofexhumedstrike-slipfaults...... 171 7.3. Feedbackmechanismswithinexhumedstrike-slipfaultzone...... 171 7.4. Exhumedstrike-slipfaultsandoroclinalsyntaxes...... 171 Acknowledgements...... 171 References...... 171

1. Introduction In the following section, we review the state of exhumed continental-scale strike-slip fault systems, which represent a deep-crustal region Formation of major exhumed strike-slip faults represents one of the across fault zones now exposed at the surface. We will discuss exhumed most important dynamic processes significantly affecting the litho- strike-slip faults, in which initially ductile structures are superimposed sphere-asthenosphere system. The exhumed strike-slip fault zones by brittle structures and their sequential formation relates to the exhu- commonly preserved as long-standing zones of weakness in the Earth's mation of ductile fault rocks. The following controversial key issues are crust (Handy, 1989), and the manners in which they form are known to addressed: (1) Which relevant properties of such orogen-scale ex- be of significant importance for earthquake mechanics (e.g., humed strike-slip fault zones with mixed ductile and brittle rocks can Wesnousky, 1988; Stirling et al., 1996; Lyakhovsky et al., 2001; be deduced from fault sections? (2) What mechanisms exhume such Carpenter et al., 2011) associated with surface displacements along faults? (3) How do orogen-scale strike-slip faults nucleate and initiate their strike representing important global geological hazards (e.g., along rheologically weak zones? (4) How do thermal structure and Rutter et al., 2001; Mooney and White, 2010). Near-surface rocks fluids at the crustal level of fault change during various faulting and ex- along faults are broken by cataclastic processes and have, therefore, no humation stages? The main emphasis of this review study is on the ini- or a low strength. For a wide variety of practical purposes, for example, tiation of strike-slip faults at these end-member controlled tectonic tunneling and underground excavation, exploration of hydrothermal settings. Many orogen-scale strike-slip faults initiate and further devel- ore deposits, geothermal energy and hydrocarbon exploitation (e.g., op along rheologically weak linear zones at depth. These zones include Aydin and Eyal, 2002; Sorkhabi and Tsuji, 2005; Weinberg et al., 2005; (a) faults with abundant granite intrusions, (b) along lateral borders of Bense et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2013), the study and prediction of the hot metamorphic core complexes (MCCs), or (c) zones of rheological anatomy of exhumed strike-slip fault zones is of particular interest. weakness due to ascending fluids or the presence of rheologically Due to high porosity, steep fault zones represent pathways for ascend- weak minerals such as talc or graphite. ing and descending fluids and related alteration processes by fluid- rock interaction (e.g., Mittempergher et al., 2009; Faulkner et al., 2. Review of deep structure of continental strike-slip faults 2010; Pei et al., 2015). This is also especially true of exhumed strike- slip faults in which mixed ductile and brittle fault rocks control the Many continental strike-slip faults (Fig. 1) are observed to be weak strength, porosity and permeability (Faulkner et al., 2010). compared with the surrounding rocks through evidence of geological, Continental-scale strike-slip fault zones are common tectonic fea- geophysical and laboratory measurements of frictional strength. The tures, particularly at convergent plate boundaries produced by oblique convergence and continental indentation (Storti et al., 2003). They are deep crustal expressions of the interaction between kinematic boundary conditions, rock rheology, and associated stress fields. During the last decades, many studies involved field observations, laboratory experiments, seismology, hydrogeology, and analytical and numerical modelling, have concentrated on describing and understanding the architecture, rock failure processes and mechanisms of the continental exhumed strike-slip zones (e.g., Allen, 1965; Katili, 1970; Fitch, 1972; Sibson, 1977; Scholz, 1980, 1989, 1990; Wise et al., 1984; Hanmer, 1988; Sylvester, 1988; Woodcock and Schubert, 1994; Wintsch et al., 1995; Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, 1997a; Läufer et al., 1997; Brown and Solar, 1998; Brown and Phillips, 1999; Teyssier and Tikoff, 1998; Paterson and Schmidt, 1999; Evans et al., 2000; Handy et al., 2001, 2005, 2007; Holdsworth et al., 2001; Storti et al., 2003; Rosenberg, 2004; Corti et al., 2005; Kim and Sanderson, 2006; Cunningham and Mann, 2007; Morrow et al., 2007; Finzi et al., 2009; Griffith et al., 2009; Wibberley et al., 2008; Bistacchi et al., 2010; Molnar and Dayem, 2010; Frost et al., 2011; Keppler et al., 2013; Evans et al., 2014). However, the structural evolution and formation mechanisms of exhumed strike-slip faults and of their implications for lithosphere dynamics are still poorly understood. Detailed models of the potential Fig. 1. Cartoon showing major continental intraplate strike-slip fault zone in the upper crust passing downwards into shear zones in the lower crust and lithospheric mantle. initiation, and properties and architecture of orogen-scale exhumed Schematic strength vs. depth profile or continental lithosphere shown to the left. Figure strike-slip faults and how these relate to exhumation are rare. modified from Teyssier and Tikoff, 1998, Vauchez et al., 1998 and Storti et al., 2003. S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 157 cause of this weakness is debated (e.g., Handy, 1989; Chester et al., transpressional settings (e.g., Ring et al., 1992; Doglioni, 1995; 1993; Tikoff and Greene, 1997; Scholz, 2000; Handy et al., 2001, 2005, Doglioni and Harabaglia, 1996; Dewey, 2002; Till et al., 2007a, 2007b). 2007; Faulkner and Rutter, 2001; Rutter et al., 2001; Holdsworth, Recent studies initially based on analysis of field data integrated with 2004; Rosenberg, 2004; Rosenberg et al., 2007a, 2007b; Collettini et numerical and analogue modelling experiments have been proven to al., 2009; Niemeijer et al., 2010; Carpenter et al., 2011; Green et al., be powerful tools in gaining insights into the evolution of continental- 2015). In early models, strike-slip systems were considered to expose scale strike-slip fault systems (e.g., Handy et al., 2007; Wibberley et a similar distinct structural level along their strike (Allen, 1965; al., 2008; Frost et al., 2011; Corti et al., 2005; Keppler et al., 2013). Sibson, 1977). Strike-slip faults extend across the brittle crust with its Crustal-scale intracontinental (transcurrent) strike-slip faults often seismicity through the brittle-ductile transition into the ductile lower develop at rheological boundaries between stiff and weak blocks. GPS crust (e.g., Sibson, 1977; Scholz, 1989)(Fig. 2). Numerous data indicate data indicate a wide range from ca. 5 to 46 mm/yr of lateral displace- that the initial view of fault behavior in early models of strike-slip sys- ment in major recently active strike-slip faults (e.g., Molnar and tems (e.g., Allen, 1965; Sibson, 1977; Wilcox et al., 1973; Mandl, 1988; Dayem, 2010). Weak fault zones experience near-field uplift, strike- Scholz, 1989)isoversimplified. These observations suggest that conti- slip faulting in the borderlands, and strong fault-related strain to far- nental strike-slip faults generally develop in the middle and lower field deformation (e.g., Snoke et al., 1998; Cowgill et al., 2004; Dayem crust (ca. 10–20 km, depending on the geothermal gradient), and can et al., 2009b; Titus et al., 2007). The distribution of near-field deforma- be associated with a crustal detachment zone (e.g., Teyssier and Tikoff, tion may also be related to across-strike variations in lithospheric 1998; Teyssier and Cruz, 2004) at or near the base of the seismogenic strength or thermal state (e.g., Griscom and Jachens, 1990; zone (e.g., Molnar and Dayem, 2010; Meyer et al., 2014). A number of Wakabayashi et al., 2004; Molnar and Dayem, 2010; Chatzaras et al., models indicate that subvertical brittle strike-slip faults in the upper 2015). Experimental rock deformation studies and new models have brittle crust may potentially be rooted in subhorizontal ductile shear proposed explanations for the formation of the strike-slip fault zones. zones, implying a listric geometry of the fault plane in the lower crust These examples include the strength of the lithosphere, shear heating, and lithospheric upper mantle (Teyssier and Tikoff, 1998)(Fig. 1), rocks rheology depends on composition as well as grain size, tempera- which is constrained by geophysical methods (e.g., Mooney et al., ture, pressure, and localized presence of fluids (e.g., Handy et al., 2007). It has been interpreted through deep seismic profiling that con- 2007; Collettini et al., 2009; Evans et al., 2000; Faulkner and Rutter, tinental strike-slip faults transect the entire crust and roots in the upper 2001; Bense et al., 2013). Thermally activated deformation mechanisms mantle (e.g., Vauchez and Da Silva, 1992; Vauchez and Tommasi, 2003; such as crystal plasticity and diffusional creep can lead to significant Titus et al., 2007). Based on recent work, it is evident that continental changes in rheological behavior and mechanical strength with depth strike-slip systems can occur in association with wide transrotational (e.g., Sibson, 1977; Tullis and Yund, 1977; Scholz, 1989; Schmid and zones (e.g., Dickinson, 1996; Dewey et al., 1998; Doglioni et al., 2011) Handy, 1991; Wibberley, 1999; Rutter et al., 2001; Wibberley et al., and wide zones of dispersed deformation mainly in transtensional to 2008). Continental lithosphere exhibits lateral variations in mechanical

Fig. 2. Model showing a subvertical fault zone from surface to depth in continental crust at geothermal. (a) Profile showing the variation of structures of a crustal-scale fault zone from surface to depth (model as initially proposed by Sibson, 1977 and Handy et al., 2007). (b) Schematic strength vs. depth curve for the fault zone from pressure dependent brittle strength to temperature dependent plastic strength at depth. 158 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 strength. A series of conceptual lithospheric strength profiles were de- (e.g., Sibson, 1977; Schmid and Handy, 1991). Temperature, pressure, veloped (jelly sandwich, crème brȗlée, banana split; Bürgmann and strain rate, stress, mineralogy, rock microstructure, and water content Dresen, 2008) through the characterization of the relative strength of determine which deformation mechanisms will accommodate the ve- the different lithospheric layers. Recently, continental-scale exhumed locity gradient across the fault at a given depth (e.g., Handy, 1998). Con- strike-slip faults have attracted a significant amount of attention due sequently, a section across such an exhumed strike-slip fault exposes to their close relationship to pre- and syn-kinematic granitic intrusions ductile fabrics, which are superimposed by brittle structures on previ- (e.g., Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, 1997a; Paterson and Schmidt, 1999; ously formed mylonites that formed during uplift above the brittle-duc- Rosenberg et al., 2007b; Cao et al., 2011a) and high-temperature MCCs tile transition zone (Fig. 3 as an example; e.g., Nemes and Neubauer, (e.g., Neubauer et al., 1995, 1999; Wang and Neubauer, 1998; Cao et al., 1996). 2011c; Corti et al., 2003; Meyer et al., 2014). Although the importance of Since the inception of this fault zone model, however, this rather the exhumed strike-slip fault zones architecture within plutons and simple view has been modified to include transient mechanical behav- MCCs is known, such studies are still rare, and could play a critical role ior related to rate-dependent frictional sliding (e.g., Scholz, 1990, in defining the mechanisms and formation processes of continental- 1998). As the temperature increases with greater crustal depths, a fric- scale strike-slip faults (e.g., Sylvester, 1988; Corti et al., 2003; Vaughan tional fault with pore-fluid pressure in the brittle regime, changes to a and Scarrow, 2003; Weinberg et al., 2004, 2009; Faulkner et al., 2010; ductile shear zone with polymineralic plastic/viscous flow in the solid- Leever et al., 2011). state (Handy et al., 1999). Variation in physical-chemical conditions with depths results therefore in changes in the degree of strain localiza- 3. Characterization of exhumed strike-slip faults tion in the uppermost crust and in the middle to lower crust (changes in the thickness of a shear zone, Fig. 2)(Sibson, 1977; Handy et al., 2007). 3.1. Temperature and depth-dependent changes Fault rocks formed at great depths during faulting are preserved in shear lenses with older fabrics and are juxtaposed with later active fault cores, In recent years, a number of publications have discussed the charac- resulting in a “telescoped” fault zone structure. terization of exhumed crustal-scale strike-slip faults and fault rocks re- In this fault zone model, we include plutonic and metamorphic rocks lating deformation processes and damage zones on various scales (e.g., formed during faulting/shearing at depth preserved in shear lenses (Fig. Chester, 1995; Evans et al., 2000; Ben-Zion and Sammis, 2003; Sibson, 2). The brittle part of fault zones is distinguished by fault cores with 2003; Di Toro and Pennacchioni, 2005; Moore and Rymer, 2007; anastomosing zones of cohesion-less rocks, mechanically stiff shear Wibberley et al., 2008; Faulkner et al., 2010; Choi et al., 2016). The lenses and the damage zone surrounding the fault cores (e.g., Caine et strike-slip faults have largely been passively exhumed, so that their al., 1996; Choi et al., 2016). The width ratio of the fault cores and dam- present day surface structure can be viewed as representative of the age zones has been used to classify fault zones because these influence structure of the strike-slip faulting at depth (Fig. 2). After a strike-slip the hydrological regime, technical properties (Caine et al., 1996), and fault is exhumed, the previous lower crustal ductile shear zone at ore mineralization (Sibson, 2001; Yardley and Baumgartner, 2007). depth develops into a brittle-ductile transition to brittle fault near the Fault zones also generally provide pathways for the flow of hydrous surface due to the variation of the temperature-dependent strength and other fluids (e.g., CO2, nitrogen) (e.g., the San Andreas Fault Obser- profile with depth (Fig. 2). Classical models of crustal-scale strike-slip vatory at Depth – SAFOD) (e.g., Collins, 1979; Faulkner and Rutter, 1998; fault zones demonstrate that the structure and rheology of fault-related Clark and James, 2003; Becker et al., 2008; Vry et al., 2009; Faulkner et rocks change from mylonite, to fault breccias, fault gouge, kakirite, al., 2010). Fluid-rock interaction results in a wide range of altered cataclasite and have pseudotachylyte at the transition between rocks, which are well known but mainly studied in hydrothermal ore mylonite and cataclasite, just above the brittle-ductile transition zone deposits (e.g., Hedenquist and Lowenstern, 1994; Sibson, 2001, 2003).

Fig. 3. Section across an exhumed strike-slip fault exposes various fault rocks. This case is from Periadriatic Fault showing a wide range of nearly undeformed primary (sedimentary and plutonic) rocks in shear lenses separated by fault rocks, which formed at different levels of the crust. Fault rocks include mylonites, phyllonites, cataclasites as well as syn-faulting plutonic rocks such as tonalite in shear lenses embedded within fault gouge (modiﬁed from Nemes and Neubauer, 1996). The various types of fault rocks are formed at widely varying crustal levels and are juxtaposed during exhumation. S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 159

3.2. Processes related to strike-slip faults experiments (Corti et al., 2003); (5) decompression and extension associated exhumation along the strike-slip fault system (Cao et al., 2011c); Studies of exhumed fault zones have described the presence of rocks (6) unloading by tectonic unroofing along releasing bends or pull-aparts from great depth, as accommodating the bulk of fault zone displace- (Genser and Neubauer, 1988); and (7) Simple erosion of an orogeny ment (e.g., Evans et al., 2000; Cole et al., 2007; Rosenberg and may expose the deep structure of a strike-slip fault/shear zone Schneider, 2008; Frost et al., 2009; Cao et al., 2011a, 2011b, 2011c). A (Handy, 1998). In this case, no superposition of ductile by brittle struc- number of processes have been discussed for the tectonic origin of tures is needed to explain exhumation. However, it is still not well pre- orogen-scale strike-slip faults in mountain belts, including: (1) conju- sented, which processes play the critical role in the exhumation of the gate strike-slip faults triggered by indentation of a rigid block into a rhe- deep-seated rocks in strike-slip fault zone systems. ologically weak orogenic belt, leading to lateral extrusion of the blocks (e.g., Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976; Ratschbacher et al., 1991); (2) 4. Strike-slip fault initiation at hot-to-cold contacts tear faults at the boundaries of fold-thrust belts (e.g., Boyer and Elliott, 1982), (3) oblique-slip faults at the terminations of pull-aparts (Mann In this section, we focus on the tectonic settings where hot geological et al., 1983); and (4) the lateral boundary of retreating subduction bodies are juxtaposed with cold ones, resulting in subsequent shear zones (e.g., Royden, 1993; Doglioni et al., 1999a, 1999b; Wortel and concentration along hot-to-cold contacts because of thermally-en- Spakman, 2000) now termed STEP (Subduction-Transform Edge Propa- hanced rheological weakening of the crust. Many examples, in which gator) faults (Govers and Wortel, 2005). Examples of exhumation in exhumed strike-slip faults or mylonitic strike-slip shear zones are in a crustal-scale strike-slip fault zones have been recognized in both close temporal and spatial relationship to hot plutons, migmatitic gneiss transtensional (e.g., the south Canadian Rockies and Tintina fault zone, domes, and/or metamorphic core complex rocks have been observed Price, 2003) and transpressional (e.g., Alpine fault zone, New Zealand; (e.g., Hollister and Crawford, 1986; Vauchez and Da Silva, 1992; Norris and Cooper, 2003; Little et al., 2005) tectonic settings. It is gener- Hollister, 1993; Ingram and Hutton, 1994; Tommasi et al., 1994; ally believed that rheological weakening mechanisms play an important Neubauer et al., 1995; Neves and Vauchez, 1995; Berger et al., 1996; role for fault localization as faults generally nucleate in the weakest zone Neves et al., 1996; Vauchez et al., 1997; Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, (Schmid et al., 1996; Imber et al., 1997, 2008; Rosenberg, 2004; Handy 1997a; Brown and Solar, 1998; Pe-Piper et al., 1998; Wang and et al., 2005, 2007; Dayem et al., 2009a; Molnar and Dayem, 2010; Neubauer, 1998; Paterson and Schmidt, 1999; Handy et al., 2001; Yamasaki et al., 2014). Based on seismic behavior and geodetic surveys, Vaughan and Scarrow, 2003; Rosenberg, 2004; Weinberg et al., 2004; Molnar and Dayem (2010) recently proposed that major Cao et al., 2011a, 2011c). Examples of these faults include the Sumatra intracontinental strike-slip faults develop along rheological boundaries strike-slip fault (Fitch, 1972; Molnar and Dayem, 2010), and Ailao between rigid, weak crust, and lithospheric mantle. Fossen and Shan-Red River strike-slip fault zone (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976). Rotevant (2016) suggest that the faults initiated as individual segments Largely inactive major strike-slip faults sometimes contain plutonic whose fault tips at some point interacted at the locations of the salient and metamorphic rocks formed during faulting/shearing at depth pre- to form the curved fault segments. As a result, plate motion forces served in shear lenses. These faulted plutonic or metamorphic rocks (ridge push and slab pull) are the main driving force to create strike- are then juxtaposed to non-metamorphic wall rocks. A basic require- slip faults. This implies that the whole lithosphere is involved, and the ment for the recognition of such strike-slip fault zones is the contempo- initiation of strike-slip faults is likely at depth, where temperature-con- raneity of associated structures such as the formation of granite trolled rheological weakening mechanisms might play an essential role intrusions, metamorphic (core) complexes and/or migmatitic gneiss localizing future strike-slip faults. domes and potential formation of sedimentary basins at the surface. As described in Chapter 3, exhumed strike-slip fault zones have a We attempt to classify the structures of strike-slip faults according to characteristic fault core, which is exposed and can be distinguished the overall geometry and using the contemporaneity criterion. Two from the surrounding wider zone of damage (e.g., Evans et al., 2000) end-member tectonic settings are distinguished, namely (1) plutons (Fig. 2). The fault core is the result of highly localized strain and intense are associated with strike-slip faulting (Fig. 5A), and (2) hot metamor- shearing that accommodates the majority of the displacement within phic (core) complexes form one wall of the strike-slip/oblique-slip the fault zone. They generally consist of a number of recurring slip sur- fault (Fig. 5B). The juxtaposition of hot, rheologically weak levels if faces and fault rocks such as gouges, cataclasites, and mylonite (e.g. crust to cool crust causes a strong horizontal temperature gradient to Sibson, 1977; Anderson et al., 1983; Chester et al., 1993; Bruhn et al., be developed. This contact guides the initiation of strike slip faulting 1994; Caine et al., 1996; Evans et al., 2000; Faulkner et al., 2003; by en echelon arrangement of uprising plutons (see Section 4.1). We Wibberley and Shimamoto, 2003; Wibberley et al., 2008)(Fig. 3). The also note gradual transitions between these two end-member settings. question of how the strike-slip fault zone structure varies as a function In both cases, the hot-to-cold contact laterally juxtaposes a rheological of depth, from the ductile lower crust up through the seismogenic strong level with a very weak one. crust to near the surface, remains unresolved. Several major processes are claimed to contribute to exhumation of the deeply seated rocks: 4.1. Pluton-controlled strike-slip faults (1) The most important exhumation process is likely oblique-slip motion with a partitioning of transtensive and transpressive deformation Pre- and syntectonic plutons are emplaced preferentially within or associated exhumation in an obliquely divergent setting with a signifi- at the margins of wide, regional-scale strike-slip fault zones, which in- cant but small vertical component. (e.g., Neubauer et al., 1995; Wang tersect major lithological boundaries (Weinberg et al., 2004). Pluton- and Neubauer, 1998; Rosenberg, 2004; Cole et al., 2007; Frost et al., controlled strike-slip faults can be classified into several types. In all 2009)(Fig. 4A and B); (2) exhumation by superposition of earlier these cases, the fault core itself is strongly localization and weakened pure strike-slip fault (step 1 in Fig. 4C1) and subsequent normal faulting by the uprising magma. Basic types of the models are shown in Fig. (step 1 in Fig. 4C22); (3) exhumation processes due to extrusive flow or 5A, and further examples in Figs. 6 to 8. Their locations on Earth are vertical extrusion (“pop-up”) within a positive flower or palm-shaped shown in Fig. 9. Significant data of such strike-slip dominated faults structure along a restraining bend by oblique reverse strike-slip faulting are compiled in Table 1. in a shortening setting (Sylvester, 1988; Woodcock and Rickards, 2003; Rosenberg, 2004) or at a small convergence angle (Leever et al., 2011) 4.1.1. Type I (Fig. 4D); (4) buoyancy driven exhumation of a low-density Contemporaneously formed K-rich pre-kinematic plutonic rocks plutonometamorphic crust (Fig. 4E), encounters a rheologically weak form directly related to strike-slip faults (Vaughan and Scarrow, 2003) layer or melt as is demonstrated by analogue transtensional wrenching (Fig. 6A). The K-magmatism results from melting of the metasomatized 160 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176

Fig. 4. Some models of tectonic processes contributing to exhumation of the deep-seated rocks along major strike-slip fault zone systems. (A) Exhumation along transtensive oblique strike-slip faulting with constant orientation of displacement vector. The footwall exposes deeper levels of metamorphic core complex (MCC). (B) Exhumation along transpressive oblique strike-slip faulting with constant orientation of displacement vector. Hanging wall exposes the MCC. (C) Two-step exhumation by superposition of earlier pure strike-slip (step 1 in C1) and subsequent normal faulting (step 2 in C2). (D) Vertical exhumation by oblique reverse shear zone with ascending magma in a shortening setting (modiﬁed after Handy et al., 2001). (E) Self-exhumation by buoyancy driven due low density of plutonometamorphic crust (modiﬁed after Handy et al., 2001). base of the lithosphere (of a non-convecting mantle). The rising K- propagates when appropriate stresses are involved (Vaughan and magma accumulations are triggered by transtension or transpression Scarrow, 2003). Examples include the Ailao Shan-Red River strike-slip and weakening of the lithosphere. Uprising magma blobs are consid- faults (Cao et al., 2011a)(Fig. 6B, for location in Fig. 7), Elbe Zone of ered to coalesce and to form a strike-slip fault, which laterally the Bohemian Massif (e.g., Wenzel et al., 2000) and Caledonian

Fig. 5. Two end-members type models examples on initiation of hot-to-cold contacts on releasing oversteps of strike-slip faults. (A) Releasing overstep with syn-tectonic emplacement of granite reducing the strength of crust and forming a pluton-controlled strike-slip rheological boundaries with hot-to-cold contacts. (B) Releasing overstep delimiting a metamorphic core complex with hot-to-cold contacts. S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 161

Fig. 6. Some case examples of Types I and II on initiation of strike-slip faults at pluton-controlled rheological boundaries. (A) The plumbing system of K-magmatism forming at the base of the lithosphere initiates in zones of weakness within the lithosphere resulting in strain concentration (Vaughan and Scarrow, 2003). (B) Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone (modiﬁed from Leloup et al., 1995, Searle, 2013, Cao et al., 2011a and Liu et al., 2012). (C) Plutonic systems along island arc-parallel strike-slip zones partitioning oblique plate convergence into island- perpendicular convergence and island arc parallel strike-slip motion (Fitch, 1972; Molnar and Dayem, 2010). (D) Plutonic systems along island arc-parallel Sumatra Fault partitioning of oblique plate convergence into island-perpendicular convergence and island arc parallel strike-slip motion (modiﬁed after Fitch, 1972; Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, 1997a; Acocella, 2014). For locations, see Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Locations of some major exhumed pluton- and metamorphic core complex-controlled strike-slip faults in the world. 162 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176

Fig. 8. Some case examples of Types III and IV on initiation of strike-slip faults at pluton-controlled rheological boundaries. (A) Slab-break-off magmatism (von Blanckenburg and Davies, 1995), the case of Periadriatic Fault (for locations, see Fig. 11). (B) Slab-break-off magmatism in the case of the Periadriatic Fault (modiﬁed after Rosenberg, 2004). (C) Defreggen-Antholz- Valles fault with the pull-apart-type Rieserferner tonalite body (modiﬁed from Stöckhert, 1985). For locations, see Fig. 7.

Fig. 9. Further case examples of Type IV on initiation of strike-slip faults at pluton-controlled rheological boundaries. (A) Shear zones related to post-collisional Variscan leucogranites in southern Brittany, France. Example is the South-Armorican shear zone (after Jégouzo, 1980). Pull-apart pluton of (B) is from southeastern Southern branch of the South Armorican shear zone. (C) Plutons along transtensional zones in island arcs, with the example of the Median Tectonic Line in the Japanese island arc (Taira, 2001). (D) Main Uralian strike-slip fault (modiﬁed from Hetzel and Glodny, 2002). For locations, see Fig. 7. Table 1 Compilation of data on exhumed strike-slip faults. T, temperature, P, pressure.

Fault name Location Type Length Shear Timing of P-T conditions Synkinematic References (km) sense shearing pluton

Alpine fault New Zealand, Southern Island MCC-controlled; plate Ca. Dextral Since ca. 36 Ma Lower amphibolite facies Some pegmatitic Sibson et al., 1979; Grapes, 1995 (transform fault between boundary; orogen oblique 600 T: 490–540 °C dykes Paciﬁc and Australian/Indian in the Miocene; P: 5.4–6.6 kb plates) orogen-parallel Great Slave Lake shear zone North West Territories, Pluton-controlled; Ca. Dextral 2–1.9 Ga Granulite to greenschist, 880 °C– Diorite, migmatites, Hoffman, 1987; Hanmer, 1988 Canada intracontinental 1300 680, 8.2 kb to 4 kb dikes orogen-oblique Ailao Shan-Red River fault Boundary between Indochina Granite and MCC N1000 Sinistral Oligo-Miocene, Amphibolite facies, T: 700 °C P: Monzonitic Leloup et al., 1995; Searle, 2006; and South China blocks controlled; ca. 31–21 Ma 5–6 kb, retrogression to granites, Searle et al., 2010; Cao et al., 2011a intracontinental greenschist facies leucogranite orogen-oblique Dom Feliciano belt Internal collision belt Pluton-controlled; N500 Sinistral Panafrican Prograde metamorphism from ca. Diorite-adamellite; Tommasi et al., 1994 between Rio de la Plata & orogen-parallel 550 °C to 675 °C; ca. 425 °C at ca. sodic-potassic to Kalahari cratons (southern 3kb peralkaline

Brazil-Uruguay) granites; 155 (2016) 162 Reviews Earth-Science / Neubauer F. Cao, S. leucogranites South American shear zone Separates Central and South Pluton-controlled; N300 Dextral Carboniferous Triple point And-Sill-Ky (ca. Leucogranites Jégouzo, 1980; Faure et al., 2008; Armorican domains orogen-parallel 450 °C, 4.5 kb) to greenschist Lemarchand et al., 2012 (Southern Brittany, France) Coimbra-Badajoz-Cordoba shear Central Portugal and Spain Pluton-controlled; N400 Sinistral Upper Granulite-amphibolite-greenschist Two Burg et al., 1981 zone orogen-parallel Carboniferous facies mica-leucogranite Serra da Freita shear zone Central Portugal Pluton-controlled; N70 Sinistral Carboniferous Amphibolite facies (sillimanite) Leucogranites Hutton and Reavy, 1992 rogen-paralle Sumatra fault Indonesia Pluton-controlled; Ca. dextral Since Synkinematic Fitch, 1972; Alvarado et al., 2011; trench-parallel 1900 Mid-Miocene volcanic arc Sieh and Natawidjaja, 2000 Periadriatic fault Separates the Southalpine Orogen-parallel western Ca. Dextral Oligo-Miocene, P: 7.5–3.5 kbar (depth of tonalite Tonalite and von Blanckenburg and Davies, 1995; unit from part: MCC- and 700 ca, 34–28 Ma intrusion) granodiorite Stöckli et al., 2001; Handy et al., Austroalpine/Penninic units pluton-controlled; eastern intrusions 2005; Rosenberg, 2004; Fodor et al., part: pluton-controlled 1998 Median tectonic line SW Japan Pluton-controlled; Ca. Dextral Cretaceous Amphibolite to greenschist facies Granitoids Taira, 2001; Jefferies et al., 2006; orogen-parallel; oblique 300 Wibberley and Shimamoto, 2003 subduction Main Uralian fault Separates Europe and Asia Pluton-controlled; N2000 Dextral Permian-Triassic ca. 550–350 °C Plutons Hetzel and Glodny, 2002 –

orogen-parallel;subduction 176 zone Defreggen-Antholz-Valles fault Separates Oligocene Tauern Pluton- and Ca. Sinistral Oligocene Greenschist facies Tonalite Stöckhert, 1985; Kleinschrodt, 1987; metamorphic terrain from MCC-controlled; 100 Steenken et al., 2000; Wagner et al., unmetamorphic terrain orogen-parallel 2006 Karakoram fault Across India and Asia in the Pluton- and Ca. Dextral Ca. 34–23 Ma Amphibolite-facies to Granitoids Weinberg et al., 2009; Boutonnet et Himalaya region MCC-controlled 800 greenschist-facies al., 2012; Wallis et al., 2014 Northern Borborema Province shear Borborema province of Pluton- controlled Dextral Neoproterozoic Upper amphibolite-facies to Granitoids Neves et al., 1996 zones Northern Brazil greenschist facies Salzach-Ennstal-Mariazell-Puchberg European Eastern Alps; MCC-controlled; Ca. Sinistral 30–32 Ma until Upper to lower greenschist facies Peresson and Decker, 1997; Wang fault system (SEMP) borders the orogen-parallel 450 ca. 15 Ma? conditions and Neubauer, 1998; Cole et al., Oligocene-Miocene transcurrent fault 2007; Glodny et al., 2005; Frost et al., metamorphic Penninic units 2011; Schneider et al., 2013 of the Tauern window Gleinalm shear zone European Eastern Alps MCC-controlled Ca. 80 Sinistral 87–75 Ma Amphibolite to greenschist facies Neubauer et al., 1995 Chakragil-Ghez fault Eastern Pamir MCC-controlled N200 Dextral Neogene Amphibolite to greenschist facies Cao et al., 2013a, 2013b Neybaz-Chatak shear zone Borders the Chapedony MCC MCC-controlled Ca. Sinistral Ca. 49–41 Ma Amphibolite-facies to lower Kargaranbafghi et al., 2012 in Central Iran 100 greenschist facies metamorphism Tancheng-Lujiang (Tan-Lu) fault Separates North from South MCC-controlled Ca. Sinistral Early Cretaceous Amphibolite facies Ratschbacher et al., 2000; Zhu et al., China block 2400 2005 163 164 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 shoshonitic magmatic belt of the northern British Isles (e.g., Vaughan, (included in Type III). The strike-slip faulting at releasing oversteps rep- 1996). resents a potential mechanism to create space for the intrusion at shallow crustal level. In such pull-apart-type plutons, margins are generally 4.1.2. Type II deformed in a ductile manner. The uprising bodies are part of a major Plutonic systems occur along island arc-parallel strike-slip fault plumbing system and intrude into active strike-slip faults, enhancing zones or strike-slip faulting occurs along the axis of a syn-magmatic tec- and focusing motion along such strike-slip fault zones where low tonic arc in a transpressional setting (Fig. 6C). Particularly in this case, strength zones are juxtaposed with high-strength country rocks. A mu- the initiation of strike-slip by en echelon arrangement of uprising plu- tual feedback loop of the intrusion of plutons with strike-slip faulting re- tons plays a critical role for localization of the strike-slip fault zone. In sults in weakening of the crust and potentially of the whole lithosphere. such settings, strike-slip fault zones are often accompanied by volcanic Examples for pull-apart type plutonic bodies include the Rieserferner centers, e.g., the Sumatra strike-slip fault on the Indonesian island pluton in the Eastern Alps, which intruded into the Defreggen- (e.g., Fitch, 1972; McCaffrey, 1992, 2009; Acocella, 2014)(Fig. 6D, for lo- Antholz-Valles Fault (Stöckhert, 1985; Stöckli et al., 2001; Fig. 9D) and cation in Fig. 7), the Rosy Finch strike-slip fault zone in the eastern cen- those along the South Armorican shear zone (Román-Berdiel et al., tral Sierra Nevada (e.g., Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, 1997b), the 1997)(Fig. 9A). Philippine fault (Fitch, 1972), the El Salvador shear zone (Alvarado et al., 2011) and the western Idaho shear zone (Giorgis et al., 2008). In 4.2. MCC-controlled strike-slip faults this case, the strike-slip zone is responsible for partitioning of oblique plate convergence into island-perpendicular convergence and island In a horizontal section, hot MCCs are often juxtaposed with cold arc parallel strike-slip motion (e.g., Fitch, 1972; McCaffrey, 2009; country rocks along subvertical or dipping detachment faults forming Molnar and Dayem, 2010). The magma causes the fault to be localized a major rheological contrast. In some cases, strike-slip faults are in- by thermal weakening of the crust and even of the lithospheric mantle volved in confining structures of MCCs and the oblique-slip faults in the latter case when mantle-derived magmas are involved (e.g., often connect with extensional detachments (e.g., Genser and Beck, 1983; Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, 1997b). Neubauer, 1988; Neubauer et al., 1995; Meyer et al., 2014) in a large- scale releasing overstep or termination of a crustal-scale strike-slip 4.1.3. Type III fault. It is worth noting that such strike-faults have properties of Pluton development is often associated with strike-slip fault zones stretching faults in which one wall on the side of the MCC, behaves in above slab break-off areas formed during episodes of oblique conti- a ductile manner (Means, 1989). A pre-condition for formation of this nent-continent collision (Fig. 8A). The lithosphere is predominantly af- type of strike-slip faults is progressive metamorphism prior to initiation fected by the formation of a slab window resulting in increased heating of strike-slip or oblique-slip faulting, whereas the juxtaposition of hot- of the base of the upper lithosphere (e.g., Davies and von Blanckenburg, to-cold contacts occurs during exhumation. For initiation, an instability 1995; von Blanckenburg and Davies, 1995; Wortel and Spakman, 2000; condition for the localization of shearing along a strong vs. weak bound- Dayem et al., 2009a). Also in this case, the uprising magmas are weaken- ary is needed. The instability could represent the rheological contrast ing the mantle and the lower crust, which results in strain localization (that is a strong vs. a weak lithology, e.g., feldspar-dominated vs. cal- during shearing along the uprising plutons. In some cases, strongly de- cite-dominated rocks within the crust) or simply the presence of rheo- formed pre- and syn-magmatic plutonic rocks occur with the strike- logically very weak minerals such as talc or graphite (e.g., Lockner et al., slip faulting, as well as typical bodies of sigmoid shape converging 2011; Oohashi et al., 2013) along a pre-existing high-angle normal fault. with a thin tail towards the strike-slip fault. Examples include the east- Metamorphic (core) complexes along transpressional and ern part of the Periadriatic Fault (von Blanckenburg and Davies, 1995; transtensional strike-slip faults can be classified into two systems Fodor et al., 1998; von Blanckenburg et al., 1998; Rosenberg, 2004; shown in Figs. 10, 11 & 12; further examples are presented in Fig. 13, Fig. 8B, C) and the South Armorican shear zone (Jégouzo, 1980)(Fig. and significant data are compiled in Table 1. 9A), with pull-apart type plutons juxtaposed with much colder country rocks (Fig. 9B). Leucogranitic S-type plutons occur in the post-collisional 4.2.1. Type A strike-slip shear zone during wrenching in the late stages of oblique Transpressive or transtensive strike-slip zones with reverse or high- continent-continent collision (e.g., Faure and Pons, 1991; Searle, angle normal faults represent the boundary wall of the hot MCC. The 2013). The mechanisms creating such post-collisional plutons along metamorphic complex is tilted away from to the fault, and the rocks strike-slip systems are: (1) overall wrenching between the involved with the highest P-T conditions are generally exposed very close to continental microplates and (2) a heating mechanism by delamination the fault itself or the fault axis whereas the metamorphic P-T conditions of the mantle lithosphere and heat input and/or shear heating. Well- gradually decrease away from the confining strike-slip or oblique-slip known examples for such post-collisional shear-zone-related fault. Coeval sedimentary basins are usually not associated with this leucogranites are the two branches of the South Armorican shear zone type of fault. Such structures exhume the metamorphic complex mainly (Jégouzo, 1980; Faure et al., 2008; Tartèse et al., 2012; Lemarchand et on one side of a strike-slip zone by either oblique-slip faulting or a su- al., 2012; Fig. 9A). perposed strike-slip and reverse motion. Examples include the Alpine Fault in New Zealand, where the existence of a footwall oblique ramp 4.1.4. Type IV was postulated (Rowland and Sibson, 2004; Little et al., 2005; Major plutons occur along transtensional zones in island arcs or con- Chatzaras et al., 2013)(Fig. 10A). Another example is the Lepontine tinental arcs although it remains often unclear whether the faults were metamorphic dome along the western part with the Periadriatic Fault initiated by pre-existing plutons or the strike-slip faults allowed for the in the Alps (Fig. 10B), which juxtaposes the upper amphibolite-grade ascent of magma. This type is often associated with coeval half-graben- Lepontine rocks in the footwall to the nearly unmetamorphic South Al- type sedimentary basins along the ductile oblique-slip, transtensional pine unit along the Periadriatic fault and less metamorphosed rocks fault. Examples include the Median Tectonic Line in the Japanese island above ductile low-angle normal faults including the Simplon and arc in Japan (e.g., Taira, 2001; Fig. 9C) and the Ancestral Cascades arc in Forcolanormalfaults(e.g.,Elfert et al., 2013). the southwestern United States (e.g., Busby et al., 2012). On a smaller scale, pull-apart type plutons potentially rise up along 4.2.2. Type B, pull-apart type MCCs releasing oversteps of strike-slip fault systems (Román-Berdiel et al., Releasing overstep of a strike-slip fault system occurs along pull- 1997). Such settings could also be considered as a subtype of the island apart type MCCs. Such structures seem to be quite common and have arc-parallel strike-slip faults (Type II) or leucogranitic strike-slip zones been described several times (see below). Such structures include S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 165

Fig. 10. Type A examples of MCC-controlled strike-slip faults. (A) Alpine Fault, New Zealand (modiﬁed from Warr and Cox, 2001). (B) Lepontine dome, western Periadriatic Fault (modiﬁed from Rosenberg, 2004). For locations, see Fig. 7.

oversteps of strike-slip fault systems associated with ductile low-angle Diancang Shan MCC; Cao et al., 2011a, 2011b; Liu et al., 2012) in Asia. normal faults along upper margins. The metamorphism often reaches Other major strike-slip faults border metamorphic (core) complex asso- lower amphibolite-grade metamorphism (e.g., Yin, 2004). The interior ciated with plutons within orogens. Examples include the Karakoram of a MCC is often folded to form a dome or an antiformal structure strike-slip fault (Boutonnet et al., 2012)(Fig. 12A). with folded metamorphic isogrades with the highest P-T conditions in Studies of plutonic and metamorphic rocks within strike-slip fault the center of the dome. Coeval sedimentary basins can be associated systems found that at least part of their exhumation is synchronous with conﬁning strike-slip faults or are on. with strike-slip faulting (Nelson et al., 1996; Sippl et al., 2013). It is the hanging wall unit above the ductile low-angle normal faults. In thus proposed that crustal-scale strike-slip faults may localize and nu- these cases, the basins are either half-graben or collapse basins or cleate due to thermal anomalies associated with preexisting granitic transtension-edge basins. Examples of pull-apart type MCCs include plutons/metamorphic complexes. This leads to strain localization the Cenozoic Tauern window MCC (Genser and Neubauer, 1988; (local reduction of the crustal strength) and preferential weakening, in Neubauer et al., 1999; Fig. 11C), the Cenozoic Eastern Pamir dome the heated portions of the ductile lower crust. (Fig. 12A; Cao et al., 2013a, 2013b; Rasmus et al., 2013), the Panafrican Meatiq and Sibai domes in the Eastern Desert of Egypt (Fritz et al., 2002; 4.4. Oroclines, syntaxes and exhumed strike-slip shear zones Fig. 12B), the Panafrican Qazaz dome on the Arabian peninsula (Meyer et al., 2014; Fig. 12C), the Montagne Noire MCC of the European An interesting question now arises from the observation that, in a Variscides (Echtler and Malavieille, 1990; Fig. 12D), the Upper Creta- number of cases, exhumation of major strike-slip faults is related to ceous Gleinalm dome in the Eastern Alps (Neubauer et al., 1995; Fig. oroclinal syntaxes at the lateral tip of major indenting continental plates 12E), and the Karakoram metamorphic complex in the Himalaya region during collisional orogeny. Examples include: Pamir, Alaska and the (Wallis et al., 2014; Fig. 12F). All these locations are presented in Fig. 7. Tauern window. In the northwestern Himalayan syntaxis in front of the Indian plate, 4.3. Transitional types between pluton- and MCC-controlled end-member the Pamir exposes several high-grade metamorphic gneiss domes in- strike-slip faults truded by many granitoids (e.g., Schmidt et al., 2011; Stearns et al., 2013a, 2013b; Stübner et al., 2013; Fig. 13A). The gneiss domes are root- The two types have gradual transitions from pluton-controlled ed in a rheologically hot and weak zone (Sippl et al., 2013). At their east- strike-slip fault systems to MCC-controlled endmembers. This is partic- ern termination, the Pamir gneiss domes are related to strike-slip faults, ularly the case when syn-tectonic plutons intrude into the strike-slip e.g., the Kongur Shan, Karakorum and Chakre-Gez strike-slip faults as fault zone and are deformed in the process. The Ailao Shan-Red River discussed above. The granites seem to be smeared out from the Pamir shear zone is a good example of such a superposition of MCC and plu- and Kongurshan gneiss domes. Consequently, a genetic relationship be- ton-controlled strike-slip zones (e.g., Fig. 6B, bordering the Cenozoic tween metamorphic gneiss domes, pluton, and MCC controlled 166 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176

Fig. 11. Type B examples of MCC-controlled strike-slip faults from the Alps. (A) Simplified structural map of the Eastern Alps with locations of major exhumed strike-slip faults (modified after Pfiffner, 2014; or location, see Fig. 7). The late-stage, Late Oligocene-Miocene structure of the Alps is characterized by indentation of the rigid Adriatic microplate, decollement of previously subducted European continental crust along the Sub-Tauern ramp. (B) Crustal-scale TRANSALP cross-section showing the Tauern metamorphic core complex, the location of the sub-Tauern ramp, the antiformal doming of detached crust in the Tauern MCC and the involvement of major orogen-parallel strike-slip faults involved in the exhumation of the Tauern MCC belts (modified after TRANSALP Working Group et al., 2002). (C) Tauern MCC and SEMP fault as well as the Periadriatic fault decorated by syn-tectonic tonalites (modified from Genser and Neubauer, 1988; Neubauer et al., 1999) (for tonalites, see also Fig. 8B). (D) A model showing, the formation of the Tauern MCC, due to the oblique post collisional plate convergence and initiation of exhumation along a hot-to-cold contact along an oblique-slip fault. S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 167

Fig. 12. Further examples of MCC-controlled strike-slip faults. (A) Eastern Pamir dome (modified from Cao et al., 2013a, 2013b). (B) Meatiq and Sibai domes in the Eastern Desert (modified from Fritz et al., 2002). (C) Qazaq dome (modified from Meyer et al., 2014). (D) Montagne Noire core (modified from Echtler and Malavieille, 1990). (D1) map, (D2) section. (E) Gleinalm MCC (modified from Neubauer et al., 1995). Note that the Kainach basin represents a transtension-edge basin; (E1) map, (E2) section. (F) Karakoram fault (modified from Wallis et al., 2014). For locations, see Fig. 7.

exhumed strike-slip faults exist. In these cases, the strike-slip faults are (TRANSALP Working Group et al., 2002) during oblique collision of the characterized by amphibolite facies-grade metamorphic zones within Adriatic plate (in a hanging wall position and the European plate in the fault to nearly non-metamorphic country rocks. the footwall). This fault was connected with a blind thrust at depth, A similar structural relationship can be postulated for southeastern resulting in doming and folding of the metamorphic isogrades Alaska, where the Eocene amphibolite facies-grade Chugach metamor- (Lammerer and Weger, 1998; Neubauer et al., 1999; Pfiffner, 2014). phic complex was exhumed in the orocline above the subducting Kula The further development is driven by tectonic unroofing and lateral ex- plate. At the edge, the Border Range Fault, which is a ductile strike-slip trusion as discussed above. Along the western and eastern Tauern MCC, fault, was activated (Gasser et al., 2011; Fig. 13B). The Border Range ductile low-angle normal faults accommodated orogen parallel Fault juxtaposes the Chugach metamorphic complex to the largely stretching. Recently, Keil and Neubauer (2015) postulated east-directed non-metamorphic Wrangelia terrane and some granitoids intruded raft tectonics above the eastern Katschberg ductile low-angle normal into this terrane. Interestingly, the area contains mesothermal gold min- fault as a result of the topographic gradient due to antiformal doming eralization, which formed during exhumation. Exhumation of the Eo- of the Tauern window. The final shape of the Tauern MCC arose during cene metamorphic complex is contemporaneous with fault activity late-stage bending of the mechanically weak interior by indentation (Gasser et al., 2011). through the brittle upper plate (Neubauer, 2005; Schmid et al., 2013). A third example is the Tauern MCC and SEMP fault as well as the Periadriatic fault evolved as a late-stage, Late Oligocene-Miocene 5. Faulting mechanisms of an exhumed strike-slip fault orogen-parallel MCC and strike-slip fault zones in front of the rigid Adriatic indenter, which moved into the mechanically weak orogen 5.1. Dynamic weakening mechanisms (Ratschbacher et al., 1989, 1991). For the Tauern MCC see Fig. 11A. A seismic section (TRANSALP section, Fig. 11B) reveals that the Tauern As discussed above, many continental strike-slip faults are observed MCC formation is characterized as a result of the decollement of a to be weak compared with the surrounding country rock by evidence of piece of previously subducted European continental crust and subse- geological, geophysical and laboratory measurements of frictional quent shortening and initiation of vertical extrusion along a hot-to- strength, but the cause of this weakness is debated (Chester et al., cold contact along an oblique-slip fault above the sub-Tauern ramp 1993; Scholz, 2000; Faulkner and Rutter, 2001; Holdsworth, 2004, 168 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176

Fig. 13. Oroclinal bending, exhumation of a metamorphic core complex and associated strike-slip faults. (A) Pamir with gneiss domes and associated strike-slip faults such as the Chakragil- Ghel and Karakoram exhumed strike-slip faults (combined after Sippl et al., 2013 and Stübner et al., 2013). (B) Eocene Alaska with the Border Range strike-slip exposing the Chugach metamorphic complex (after Gasser et al., 2011).

Holdsworth et al., 2010; Collettini et al., 2009; Niemeijer and Spiers, Tullis et al., 2007; Tagami, 2012), (2) metamorphic reaction weakening 2007; Niemeijer et al., 2010; Carpenter et al., 2011; Green et al., 2015). by formation of extremely rheologically weak low-friction minerals Recently, Rice (2012) proposed that major faults are statically strong such as talc, graphite, and clay minerals (e.g., Chester et al., 1993; but are dynamically weakening during seismic slip. Wibberley, 1999; Moore and Rymer, 2007; Collettini et al., 2009; Aside from syntectonic plutons and MCCs, a number of other pro- Lockner et al., 2011; Kuo et al., 2014), (3) fluid migration by release of cesses could potentially be responsible for dynamic weakening of ex- fluids in front of uprising magma, metamorphic dehydration reactions humed strike-slip faults (e.g., Gratier and Gueydan, 2007; Rice and at depth and release of fluids from a subduction zone (e.g., Sibson, Cocco, 2007; Tullis et al., 2007) and result in the concentration of 2001), and (4) phyllosilicate-bearing fault gouges which develop veloc- shear within narrow zones: (1) frictional heating by shearing (seismic ity weakening behavior at rapid slip rates (e.g., Jefferies et al., 2006; slip) resulting in flash heating and pseudotachylyte formation creating Niemeijer and Spiers, 2007). The presence of rheologically weak min- melt lubrication during seismic events (e.g., Di Toro et al., 2011) thus erals such as clay minerals in fault gouges in uppermost crustal levels lowering the effective pressure and frictional strength (e.g., Sibson, (e.g., Hickman et al., 2008) is generally observed in quartzofeldspathic 1977; Lachenbruch and Sass, 1980; Rice, 1999; Rice and Cocco, 2007; lithologies resulting from fluid-host rock interaction. The presence of S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 169 graphite and talc and other rheologically weak minerals at shallow The steady-state numerical models assume and calculate shear heating levels along major fault zones is used to explain the aseismic slip, e.g., in the whole lithosphere for both brittle and ductile deformation re- along the creeping segment of the San Andreas Fault (Titus et al., gimes (e.g. Leloup et al., 1999; Tagami, 2012). These cases all occur in 2006, 2011). The varying interplay factors between faulting, fluid mi- ductile-deforming terrains where the strong temperature sensitivity of gration, and hydrous clay mineral transformations along fault zones the rock strength results in thermal softening which provides a buffer are suggested to constitute important weakening mechanisms. Howev- for shear heating (for models, see Brun and Cobbold, 1980; Fleitout er, Collettini et al. (2009) suggested that dynamic weakening mecha- and Froidevaux, 1980). If the high-slip velocities are involved, the low nisms can explain some observations (Imber et al., 1997). For thermal conductivity of rocks and the transient heating during rapid example, creep and aseismic slip are thought to occur on weak faults, co-seismic slip essentially occurs without conduction, if so, and the and quasi-static weakening mechanisms are required to initiate fric- fault is thin enough, very high temperatures may be reached locally tional slip on mis-oriented faults, at high angles to the tectonic stress (Rice, 2012). The various dynamic weakening processes include flash field (Stewart et al., 2000). In most strike-slip fault zones, it is likely heating at highly stressed frictional micro-contacts and rapid slip re- that more than one mechanism operates in any one part of the faulting duces friction (e.g., Rice, 1999, 2012). Emplacement and rise of magmas at any given time. Moreover, the maintenance of high fluid pressures re- and/or hot fluids in the shear zone will further enhance the temperature quires specialized conditions and weak mineral phases to not be present increase to shallower parts of the fault zone (e.g., Yardley and in sufficient abundance to satisfy weak fault models, so weak faults re- Baumgartner, 2007; Rice, 2012). main largely unexplained (Collettini et al., 2009).

5.3. Impact of hot fluids in strike-slip faults 5.2. Role of thermal structure of strike-slip faults The interplay between the different fluid sources with host rocks has Recent experiments and observations from rocks and rock-like ma- a strong influence on the thermal structure, as well as metamorphic and terials show that the thermal regime of fault zones mainly depends on deformation processes of the strike-slip faults, with cooling effects by three parameters. These are the regional geothermal structure across descending cold fluids of meteoric origin and heating by ascending the fault zone and background thermal history, frictional heating of hot fluids of magmatic and metamorphic origin (e.g., Faulkner and wall rocks by fault motions, and heating by advection of hot fluids with- Rutter, 2001; Yardley and Baumgartner, 2007)(Fig. 14). Hot fluids are in the fault core and adjacent damage zone (e.g., Handy et al., 2007; derived from ascending magma and metamorphic devolatization, or Tagami, 2012 and references therein). The thermal structure of strike- may even rise up from subduction zones, e.g. caused by slip faults and shear zones seems to be linked to deformation mecha- deserpentinization of subducted oceanic lithosphere (e.g., Saffer and nisms occurring in the hot or cold lithosphere (Fig. 14A, B) or to Tobin, 2011; Guillot and Hattori, 2013). Reactions of rocks with hydrous small-scale mechanisms, i.e. dynamic recrystallization and grain size re- fluids cause softening of metamorphic fabrics by means of phyllosilicate duction of rock-forming minerals (e.g., Yamasaki, 2004; Tagami, 2012). formation, lowering friction and resulting in phyllonites. These process- In this case, exhumed high-grade MCC or plutons associated with major es lead to the high permeability of fault zones (e.g., Wibberley et al., strike-slip faults are of particular interest. 2008; Fig. 14). Models invoking fluid pressure-controlled fault weaken- Both the thermal and mechanical effects related to the presence of ing and earthquake slip instability (e.g., Byerlee, 1990, 1993; Rice, magma and a hot MCC strongly weaken the lithosphere. This effect 1992). High-temperature fluid-rock interactions occur widely during may have important implications for the model of continental-scale seismic slip and the geochemical characteristics of fault rocks are useful strike-slip faults as proposed in Fig. 14A and B. At a crustal scale, mag- indicators of such coseismic events. Also seismic pumping of fluids is a matic intrusions may significantly affect the strike-slip fault patterns, common phenomenon (e.g., Sibson, 2001). All these effects are likely also favoring the development of the MCC structure and evolution the reasons for strain localization along the strike-slip faults. (e.g., Corti et al., 2003). Scholz (1980) reviewed a number of cases of The hot fluids are highly reactive, dissolving elements from country shear heating revealed by metamorphic aureoles around a fault zone. rocks and resulting in many effects including phyllosilicate formation by

Fig. 14. Predictive models on important thermal and structural properties of crustal-scale strike faults. (A) Exhumed strike-slip fault containing a syntectonic pluton (example: eastern Periadriatic Fault) showing a hot fault core contrasting colder borders on both sides. Near surface, descending meteoric water may cool the fault. (B) Exhumed strike-slip fault bordering a metamorphic core complex showing a hot MCC juxtaposed to a cold block creating an asymmetric thermal gradient. The thermal structure of fault zones could be checked by thermochronological methods, e. g. zircon (U-Th)/He geochronology. 170 S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176

fluid-/rock interaction, precipitation of quartz, calcite and even ore min- weakened crust of the magmatic arc. The outstanding examples of this erals (Faulkner and Rutter, 2001; Yardley and Baumgartner, 2007; Cao behavior include the Main Uralian strike-slip fault (Hetzel and Glodny, et al., 2013a, 2013b). Detailed studies on Carpathian ore deposits 2002), the Great Sumatra Fault (Fitch, 1972; Alvarado et al., 2011)and show that oversteps in strike-slip fault systems appear to be particularly in the Japanese island arc (e.g. Taira, 2001). The Great Sumatra fault is suitable for the formation of major hydrothermal ore deposits associat- accompanied by volcanoes, implying coeval magma chambers/plutons ed with shallow plutons and volcanics (e.g., Neubauer et al., 2005 and at depth as usually only 10–15% of the erupted magma, and pull-apart references therein). Relay ramps along strike-slip fault zones typically structures related to releasing step-overs of the Sumatran Fault represent potential pathways for vertical migration of fluid (Fossen (Bellier and Sébrier, 1994; Acocella, 2014). Von Blanckenburg and and Rotevant, 2016). Davies (1995) proposed rheological weakening of the crust by slab break-off magmatism, which gives rise to future orogen-parallel 6. Initiation of major strike-slip faults: chicken or egg-first? strike-slip accommodation (Ratschbacher et al., 1991). Vaughan and Scarrow (2003) discuss a model of triggering strike-slip faults by forma- A major question is how and where a major strike-slip fault is initi- tion and rise of K-granitic melts from the base of the lithosphere. ated. Many crustal-scale strike-slip faults appear to form persistent Due to the ascension of magma, we suggest in this review study that zones of weakness that fundamentally influence the distribution, archi- the instability localizing the faulting comes from rheological deep- tecture and kinematic patterns of crustal-scale deformation and associ- seated levels of the wrench zone. During further development, the in- ated geological processes (e.g., Collettini et al., 2009 and references stability uprising magma focuses fault motion in the thermally weak- therein). Common in all models of strike-slip initiation is an important ened mantle lithosphere or lower crust. Based on the rheological contrast of weak and strong rheologies. Models assume an important contrasts, there may be further potential mechanisms for the inception rheological contrast between rheologically weak and strong lithologies, of major strike-slip faults, e.g. reactivation of major rift-related normal for example margins of a stiff craton and juxtaposed mobile belts faults as strike-slip faults (Hsiao et al., 2010), strike-slip faults related (Weinberg et al., 2004; Furlong et al., 2007; Molnar and Dayem, 2010). to transtension in rifts (e.g., East African rift system; Ring et al., 1992; Some models assume weakening of the lithosphere due to the rise of Acocella, 2014) and melt-induced strain localization and lateral flow magma. Magmatic weakening of the lithosphere has received particular of anatectic crust to form extrusion faults (Rosenberg et al., 2007a). attention in the context of continental faulting. The spatiotemporal relationship and compatible rates of processes between pre-kinematic or 7. Discussion and conclusion contemporaneous granitic plutons and crustal-scale strike-slip faulting have been fully documented worldwide in a number of cases (e.g., 7.1. Recognition of exhumed strike-slip fault zones Guineberteau et al., 1987; Glazner, 1991; Hutton et al., 1990; D'Lemos et al., 1992; Hutton and Reavy, 1992; McCaffrey, 1992; Tikoff and Exhumed strike-slip faulting is a deep crustal expression of litho- Teyssier, 1994; Brown, 1994; Davidson et al., 1994; Neves and sphere deformation. In particular, crustal-scale exhumed strike-slip Vauchez, 1995; Tikoff and de Saint Blanquat, 1997a; Tommasi et al., faults involve complex processes of origin and structure, as well as ther- 1994; Neves et al., 1996; Vauchez et al., 1997; Brown and Solar, 1998; mal and mechanical feedbacks. There is significant divergence between St. Blanquat et al., 1998; Handy et al., 2001; Alvarado et al., 2011; natural examples and models regarding thermal-weakening feedbacks. Rosenberg, 2004; Rosenberg et al., 2007b; Cao et al., 2011a; Brown, Observations suggest that the strike-slip faults were already weak (e.g., 2013). Since emplacement, crystallization and cooling of pre- and Rutter et al., 2001) when they initiated as ductile shear zones at deep syntectonic granitic plutons may represent relatively rapid geological crustal levels. Oblique-slip faults represent vertical structures that po- processes (e.g., Paterson and Tobisch, 1992; Karlstrom et al., 1993; tentially penetrate the weak lower-crust and/or mantle (e.g., Bodorkos et al., 2000; Petford et al., 2000; St. Blanquat et al., 2011; Sylvester, 1988). As noted above, faulting and exhumation processes Zibra et al., 2012) they may also record short- or long-term geological and products change with depth and type of material being deformed. events related to crustal melting and deformation of the continental The structure and rheology of strike-slip fault zones vary with depth, crust. However, it is a matter of debate whether magma emplacements such that strong temperature- and rate-dependent ductile behavior in have previously localized and weakened the crust/lithosphere and trig- the lower part of the crust and mantle is transitional to pressure-depen- gered nucleation of shear zones/fault zones (e.g., Paterson and Fowler, dent frictional behavior predominating in the brittle upper crust (Alsop 1993; Neves and Vauchez, 1995; Neves et al., 1996; Paterson and et al., 2004; Handy et al., 2007). Although some basic common mecha- Schmidt, 1999; Vaughan and Scarrow, 2003; Weinberg et al., 2004; nisms can be identified from multiple models, individual models do Rutter and Mecklenburgh, 2005), or whether pre-existing faults or show a wide range of structures and potential origins of strike-slip shear zones represent the preferred pathways for the ascension and faults. The increase in temperature with depth and localization is prob- emplacement of granitic magmas (e.g., Hutton et al., 1990; D'Lemos et ably one of the most important factors influencing crustal viscosity, as al., 1992; Holm, 1995; Pe-Piper et al., 1998; Sawyer, 1999; Brown and has been recognized in several studies of post-seismic deformation Solar, 1998, Brown, 2013). This leads to a chicken and egg debate over (e.g., Riva and Govers, 2009; Yamasaki and Houseman, 2012). The heat- the chronological relationship between pluton-controlled exhumed ed lithosphere enhancing localization and viscous weakening is evi- strike-slip faults with pre- and/or syn-tectonic magmatism. denced by thermomechanical models of a multi-component system One solution of the dilemma is that granitic magma ascending and (Chéry, 2008). deformation are linked in a positive feedback loop (Brown and Solar, Less attention has been paid to major orogen-scale exhumed strike- 1998) such that magma-enhanced strain localization leads to further slip faults with hot-to-cold contacts, which commonly develop from magma segregation and crustal differentiation (Brown, 1994; Handy ductile shear at depth to brittle displacement at shallow crustal levels. et al., 2001). As discussed in Chapter 3.2, the initiation of strike-slip These studied locations of large strike-slip faults at the pluton/meta- fault zones is suggested to result from plate collision (e.g., escape tec- morphic complex/country rock boundary or following internal contacts tonics; Tapponnier et al., 1982) or oblique collision mechanical modes, suggest that these domains represent favorable sites for subsequent de- which induce lithospheric deformation (Fitch, 1972). The oblique sub- velopment of strike-slip faulting. Hot-to-cold contacts are better known duction of the oceanic plate partitions in causes orthogonal shortening in ductile low-angle normal faults at the top of MCCs. The principal ef- at plate margins and orogen-parallel strike-slip motion in the interior fect of a hot-to-cold contact in the crust and/or mantle lithosphere is of the fossil and active island arc systems (Fitch, 1972; Molnar and the change to lower yield strength on the hot block along a strike-slip Dayem, 2010). Oblique convergence along a subduction margin com- fault. The weak nature of the lower crust and the deep mantle litho- monly results in localization of strike-slip deformation in the thermally sphere also implies: (1) a potential root of a strike-slip fault is a listric S. Cao, F. Neubauer / Earth-Science Reviews 162 (2016) 155–176 171 fault at the base of the lithosphere, and (2) potential lithospheric-scale Teyssier et al., 1995; Dewey et al., 1998).Weakening by magmatic in- folding of the involved lithosphere close to the major strike-slip fault trusions and hot metamorphic complexes associated with continen- (Fig. 11D). tal strike-slip faults have an important effect on the thermal state and thus the rheological behavior of the lithosphere as already 7.2. Thermally enhanced rheological weakening of exhumed strike-slip discussed. The other side in a feedback mechanism, was strike-slip faults kinematics and associated deformation which poses a major control on the pattern of magma emplacement and metamorphic complex As we highlighted in this review, in natural examples, there is a exhumation (e.g., Rosenberg, 2004; Schmeling, 2010). Our review broad consensus that granitic plutons and metamorphic (core) com- results provide a new conceptual framework for interpreting initia- plexes are often spatially and temporally related to crustal-scale tion on rheological boundaries of exhumed strike-slip fault zones. strike-slip fault zones (e.g., Hollister and Crawford, 1986; Genser and The initiation of strike-slip faulting is considered to be resulted Neubauer, 1988; Speer et al., 1994; Neubauer et al., 1995; Vigneresse, from upwelling of the convective asthenosphere, which leads to a 1995a, 1995b; Wang and Neubauer, 1998; Neubauer et al., 1999; modification of the thermal structure of the overlying lithosphere. Vaughan and Scarrow, 2003; Rosenberg, 2004; Weinberg et al., 2004; Specifically, we argue that the initiation of strike-slip faults at Rosenberg and Schneider, 2008; Cao et al., 2011b, 2011c). Pre- and depth is primarily controlled by the rheological weakening contrast syn-kinematic partial melting and granite intrusions occur along the in the lithosphere and by releasing oversteps in such systems. axis of strike-slip faults (e.g., Rosenberg and Schneider, 2008). Studies in deeply exposed outcrops have shown that strike-slip shear zones 7.4. Exhumed strike-slip faults and oroclinal syntaxes have been traced from greenschist grade all the way to granulite- grade metamorphism, and well into the lower crust, widening with Continental indentation tectonicsis a process that described how depth (e.g., the San Andreas Fault system; Henstock et al., 1997; rigid blocks indent into weak orogens and result laterally escaping Parsons, 1998; Titus et al., 2006). The metamorphic zonation is parallel blocks confined by transcurrent strike-slip faults (e.g., Tapponnier and to the trend of the strike-slip fault zone and the metamorphic grade in- Molnar, 1976; Ratschbacher et al., 1989, 1991). As described above plu- creases towards the axis of the fault zone (e.g., Tauern metamorphic ton- and MCC-controlled strike-slip faults are often associated with complex; Genser and Neubauer, 1988; Neubauer et al., 1999; and Alpine oroclines and syntaxes. These syntaxes and oroclines evolve often at fault, Warr and Cox, 2001). The peak conditions of the Oligocene Tauern the tip of indenting lithosphere at the edges of plates (e.g., Pamir at metamorphic overprint reached amphibolite facies along an axis that the northwestern edge of the indenting India; Stübner et al., 2013). In has shifted towards the south of the central axis and greenschist facies these cases, it seems to be the melting of lower crust, which creates all along the margins (e.g., Frank et al., 1987; Hoinkes et al., 1999; the magma, which is then smeared into the associated strike-slip faults Neubauer et al., 1999). like the Karakoram and Chugach faults. The oroclines and associated Plutonic intrusions and hot metamorphic bodies bounded with large-scale strike-slip faults develop, therefore, during oblique plate strike-slip fault zone at depth lead to heating and weakening, which is convergence and collision and/or post-collisional processes, when oce- the driving mechanism for shear zone initiation at rheological bound- anic subduction or final oblique continental subduction partitions into aries (Fig. 14). Lithospheric heating by mantle upwelling and related orthogonal shortening at the orogenic front and about orogen-parallel magmatic intrusions significantly contributes to localization and weak- strike-slip faults. ening of the lithosphere has been addressed in many studies (e.g., Overall, we have reviewed recent advances in the study of the struc- Handy et al., 2001; Buck, 2004, 2006; Bialas et al., 2010). Hollister and ture and evolution of exhumed continental strike-slip fault zone sys- Crawford (1986) were the earliest to propose that there is a causal rela- tems. We have emphasized the importance of the interplay of these tionship between large-scale deformation and intrusion (melting) in plutonic intrusions and hot metamorphic bodies bounded with strike- orogenic crust. They suggested that an intrusion weakens the lower slip fault zone at depth lead to heating and weakening. Our review re- crust significantly during orogeny, which increases strain rates and aug- sults provide a new conceptual framework for interpreting initiation ments the exhumation rates of crustal blocks confined between mag- of exhumed strike-slip fault zones on thermally enhanced rheological matic rocks bearing shear zones. weakening along hot-to-cold contacts deep within the crust and mantle Hot geological bodies (e.g., granitic intrusions and warm metamor- lithosphere. However, our understanding of the mechanics and process- phic complexes) are juxtaposed with cold country rocks on the other es of exhumed major strike-slip faulting is still limited. Further progress side of the strike-slip fault (Fig. 14A, B). This results in shear concentra- in understanding the properties and evolution of strike-slip faulting will tion along such contacts due to thermally enhanced rheological weak- require an integrated approach involving many different disciplines ening when external kinematic conditions are appropriate. (from field geology combined with detailed microstructural investiga- Rheological weakening by heterogeneities associated with magma in- tion, laboratory experiments, geophysics, hydrogeology, geochemistry, trusions and metamorphic complexes may therefore induce a localiza- and numerical and experimental modelling). tion of strain within and near the plutons or metamorphic complex and favor the development of a strike-slip fault zone. This mechanism Acknowledgements has recently been corroborated by observed structures at the rift system or MCC (e.g., van Wijk et al., 2001; Kendall et al., 2005; Schmeling, We acknowledge detailed constructive reviews by Walter D. 2010). Alternatively, the thermal activity has been regarded as a possi- Mooney, Basil Tikoff, Vasileios Chatzaras, one anonymous and encour- ble effect of shearing and ascribed to shear heating (e.g., Rice, 2012). agement by the editor, Prof Carlo Doglioni. This work is financially sup- ported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), grant nos. M-1343 and 7.3. Feedback mechanisms within exhumed strike-slip fault zone P28313-N29 to SC and P22110 to FN, National Natural Science Founda- tion of China, grant 41472188, and MSFGPMR201406 of MOST Special Spatial and temporal relationships in oblique plate boundary de- Fund from the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral formation with transtension and transpression are often related to Resources, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan). the interaction between deep lithosphere and large-scale strike- slip faulting (e.g., Molnar, 1988; Teyssier et al., 1995; Spotila et al., References 2007)(Fig. 3). 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