CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Education has always pJayed a vital role in the

development of mankind, society and nation. The progress of any society is usually evaluated by the standard of education of the people of that society. The word ^Educati on*' has a very broad perspective. It does not mean bookish knowledge or

theoretical discussions only but it includes the overall mental, moral, physical and cultural development of one’s personality. Education, which has such high value in human

life, naturally plays a unique role in the emancipation movement of women. It was through educational attainment and advancement that women had the courage to fight for their own rights, demand equal status in the society and achieve independent personal identity as responsible citizens of the

Nation. All over the world wherever women were fighting for

their rights and Ii berat i on, and was no except ion to

this was a un i versa I phenomenon. Sociologists also say that

the best way to understand the spirit of a civilization and

to appreciate its excellence and realise its limitations, is

to study the history of the position and status of women in it.

In this present study an attempt has been made to

trace the development of female education in the Central

Division of the Bombay Presidency in the Nineteenth and early

Twentieth Century with special reference to its contribution

12 in the social emanci pat i on movement of women. The Central

Division of the Bombay Presidency has been awarded the honour of being the pioneer in the field of Female Education and is credited for achieving remarkable success in laying a solid foundation for the progress of women’s emancipation movement.

Women in , it is believed, enjoyed more social freedom than women in other parts of India. Their movements were not restr icted by practices like the Purda. Hence their progress in educat ion was remarkab1y speedy as compared to the progress of female education in the other parts of India.

The Central Division comprises of the Presidency town

Bombay, Co 1 1 ectorates of Poona. Thana. Ratnagi ri and

Ahmednagar.

The nineteenth Century witnessed the dawn of the emancipation movement of women, in which education had played a major role. Young reformists in Maharashtra. who were influenced by the Uestern education and culture, felt the need to change the prevailing Indian social conditions if she was to rise upto the standard of the Western world. The backward economic. social and cultural set up required a total transformation. With this conviction they set about their goal and soon realised that as an initial step towards re format i on they had to begin at their homes, what needed top priority of all was the position of women in their homes. The life of women in general was very pathetic and they were oppressed due to a number of restr ict ions imposed on their activities. The maiden effort towards women's emancipation

13 began in the Nineteenth Century and progressed rapidly in the early Twentieth Century. With the end of the Peshua rule and the beginning of the British rule in 1818, conditions in

Maratha territories started changing rapidly. The new administration introduced new ideas, experimented with new concepts in Maharashtra and Maharashtra witnessed the dawn of a new era. Women’s education movement is one of its results.

The missionaries also became more active in the promotion of women's education in the Ni neteenth Century. The missionaries, who had accompanied the trading compani es, had come with the sole intention of spreading the gospel of their holy religion and attempt conversion. They aimed at spreading their ideo1ogies by educat i ng women, who they believed, would serve their purpose better than men. They believed that if they could influence one woman in a family, it would be easy to influence the entire family. The nineteenth Century witnessed the attempts of various agencies to promote women's education though for varied reasons.

This study is an attempt to trace the development of women's education in the Central Division of The Bombay

Presidency. As far as it is known the work of this nature has not been attempted so far. The study of development of women's education is a prerequisite for the study of women's emancipation movement. It is with this purpose the present study is undertaken.

The source materia1 consulted for the present study was collected from various Archieves and libraries. The

14 Archievses of , Bombay and Poona have ample documents re I event to the progress of women’s education in Bombay

Presidency, Similarly the Iibreary of Asiatic Society,

Bombay; the Education Development’s Library at State Institue of Education, Poona; overnment Public Library, Poona; Library of Mumbai Marathi Sahitya Sangraha1aya. Bombay; Bharat Itihas

Sanshodhan Mandal, Poona; Abasaheb Garware College, Poona;

Huzurpaga, Poona; Sevasadan, Poona; Mission

College, Poona University, S.N.D.T. women's college, Poona,

Kesari daily, contain lot of material e.g. Autobiographies,

Biographies, newspaper articles, magazines, reports of education etc. useful for the present study.

Vomen through History -

In the early stage of civilization, when man was leading a nomadic life in a group, women enjoyed equal

Position and status. The group worked on the principle of division of labour. It could even be said that woman was actually the central figure of the group. The arts of cultivation, sowing seeds etc. were developed by women. "All the development of essential commodities of life, was a result of women’s skillful organization and direction, eg. cooking, designing, pottery making, weaving etc.” ^ With the development of stabilized life as a cultivator, originated

the Patriarchal family system placing man as the chief provider and protector and thereby placing women in the secondary position.

15 Ancient Period

In the so c ie ty of Ancient India, the upbringing and development of women was not altogether neglected. Down to about the third Century B.C. girls’ normal marriage age was around sixteen years of age and this was utilized to educate girls, to train them for being successfu1, efficient housewives. Girls had all the facilities of attending schools and obtaining desired knowledge, according to contemporary records. Women could with a vow made to the life of Yogins spend the rest of their lives as the students of technology and philosophy. " Women students were divided into two classes 1) Brahma Vadinis 2) Sodyodvahas the former being unmarried lifelong students of technology and philosophy and the latter procur ing education till their marriage age of 15 2 or 16 . There were several renowned scholars among which were some who composed Rigvedic hymns e.g. Lopamudra, Vishvavara,

Ghosha etc. They even knew how to organize and perform the rituals of sacrifice. The Brahmavadinis, known as

Kasakritsnas, mastered the complicated and dreary subjects like Purvamimansa. Some ladies were actively involved in anti sacrificial movements and philosophical orientation. They were more interested in studying about the nature of Atman than involving themselves in the worldly trivialities of life. Women's participation in open public debates with men is also found in the contemporary records.

Buddhism gave a great impetus to the cause of female education among the commercial and aristocratic fami1ies by

16 admitting them to the Buddhist order. Women teachers, known as Upadhyayas managed Ashram schools, e.g. Kamandaki, a

Buddhist Scholar.

Education System -

From the available sources it seems that primary education of youngsters was imparted in families by the elder members of the family and **Guruku I as ** or "Charans” imparted higher education. It means that girls aspiring for higher education were sent to the centres of higher education, if possible to a competent lady teacher, after the completion of primary education at home. The concept of co-education, it seems, was accepted in the society if the girls were allowed to attend centres of higher education along with boys under a male teacher. The requisite of "Upanayan'^ sanskar limited the right of obtaining education to the girls of high placed specific classes, resulting in the illiterate state of most of the womenfolk. The exact extent of education among women, during this period, cannot be determined, however anxious parents must have paid due attention to have scholarly daughters at home.

Education was never looked upon as obligatory to earn a livelihood but it was considered as a Tapasya. Naturally the girls obtaining this stage were held in high esteem in the society.

Apart from pursuing the theoret i ca1 sub jects the girls mastered various fine arts i.e. music, painting.

17 dancing, and technical subjects like Chariot driving, warfare, spinning etc. which enabled them to earn their livelihood in the times of family distress. The girls from royal families were even trained in military and administrative cores and there is mention of a number of expert women warriors, chariot drivers and efficient administrators. In the absence of an immediate male heir, they had acted as competent trustees of the throne e.g. Queen

Nayani ka, Prabhavati, Gupta, Vi jayabhattari ka or Sugandha and

Didda, respectively of Satavahan, Vakataka, Chalukya and

Kashmir dynasties.

Women aspired to practise medicine as a career according to the reference in a translated work in Arabic in the 6^^ century A.D. There are references indicating the involvement of women from common classes in several jobs as farm workers, parasol bearers, guards and even as spies in the government. Reference in Kautilya’s Arthashastra indicate employment of women as his personal guard by King

Chandragupta Maurya.

But from the third century B.C. there was a marked deterioration in women’s status, position and freedom due to several reasons. The thought that women did not deserve freedom was firmly rooted and was predominant in the society, resulting in restricting women’s freedom in various fields.

They were pushed behind the four walls more and more and lost even the right of obtaining education. The emergence of the practice of chi 1dmarriage further increased their illiterate

18 and backward conditions. The possibility of obtaining even primary education was a foregone chance for them since the premarriage period was utilized for domestic training.

Foreign Invasions and Emereence of Purda System -

Continuous foreign invasions on India helped in further deterioration of woman’s position. Amidst unstable political conditions the quest ion of women’s safety and security was one of the predominant problems resulting in further confinement of women behind the four walls of homes.

This proliferated the Purda system in the society. The Purda system,, which was a consequence of foreign invasion, restricted the movements of women and thereby restricted their opportunities of education. Conducting household duties, bringing up children, serving the elder members in the family, pleasing her husband and observing all religious rituals became the sole purpose of her life without even the liberty of soda 1 ising in public functions. The illiterate state made her the slave of traditions, customs and superstitions, lose her sense of logical arguments. This state of mind was the biggest hurdle to overcome during the emanci pat ion movement in modern times. Only a smattering of writing, reading and simple arithmetic was imparted to women.

In short from 300 B.C. chi 1dmarr iage, the Purda system, domination of traditions and customs prevented the growth of women’s education. Which further went on degenerating with passing time, down to 1000 A. D. It is

19 hazardous to make any statement about the exact extent of

literacy among women, for we have no data like modern census report to guide us. Literacy among men at this time w a s about

30%, that among women could not very probably have been more than 10 % . However women who were denied the right of formal education, exhibited their intelligence by mastering other skills. Recitation of memorised religious hymns, exposition of proficiency in weaving, painting. knitting, drawing, sewing etc. were the fields mastered by women.

Women's Education Under Marat ha Rule -

The unfavourable conditions for women's education continued to be on an average the same till the foundation of

the Raj under the leadership of . Uith stable secure political conditions, social conditions also improved and women who felt safe and secure enjoyed more social freedom. Any sped f i c efforts for the promotion of women's education are not witnessed during Shivaji’s rule, which may be due to his constant engagement in other more pressing problems in his short rulespan.

Ji iabai

Jijabai, the mother of Shivaji, was the most dynamic and efficient lady of the time. She was a constant source of

inspiration for Shivaji, she not only inspired and guided

Shivaji but also took a very keen interest in the foundation and expansion of the Maratha rule with her invaluable advice.

20 Her shrewd and foresighted management of the Maratha administration in Shivaji’s absence set an example to the women of the future generation. Tough there was an absence of state policy for the development of women’s education, the trend of educating women was set by Jijahai. However it was confined only to limited class. The ladies of royal families, rich and distinguished families, or sardar families were taught reading, letter writing, simple account keeping along with the skills of riding, use of weapons. warfares etc.

There are a number of examples of such ladies during that per iod.

Ladies Skilled in Warfare and use of Weapons -

Jijabai (the mother of Shivaji) was an expert fighter and well acquainted with the technique of warfare. Yesubai

(Wife of ) (wife of Rajaram) were renowned for their expertise in horseriding, warfare and use of weapons. After the death of Rajaram, Tarabai acknowledged her responsibility and the Maratha war of independence against

the Mougha1s continued under her leadership very successfully. Likewise there were a few other ladies apart from Royal families, who Were applauded for their intrepidity. ”Raibagan, who accompanied Mahabat Khan, against

Shivaji, during the Surat sack, had been praised by Shivaji

for the exhibition of great valour.” Savitribai, widow of

Prabhu Thanedar of Belw.tdi, continued the war against the

siege of the fortress of Belwadi, after the death of her husband. In valour she was claimed superior even to men.

Expert Horsewomen -

A horse being the usual mode of transport in those

days. most of the women were taught horser iding. But there were a few who were pJaudited for their expertise as

horsewomen. Yesubai (wife of Sambhaji) accompanied her husband when he escaped from Masudkhan's camp, since Sambhaji

realised he was in alliance with Dilerkhan. The journey was

long,strenuous and was on horse back, yet Yesubai could manage the Journey. Tarabai (wife of Rajaram) accompanied the army to the battlefield on horseback and was applauded as war

goddess.

From available records it seems that horseriding,

skill of weapon use, were learnt by almost all women as a requirement of life and the ladies of the royal families and privileged class learnt writing, reading and simple account keeping to perform their duties proper 1y. They were provided

the facility of special tuition but there was no provision

for impar t i ng formal education. When provision of formal

educational Institutions was an unknown phenomenon in those

days even for educating men, to think of women's education

was undreamt of.

Peshwa Period -

Education was not a state responsibility even during

the period. It was the parents who were supposed to

2 2 provide the convenience of education for their children.

Hence only that education which couJd train him for family occupation, was given to the boys. It might be technical for professional occupations i.e. goldsmith, blacksmith, potter

etc. or it might be of administrative techniques or religious rituals. Education was classified in three types - 1)

Military 2) Religious 3) Occupational. In those days the military profession was most prestigious. Utmost importance

therefore was given to its training and bookish knowledge was of secondary level.

The schools were managed by teachers privately. The syllabus, timing of schools etc. were decided by them according to the requi rement of the society and the type of

social groups attending the school. The State did not look

into the matter or interfere in its daily working.

Several types of educational institutions imparting education from primary upto the high level were working in

the state. Elementary schools were for primary education

while the Hindu and Muslim schools respectively known as

Pathasha1 a and Madarssans imparted higher education. In addition there was a provision of private tuitions for those

who could afford private tutors.

23 TypBS of Schools -

Two Types of Institutions / ------tt It Schools ofLearni ng EIewentary Schools I / / ------t \ /------I\ If III Hindu Muslim Persian Schools Pathsha1 as Madarssahs Schools teaching through modern Indian language.

Schools of Lsarnine -

Hindus andMuslims had separate schools of 1 earning.

They received financial assistance from rulers, chieftains and opulent or religious citizens. The teachers were usually

very learned and of outstanding schoIarship. There was no regular fees system and the medium of instruction was the classical language i.e. Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian. These schools correspond to today’s colleges. Some grant of land, or donation offered by wealthy people. voluntary offerings

from parents were the main sources of income. The schools

were generally conducted by an indi vidua 1 teacher and there

was no staffing pattern as such. The students were usually

lodgers and boarders at the teachers' house. The teachers in

the Hindu schools of learning were mostly brahmins and

students from the privileged section only were admitted to

the schools. "There were no women students in these schools

though they were not denied the right to study. " The persian

schools were attended by several hindu students since persian

24 was then a court 1anguage. The schools did not have a

special building and they were conducted in temples or mosques or in a house of some local patron or in the house of

the teacher himself. The chief aim of these schools was to produce Moulvees and Pandits.

E 1ementary Schools :-

The elementary school was the main agency for the spread of education among common people. The instruct ions in

these schools were of practical, daily life use and mostly

limited to the teaching of the three R ’s (writing, reading and arithmetic). Though the school was of unostentatious it

was most useful in catering for the mundane requirements of common people. It had no endowments from the state or the public. Teachers were men of average attainment and the remuneration for their work was much lower than that of the

lower teachers. Students from all sections of the society were admitted to these schools. ’^Unlike the school of

learning it is worthy to note that pupils in these schools Q included a small percentage of girls” . Elementary schools had no buildings of their own, no printed books or slates and pencils to write. "Dhulipati” (Dust on ground used as slates) was used to write numbers and words with the help of a stick.

There was no fixed schedule of working or no regular

t imetabIe and timing in these schools. The working days and

hours of working were adjusted according to local

requirements of the other daily jobs, the students were

25 expected to perform.

Role of State in Education

Education was never a state responsibility, and yet it encouraged educational activities in various ways. It granted a piece of land for school building, offered monetary help to schools and teachers and provided ready help in the time of need. Most noteworthy was their practice of felicitating and honouring the learned scholars in public functions. It helped to encourage the attainment of mastery among people. Special funds from the state treasury were provided for this purpose. During the Peshwa rule a large amount was awarded to scho1ars from the fund known as

"Shravani fund" in the Marathi month of Shravan after the exhibition of their scholarship and proficiency in various subjects. This fund later on known as Dakshina fund was utilized by the British for the promotion of oriental and also western education. Part of it was offered to female schools in the later period.

State of Women’s Education -

During this period when there was no awareness of the necessity of men's education it was improbable to consider the promotion of women’s education or the state efforts regarding it. There were no schools exclusively for women and

they were not even admitted to the schools of 1 earning. A small percentage of girls were admitted in elementary

26 schools. However the ladies, i.e. wives, daughters, daughters-in-law etc., belonging to the royal or rich and privileged families or liberated sardar families were taught

to read and write at home by employing private tutors. They

were mostly taught to read the religious books, methods of writing letters and keeping daily accounts of household expenditure. On the strength of the small initiative shown by

the family, a number of ladies commanded expertise in various

fields of know 1 edge. There are several examp 1es of ladies, expert in computation, account keeping or even in offering

valuable advice to the men folk in difficult times. This education proved very beneficial especially to Brahman widows

who were forced to lead a secluded life, without the right of pleasure, en joyments or s o d a 1 i zat i on as per the customs of

the time. These ladies who spent most of the time in writing or reading produced ample evidence of their scholarship. Even

their collection of manuscripts in personal libraries was noteworthy. "Usually ladies from the Peshwa family and other

Brahman and Maratha sardar families knew how to read and write. The specimens of handwritings of renowned ladies

clearly indicate that women of high class knew reading and Q writing. Radhabai, wife of Bhat, the first

Peshwa; , wife of Bajirao-I, the second Peshwat

Sagunabai, wife of Janardhanpant Bhanu: , wife of

Raghobadada, son of Bajirao-I; Bhiubai, daughter of Balaji

Vishwanath Peshwa; Gangabai, mother of Sawai Madhavrao;

Bhavanibai, wife of Chimaji Shankar Sachiv; Anutai Ghorpade,

27 wife of Yenkatrao Ghorpade, chief of IchaIkaranji, were among

the ladies of the Peshwa and other Brahman. Sardar families

who were well acquainted with the art of writing, reading and keeping daily accounts. Their hobby of reading resulted in an

exclusive collection of books in their personal library.

Sagunabai, the wife of Janardhan, the youngest son of

Bajirao-I, was widowed at an early age of 10-11 years and survived her husband by 34 years. She was a proficient writer and an ardent reader of old manuscripts. Her exquisite collection of religious manuscripts, was transferred to the 9 Peshwa Dafter in 1783 A.D. after her death. Meherbai, wife of Bahaddar too was well acquainted with writing and

readi ng.

There were a few ladies professionalreligious preachers who wereinvited for Kir tan and Katha on various religious occasions at homes of people. They were invited even by the Peshwa ladies on several occasions to deliver

Kir tan and Katha.

There were a few accomplished lady instrumenta1- mus i c-p1ayers who were engaged as teachers of the Peshwa 1 2 family ladies, who wished to learn to play instruments.

yomen in Administration and Poli tics :~

There is a record of few ladies who were expert administrators and proficient advisers in political affairs.

On a number of occasions they acted as advisers to their

husbands or other family members on administrative issues, on

28 solving difficulties in wartime etc. They even supervised the educational progress of young men in the family and meticulously followed their training in administrative affairs.

Radhabai, wife of Balaji Vishwanath Bhat, the Peshwa of Chatrapati Shahu-I, was a renowned political, shrewd diplomat. It is a confirmed fact that she had offered a very sound and practical advice to her husband on several difficult occasions.

Gopi kabai, wife of Balaji Bajirao Peshwa and mother of Peshwa Madhavrao-Iwas known for her shrewd and apt advice. Her efforts for and contribution to the revival of the Maratha Raj, after the debacle of the battle of Panipat in 1761 A.D. is the proof of her diplomacy deserving the merit of high praise. She personally supervised the training of her grandson, son of Narayanrao, Sawai Madhavrao after the early death of Peshwa Madhavrao-I, and murder of Narayanrao.

Raghobadada, in a letter written to Sawai Madhavrao has 13 praised his sister-in-law, ’s shrewd ability.

Anubai Vyankatrao Ghorpade, daughter of Peshwa Balaji

Vishwanath, conducted the administration of her state

Ichalkaranji very efficiently in the absence of her husband.

Similarly, Gangabai, mother of Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao, was also a very capable administrator. She had imparted very 14 useful advise to her son's rule as the Peshwa.

Ahi1yabai , wife of Khandoji and daughter-in- law of MaIharrao Holkar. was trained by her father-in-law in administrative, military and other necessary fields to be a good ruler. From 1766 A.D. till her death in 1795. she was the defacto ruler as a trustee of Indore the Holkar state and was held in high esteem by the contemporary rulers. Peshwa

Madhavrao-I, had praised her for efficient and benevolent administration. The enormous correspondence between her father-in-law Malharrao and herself is a substantial proof of her perceptive decisions.

Women Varriers and Riders :-

There were numerous renowned proficient warriors and competent horser iders who proved their merit on various occasions. The British officers, who had witnessed the proficiency of these ladies, have mentioned them in their written accounts. Scotwearing mentions the wife of Bajirao whom he saw maneuver i ng her horse going at high speed in thick crowd, Bhimabai Bulye, daughter of Yeshwantrao Holkar, has been praised by Sir John Mai com for skillful horseriding.

Similarly Baijabai Shinde, daughter of Sarjerao Ghatge and wife of Daulatrao Shinde of Gwalior has been mentioned by Sir

Author Uellesly for exceptional demonstration in horseriding.

Laxmibai and Yamunabai Shinde, wives of MahadaJi

Shinde, were very competent in horseriding. Ahi1yabai Holkar won a number of wars on horseback. The Kunbi ladies platoon, raised by her were also accomplished horse riders.

That there were many expert horser iding women, there is ample evidence indicating women’s active participation in

30 warfares, There were several expert women warriors, some of

whom were honoured by the rulers, for the exhibition of

outstanding courage on the battle fields. It indicates that

women’s active participation in war during the Peshwa period

was the result of the absence of Purda system and limited

restrictions on their free movements in western India. It was a bonus to future reforms attempt i ng the development of

women's education for speedy success. There are some examples of women’s army divisions raised by women.

Umabai Dabhade, widow of Khanderao Dabhade, the

commander-in-chief of the , was felicitated by

Chatrapati Shahu-1, in an open court for the exhibition of

outstanding valour during the Ahmedabad campaign by killing a

number of Pathans and forcing them to surrender in 1732 A.D.

She was held in high esteem by both, the Hindu and the Muslim

soldiers. She was presented with a gold bangle to be worn around the feet, considered to be a sign of highest honour.

The women’s revolt, which occurred after the death of

Mahada ii Shinde. was commanded by Laxmibai and Yamunaba i

Shinde, wives of Mahadaji Shinde against the ruling

authority. Women accompanied their husbands on the

battlefields. During the in 1761 A.D.

Parvatibai, wife of Sadashi vbhau, brother of Ba1 aji Bajirao;

Laxmibai, wife of Mahadaji Shinde: Laxmibai, the young bride

of Vishwasrao, who was missing after the debacle at Panipat,

were a few among them. The noted defence of the Vasota fort

during the siege by Babu Ghokhale, a maratha sardar in Peshwa

31 court, hfas the credit of Tai Telan. Bhimabai Bulye, daughter of , was praised by Sir John Ma1 com for her distinguished war expertise on the battlefield of Mahipatpur.

She was also a good administrator, caring ruler and benevolent person. Her letter to her brother Bharmal Holkar,

before proceeding for war, denotes her anxiety for her subjects, when she requests her brother to send some

trustworthy person to handle her responsibility in her absence.

Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore, is considered as one of

the most capable benevolent admini strators of this period.

She was a proficient soldier who led many campaigns against

Muslim aggressors as well as her enemies inside her own state and in Maratha State as well; with astounding success. She raised a platoon of trained Kunbi women to accompany her,

Baijabai Shinde, wife of Daulatrao Shinde and daughter of Sarjerao Ghatage had raised an army division of

trained ladies to protect her state of Gwa1ior.

In those days women however, could not get an opportuni ty of employment in any accepted noble profession,

could not earn independent1y on their own and if the need arose to earn, they were forced to disguise themselves. Major

Browten records one such incident, when a lady disguised as a male soldier enrolled herself in the brigade under Gen.

Baptist’s command, worked for two-three years and earned praise for her meritorious service to senior officers. She

was forced to earn to repay the debt of her brother, who was

32 unable to pay it off. Though she uas discharged when the deceit was exposed, she earned praise for her ski 1J as a

soJdier.

UhiJe some women were engaged in serving the state

there were a few who caused nuisance by their activities against the rulers and had to be suppressed by force and military action. In 1752-53 Parvati Bhosale had to be warned

by Chatrapati Shahu I who issued a Government order.^

During Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao’s rule, one ladies

regiment was raised by Mrs. James Hall. But she was charged with the death of one of her servants, ill treating and

inhuman Iy flogging him. She was put behind the bars by Nana

Phadnis till her death.

Women were expert wrestlers and travelled to various places issuing challenges to men also. ''It is not surprising

that men should maintain good physique since there were a

number of ladies who were expert wrestlers and like men they also travelled to various towns and wrestled with other X G expert wrestlers’'. Major Thomas Browten writes " The act

is sometimes practised by women who train to make their bodies hardy and their flesh firm. These amazons somet imes attain such a degree of proficiency that it is rare for the most experienced of their male opponents to overthrow them.

The best wrestlers often declined to take part in these

33 contests for fear of incurring the disgrace of being wortled by women''.

In short it can be said that the assumption that

women were inferior to men in intelligence or skills was a wrong founded concept, enforced by.

The example of the few privileged women, though very small in number who were awarded the opportunities of acquiring education and skills, proves the assumption to be

totally unfounded. However their number being very negligible

they could not influence the orthodox society to bring about

the required changes in the society. The result was the deplorable condition of common women, most of whom were illiterate. clinging to the deep rooted unjust faith in

traditions and customs. This was the biggest hurdle to overcome in the efforts to create a liberated society with

the development of women’s education. The rigid control of

traditions, supported by the orthodox society, was the greatest barrier in the progress of women’s emancipation.

Right ”to get proper educat ion” is included among several

fundamental rights awarded to human beings. However, the society, meticulously following its set ideas and concepts about women’s liberty, socioeconomic and educat i ona1 freedom and rights was observed to give the facility of obtaining proper education for women. The fear of boycott or excommunication by the society was one more addition to the

other obstruct ion to the promotion of women’s education obstructions like child marriage, purda system, system of

3A sati etc. The women, who themselves were the slaves of

customs and happy with the role entrusted to them e.g.

pleasing their husband, serving elders, bringing up chi 1dren,

observing religious rituals etc. offered no resistance to

this in just ice till the beginning of the education on western

concepts in the nineteenth century.

The arrival of the European trading companies,

brought with them new social, political, economic and

cultural awareness in western India. The totally new

awareness created a wave of social, economic, political

ideologies, enlightening the young generation.

A speedy mobilization of the new concepts was achieved due to m i ss i onar i es accompanyi ng the trading

companies intended to spread their religious gospel. During

their service for the up Ii f tment of the poor, needy,

illiterate and ignorant, they propagated their religious

concepts and education was a sure medium especially women's

education to attain their aim. In the beginning their

companies passive attitude due to the fear of harming their

political interest, did not help the missionary activities

but with the firm establishment of their political authority

they became more lenient towards missionary enter pr i se.

The Victory of the British over

the local rulers established it as a sovereign political

authori tv over India. The new administrators promulgated new

administrative, economic, social policies, A trial of the new

western educational concept was one of them.

35 Bombay island, which was obtained by the East India

Company in the latter half of the 17^^ century developed in due course and became the centre of political as well as other activities to estabIish western concepts in western

India. The nineteenth Century proved to be the most crucial period in this respect, in the history of Western India. With

the surrender of Peshwa Bajirao II to Sir John Mai com on 3^^

June 1618, The Peshwa rule ended and the authority of the

East India Company extended towards , Satara and the other Peshwa regions. Though the people were reluctant to accept the authority of the new administrators they had to accept, it albeit half heartedly, due to pragmatic need. But slowly they came under the total influence of the new concepts.

The British who were keen on consolidating their authority over western India, did not interfere with the existing social set up or the traditional concepts based on

tender religious feelings. They were aware, as Lokhi tawadi has rightly pointed out that all the social customs and practices were identified with religion. Therefore even

though their sympathies were with social reformers regarding

the need of improvement in women’s pathetic state, that reduced women almost to the state of slavery, they did not

take the initiative to bring about the changes. However,

their indirect support and encouragement boosted the courage

of indigenous reformers to introduce the scheme of the new educational opportunities and facilities for women.

36 Missionaries. who firmly believed that if they could irtf I uence one woman they might succeed in inf I uencing the whole family, also concentrated on the promotion of women’s education, a sure way to achieve their aims. Probably motivated by some ulterior intentions they were the pioneers in the efforts of the advancement of women's education in

Western India.

The nineteenth Century is the first witness to all these efforts for the development of women's education and women’s emancipation.

As compared to other parts of India, the advocate of women’s education in Western India could attain easy success due to some favourable social conditions smoothing their path to conduct the activities more freely. The foremost advantage was the absence of the Purda system in Western India; enabling women participate freely in the mission taken up for their own benefit. Another advantage was the less rigid social restrictions on women's socialization as compared to those in other parts of India.

In the present study an attempt is made to trace the development of female education in the Central Division of

Bombay Presidency in the Nineteenth and early Twentieth

Century with special reference to its contribution towards women’s emanci pat ion.

The proposed study is divided into Chapters as fo1 lows -

1> The first chapter is a brief survey of the position of

37 women’s education before the establishment of British rule and a study of the di fference between the two different systems is attempted. An analysis of the sources consulted has also been made.

Female education was not the gift of the British or

the British period as it is commonly believed. The history of the ancient and also to some extent of the medieval period shows that women were not altogether deprived of the facility of education. In fact education of all became a prominent phenomenon only in the modern times when there is a large number of persons who could read and write and carry out the beaurocratic functions of the state which were also limited in the 19^^ Century. As these functions increased we find the spread of education of both the sexes increased to meet the requirements of the state and society. This happened mainly during the colonial period and hence the British are credited with the introduct ion of education. What is creditable is

that they gave a systematic form to education, organised it on proper lines and started institutions to give effect to

their ideas.

2> The British Government’s policy both Central and State,

the non-officia1 efforts of the government officials for the promotion of women’s education are discussed in the second chapter.

3> In the third chapter a critical survey of the

establishment and growth of women’s educational insti tutions. development ' of syllabus, provisions of the facilities of

38 higher education for women is attempted.

4> The fourth chapter concerned with the missionary efforts

to promote women's education, their aims and ob jectives in

the mission and their contr i but i on to the development of women's education are assessed.

5> The work of the indigenous reformers in Maharashtra for the promotion of women’s education is studied in the fifth chapter. Their aims and objectives, the lead taken in establishing educational institution for women and their contribution to the promotion of women's education are dealt with in this chapter along with the survey of the growth of women’s educationaI institutions.

S\> The major achievement of the movement of women’s emancipation is the enlightenment of women themselves to taking up the cause of women’s education and activities done

to participate in it. Their views and efforts in this respect are studied in the sixth chapter along with the survey of

their institutions established by them.

7> An assessment has been made in the epilogue in the light of the foregone discussion about the development of women's educat ion in the Nineteenth and early Twent i eth Century upto

1905.

39 Difference between the two Institut ion

Before British Rule ! After the establishment of the

/ rule

1> Education limited to I> Opportunity open to all. specific class.

2> No concept of formal 2> Establishment of Girl’s education for women or schoo1s. schools for women.

3> No s p e d f i c orientation 3> Aimed at emancipation of to education. women

4> No proper syllabus or choice 4> Systematic growth of syllabus of subiects with the introduction of formal as well as vocational subjects.

5> Intended for basic education 5> For job orientation.

6> No Government responsibility 6> Government accepts the respo­ nsibility of women's education.

7> Limited to oriental know­ 7> Introduction of western know­ ledge and pract icaI use. ledge and subjects.

8> No systemat i c effort for the d> Systemat i c or gani sed efforts promotion at any level. at private & government level.

40 Ivf t e runce

1 ;■ Sant D.K., "Marathi Stiee" - t;olhaPur - 1957 Page

"O.T. Mason - Woman’ s =1,3 re i r, Pfim itiv.? .lm.i 1 (: i.i r >3 " .

3> Dr. A ite k ar A. S. - " Fi J o .:a t i o ti in Aticient. India" - Bombay

- F o u r t hi E d itio n . Page TJ r.;. 1 3 - 2 1 4 .

4 > Deshmukh Sharada - ”'3 h i v k j i a t i 1 va Peshwaitil Stree

Jeevan" - Pune 1973 - Pa^e No. 50. C h itn is Ma1har Ramrao

" Sa p ta p r a ka r na t ma k Cliari*-.iii ;■ r of. i v a >: hct t t a pa t i ” .

5 '■' N a i k J . P . . S y e d N u r u 1 1 a h, - "A Students' History of

Education in India" (1600 - 1973) - Delhi 197^ - 6^*^ Revised

E d itio n printed by the Macmil lion Company of India Ltd. .Page

No. 2 5 ,

6 > Bhave V. K. - ’’Peshweka 1 i n Maharashti a" - Pune - 1935

Pa ge No. 91 .

7'’ Ibid - Page No, 91 .

8 ; J o s h i A , B . ( B a r a m a t. i k a I ) =i n d A a b a C h a n d e r k a r - " S h r e e

Shivshahicha Lekhana1 an k a r" - Pune - Page No. 13. 9 Deshmukh Sharada " S h iv k a la t il va F'eshw aitil Stree

Jeevan" - Pune - 19 73 - f-’jge

The list of the collection of hier books is printed in

volume 32 of Peshwa r.'attei "Two, three books in her

collection are invaluable. One is thie copv of Geeta fitted in a locket. another one i d a copy or (jee ta depicted through

p ic tu re s w hile one copv of Bhagwat is fixe d in a lo cket".

10/ Maratha Dafter - Vol. 3 - Paee No. 136.

"Her letters are col lected in Ruma1 no. three of Marathi

Dafter. In one letter written in 1790. she w rite s to her son

A1 i iabahaddar to send a co&v of Kuran written in bold type

since due to her illn e s s she was unable to read small letters."

II/ Chapekar N.G. "Peshwdicl,va Savalit" Pune 1937 - Page 167

3 . ^

12> Ibid - page 300 -

13; Bhave V.K. - " P e s hwe ka 1 i r, Ma fva : a s h t i a " - Pune 1935 - Page

No. 86. i> "E ld e rs (Gopikabai) undex-stsnd the intaiior motives behind anv nolicies verv correctly. Dc not take her as any ordinerv lady. She is an expert in understanding the niceties

in domestic and external affairs. What more can I write as an

3 d V i c;e to you. "

1A> Ibid - Page No. 91 .

"Since Anubai and Gan|abai were looking after the administration efficiently, they must be well trained in this tV pe of education".

15> "^hakur V.V. - " Ho 1 ka r sha h i chva It ih a s a c h i Sadhane" - Part

I - Indore - 194A,

"V e r v difficult tasks, such as controlling various acquired rights from different states and provinces. keeping accounts of manatary transactions, maintaining diplomatic old and new relations were executed by Ahilyabai in consultation with her father-in-!aw Malharrao. Ahilvabai’s sharp in t e llig e n c e is evident from the correspondence between the two and the development of her a d m in is tra tiv e a b i l i t y under h is guidance can be traed from it.

16- Ibid - Page No, 9 6 .

In her letter. dated 6'*^ April 1812. she writes.

"Shrimant Bhimabai Bulye to Bharmal Holkar since she desires than some faithful person should be deputed bv her brother

Bharmal. to manage the walk of her parganas in her absence".

4 0 17/ Wad Ganwsh Chimandli - ” ;;hdhu M,=i tis < s i m:h i R o ja n is h i”

V o ). I - ( E d . ) - Page 33 .

In hi is Older Chidt jj p a l i Slijihu 1 warns hec of severe punishment for causing nuisance at Varna &< advices her to stop her a c t i v i t i e s in thrit ; eg ion.

18> Bhave V.K. ’’Peshw ekalin Ma ha r a-i h t r a" Pune 1935, Page 71

^ ^

1 t ^ ~ ^ £ h ^ - irfer, ”

19> Deshmukh Sharada - "£ h i v k a i a t i 1 va Peshwaitil Stree Jeevan'

- Pune 1973, Page No. 5 3 . W Oi-K/R

4S