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Home , History of Kashmir, Karkota dynasty, Lohara dynasty

History of

By Omkar C. Marathe 2 Geography • Total Area – 2,24,358 sq. km

• Part of – 45% – , , ,

• Occupied by – 38% – , ,

• Occupied by China – 17% –

3 Geography

• Consists of 3 regions- – – – Ladakh

4 Some Famous Cities • Srinagar (Srinagari) • Rajouri (Raja Puri) • Baramulla (Varah Mul) • Peer Panjal (Panchal … not the one in Mahabharat) • • • Sopor (suyyapur) • Siachen Glacier • Ladakh

5 Kashmir Valley

6 Available Sources of History

• Anguttara Nikaya (Documented during Buddha’s life)

• “” (12th Century A.D.) – Written by , son of minister in King’s court during 12th Century. – His work includes history till 1148 A.D. – This work was supplemented by Jonaraj (till 1420 A.D.), Sridhar (till 1486 A.D.) & Prajnyabhat (till 1588 A.D.)

7 Maharshi Kashyap • Kashmir Valley – Was once a huge lake – Satisaras.

• surrounded by mountain range.

• Occupied by demon – Jalodbhava

• Kashyap broke the mountain range at Varah- Mul (present day Baramulla).

8 Maharshi Kashyap .. • Mir – Ocean/Moutain/Border in

• The drained area known as – Kashyap-mir

• Kashmir

9 References in Mahabharat • Kashmir was known by name “Kambhoj”

• Ruled by King “Gonand” – First famous king of Kashmir.

• Friend of Jarasandh.

• Took part in Mahabharat war.

10 Pre-Mauryan Period

11 Pre-Mauryan Period .. • Kashmir was ruled by King Abhisar during Alexander’s invasion.

• Accompanied King Puru during battle against Alexander.

• Kashmir kingdom was part of Chandragupta’s alliance against Magadh Empire.

12 Mauryan Period • Kashmir became part of during Ashok’s time.

• City of Srinagari was established around 250 B.C.

• was introduced in Kashmir.

13 Post - Mauryan Period • After fall of Maurya Empire, Kashmir was ruled by Kushans.

• Kushan ruler (2nd Century A.D.) converted to Buddhism.

• 4th Council of Buddhism is claimed to be held during this time.

14 Boost to Buddhism • This gave tremendous boost for spread of .

• Kashmir became main seat of Buddhism (Ladakh).

• Consequently Buddhism was spread in & China.

15 Phase of Instability • Some local kings ruled Kashmir after fall of Kushans

• 5th Century A.D. – Kashmir came under control of Huns.

• Huns ruled Kashmir till 6th Century A.D.

• Both & Buddhism suffered heavy losses during Huns rule.

16 • Karkota dynasty established their rule in Kashmir – 625 A.D.

• Ruled for close to 250 years.

• Durlabhvardhan – Founder of dynasty.

• Tributary to Emperor Harshvardhan.

17 Lalitaditya Muktapida (697-738 A.D.) • Most influential king in Karkota dynasty.

• Extended the kingdom from Bangal in East, Tibet in North-East, in North-West & in South.

• Defeated waves of Arab & Turk tribes on North- West borders.

• Famous “” was completed in his reign.

18 Martand Sun Temple

19 Martand Sun Temple .. Now

20 After Lalitaditya • Kashmir witnessed two more influential kings from Karkota dynasty - Jayapida & Jayapriya.

• After this Kashmir’s influence over other kingdom declined.

• Rise of feudalism further weakened the king.

• Karkota rule in Kashmir ended in 855 A.D.

21 Utpal Dynasty • Avantivarma (855 – 883 A.D.) established Utpal dynasty in Kashmir.

• His minister Suyya resolved the frequent issue of flood.

• A city named “Suyyapur” (now Sopor) was established as his honor.

22 (1003 – 1320 A.D.) • After Avantivarma only two kings – Shankarvarma & Chakravarma could control the power.

• Utpal dynasty ended by mid of 10th century A.D.

• In 11th century A.D., the power went to Lohara dynasty.

23 Lohara Dynasty .. • Rule continued for around 300 years.

• Last Hindu rulers in Kashmir.

• Defended Kashmir from two invasions of Mahmud of Gazni during 11th century A.D.

• The rule ended in 1320 A.D. in a dramatic way.

24 Sharda Peeth

25 Sharda Peeth .. • Situated in “Sharda” village in PoK, near L.O.C.

• On bank of river – Krishnaganga (now Neelam).

• Once a centre of learning Hindu Vedic works.

• It had a throne of wisdom – Sarvagnya Peeth.

26 Sharda Peeth .. • Sarvagnya Peeth had four doors in four directions.

• All doors except in South direction were open & occupied by scholars.

• It was last repaired in mid 19th Century during rule of Dogra dynasty.

27 Adi Shankaracharya

28 Adi Shankaracharya .. • 9th Century A.D. – Adi Shankaracharya visited Sharda Peeth during his travel.

• Defeated scholars from 3 directions in the debate.

• Received right to sit on Sarvagnya Peeth.

29 Shankaracharya Hill

30 Buddhist Rule (1320-1330 A.D.) • Early 14th Century – Around 1000 Turk’s after Mongol invasion on their took refuge in Kashmir

• Kashmir was ruled by Lohara King Sahadev.

• under Zujju then attacked & plundered Kashmir.

• Afraid king fled from Kashmir.

31 Buddhist Rule (1320-1330 A.D.) • 1320 A.D. – Rinchan, King of Ladakh allied with Ramchandra (chief commander of Lohara king).

• Brought entire Kashmir under his control.

• Assasinated Ramchandra & consolidated Buddhist rule in Kashmir.

32 Buddhist Rule (1320-1330 A.D.) .. • To stop the revolt, Rinchan married Ramchandra’s daughter – Kota Rani.

• Kota Rani attempted to convert Rinchan to Hinduism, but was opposed by Priests.

• Shafruddin (Bulbul Shah), leader of Turk refugees had influence on Rinchan.

33 Beginning of Islamic Rule -1330 A.D. • 1330 A.D. – Rinchan converted to , took name as Safruddin.

• Shahmir - Turk person was appointed as minister by Rinchan.

• Rinchan died in same year.

• Turk tribes attacked Kashmir immediately after these incidents.

34 Kota Rani (1330 -1338 A.D.) • Kota Rani invited Udayan Dev (Sahadev’s younger brother) to rule Kashmir.

• But Udayan Dev fled after Turk attack

• Turk attack was repelled by Kota Rani, brought Udayan Dev back to Kashmir.

• Udayan Dev died in 1330 A.D.

35 Shahmir Dynasty • 1338 A.D. – Turk minister Shahmir revolted, forced Kota Rani to marry him.

• Shahmir took over as new ruler – Beginning of Shahmir dynasty.

• Immediately Kota Rani was put in prison.

• Kota Rani committed suicide in prison.

36 Shahmir Dynasty (1338 – 1560 A.D.) • 1338 A.D. – Turk leader Shahmir began ruling Kashmir with title – Shamshuddin.

• Except ruling dynasty, the rest of system remained same till 1372 A.D.

• Kashmiri culture also remained intact during this period.

• Even the attire of Turk rulers was same as old Hindu rulers. 37 Shahmir Dynasty .. • Shamshuddin (Shahmir) died in 1342 A.D.

• His elder son Jamshed ruled only for 1 year.

• The rule was overthrown by Jamshed’s younger brother Allauddin (Alishet).

• Allauddin ruled till his death in 1354 A.D.

• His elder son Shahbuddin ruled till 1373 A.D.

38 Syed Ali Hamdani • Sufi Islamic missionary Syed Ali Hamdani came to Kashmir in 1372 A.D.

• Influential in spreading Islam in Kashmir.

• Belonged to Hamdan is present day .

• Stayed in Kashmir for nearly 2 years.

39 Syed Ali Hamdani .. • Iran was invaded by Timur in early 1380s A.D.

• Syeds in Hamdan were massacred by Timur’s army.

• Hamdani took refuge in Kashmir with around 700 Syeds.

• Qutubuddin (then ruler) welcomed all.

40 Syed Ali Hamdani .. • This paved way for spread of Islam in Kashmir.

• With ruler’s support Hamdani started interfering matters of court.

• Ordered muslim citizens in Kashmir to change their customs from Kashmiri customs.

• Convinced Sultan to change his attire according to Persian culture.

41 Syed Ali Hamdani .. • Under Hamdani’s influence, Hindu menbers in the court also began to convert to Islam.

• Soon Islam was spread rapidly in all classes of Kashmiri society.

• Hamdani returned to Iran in 1383 A.D.

• Qutubuddin died in 1389 A.D.

42 Syed Ali Hamdani .. • Under Hamdani’s influence, Hindu menbers in the court also began to convert to Islam.

• Soon Islam was spread rapidly in all classes of Kashmiri society.

• Hamdani returned to Iran in 1383 A.D.

• Qutubuddin died in 1389 A.D.

43 Sikandar (1389 – 1414 A.D.) • Known as Sikandar Butshikan

• Butshikan – Idol breaker.

• 1394 A.D. – Syed Ali Hamdani’s son Syed arrived in Kashmir.

• Being Hamdani’s son, received grand welcome.

44 Sikandar .. • Prime Minister Suha Bhat was converted to Islam with new name – Saifuddin.

• Syed Muhammad stayed in Kashmir for 12 years.

• Sharia rule started in Kashmir durin this time.

• Alcoholic drinks, dramas music were banned.

45 Sikandar .. • Hindu citizens were fobaded from marking tilak on forehead.

• Blowing conch shells & ringing bells was also banned.

• Large number of temples were either destroyed or converted to mosques.

46 Sikandar .. • Famos “Martand Sun Temple” was destroyed during this period.

• Huge Jiziya tax was imposed on .

• Large number of Hindus either converted, fled or killed during this period.

• Sikandar died in 1414 A.D.

47 Zainulauddin (1420 – 1470 A.D.) • Sikandar’s younger brother Zainulauddin came to power in 1420 A.D.

• Also known by name Bhat Shah.

• Re-called Hindu’s who had fled during Sikandar’s rule, offered them protection.

• Hindus converted to Islam before were permitted to accept Hinduism.

48 Zainulauddin .. • Jiziya tax was not removed but was reduced to negligible amount.

• Promoted Sanskrit, Tibeti & Kashmiri scholars along with Persians in the court.

• Promoted reconstruction of some of the temples destructed during Sikandar’s rule.

49 Zainulauddin .. • Banned slaughtering of cows & beef consumption.

• This is believed to be the reason for Kashmiri’s not preferring beef even today.

• Zainulauddin died in 1470 A.D.

50 Instability • After Zainulauddin, power of Shahmir dynasty declined over the time.

• Shahmir ruler proved to be weak & incompetent.

• Influence of Syed’s also increased.

• Kashmir suffered through heavy loss during this time.

51 Instability .. • By mid of 16th Cenury A.D., the influence of Hindu court members declined.

• was declared as official language of the kingdom instead of Sanskrit & Kashmiri.

52 Chak dynasty (1560 – 1588 A.D.) • Clashes between Shia & Sunni branches got triggered towards end of Shahmir dynasty rule.

• Chak dynasty belonging to Shia branch took over the power in Kashmir in 1560 A.D.

• Chak dynasty ruled for around 28 years.

53 Mughal Rule (1588 – 1760 A.D.) • Kashmir became part of in 1588 A.D., during ’s rule.

• Kashmir was added in province in Mughal empire.

• During ’s rule Kashmir was formed as different province in Mughal empire.

54 Mughal Rule .. • Most of the gardens & palaces existing in Kashmir were constructed during Mughal rule.

• After Aurangazeb’s death Mughal power started declining in India.

• Nadir Shah’s invasion in 1738 A.D. weakened Mughal power in Kashmir.

55 Afghans (1760 – 1819 A.D.) • Around 1760 A.D. – Kashmir was conquered by commanders of Ahmed Shah Abdali.

• Established Afghan Durrani rule in Kashmir.

• Hindu’s again suffered heavy loss during Afghan rule.

• Many of them were forced into slavery.

56 Afghans .. • Afghan power started declining in Kashmir towards beginning of 19th Century A.D.

• Jammu was already defeated & made tributary by rising .

• 1814 A.D. – Sikh general Harisingh Nalwa attacked Kashmir, but was defeated.

57 Sikh Rule (1819 – 1846 A.D.) • Sikh army under Harisingh Nalwa conquered Kashmir in 1819 A.D.

• King of Jammu – Gulabsingh Dogra also aided Sikhs during this campaign

• Ended Islamic rule in Kashmir which continued for 5 centuries.

58 Sikh Rule .. • died in 1839 A.D.

• During this time Gulabsingh Dogra was head of Jammu region.

• Sheikh Imamuddin was governor of Sikhs in Kashmir.

• Sikh empire ended in 1849 A.D. after two wars against British.

59 Dogra Dynasty (1846 – 1947 A.D.) • Gulabsingh Dogra remained neutral during 1st Anglo-Sikh war.

• Played the role of negotiator for Sikhs after Sikh’s defeat in the war.

• Gulabsingh paid Rs 75,00,000 as war expense to British.

60 Dogra Dynasty .. • In exchange the condition of giving control of entire Kashmir valley to Gulabsingh was added in Treaty of Amritsar in 1846 A.D.

• This made Gulabsingh ruler of Kashmir, which was now part of British India.

• This started Dogra dynasty rule in Kashmir.

61 Dogra Dynasty .. • This Kashmir state consisted of – Jammu, Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, present day PoK, Aksai Chin regions.

• Kings in Dogra Dynasty – – Gulabsingh (1846 – 1857) – Ranbirsingh (1857 – 1885) – Pratapsingh (1885 – 1925) – Harisingh (1925 – 1947)

62 Dogra Dynasty .. • During Ranbirsingh & Pratapsingh’s rign, Muslim citizens in Kashmir valley, majority of whom were converted, requested to accept them back to Hinduism.

• This request was refused by Kashmiri Pandits.

• Mistake done by Pandits during Kota Rani’s time was repeated this time.

63 Kashmir State • This Kashmir state consisted of – Jammu, Kashmir Valley & Ladakh.

• The only in India where King was Hindu & majority of citizens were Muslim.

• Rule of Dogra’s was favorable for Kashmiri citizens.

• No religious issues were observed till 1930s (rise of Sheikh Abdulla).

64 Reasons behind Kashmir Issue • Kashmir was a princely state.

• Geographical proximity with Pakistan.

• Hindu King, Majority of Muslim citizens.

• Sheikh Abdulla.

65 Reasons behind Kashmir Issue • INC’s support to Sheikh Abdulla’s movements against Harisingh.

• Relations between of Jammu & Kashmir Valley.

66 Before Sheikh Abdulla • In 1930s, 90% population in Kashmir valley & 33% population in Jammu was Muslim.

• Though belonging to same religion, the relations between Muslims of Jammu & Kashmir valley had frictions.

• Muslims of Jammu were extremist, whereas Muslims of Kashmir valley were moderate.

67 Before Sheikh Abdulla .. • Muslims of Jammu were culturally close to (like Lahore, Multan which today are in Pakistan).

• People of Jammu were culturally limited to Kashmir.

• Leader of Muslims in Jammu was Chowdhari Gulam Abbas.

68 Sheikh Abdulla • Leader of Kashmiri Muslims from 1931 – 1982 A.D.

• Known in Kashmir as Sher-e-Kashmir (Lion of Kashmir).

• The equation of “Kashmir = Sheikh Abdulla” & “Sheikh Abdulla = Kashmir” was accepted by all leaders except Mohammad Ali Jinna.

69 Sheikh Abdulla .. • Born in 1905 A.D. in a village near Srinagar.

• Ancestors were originally Pandits (Kaul) converted to Islam.

• Had perception of atrocities on Muslim citizens of Kashmir by Hindu king.

• Decided to bring revolution in Kashmiri people’s life.

70 Sheikh Abdulla .. • Completed education from Srinagar, Jammu, Lahore & Aligadh.

• His political mentor was Mohammad Iqbal (poet, supporter of pan-Islamism).

• Incepted the idea of independent Islamic rule in Kashmir.

71 Sheikh Abdulla .. • 1930 - Started working in a school in Srinagar, run by Kashmir state.

• Also started public speeches & writing columns in local news-papers – about idea of independent Kashmir.

• The language used was provoking (often consisting of words like sacrifice, Jihad etc.).

• Within year, got identity as leader of Kashmiri Muslims.

72 • 1931 – Sheikh Abdulla was transferred to Muzaffarabad.

• Resigned from service.

• Emerged as freedom-fighter.

• Started conducting public meetings & provoking speeches in support of independent Kashmir.

73 History of Kashmir .. • Harisingh invited representatives of Kashmiri Muslims for talks.

• After initial resistance, Sheikh Abdulla agreed to talks.

• 21st June 1931 – Public meeting was called for deciding the representatives, 11 representatives were selected.

74 History of Kashmir .. • Kashmiri youngster – Abdul Qadeer delivered provoking speech & appealed people to destroy royal palace.

• Abdul Qadeer was arrested & trialed in the court.

• Created explosive environment in Kashmir Valley.

75 History of Kashmir .. • 13th Jul 1931 – Mob attacked the court where Abdul Qadeer was being trialed.

• 22 activists were killed in Police firing.

• Gave boost to Shaikh Abdulla’s movement.

• Corpses of all were buried at same place – Cemetery turned into monument.

76 History of Kashmir .. • Soon Sheikh Abdulla was arrested.

• Situation further worsened.

• Jihad was announced against Harisingh.

• Mohammad Iqbal (who was in Lahore at this time) declared his support in favor of independent Kashmir.

77 History of Kashmir .. • 14th August 1931 was observed as “Kashmir Day” in Lahore.

• Tribes were sent from Punjab against Harisingh.

• These tribes couldn’t enter Kashmir, due to strong defense of Kashmir.

78 History of Kashmir .. • Harisingh now adapted the way of agreements with Islamic leaders in valley.

• Formed commissions to address issues of citizens, & accepted their recommendations.

• Sheikh Abdulla was released after 21 days.

• Abdulla now got recognition as hero in Kashmir.

79 History of Kashmir .. • Harisingh now adapted the way of agreements with Islamic leaders in valley.

• Formed commissions to address issues of citizens, & accepted their recommendations.

• Sheikh Abdulla was released after 21 days.

• Abdulla now got recognition as hero in Kashmir.

80 History of Kashmir .. • October 1931 – Sheikh Abdulla formed political party – “All Jammu & Kashmir Muslim Conference”.

• Abdulla was selected as President.

• Chowdhari Gulam Abbas was selected as General Secretary.

• Differences of opinions observed between two from formation of party.

81 History of Kashmir .. • Sheikh Abdulla started treating Gulam Abbas & Muslims from Jammu as non-Kashmiri’s.

• Hindus’ were not allowed to join this party.

• Neither Kashmiri Hindus’ supported this party, as they realized motives of Sheikh Abdulla.

82 History of Kashmir .. • 1934 – Harisingh passed the law for forming legislative assembly in Kashmir.

• Assembly was named as “Praja Sabha”.

• Consisted of 75 members.

• 42 members to be appointed by King.

83 History of Kashmir .. • Out of 33 remaining seats, 2/3rd were reserved for Muslim candidates.

• Assembly had limited power.

• More power was given to Prime Minister of Kashmir – Pandit Ramchandra Kak.

84 History of Kashmir .. • Muslim Conference won 20 seats in the elections conducted in 1934.

• But Sheikh Abdulla was unhappy due to the limited power.

• Abdulla demanded to appoint all members by elections.

• As expected, Harisingh denied this & Abdulla started fresh protests.

85 Concerns for Pandits • All events had created relations full of doubts between Hindu & Muslim communities.

• Pandit Premnath Bajaj (progressive philosopher in Kashmir), who was close to Abdulla, realized the threat of Pan-Islamism.

• Informed Gandhiji about the situation in Kashmir.

86 Reply from Gandhiji Gandhiji replied, which meant as –

– There is no reason to worry. Being a Islamic majority state, it is oblivious that Islamic state will be formed in Kashmir. Hindu king should act as puppet ruler & fulfill all the demands by Muslims.

87 Concerns for Pandits .. • Premnath Bajaj was shocked by Gandhiji’s reply.

• Sent several letters again to clear the concept of “Islamic State”

• None of them were replied.

88 Pandit Nehru • Premnath Bajaj then sent such letter to Pandit Nehru, along with original letter (as reply) from Gandhiji.

• Pandit Nehru replied which meant as – – Pan-Islamism & Pakistan are baseless concepts, which are spread by British media. I can’t imagine Kashmir to be an Islamic state ….. Pandits’ which are minority, should not hurt majority Muslims by asking for reservations, security & other benefits

89 Pandit Nehru .. • Sheikh Abdulla by now got identity in entire India, because of agitations against Harisingh.

• But Pandit Nehru couldn’t realize Abdulla’s agenda of Independent Islamic State.

• Both, having origins in Kashmir developed good friendship by 1937.

90 Stand of INC • Sheikh Abdulla now wanted support from INC (Indian National Congress) in order to strengthen his movement.

• According to resolution passed in INC’s session at Haripur in 1937, it had decided not to support people’s protest in princely states.

• However Nehru offered moral support on behalf of INC to Abdulla.

91 Stand of INC .. • “All India States Peoples Conference” which was affiliated to INC & headed by Nehru offered support to Muslim Conference.

• Abdulla utilized his friendship with Nehru for political benefits.

92 National Conference • British government had passed a bill in 1935, by which head of princely state had a right to merge into “British India”

• 1938 – Harisingh had decided to merge Kashmir into British India, in exchange of certain benefits.

• Possible threat for Abdulla’s agenda.

93 National Conference • To oppose this Abdulla wanted strong backing from INC & All India States Peoples Conference.

• Nehru advised him to change name of party & get support from Kashmiri Hindus.

• June 1939 – Party name was changed to “Jammu & Kashmir National Conference”.

94 Twist in History • 2nd World war began in 1939.

• Merging of Kashmir state in British India was postponed.

• 1940 - Muslim League started campaigning for separate Pakistan.

• Gulam Abbas separated from National Conference & joined Muslim League.

95 Twist in History .. • Abdulla decided to support both Congress & Muslim League, & get their support for independent Kashmir.

• Abdulla openly supported formation of Pakistan, but was not ready to join Pakistan.

• As Pakistanis’ would be non-Kashmiris.

96 Secular Image • Muslims in Jammu became pro-Pakistani due to presence of Muslim League.

• Muslims in Kashmir Valley became pro- independent Kashmir.

• Jinna wanted Kashmir to be part of Pakistan due to Muslim majority. Hence started pressurizing National Conference & Harisingh.

97 Secular Image .. • May 1944 – Jinna was invited in Kashmir for talks by Sheikh Abdulla.

• Tried to convince Jinna for independent Kashmir.

• Jinna wasn’t convinced & remained on the opinion to merge Kashmir into Pakistan.

98 Secular Image .. • After failure on Jinna’s front, Abdulla decided to take advantage of friendship with Nehru.

• Invited leaders of INC for annual session of National Conference in 1945.

• Maulana Azad, Badshah Khan & Nehru received grand welcome in Kashmir.

99 Secular Image .. • In session all three delivered speeches in support of Sheikh Abdulla.

• Nehru appealed Kashmiri Hindus to join National Conference, else prepare to leave Kashmir valley.

• Such a statement in public speech was shocking.

100 Secular Image .. • Nehru was questioned by a member of legislative assembly – Pandit Shiv Narayan Fotedar – – Will you appeal the same to Muslims who are minority in India?

• Nehru ignored the question saying that “only Hindu extremists ask such questions”

101 Secular Image .. • All the events in 2-3 years helped Sheikh Abdulla to get identity as “Secular Leader”

• The reasons were- – Opposing Jinna – Support from Nehru – Involvement of some Hindus in National Conference (due to force/fear) – Protests against Harisingh.

102 Partition & Independence • March 1946 – A cabinet mission consisting of 3 British ministers came to India to prepare plan for independence.

• Partition Plan was- – Partitions of provinces of British India based on the population. – Heads of Princely States to be given choice to merge in India/Pakistan or remain independent

103 Partition & Independence .. • Sheikh Abdulla demanded the right of choice to be with people of Kashmir (eventually National Conference) & not with king.

• Cabinet mission refused talks with National Conference.

• Abdulla demanded INC to support National Conference in this matter.

104 Partition & Independence .. • INC refused to support, as it was in support of kings to be constitutional heads of princely states till merger.

• All India States Peoples Conference (headed by Nehru) also supported the same.

• Abdulla was cornered in this issue.

105 Partition & Independence .. • April 1946 – Abdulla submitted a request of “Independence from Harsisingh” to Cabinet Mission.

• Started “Quit Kashmir” movement against Harisingh.

• May 1946 – Abdulla was arrested by Kashmir forces.

106 Partition & Independence .. • Nehru expressed his protest to “Quit Kashmir” movement.

• But at the same time decided to go to Kashmir to help Abdulla in trials against him.

• Harisingh banned Nehru from entering in Kashmir.

107 Partition & Independence .. • June 1946 – Nehru tried to enter Kashmir.

• Arrested & sent back to Delhi by forces of Harisingh.

• Situation settled down after few days & Nehru met Abdulla along with other leaders in Kashmir.

108 Partition & Independence .. • Abdulla was sentenced 3 years imprisonment for involvement in “Quit Kashmir” agitation.

• Sheikh Abdulla was in prison during partition & independence of India.

109 Independence • India got independence on 15th August 1947, after partition.

• According to partition plan, provinces in British India were partitioned as per population of religions.

• Rulers of all princely states were given choice to merge into either country or remain independent.

110 Independence .. • September 1947 - Sheikh Abdulla was released from prison after independence.

• Jinna was pressurizing Harisingh for merging in Pakistan.

• Harisingh signed standstill agreement with Pakistan government.

111 Pakistan’s Interference • Diplomatic efforts from Indian government continued for merging Kashmir in India.

• Revolts against Harisingh got triggered in several parts of Kashmir valley.

• Communal riots triggered in Jammu region.

• Pakistan declared its intervention in Kashmir against Harisingh.

112 Pakistan’s Interference .. • October 1947 - Pashtun tribesmen were sent by Pakistan to take revenge & conquer Kashmir.

• who were joined by group of rebels in region, invaded Kashmir.

• Pakistan’s motive behind the campaign was to frighten Harisingh & force him to join Pakistan.

113 Accession to India • Allied invaders were rapidly prograssing towards Srinagar.

• Harisingh appealed Indian government for intervention in the matter & protection.

• Mountbatten, who was last Governor General agreed to help on the condition of merging Kashmir into India.

114 Accession to India .. • Additional condition of forming interim government under Sheikh Abdulla was added by Pandit Nehru.

• 26th October 1947 – Harisingh agreed to terms & signed the Instrument of Accession.

• However Nehru declared it temporary & it would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite (which legally was not required). 115 Accession to India .. • 27th October 1947 - Following accession of Kashmir in India, Indian army entered Kashmir state.

• Sheikh Abdulla ordered volunteers of National Conference to support Indian army by every possible way (Considered to be idea of training under Indian army).

116 Accession to India .. • Indian army occupied Jammu region & Kashmir valley by end of 1947.

• Beginning of winter made almost entire state of Kashmir impassable.

• This put limitations on mobility of Indian army.

• Region which was not occupied bu Indian army is today known as PoK.

117 UNO’s Intervention • January 1948 – Pandit Nehru declared in Kashmir & escalated issue to UNO’s Security Council.

• United Nation’s Commission for India & Pakistan (UNCIP) was formed.

• April 1948 - UN Security Council passed as resolution – Resolution 47.

118 Resolution 47 • Government of Pakistan to withdraw tribesmen & Pakistani nationals not normally resident from the state of Jammu and Kashmir who have entered the state for the purpose of invasion.

• Government of India to reduce its forces to minimum strength.

• Plebiscite to be put into effect on the question of accession of the state to India or Pakistan. 119 UNO’s Intervention .. • Pakistan never withdrew army & tribesmen from remaining part of Kashmir – Due to fear of losing Plebiscite.

• Plebiscite was never conducted as prior conditions were not fulfilled.

• Line of ceasefire – today known as “Line of Control – LoC” (as per Shimla agreement 1972). 120 Article 370 • Kashmir’s accession, like all other princely states, was on three matters - defence, foreign affairs and communications.

• Princely states were invited to send representatives to India's Constituent Assembly, & were encouraged to set constituent assemblies for their own states.

121 Article 370 .. • May 1949 - Heads of all the states agreed to accept the Constitution of India as their own constitution.

• The states which formed constituent assemblies suggested few amendments, which were accepted.

• All states became equivalent to that of regular Indian provinces. 122 Article 370 .. • In the case of Jammu and Kashmir, the representatives to the Constituent Assembly requested that only those provisions of the Indian Constitution that corresponded to the Instrument of Accession should be applied to the State.

• November 1952 - Article 370 was incorporated into the Constitution of India.

123 Article 370 .. • In the case of Jammu and Kashmir, the representatives to the Constituent Assembly requested that only those provisions of the Indian Constitution that corresponded to the Instrument of Accession should be applied to the State.

• Clause 7 of Instrument of Accession - State could not be compelled to accept any future Constitution of India.

124 Article 370 .. • Article 370 was incorporated into the Constitution of India.

• It offered 6 special provision for Jammu & Kashmir State – – Exempted the State from complete applicability of the Constitution of India. It was allowed to have its own Constitution. – Central legislative powers over the State were restricted to the three subjects - defence, foreign affairs and communications.

125 Article 370 .. – Other constitutional provisions of the Central Government could be extended to the State only with the concurrence of the State Government. – The concurrence was provisional. It had to be ratified by the State's Constituent Assembly. – Once the State Constituent Assembly finalized the scheme of powers and dispersed, no further extension of powers was possible. – The Article 370 could be abrogated or amended only upon recommendation of the State's Constituent Assembly.

126 Kashmir Conspiracy Case • Sheikh Abdulla (who was Prime Minister in State’s government) got upset due to words “temporary & transitional provisions” included in article 370.

• Suspecting s state's special status will be lost, Abdulla demanded independence from India.

• 1953 – Abdulla’s government was dismissed & he was put in prison for 11 years. 127 Article 370 .. • State’s constitution assembly which was formed in October 1951, got dissolved in January 1957 without recommending abrogation or amendment of article 370.

• This led to article 370 becoming permanent part of Indian Constitution.

128 Demand of Plebiscite • August 1955 – Mirza Afzal Beg (senior leader of National Conference) founded Plebescite Front.

• Called for referendum under UN to decide issue of independence of J&K.

• 1964 – All charges on Abdulla were dropped. He was released from prison, received grand welcome in Srinagar. 129 Demand of Plebiscite .. • But demand of plebiscite was never entertained by India after Nehru’s death.

• 1974 – Indira-Sheikh accord – Abdulla gave up the demand of plebiscite, Plebiscite Front was dissolved in reformed National Conference. – INC allied with National Conference to form government in Kashmir.

130 Abdulla in Power • 1974 – Attaining majority with support of INC, Sheikh Abdulla became Chief Minister of J&K.

• Remained C.M. till his death in 1982.

• His son, Farooq Abdulla became C.M. after his death.

131 Militancy in Kashmir • February 1984 – (co-founder of JKLF) was hanged for murdering local police officer in 1966.

• Death penalty was sentenced in 1968, when Bhat managed to escape from jail & fled to Pakistan.

• Continued his pro-independent Kashmir operations through Pakistan. 132 Militancy in Kashmir .. • JKLF tried to get benefit of situation - Bhat’s hanging was related to his pro-Kashmiri activities.

• Through Bhat’s contacts in Pakistan, JKLF started sending youths to PoK (so called ) for militant training

133 Militancy in Kashmir .. • Alleged corruption in 1987 state assembly elections situation started developing against National Conference & INC (which was in power in central government).

• 1989 – Youths who were by now trained from camps in PoK, started militant operations in Kashmir valley.

134 Militancy in Kashmir .. • Local militants were soon joined by Pashtun & Afghan tribesmen (till then engaged in Soviet- Afghan War).

• Pakistan apart from training, also provided arms & funds to both local & foreign militants in Kashmir, assuring freedom from India.

135 Militancy in Kashmir .. • Kashmiri Pandits (minority by population) were forced to vacate Kashmir valley due to increased violence & attacks.

• Took refuge in Jammu & other parts of India.

• Militancy was at peak from 1989 to 1994.

• Started reducing from 1994 to 2004, But not completely stopped even today.

136 References • “History of Kashmir” document series by Deepak Dikshit.

• “Kashmir in Crucible” by Premnath Bajaj.

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