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WORLD PACKET #3

ACTIVITY INTRODUCTION/DIRECTIONS

The of Ancient #21

#22 Greek City-States, , Tyranny

#23 Rival City States of and

#24 , Persian, Peloponnesian

#25 Greek Culture/Lasting Contributions

#26 and Hellenistic Culture/ The End of Greece

#27 Geography of / Rise of Rome

#28 Acquiring, Consolidating and Maintaining Roman Power

#29 Rome’s Golden Age/ Lasting Contributions to the West

#30 Effects of and the Fall of the Roman

Remote Day 21 Part 1 Geography and

Essential Question: Where were Greek located? Objective: Describe the locations of the Greek civilizations and how geography impacted the Ancient .

Directions: Examine the maps below and answer the questions that follow.

1. On which was Greek 2. Which is to the east of 3. Which sea is south of the Greek located? Greek civilization civilization

4. What do you know about the area of the world where Ancient Greece was located? Identify any historical or modern-day civilizations or countries in that or events that have taken place.

Greek civilization began in 1750 BCE north of the in .

Greece is in southeastern Europe and consists of a and an [chain of ]. Mainland Greece is a large peninsula surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea (branching into the the west and the in the east).

The greatly influenced the culture in that, with few natural resources and surrounded by water, the people eventually took to the sea for their livelihood. cover eighty percent of Greece which provides little opportunity for . As a result, the early Greeks colonized neighboring islands and founded settlements along the of (also known as Minor, modern day ). The Greeks became skilled builders, sailors, and traders to acquire resources they did not have. One benefit of Greece’s with other nations was that they encountered the Phoenician alphabet, which they adapted and became the basis for and many other languages including English.

The mountains that covered Greece and the between islands also isolated the people of Greece. As a result, Greeks developed individual , also known as city-states. City-states were cities with surrounding land and villages. Each city- was independent and located in an isolated valley. While the Greeks spoke the language, they had different cultures and government and social structures because they were divided. The mountains separating the city-states were barriers to cultural diffusion and unity. In addition, a lack of resources and differences between the city-states led to rivalry and antagonism that led to . The two most well-known city-states were Sparta and Athens. Source: “Ancient Greece.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/greece/

1. Identify two geographic features that separated the 2. Describe two ways that mountains in Greece affected the Greek city-states. Ancient Greeks.

3. Describe two ways that water surrounding Greece affected the Ancient Greeks.

Mycenae: The First Greek State

The term Mycenaean from Mycenae (my • SEE • nee), a fortified site on the Greek mainland that was first discovered by the German archaeologist . Mycenae was part of a civilization that flourished between 1600 b.c. and 1100 b.c.

The Mycenaean Greeks were part of the Indo-European family of peoples who spread into Europe and Asia. One of these groups entered Greece around 1900 b.c. and gradually gained control of the Greek mainland. Mycenaean civilization, which reached its high point between 1400 b.c. and 1200 b.c., was made of powerful monarchies. Each resided in a fortified center. Like Mycenae, these centers were built on hills and surrounded by gigantic stone walls. The monarchies in these various centers of power probably formed a loose alliance of independent states. While the royal families lived within the walls of these complexes, the civilian populations lived scattered outside the walls. Among the noticeable features of these Mycenaean centers were the beehive-shaped in which members of the royal families were buried.

The Mycenaeans were, above all, a people who prided themselves on their heroic deeds in battle. Mycenaean wall murals often show war and hunting scenes.

Archaeological evidence also indicates that the Mycenaean monarchies developed an extensive commercial network. Mycenaean has been found throughout the Mediterranean area, in and to the east, and and southern to the west. However, some believe that the Mycenaeans, led by Mycenae itself, also spread outward militarily, conquering Minoan and making it part of the Mycenaean world.

The most famous of all their supposed adventures is recounted in the of . According to Homer, Mycenaean Greeks, led by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, sacked (plundered) the city of on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor around 1250 b.c.

Did this event really occur? Ever since the excavations of Schliemann, begun in 1870, scholars have debated this question. Many believe that Homer’s account of the attack on Troy is based on fact.

By the late thirteenth b.c., was showing signs of serious trouble. Mycenaean states fought one another, and major caused widespread damage. In the twelfth century b.c., new waves of Greek-speaking invaders moved into Greece from the north. By 1100 b.c., Mycenaean civilization had collapsed.

What characterized the first Greek civilization of the Mycenaeans?

Greeks in the Dark Age

After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, Greece entered a difficult period in which the population declined and production dropped. Historians call the period from approximately 1100 b.c. to 750 b.c. the Dark Age because few records of what happened exist. Not until 850 b.c. did the basis for a new Greece begin to form.

Changes of the Dark Age

During the Dark Age, many Greeks left the mainland and sailed across the Aegean Sea to various islands. Many went to the western shores of Asia Minor, a strip of territory that came to be called (or Ionian Greece), in modern-day Turkey.

Two other major groups of Greeks settled in established parts of Greece. The Aeolian Greeks of northern and colonized the large island of and the territory near the mainland. The established themselves in southwestern Greece, especially in the , as well as on some of the southern Aegean islands.

There was a revival of some agriculture, trade, and economic activity during the Dark Age. The use of iron was central to this revival. Iron replaced in weaponry, making weapons affordable for more people. Furthermore, iron farming tools helped reverse the decline in food production.

At some point in the eighth century b.c., the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet to give themselves a new system of . By reducing all words to a combination of 24 letters, the Greeks made learning to read and write simpler. The work of Homer, one of the great poets of all , appeared near the end of the Dark Age.

1. What events occurred in ancient Greece during the Dark Age?

Homer and the Dark Ages

Homer one of the earliest and greatest known poets of the classical period, is generally regarded as the creator of the and the . Exactly when he was born or died, and the details of his life are generally unknown. and ancient legends have it that he was a blind poet and rhapsode (an ancient actor) who lived in the late eighth and early seventh B.C.E. on an island called off the western coast of Asia Minor (what is now Turkey). While there is no complete agreement on the details of Homer’s life, some have said that he was born to Menes and Cretheis the , his given name was Melisigenes, he worked in Chios, and died on , a Greek island in the Aegean. Sea

This information is suspect at best and is part of what has become the Homeric Question- the doubts and consequent debates over the existence and identity of Homer, and the real story of who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Though the Iliad and the Odyssey are set in the Greek in about the twelft century BCE, most scholars, analyzing the linguistic and other historical evidence, claim that the poems were composed between 750 and 650 BCE, when rather than telling stories orally, people started writing things down. Other scholars argue that the poems were written later, perhaps in the sixth century BCE in Athens, when the first written version of the poems appeared. Many scholars believe that these epics represent the work of many generations of poets, with Homer acting as organizer and editor.

While the Iliad, which was written first, is packed with relentless slaughter and the , the Odyssey is a tale of wandering and homecoming, and some argue that these difference reveal the possibility of more than one author. Others argue that the Iliad is a work of a young, mischievous, and adventuresome Homer, while the Odyssey is the work of a wise, more mature Homer.

The Iliad and the Odyssey were the first great epic poems of early Greece and would serve as major cultural influences throughout history. An epic poem is a long poem that tells the deeds of a great . The Iliad and the Odyssey were based on stories that had been passed down from generation to generation.

Homer used stories of the to compose the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad is not so much the story of the war itself, however, as it is the tale of the Greek hero Achilles (uh • KIH • leez) and how the anger of Achilles led to disaster. The Odyssey recounts the journeys of one of the Greek heroes, , after the fall of Troy, and his ultimate return to his wife. It has long been considered Homer’s other masterpiece.

Homer proved to be of great value to later Greeks. He did not so much record history; he created it, and it serves as a reflection of the warlike history of culture. The Greeks looked on the Iliad and the Odyssey as true history and as the works of one poet, Homer. These masterpieces gave the Greeks an past with a cast of heroes. The epics came to be used as basic texts for the education of generations of Greek males. As one ancient Athenian stated, “My father was anxious to see me develop into a man . . . and as a means to this end he compelled me to memorize all of Homer.”

Homeric poetry taught the values of courage and honor. These values were relevant not just for ancient Greeks but for many cultures, making them universal themes. A hero strives for excellence, which the Greeks called arete (ahr • ah • TEE). Arete is won in a struggle or contest. Through his willingness to fight, the hero protects his family and friends, preserves his own honor and that of his family, and earns his reputation. Homer gave to later generations of Greek males, and males of later cultures, a model of heroism and honor.

Remote Day 22: How did Greek city-states differ? Describe the differences between the city-states of Sparta and Athens.

In the course of the Dark Age, Greek villages gradually expanded and became independent city-states. The two most famous city-states were Sparta and Athens, whose rivalry would eventually lead to war.

The city-state—or what the Greeks called a polis— became central to the development of classical civilization in Greece. By 750 b.c. the polis became the focus of Greek life. Our word is derived from the Greek word polis. In a physical sense, the polis was a town, a city, or even a village, along with its surrounding countryside. The town, city, or village served as the center of the polis where people could meet for political, social, and religious activities.

The central meeting place in the polis was usually a hill. At the top of the hill was a fortified area called an that served as both a fortress and religious center. Below the acropolis was an , an open area that served both as a place where people could assemble and as a market.

City-states varied greatly in size, and population. Athens had a population of more than 300,000 by the fifth century b.c., but most city-states were much smaller, consisting of only a few hundred to several thousand people.

The polis was, above all, a community of people who shared a common identity and common goals. As a community, the polis consisted of citizens with political rights (adult males), citizens with no political rights (women and children), and noncitizens (including agricultural laborers, slaves, and resident aliens). All male citizens had rights, such as the right to vote and participate in government, but these rights were coupled with responsibilities, like military service. The Greek philosopher argued that a citizen did not belong just to himself or herself: "We must rather regard every citizen as belonging to the state." However, the loyalty that citizens had to their city-states had a negative . City- states distrusted one another, and the division of Greece into fiercely patriotic, independent units helped bring about its ruin.

As the polis developed, so too did a new military system. By 700 b.c., the Greek military system had shifted from nobles on horseback to a system based on . Hoplites were heavily armed foot soldiers equipped with a round shield, a short , and a thrusting about nine feet long. Hoplites went into battle as a unit, marching shoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formation known as a . This close formation created a wall of shields to protect the hoplites. As long as they kept their order, it was difficult for enemies to harm them.

Reading Questions:

How were the city-states of ancient Greece organized? 2. What were the rights of citizens and noncitizens?

Greek Expansion

Between 750 b.c. and 550 b.c., large numbers of Greeks left their homeland to settle in distant lands. Overpopulation at home, a desire for good farmland, and the growth of trade were important factors in deciding to settle new places. Each Greek became a new polis, independent of the polis that had founded it.

Greek Colonies

Across the Mediterranean, new Greek colonies were established along the coastlines of , southern , eastern , and northern west of Egypt. At the same time, to the north, the Greeks set up colonies in , where they sought good farmland to grow grains. The Greeks also settled along the shores of the , setting up cities on Hellespont and the straits. The most notable of these cities was (buh • ZAN • shuhm), the site of what later became and is now . In establishing these colonies, the Greeks spread their culture and political ideas throughout the Mediterranean.

Colonization in these prime port locations also led to increased trade and industry. The Greeks on the mainland sent their pottery, wine, and olive oil to these areas. In return, they received grains and from the west, and fish, timber, , metals, and slaves from the . The expansion of trade and industry created a new group of wealthy individuals in many of the Greek city-states. These men wanted political power but found it difficult to gain because of the power of the ruling aristocrats.

Question: How did the Greeks spread their culture and political ideas throughout the Mediterranean?

Tyranny in the City-States

The creation of this new group of rich men fostered the rise of in the seventh and sixth centuries b.c. Tyrants were not necessarily oppressive or wicked, as our word implies. Greek tyrants were rulers who seized power by force from the aristocrats.

Support for the tyrants came from the newly rich who were hungry for the social prestige and political influence that aristocrats had denied them. Poor peasants who were in debt to landholding aristocrats also supported the tyrants. Both the newly rich and the peasants were tired of aristocratic domination of their city-states.

The tyrants gained power and kept it by using hired soldiers. After they were in power, the tyrants tried to help the poor and launched public works projects. These efforts glorified the city but, more importantly, increased the tyrants' popularity. Despite their achievements, however, tyrants had fallen out of favor by the end of the sixth century b.c. Greeks believed in the , and tyranny was an insult to that ideal.

Tyranny played an important role in Greek history and in the development of classical Greek civilization. The rule of the tyrants ended the rule of the aristocrats in many city-states. The end of tyranny then allowed many new people to participate in government. In some Greek city-states, this led to the development of , which is government by the people or rule of the many. Other city-states remained committed to government by an oligarchy, rule by the few. Democracy, a fundamental idea of Western civilization, remains one of the most lasting political influences of ancient Greece.

Reading Question:

4. Which groups supported the rule of the tyrants?

5. Forms of Government - In the Bubble Concept Map

a. define each

b. How would each form of government make the decision to execute a criminal?

c. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

hy

Monarc Tryanny

Forms of Govt

acy

Oligarchy Democr

-

Day 23 Two Rival City-States

The differences in the Greek city-states can be understood by examining the two most famous and powerful city-states, Sparta and Athens.

Sparta

Like other Greek city-states, Sparta needed more land. Instead of starting new colonies, as some states did, the Spartans conquered the neighboring Laconians. Later, beginning around 730 b.c., the Spartans undertook the conquest of neighboring despite its larger size and population.

After their conquest, the Messenians and Laconians became serfs and were made to work for the Spartans. These captured people were known as , a name derived from a Greek word for “capture.” To ensure control over the conquered helots, the Spartans made a conscious decision to create a military state.

Between 800 b.c. and 600 b.c., the lives of Spartans were rigidly organized and tightly controlled—thus, our word spartan, meaning “highly self-disciplined.” Males spent their childhood learning military discipline. Then they enrolled in the army for regular military service at age 20.

Although allowed to marry, Spartan males continued to live in the military barracks until age 30. All meals were eaten in public dining halls with fellow soldiers. Meals were simple: the famous Spartan black broth consisted of a piece of pork boiled in animal blood, salt, and vinegar. A visitor who ate some of the black broth once remarked that he now understood why Spartans were not afraid to die. At 30, Spartan males were allowed to vote in the assembly (discussed later). They could live at home, but they stayed in the army until the age of 60.

While their husbands lived in the barracks, Spartan women lived at home. Because of this separation, Spartan women had greater freedom of movement and greater power in the than was common elsewhere in Greece. Spartan women were expected to remain fit to bear and raise healthy children. Many Spartan women upheld the strict Spartan values, expecting their husbands and sons to be brave in war. The story is told of a Spartan mother who, as she handed her son his shield, told him to come back carrying his shield or being carried on it. In other words, he was not to drop his shield in retreat but to be victorious or to die bravely.

The Spartan government was an oligarchy headed by two kings, who led the on its campaigns. A group of five men, known as the (EH • fuhrs), were elected each and were responsible for the education of youth and the conduct of all citizens. A council of elders, composed of the two kings and 28 citizens over the age of 60, decided on the issues that would be presented to an assembly made of male citizens. This assembly did not debate; it only voted on the issues.

To make their new military state secure, the Spartans turned their backs on the outside world. Foreigners, who might have brought in new ideas, were discouraged from visiting. Except for military reasons, Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, where they might encounter ideas dangerous to the stability of the state. Likewise, Spartan citizens were discouraged from studying , , or the arts. The art of war was the Spartan ideal. All other arts were frowned upon.

Athens

By 700 b.c., Athens had become a unified polis on the peninsula of . Early Athens was ruled by a king. By the seventh century b.c., however, Athens had become an oligarchy under the control of its aristocrats. These aristocrats owned the best land and controlled political life. There was an assembly of all the citizens, but it had few powers.

By the end of the 600s b.c., Athens faced political turmoil because of serious economic problems. , a politician, codified the laws, adding harsh penalties, including for debtors. Many Athenian farmers were sold into slavery when they were unable to pay their debts. There was an outcry to cancel the debts and to give land to the poor. Athens seemed on the verge of .

The ruling Athenian aristocrats reacted to this crisis in 594 b.c. by giving full power to , a reform-minded aristocrat. Solon canceled all land debts and freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts. He refused, however, to take land from the rich and to give it to the poor. Despite Solon’s reforms, aristocrats were still powerful and poor peasants could not obtain land. Internal strife finally led to the very thing Solon had hoped to avoid—tyranny.

Peisistratus (pih • SIHS • truh • tuhs), an aristocrat, seized power in 560 b.c.He then aided Athenian trade as a way of pleasing the . He also gave aristocrats’ land to the peasants in order to gain the favor of the poor. The Athenians rebelled against Peisistratus’s son, who had succeeded him, and ended the tyranny in 510 b.c. Two later, with the backing of the Athenian people, (KLYS • thuh • neez), another reformer, gained the upper hand.

Cleisthenes created a new council of 500 that supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury, and proposed the laws that would be voted on by the assembly. The Athenian assembly, composed of male citizens, was given final to pass laws after free and open debate. Because the assembly of citizens now had the central role in the Athenian political system, the reforms of Cleisthenes created the foundations for

Assignment: ATHENS VS. SPARTA CHART During the BC, Greece was dominated by two main powers: Athens and Sparta. These city-states were very different. Sparta was traditionally the great land power of the Greek world and controlled many neighboring territories whose populations were tied to the land as slaves. Athens’ power was based upon its command of the sea, and though it was officially only head of a naval alliance (the ), in practice this amounted to an empire in all but name. Athens Sparta Government

Education

Women

Values

Remote Day 24: Classical Greece

Classical Greece is the name given to the period of Greek history from around 500 b.c. to the conquest of Greece by the Macedonian king Philip II in 338 b.c. This period was marked not only by a brilliant culture but also by a disastrous war among the Greeks, the .

The Challenge of Persia

As the Greeks spread throughout the Mediterranean, they came into conflict with the Persian Empire to the east. By the mid-sixth century b.c., the Persian Empire controlled the Ionian Greek cities in Minor. In 499 b.c., these Ionian cities attempted a revolt, assisted by the Athenian navy. They were unsuccessful, but their attempt prompted the Persian ruler Darius to seek revenge. It is said that Darius ordered one of his slaves to say to him at every meal, “Sire, remember the Athenians.”

In 490 b.c., the landed on the plain of , only 26 miles (42 km) from Athens. There, an outnumbered Athenian army attacked and defeated decisively. The Persians returned to Asia. According to legend, news of Persia’s defeat was brought by an Athenian runner named Pheidippides (fy • DIHP • uh • deez), who raced from Marathon to Athens. With his last breath, he announced, “Rejoice! We win!” before dropping dead. Today’s marathon race is based on this heroic story. Although the was a minor defeat to the Persians, to the Athenians, it proved that the Persians could be beaten and gave them new confidence in their city-state.

After Darius died in 486 b.c., Xerxes (ZUHRK • seez) became the new Persian monarch. Xerxes vowed revenge and planned to invade Greece. In preparation for the attack, some of the Greek states formed a defensive league under the Spartans. The Athenians, however, followed a new military policy insisted on by , one of the Athenian leaders, and built a navy. By the time the Persians invaded in 480 b.c., the Athenians had a fleet of about 200 vessels.

Xerxes led a massive force into Greece. His forces included about 180,000 troops and thousands of warships and supply vessels. In spite of their differences, Athenians, Spartans, and other Greeks were united by a common goal of defeating the Persian invaders. The Greeks tried to delay the Persians at the pass of , along the main road into central Greece. A Greek force of about 7,000 held off the Persian army for two days. The 300 Spartans in the Greek army were especially brave. When told that Persian arrows would darken the sky in battle, one Spartan responded, “That's good news, we will get to fight in the shade.” Unfortunately for the Greeks, a traitor told the Persians how to use a path to outflank the Greek force.

After the defeat of the Persians, Athens took over the leadership of the entire Greek world. In 478 b.c., the Athenians formed a defensive alliance against the Persians known as the Delian League. Its main headquarters was on the island of . However, its chief officials, including the treasurers and commanders of the fleet, were Athenian. Under Athenian leadership, the Delian League pursued the attack against the Persian Empire, eventually liberating virtually all of the Greek states in the Aegean from Persian control. In 454 b.c., the Athenians moved the treasury of the league from the island of Delos to Athens on the mainland. By controlling the Delian League, Athens had created an empire.

Under , a dominant figure in Athenian politics between 461 b.c. and 429 b.c., Athens expanded its empire abroad while democracy flourished at home. This period of classical Athenian and Greek history, which historians have called the Age of Pericles, saw the height of Athenian power and brilliance

The Age of Pericles

By creating a , Pericles expanded the responsibilities and involvement of Athenian citizens in their government. In this system, every male citizen participated directly in government decision making by attending the assembly, where they voted on all major issues.

In the mid-fifth century B.C., the assembly consisted of about 43,000 male citizens older than 18 years old. Every 10 days, the assembly met on a hillside east of the Acropolis. Not all attended, and the number present seldom reached 6,000. The assembly passed all laws, elected public officials, and made decisions concerning war and foreign policy. Anyone could speak, but usually only respected leaders did so. By making lower-class male citizens eligible for public office and by paying officeholders, Pericles made it possible for poor citizens to participate in civic affairs. Pericles believed that all Athenian citizens were equal before the law and that they should be proud of their democracy. An assembly of citizens, active in self-government, would prove to be a central institution and a fundamental idea of Western civilization. This would prove to be the beginning of the development of democratic-republican government.

Classical Greece

Athenians devised the practice of . Members of the assembly could write on a pottery fragment (ostrakon) the name of a person they considered harmful. A person named by at least 6,000 members was banned from the city for 10 years. Athenians also had a system of justice called dikastaí, similar to a trial by jury of peers. In minor cases the dikastaíincluded up to 500 citizens, and up to 1500 citizens in major cases.

Under Pericles, Athens became the center of Greek culture. The power and prosperity of Athens allowed classical Greek civilization to further develop. Because war had destroyed much of the city, Pericles began a great rebuilding program. New temples, like the , and statues signified Athens’ greatness. Art, , and philosophy flourished. Pericles proudly boasted that Athens had become the “school of Greece.”

Daily Life in

By the fifth century b.c., Athens had the largest population of the Greek city-states. Before the plague in 430 b.c., there were about 300,000 people living in Athens and the surrounding area. About 43,000 of them were adult male citizens, meaning they had political power. Most residents of Athens were not citizens. Adult male foreigners living in Athens, numbering about 10,000, received the protection of the laws. Although they were noncitizens, foreigners were also subject to some of the responsibilities of citizens, such as military service. Slaves numbered around 100,000.

Slavery was common in the ancient world. Slaves in Athens, who were not considered citizens, numbered around 100,000. Most often, slaves worked in the fields or in the home as cooks and maids. Some slaves were owned by the state and worked on public construction projects.

Economy and Society

The Athenian was largely based on farming and trade. Athenians grew grains, vegetables, and fruit for local use. Grapes and olive trees were cultivated for wine and olive oil, which were for local use and for export. Athenians raised sheep and goats for wool, milk, and dairy products.

Because of the number of people and the lack of fertile land, Athens had to import from 50 to 80 percent of its grain, a basic item in the Athenian diet. This meant that trade was highly important to the Athenian economy. The building of a port at nearby (py • REE • uhs) helped Athens become the leading trade center in the fifth-century b.c. Greek world.

The family was an important institution in ancient Athens. It was composed of a husband, wife, and children, although Athenians also regarded other dependent relatives and even slaves as parts of their families. The family’s primary role was to produce new citizens by having children.

Women were citizens who could take part in most religious festivals but otherwise were excluded from public life. They were expected to remain at home, out of sight in special quarters, unless attending funerals or festivals. If they left the house, women had to have a companion.

An Athenian woman was expected to be a good wife. Her chief obligation was to bear children, especially male children who would preserve the family line. She was also expected to take care of her family and her house. She either did the housework herself or supervised the slaves who did the work.

Women were strictly controlled. They could not own property beyond personal items. They always had a male guardian: if unmarried, a father; if married, a husband; if widowed, a son or male relative. Because they married at 14 or 15, girls learned their responsibilities early. Their mothers taught them how to run a home, including how to spin and weave cloth. Although many learned to read and to play musical instruments, girls did not have any formal education. Women did not work outside the home unless they were poor. Then they could work only at unskilled jobs. The Great Peloponnesian War

After the defeat of the Persians, the Greek world divided into two main camps: the Athenian Empire (Athens and the Delian League, which it controlled) and Sparta and its supporters (). Athens and Sparta had very different societies, and neither was able to tolerate the other’s system. Sparta and its allies feared the growing Athenian Empire, and a series of disputes finally led to the outbreak of the Great Peloponnesian War in 431 b.c.

At the beginning of the war, both sides believed they had winning strategies. The Athenians planned to remain behind the city’s protective walls and receive supplies from their colonies and navy. The Spartans and their allies surrounded Athens, hoping that the Athenians would send out their army to fight beyond the walls. Pericles knew, however, that

the Spartan forces could beat the Athenians in open battles. The Athenians had a better navy, but the Spartans had a stronger army. Pericles also believed that Athens was secure behind its walls, so the Athenians stayed put.

In the first winter of the war, the Athenians held a public funeral to honor those who had died in combat. Pericles spoke about the greatness of Athens and the strength of its political system. In the second year of the war, a plague broke out in the overly crowded city of Athens. The plague killed more than a third of the people. Pericles himself died the following year (429 b.c.). Despite these severe losses, the Athenians fought on for about another 25 years.

A crushing blow to the Athenians came in 405 b.c., when their fleet was destroyed at Aegospotami (ee • guh • SPAH • tuh • mee) on the Hellespont. Within the next year, Athens surrendered. Its walls were torn down, the navy disbanded, and the Athenian Empire was destroyed. The great war was over, but the age of classical Greek culture and government was also.

The Great Peloponnesian War weakened the major Greek states and ruined any possibility of cooperation among them. During the next 67 years, Sparta, Athens, and (a new Greek power) struggled to dominate Greek affairs. In continuing their petty wars, the Greeks ignored the growing power of to their north. This oversight would cost them their freedom.

Directions: Complete the Chart Below on the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian Wars

Date Key People Significant Battles/Locations Persian Wars

Peloponnesian War

Primary Source Analysis Pericles Funeral Oration

Background Info

Pericles Funeral Oration comes to us from 's famous History of the Pelopennesian War. Following the war's first campaign, the people of Athens asked Pericles, the 's first citizen, to give a speech praising those who had fallen in the conflict. Pericles used the occasion less to eulogize the deceased than to laud the city-state of Athens and to lecture on the duties and responsibilities of Athenian citizenship.

Understanding the Passage: Key Questions

[1] Such was the end of these men; they were worthy of Athens, and the living need not desire to have a more heroic spirit, although they may pray for a less fatal issue. The value of such a spirit is not to be expressed in words. Any one can discourse to you for ever about the advantages of a brave defence, which you know already. But instead of listening to him I would have you day by day fix your eyes upon the greatness of Athens, until you become filled with the love of her; and when you are impressed by the spectacle of her glory, reflect that this empire has been acquired by men who knew their duty and had the courage to do it, who in the hour of conflict had the fear of dishonour always present to them, and who, if ever they failed in an enterprise, would not allow their virtues to be lost to their country, but freely gave their lives to her as the fairest offering which they could present at her feast.

[2] The sacrifice which they collectively made was individually repaid to them; for they received again each one for himself a praise which grows not old, and the noblest of all sepulchers—I speak not of that in which their remains are laid, but of that in which their glory survives, and is proclaimed always and on every fitting occasion both in word and deed.

[3] For the whole is the sepulchre of famous men; not only are they commemorated by columns and inscriptions in their own country, but in foreign lands there dwells also an unwritten memorial of them, graven not on stone but in the hearts of men.

[4] Make them your examples, and, esteeming courage to be freedom and freedom to be happiness, do not weigh too nicely the perils of war.

[5] The unfortunate who has no hope of a change for the better has less reason to throw away his life than the prosperous who, if he survive, is always liable to a change for the worse, and to whom any accidental fall makes the most serious difference.

[6] To a man of spirit, cowardice and disaster coming together are far more bitter than death striking him unperceived at a time when he is full of courage and animated by the general hope.

Analysis Questions

1. How does this passage lead on from earlier points in Pericles' Funeral Speech?

2. Why should citizens fight to defend their city, in Pericles' view?

3. How does Pericles depict the men who have died?

4. How should the good citizen feel about death?

5. How does this compare with other Greek views on the subject?

Remote Day 25: Greek Culture/ Lasting Contributions

Reading Questions

1. Why did the Greek develop writing?

2. Explain cultural diffusion in relationship to writing between the Greek and Phoenicians.

3. How has and art influenced present- day culture?

4. How do people see the remains of Greek culture in their everyday lives?

5. Using the above reading list two examples of Greek culture in Henderson, NC.

6. Compare and Contrast Ancient to today’s Olympic Games below.

DBQs on Greek Culture Documents Document Based Questions 7. Why did Athens have so many people on their juries?

8. List two promises that jurors made by taking the oath.

9. List one similarity and one difference between jury trials in Athens and jury trials today. Similarity: Difference:

10. How did ’s beliefs change the way Greek people viewed illness?

11. Explain why Hippocrates’s ideas are important in today’s medical world.

Following is an excerpt from the Hippocratic Oath. Hippocrates, 12. What was Hippocrates promising to

creator of this oath, lived from about 460 to 377 B.C. do?

‘I will follow that treatment which, according to my ability and judgment, I will consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is harmful. I will give no deadly medicine to anyone if asked, nor suggest any such advice…’ 13. Give an example of how Greek architecture influenced buildings constructed in modern time

The following quote is from , a philosopher who lived 14. What was Socrates suggesting in this from about 470 to about 399 B.C.: quote?

‘An unexamined life is not worth living.’ The following quote is from Aristotle, another philosopher who 15. What did Aristotle believe about lived in Greece from 384 to 322 B.C.: nature?

‘Since human reason is the most godlike part of human nature, a life guided by human reason is superior to any other ... For man, this is the life of reason, since the faculty of reason is the distinguishing characteristic of human beings.’

Remote Day 26: Alexander the Great and Hellenistic Culture

pg 1 pg 2

Alexander the Great Documents Assignment

Document 1: : Speech of Alexander the Great to his troops, copied selection from The Campaigns of Alexander Originally scanned by: JS Arkenberg, Department of History, California State Fullerton.

“I could not have blamed you for being the first to lose heart if I, your commander, had not shared in your exhausting marches and your perilous campaigns; it would have been natural enough if you had done all the work merely for others to reap the reward. But it is not so. You and I, gentlemen, have shared the labor and shared the danger, and the rewards are for us all. The conquered territory belongs to you; from your ranks the of it are chosen; already the greater part of its passes into your hands, and when all Asia is overrun, then indeed I will go further than the mere satisfaction of your ambitions: the utmost hopes of riches or power which each one of you cherishes will be far surpassed, and whoever wishes to return home will be allowed to go, either with me or without me. I will make those who stay the envy of those who return.”

Question: 1. What does Alexander’s speech show about his relationship with his troops?

Document 2: ’s Lives – A Selection from the Biography of Alexander the Great From: John Langhorne and William Langhorne, eds. Plutarch's Lives, Translated from the Original Greek. Cincinnati: Applegate, Pounsford and Co., 1874, pp. 434-439.

“[Alexander] was only twenty years old when he succeeded to the crown, and he found the kingdom torn into pieces by dangerous parties and implacable animosities. The barbarous nations, even those that bordered upon Macedonia, could not brook subjection, and they longed for their natural kings... Alexander was of opinion that the only way to security, and a thorough establishment of his affairs, was to proceed with spirit and magnanimity. He therefore quieted the commotions, and put a stop to the rising wars among the , by marching with the utmost expediency as far as the , where he fought a great battle... The barbarians, we are told, lost in this battle twenty thousand foot and two thousand five hundred horse, whereas Alexander had no more than thirty-four men killed, nine of which were the . To do honor to their memory, he erected a statue to each of them in brass, the workmanship of Lysippus…”

Question 2: What does the selection from Plutarch’s Lives tell about Alexander as a leader?

Document 3: Diodorus of Sicily about the Destruction of Persepolis From: Diodorus of Sicily’s History of the World

“Alexander went up to the and took possession of the stored there. They were full of gold and silver. Reckoning gold in terms of silver, 2,500 tons were found there. Alexander wanted to take part of the money with him, for the expenses of war and to deposit the rest at under close guard. He had all the treasure conveyed to the chosen places. He was very hostile to the local people and did not trust them, and wished to destroy Persepolis utterly… Alexander held games to celebrate his victories; he offered magnificent sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends lavishly…”

Question: Why is Alexander’s treatment of his troops and those he conquered significant?

Document 4 Secondary Source Reading –From: World History the Easy Way by Charles A. Frazee, Ph.D.

“Alexander’s achievements as a military leader were remarkable. No general ever accomplished more. He also wanted to be seen as someone who would fuse the Greek world with other “” societies…. He bears the name Great because many people feel he deserves to be remembered as one of history’s noble personalities that changed the world. Others see him as an ambitious man whose life was dedicated to his own aggrandizement no matter what is cost in blood and suffering for others.”

Paragraph: Using these documents and your knowledge of Alexander the Great, answer the following question developed paragraph. Do you think that Alexander deserves his title “the Great?”

Day 27Where was the located and how did the size of the Roman empire change over time? Objective: ● Describe the location of the Roman empire and how its size changed over time.

Introduction: Where was the Roman empire located? ➡ Directions: Examine the maps below and answer the questions that follow.

Think Like a Geographer

1. Which continent(s) was the Roman Empire located on? 2. Which is to the west of the Roman empire? 3. Which sea is at the center of the Roman empire?

4. What do you know about the area of the world where the Roman Empire was located? Identify any historical or modern-day civilizations or countries in that region or events that have taken place.

How did different geographic features impact Rome? Directions: Examine the map below and read the accompanying text and then answer the questions that follow.

Unlike in Greece, the , where Rome originated, did not have any mountains to prevent the area from uniting. The Greek city states were isolated, but in Rome, three geographic features promoted unity. First, Rome was located on a broad plain, a flat area of land. This broad plain supported a growing population because it was easy to farm. Second, was located on the Italian Peninsula which juts into the Mediterranean Sea. A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded on three sides by water. Rome's location in the Mediterranean Sea made it easier to travel to foreign lands around the sea like , to conquer new territories, and to develop trade routes. Through these trade routes, Romans came in contact with lots of different people with whom they traded , ideas, and technology. Thirdly, two mountain ranges, the and Apennines protected Ancient Rome from to the north.

1. Identify one way the geography of Rome was different than Greece.

Topographic map of the Italian peninsula. .

2. What geographic factors made it possible for the Romans to unite the Italian peninsula?

Where was Rome located? Directions: Examine the map below, then fill out the chart with what you see, think and wonder about the size of the Roman empire.

3. Describe the extent of the in 218 BCE.

4. Describe the extent of the Roman Republic in 44 BCE.

5. Based on your study of other , how do you think the Romans expanded their territory and consolidated and maintained their power?

See Think Wonder 6. List three things you see in the image above. 7. Based on your observations, how do you think the size of 8. Write two questions you have about the picture above. the Roman empire changed over time? 5. Based on your study of other empires, how do you think the Romans expanded their territory and consolidated and maintained their power?

What led to the rise of the Roman Republic? Objective: Describe the rise of the Roman Republic? Early Rome

Directions: Read the chart and excerpt below, then respond to the questions.

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC: ROMAN MONARCHY THE END OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC CONQUEST OF MEDITERRANEAN AND ITALY

1200 800 509 450 264-146 BCE 135-58 58-51 45 BCE BCE BCE BCE BCE BCE BCE

Etruscan Early people The Roman Republic The Twelve Tables Rome fights the Civil War and Julius civilization settle along the is founded and law code is against reforms in Rome emerges as Caesar is settled north of Tiber River and people select published publicly, , due to absolute ruler of assassinated Rome and later near hills in Italy leaders standardizing the conquering land in unemployment Rome and (stabbed to became part of laws and Northern Africa and poverty conquers lots of death) on the Republic punishments land orders from everywhere in the the Senate Republic

Rome was originally a small town on the of the Tiber River and grew in size and strength early on, 9. Where was Rome located? through trade. The location of the city near the Mediterranean Sea provided merchants with an easily navigable waterway on which to traffic their goods. Greek culture and civilization, which came to Rome 10. How did Rome grow in size? via Greek colonies to the south, provided the early Romans with a model on which to build their own culture. From the Greeks they borrowed literacy and , as well as their architecture. The 11. Which helped merchants Etruscans, to the north, provided a model for trade and urban luxury. Early on, the Romans showed a trade their goods? talent for borrowing and improving upon the skills and concepts of other cultures. The Kingdom of Rome grew rapidly from a trading town to a prosperous city between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE. 12. From whom did the Romans borrow many of their ideas about literacy, religion, and Though Rome owed its prosperity to trade in the early years, it was war which would make the city a architecture? powerful force in the ancient world. The wars with the North African city of Carthage (known as the Punic Wars, 264-146 BCE) consolidated Rome's power and helped the city grow in wealth and prestige. Rome and Carthage were rivals in trade in the Western Mediterranean and, with Carthage defeated, 13. What allowed Rome to be a powerful Rome held almost absolute dominance over the region. As the Republic of Rome grew in power and force in the ancient world? prestige, the city of Rome began to suffer from the effects of corruption, greed and the over-reliance on foreign slave labor. Gangs of unemployed Romans, put out of work by the influx of slaves brought in through territorial conquests, hired themselves out as thugs to do the bidding of whatever wealthy 14. What effect did the Punic Wars have on Senator would pay them. The wealthy of the city, the Patricians, became ever richer at the Rome’s dominance over other ? expense of the working lower class, the Plebeians. In the BCE, the Gracchi brothers, and Gaius, two Roman , lead a movement for land reform and political reform in general. Though the brothers were both killed in this cause, their efforts did spur reforms. 15. How did the Punic Wars impact the . plebeians?

16. How did the Punic Wars impact the patricians? What were the social and political characteristics of Rome? • Objective: Describe the social and political characteristics of Rome.

Who had power in Rome?

17. What distinguished patricians from plebeians in Roman society?

18. Where did most of the slaves in Rome come from?

Women in Rome 19. Could Roman slaves get out of slavery? If so, how? • considered citizens, but not allowed to vote • took the social statues of their father or husband • more rights for women of higher classes than lower classes

20. Explain the status of women in Roman society.

Magistrates Government workers who put laws and policies into practices

Magistrates Government workers who put laws and policies into Tribunes (10) practices Representatives of the plebeians who were elected to office by other plebeians. At first (2) had little power, but became more powerful Two men who shared power in the republic and with ability to veto laws that were unfavorable managed the army and passed laws. They served one for Plebeians. Tribunes were a check on the power of the Senate and Consuls. Senate (300) year terms and could veto each other. Elected from the

Made up of landowning men from the patrician class. Check box by Katie Westbrook is published on the patrician class (plebeians were later allowed to serve in the Senate) who gave “advice” in Noun Project under the CC BY 3.0 US license. the form of suggested laws and politics to the Consuls and other members of the government. They had a lot of power and most Praetors (8) *Though magistrates were originally only for men of their “advice” was put into practice. One Judges who administered laws; elected from the from the patrician class, in the later republic could become a senator if they were appointed patrician class plebeians were allowed to be elected to these after serving as a magistrate. positions, even the position of .

C Julius Caesar by giacomo palamara is published on the Noun Project under the CC BY 3.0 US license. Aediles (16) Managed public buildings, food supply and games; elected from the patrician class

Quaestors(20) Managed financial matters Elected from the patrician class

21. Based on the chart, what was the purpose of having magistrates? Who could become a magistrate?

22.What powers did the Consuls have?

23. What role did the Senate play in the Roman Republic? Who could be a Senator? 24. What role did the Tribunes have in the Roman Republic? Who could be a ? 25. Identify two checks on power in the Roman Republic.

Day 28: Essential Question: How did Rome gain, maintain, and consolidate power? Punic Wars: Gain, Maintain, and Consolidating Power Through War

➡ Directions: Examine the map below and answer the questions that follow. 2. According to the map to your left, which regions of the Mediterranean area did Rome and its allies control?

Think Like a 3. Both Carthage and Rome were interested in controlling the Mediterranean region. Why would both societies be interested Geographer in this region?

4. What problems might arise between Carthage and Rome? Why?

Predict Source: http://www.ancient.eu/uploads/images/237.png?v=1431031322

1. According to the map above, which regions of the Mediterranean area did the Carthaginian Empire control?

5. What was the relationship between the Carthaginians and Romans before 260 BCE? What were the Punic Wars?

The Punic Wars were a series of conflicts fought between the forces of ancient Carthage and

Rome between 264 BCE and 146 BCE. Carthage grew from a small port to the richest and most

Contextualize powerful city in the Mediterranean region before 260 BCE. Punic had a powerful navy, an army and, through , 6. How might the relationship tariffs, and trade, enough wealth to do it pleased. Through a treaty with the small city of Rome, the Carthaginians between Rome and Carthage lead to blocked Roman trade in the Western Mediterranean. Unlike Carthage, Rome had no navy to defend itself. Roman a war? traders caught in Carthaginian waters were drowned and their taken. Predict

As long as Rome remained the little city of trade by the Tiber River, Carthage reigned supreme. The island of Sicily would be the reason for growing Roman resentment of the Carthaginians. Sicily was controlled partly by Carthaginian and partly by the Romans. In 264 BCE, Rome and Carthage declared war on each other for the control of Sicily.

Although Rome had no navy and knew nothing of sea battles, they swiftly built and equipped 330 ships. Rome was 7. Why did Sicily cause conflict between Rome and more familiar with fighting land battles so they constructed a moveable gangplank which could be attached to an Carthage? enemy’s ship and held in place with hooks. By immobilizing the other ship, and attaching it to their own, the Romans could manipulate a sea engagement through the strategies of a land battle. Even so, they lacked the expertise at sea of the Carthaginians and, more importantly, were lacking a general with the skill of the Carthaginian Hamilcar . 8. Why did Carthage and Rome declare war on one Hamilcar was surnamed Barca (meaning `lightning’) because of his speed in attacking anywhere and the suddenness another in 264 BCE? of the action. He struck without warning up and down the coast of Italy destroying Roman outposts and cutting supply lines. Source: Adapted from http://www.ancient.eu/Punic_Wars/ 9. What disadvantage did Rome have when fighting the Carthaginians? What innovation did they create to overcome this disadvantage?

10. What advantages did the Carthaginians have?

Appian, The Destruction of Carthage The Roman Empire fought three wars against the Carthaginian Empire in North Africa, called the Punic Wars. The last war ended with the destruction of Carthage in 146 BCE. Appian, who lived in the second century CE., wrote a vivid description of the destruction of the African city led by Scipio. An excerpt from that description is below.

After penetrating into the city [Carthage], Scipio [the Roman commander] turned his attention to the citadel, its strongest point, 2a. If you were a Roman citizen reading this description where many people had taken refuge. Three leading from the marketplace to the citadel were lined on both sides with six how might you feel? Why? story houses, from which the Romans were pelted. They seized the first houses and used them as a base for attacking the next. From their roofs they made bridges of planks and beams to cross over to the next. While one battle was in progress on the roofs another was fought, against all comers, in the narrow below.

Everywhere there was groaning and wailing and shouting and agony of every description. Some Carthaginians were killed out of 2b. If you were an emperor thinking about going to war hand, some flung down alive from the roofs to the pavement, and of these some were caught on upright or ambers or against Rome, how might you feel about this …. description? Why?

Others were seen still living, especially old men, women, and young children who had hidden in the inmost corners of the houses, some of them wounded, some more or less burned, and uttering pitiful cries. Still others thrust out and falling from such a height with the stones, timbers, and fire, were torn asunder in all shapes of horror, crushed and mangled. 2c. Based on Appian’s description of the destruction of

Carthage, describe one way the Romans increased and Nor was this the end of their miseries, for the street cleaners, who were removing the rubbish with axes, mattocks, and forks, and consolidated their power. making the roads passable, tossed with the dead and the living together into holes in the ground….

Six days and nights were consumed in this kind of fighting, the soldiers. Soldiers worked in shifts to ensure that that they might not be worn out with toil, slaughter, lack of sleep, and these horrid sights.

The city of Carthage which had flourished for seven hundred years from its foundation, which had held broad dominion over lands 2d. Scipio, the Roman commander, reflects on the and islands and seas, which had vied with the greatest of empires in its wealth of arms and ships and elephants and money, which history of great cities and empires. In your own words, had manifested extraordinary courage by resisting a strong enemy and famine for three years after its ships had been taken—this what does he state? Can you think of any other city was now being utterly blotted out and destroyed. As Scipio looked on he is said to have wept and openly to have lamented the examples to support his claim? enemy’s fate. For a long while he remained sunk in thought, reflecting that the fortunes of all cities and peoples and empires, like of those of individuals, must change. Troy had fallen, once so prosperous a city; the empires of the Assyrians, and the , and the Persians after them, had fallen, and so, lately, the Macedonian empire, the most brilliant of them all. Source: Appian, The Destruction of Carthage. Source: http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_punic_27.html

Roman Roads: Gain, Maintain, and Consolidating Power Through Efficient Transportation Purposes and Kinds of Roads

Why did the Romans build roads? The Romans considered a well-organized and efficient transportation system a basic element of proper administration; i.e. an indispensable element in creating and maintaining the Roman state. The earliest highways or main roads were constructed for the use of the military, and their economic benefit for civilians was a later byproduct and not the main reason for their creation. The military nature of the roads continued to be essential as Romans expanded into territory outside Italy. In the province of Arabia Petraea (which included what is now ), the movement of troops and ease of communication for the army and Roman administration were the primary reasons for construction of the Via Nova, one of the many viae militares or military roads built in conquered provinces. However, smaller, shorter, and less well-constructed local roads (actus) or tracks (callis) also increased in territory after it was brought under Roman control. Nevertheless, the main public highways (viae publicae) normally began as military roads and only gradually evolved into civilian conduits [passageways].

The map above shows the Roman road system in one section of the empire located in modern day Spain.

Based on and the text above, describe how roads helped Rome increase and consolidate its power.

Day 29 Rome’s Golden Age

E.Q.’s What led to the Roman Golden Age, Pax Romana? How did Pax Romana impact Rome, other regions, and later periods in history?

➡ Directions: Examine the timeline, text, and images below, then answer the questions below.

The of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator, in 44 BC led to two of civil war as rival leaders tried to take control of Rome. Eventually, Caesar’s great nephew, , defeated his rivals and united Roman-controlled lands as the Roman Empire. He expanded Rome’s borders to cover most of Europe and the areas of Asia and North Africa surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

Augustus’ rule (27 BCE- 14 CE) started a two-hundred year long Golden Age known as Pax Romana. Pax Romana means “Roman Peace” in Latin and is used to identify the years 27 BCE- 180 CE during which there were fewer wars than in any other period in Rome’s history.

Statue of Augustus, CE. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg

The empire strengthened its central government, consolidated its power, and created a stable condition in which trade and communication flourished. The empire protected and governed individual provinces, permitting each to make and administer its own laws while accepting Roman taxation and military control. Through state sponsorship, Romans made great achievements in architecture, , and the arts.

Who united Rome after the What does Pax Romana mean Why is Pax Romana considered death of Julius Caesar? in Latin? a golden age?

The Roman Empire at its height, during Pax Romana. Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD.png

Gallery Walk Instructions:

Exhibit A: Roman Arches and

Roman architecture continued the legacy left by the earlier architects of the Greek world. For example, the Romans used Greek column styles and built their grandest projects from marble. However, the Romans were also great innovators and they quickly adopted new construction techniques, used new materials, and uniquely combined existing techniques with creative design to produce a whole range of new architectural structures such as the and the arch. Many of these innovations were a response to the changing practical needs of Roman society, and these projects were all backed by the government which funded, organized, and spread them around the Roman world, guaranteeing their permanence so that many of these great edifices survive to the .

The Arch The Pantheon

The Segovia Aqueduct in modern-day Spain is a well-preserved example of how Roman used arches to span long distances and support a great amount of weight on a structure.

Exhibit B: Roman Aqueducts

These sometimes massive structures, with single, double, or triple tiers of arches, were designed to carry fresh water to urban centres from sources sometimes many kilometres away. The earliest in Rome was the Aqua (312 BCE), but the most impressive example is undoubtedly the Pont du Gard near Nimes (c. 14 CE). Romans used the arch to span rivers and ravines. Source: Adapted from “Roman Architecture.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Architecture/

Exhibit C: The

Roman and amphitheaters were inspired by the Greek versions. The Romans added a highly decorative stage building (scaenae frons) which incorporated different levels of columns, projections, pediments, and statues. Theatres also display the Roman passion for enclosing spaces, especially as they were often (partially or completely) roofed in or employed canvas awnings.

.

The fully enclosed amphitheatre was a particular favorite of the Romans. The Colosseum is the largest and most famous, and it is a typical example copied throughout the empire: a highly decorative exterior, seats set over a network of barrel vaults, and underground rooms below the arena floor to hide people, animals and props until they were needed in the spectacles. Source: “Roman Architecture.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Architecture/

Exhibit D: Roman Roads

Road in Pompey, Map of Roman roadin modern-day Spain and

Exhibit E: Roman

Roman sculpture, with artists from across a huge empire and changing public tastes over centuries, is above all else, remarkable for its sheer variety and eclectic mix. The art form blended the idealised of earlier Classical Greek sculpture with a greater aspiration for realism and absorbed artistic preferences and styles from the East to create images in stone and bronze which rank among the finest works from antiquity [the Classical Era]. Aside from their own unique contribution, Roman sculptors have also, with their popular copies of earlier Greek masterpieces, preserved invaluable works for the which would have otherwise been completely lost to world art. Source: “Roman Sculpture.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Sculpture/

The Dying , sculpted from marble, is one of the best- Bronze statue of , , erected ca. 175 CE. known and most important works from Rome. The image Source: above is a replica of one of the created to https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Statua_Marco_Aurelio_Musei_Capitolini_Fronte2.JPG commemorate the victories over the Galatians in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dying_gaul.jpg

Exhibit F: Roman Mosaics

Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials.

Mosaics have been found in Roman dwellings from Britain to Dura-Europos. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman across north Africa, in places such as Carthage, and can still be seen in the extensive collection in Bardo Museum in Tunis, . The most famous mosaics of the Roman world were created in Africa and in Syria, the two richest provinces of the Roman Empire. Many Roman mosaics are found in Tunisian museums, most of which date from the second to the seventh century CE. Source: “Mosaic.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Mosaic/

A section of the Alexander Mosaic, a much larger Roman work depicting a battle involving the Greek general Alexander the Great created in around 100 BCE. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BattleofIssus333BC-mosaic-detail1.jpg

Exhibit G: Literature

The two most well known Roman authors were Virgil and . Their works, though completed before Pax Romana, were widely read during the golden age.

Virgil (70 BCE- 19 BCE) was regarded by the Romans as their greatest poet, an estimation that subsequent generations have upheld. His fame rests chiefly upon the Aeneid, which tells the story of Rome’s legendary founder and proclaims the Roman mission to civilize the world under divine guidance. His reputation as a poet endures not only for the music and diction of his verse and for his skill in constructing an intricate work on the grand scale, but also because he embodied in his poetry aspects of experience and behavior that transcend history.

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 BCE- 43 BCE) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer who vainly tried to uphold republican principles in the final civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic. His include books of , speeches, philosophical and political treatises, and letters.

Exhibit H: Roman Medicine

Roman medicine was greatly influenced by earlier Greek medical practice and literature but also made its own unique contribution to the history of medicine through the work of such famous experts like . Whilst there were professional doctors attached to the Roman army, for the rest of the population medicine remained a private affair. Nevertheless, many large Roman had their own medical specialist amongst their staff and with the spread of literature on the topic, access to medical knowledge became ever wider, treatments became more well known, and surgery became more sophisticated.

Galen (131-201) was a who learned about anatomy through the dissection of apes and , clinical observation, and thorough examination of patient and symptoms. Galen was forbidden by to dissect human corpses, so his knowledge was limited to ‘Muscles Man', A drawing based on Galen’s books what he could learn from other animals and outward examinations of the bodies of dead about anatomy but drawn by someone else. and hanged criminals. Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:'Muscles_Man',_Pseudo- Galen,_Anathomia;_WMS_290_Wellcome_L0034577.jpg Sources: “Roman Medicine.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Medicine/; http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9712/#q=galen; http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/shp/ancient/romanknowledgerev1.shtml

Directions: As you learn about each of the golden ages listed below, fill in the graphic organizer with notes about their achievements of each civilization.

ACHIEVEMENTS and INNOVATIONS Golden Age Literature, Music, and , , and Prosperity and Stability Visual Arts and Architecture Philosophy Technology

Rome (27 BCE- 180 CE) “Pax Romana”

Day 30: How did Christianity impact the lives of living in the Roman Empire? Part 1 • Describe how the treatment of Christians in the Roman Empire changed over time.

30 CE Crucifixion of

A generation after the death of Christ, Christianity had reached Rome in the form of a sect of popular among the city's poor and destitute. Members of this religious sect spoke of the coming of a new kingdom and a new king. These views provoked suspicion among the Jewish who rejected the group and fear among the Roman authorities who perceived these sentiments as a threat to the Empire. 1. After the death of Jesus, how did the Jewish authority perceive the 2. After the death of Jesus, how did the Roman empire perceive the followers of Jesus? Why? followers of Jesus? Why?

64 Rome Fire: In the summer of 64 CE, Rome suffered a terrible fire that burned for six days and seven nights consuming almost three quarters of the city. CE , the emperor of Rome at the time, scapegoated Christians for the fire. The emperor ordered the arrest of members of the sect. As many of the religious sect that could be found were rounded up and put to death and tortured for the amusement of the citizens of Rome. Some were torn apart by dogs, others burnt alive as human torches. Image Source: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/09/emperor-nero/draper-text

3. How did Nero treat the Christians after the fire of 64 CE? Why 4. What does this treatment reveal about the Roman Empire’s feelings was this done publicly? towards followers of Jesus?

60s- A Christian martyr is a person who was killed for following Christianity, through stoning, crucifixion, burning at the stake or other forms of torture and 300s capital punishment. The word "martyr" comes from the Greek word mártys, which means "witness." This meant that a Christian martyr was a witness for CE their religious belief or testified that they were Christian. They endured suffering and/or death for their beliefs. Early Christians martyrs were venerated, or regarded with great respect, and seen as both powerful leaders and examples. Martyrs are often viewed as heroes for their willingness to die for their beliefs.

5. What is a martyr? 6. How were martyrs viewed by other Christians? Why?

➡ Directions: Examine the image below, then fill out the chart with what you see, think and wonder about the treatment of Christians.

Christian Dirce (Henryk Siemiradzk)i shows the punishment of a Roman woman who had converted to Christianity(1897) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Martyrs_of_the_Church_of_Rome#/media/File:Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg

See Think Wonder List three things you see in the image Based on your observations, how do you think Christians Write two questions you have about the image above. were treated? above.

➡ Directions: Examine the image below, then fill out the chart with what you see, think and wonder about the treatment of Christians.

Stephen was an early Christian martyr who is remembered on December 26. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Stephen%27s_Day Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Martyrs_of_the_Church_of_Rome#/media/File:Siemiradzki_Christian_Dirce.jpg

See Think Wonder List three things you see in Based on your observations, how do you Write two questions you have about the image above. the image above. think Christians were treated?

How did martyrdom impact the growth of the Christian Church? Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (Father Tertullian) (155-240 CE) was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the of Africa. Apologeticus, published around 197 CE, is Tertullian's most famous work where he demanded legal toleration and that Christians be treated as all other sects of the Roman Empire. Below is an excerpt from Chapter 50 of Apologeticus.

Direction: Read the excerpt below and respond to the questions.

Nor does your [Roman] cruelty, however exquisite, [help] you; it is rather a temptation to us. The oftener we are mown [cut] down by you, the more in number we grow; the blood of Christians is [the] seed [of the Church]. [...] On this account it is that we return thanks on the very spot for your sentences. As the divine and human are ever opposed to each other, when we are condemned by you, we are acquitted by the Highest. Source: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.iii.l.html, https://books.google.com/books?id=NLhdW4V94zwC

7. What does the sentence, “the blood of Christians is [the] seed [of the Church]” mean?

8. According to this excerpt from Tertullianus, how does the killing of Christians impact the growth of the Church?

Day 30 Part 2 Fall of the Roman Empire

Essential Question: How and why did the Roman Empire lose power

Directions: Analyze the documents and answer the short-answer questions that follow each document in the space provided Document Based Questions:

… By the middle of the second century Italy [within the Roman Empire] was in a state of decline. By the time of , at 1a According to Louis C. West, what were two economic problems the opening of the fourth century, decay was apparent throughout the empire. Commerce [business] had largely disappeared the Roman Empire faced during its period of decline? [2] owing to the lack of customers, to on the seas, and to insecurity of the roads on land.

Generally speaking, purchasing power [the ability to buy things] at that time was confined to the public officials, to the army officers, and to the great landowners. Trade in the everyday objects of daily use had all but disappeared, but trade in luxuries prospered.

[T]he old traders [were] replaced by the traveling eastern [...] Foreign trade was sharply curtailed. Source: Louis C. West, “The Economic Collapse of the Roman Empire,” The Classical Journal, November 1932 from the NYS Global History and Geography Exam, June, 2015.

2a According to the chart, what were the two most common reasons for changes of leadership during the third century? [2]

Emperor Reign Cause of Death Emperor Reign Cause of Death

Maximinus 235-38 Assassination 268- Plague CE Gothicus 70

Gordian I & II (co- 238 ; Killed in Quintillus 270 Assassination or rulers) Battle Suicide

Balbinus & Pupienus 238 Assassination 270- Assassination 75 Gordian III 238-44 Possible Assassination Tacticus 275- Possible 76 Assassination 244-49 Killed in Battle Florianus 276 Assassination Decius 249-51 Killed in Battle 276- Assassination Hostilian 251 Possible Plague 82

Gallus 251-53 Assassination Carus 282- Assassination 83 Aemilianus 253 Assassination Numerian 283- Possible & 253-60 Assassination 84 Assassination

Carinus 283- Killed in Battle 85

Source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/roru/hd_roru.htm, http://www.livius.org/articles/misc/list-of- roman-emperors/list-of-roman-emperors-3/

History of Rome from Constantine to Valens, by (380 CE) 3a. According to Marcellinus, who were the ? [1] The Huns were a nomadic people from who invaded the Roman Empire from 370-451 CE. Ammianus Marcellinus was a Roman who wrote about the Hun invasion.

The Huns exceed any definition of savagery. They have compact, sturdy limbs and thick necks...Although they have the shape [...] of human beings, they are so wild in their way of life that they have no need of fire or pleasant tasting

3b. According to Marcellinus, what impact did the Huns have on those who

lived around them? [1] , but eat the roots of uncultivated plants and half-raw flesh of all sorts of animals [...] Huns are never sheltered by buildings, but . . . roam freely in the mountains and , learning from their earliest childhood to endure freezing cold, hunger, and thirst. . . Fired with an overwhelming desire for seizing the property of others, these swift- moving, and ungovernable people make their destructive way amid the pillage and slaughter of those who live around them.

Priscus at the Court of Attila [King of the Huns], by Priscus (449 CE) According to Priscus’ account, what are three reasons why the Greek The Greek writer Priscus visited the Huns and spoke with a Greek merchant who was captured by the merchant disliked the Roman Empire? [3] Huns. Below is a description of the conversation.

He [The Greek merchant] considered his new life [...] better than his old life among the Romans, and the reasons he gave were as follows: ...the condition of the subjects [in Rome] in time of peace is far more grievous than the evils of war, for the the [are] very severe, and unprincipled men inflict injuries on others, because the laws are practically not valid against all classes. A transgressor who belongs to the wealthy classes is not punished for his injustice, while a poor man, who does not understand business, undergoes the legal penalty [...] The of the misery is to have to pay in order to obtain justice. For no one will give a court to the injured man unless he pay a sum of money to the judge and the judge's clerks.”

Source: http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/source/priscus1.asp

Roman Empire A.D. 350-476 5a Based on the information shown on this map, state one problem that helped bring about the decline of the Roman Empire. [1]

Source: The Nystrom Atlas of World History, Herff Jones Education Division (adapted) from the NYS Global History and Geography Regents Exam,

Document 6a 6. According to Vegetius, what is one military problem experienced by the Roman empire? [1 A Roman soldier being dismissed or discharged, etching by William Hogart (1725)

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Roman_soldier_being_dismissed_or_discharged_Wellcome_L0034355.jpg

Document 6b

Concerning Military Matters, by Vegetius (c. 450 CE) Concerning Military Matters was written by Latin writer Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus about Roman warfare and military principles as a presentation of methods and practices in use during the height of Rome's power.

… [N]egligence and sloth [...] introduced a total relaxation of discipline [and] the soldiers began to think their armor too heavy, as they seldom put it on [...] In consequence of this, our troops in their engagements with the were often overwhelmed with their showers of arrows [...] Troops, defenseless and exposed to all the weapons of the enemy, are more disposed to fly than fight. What can be expected from a foot-archer without [armor], who cannot hold at once his bow and shield; or from the ensigns whose bodies are naked, and who cannot at the same time carry a shield and the colors? [...] But it seems these very men, who cannot support the weight of the ancient armor, think nothing of exposing themselves without defense to wounds and death, or, which is worse, to the shame of being made prisoners, or of betraying their country by flight; and thus to avoid an inconsiderable share of exercise and fatigue, suffer themselves ignominiously to be cut in pieces.

Source: http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/index.php#b100

Document 7 7a According to Gibbons, what impact did Christianity have on the Roman Empire? [1] The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbons (1789) Early in Pax Romana, a new religion called Christianity arose in the Roman empire. At first, Christianity was not accepted. Christians were persecuted and killed. "However, throughout the and CE, Christianity became a major religion in the Roman Empire. In 313, emperors Constantine and Licinius created the of and this law ended persecution of Christians and encouraged tolerance of Christianity. In 380, Emperor issued the , declaring Nicene Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire.

Christianity had some influence on the decline and fall of the Roman empire. The successfully preached the doctrines of patience and pusillanimity [cowardliness]; the active virtues of society were discouraged; and the last remains of the military spirit were buried in the cloister [where nuns live]; a large portion of public and private wealth was consecrated to the [...] the church, and even the state, were distracted by religious factions, whose conflicts were sometimes bloody [...]; the attention of the emperors was diverted from camps to [assembly of church officials].

Source: http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gibbon-fall.html

Assignment: Identify two political, economic, and/or social factors that led to the fall of the Roman Empire ad for each:

• Describe how the factor affected Roman society • Explain how the factor contributed to the empire’s decline