OIL A LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ITS HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Lee Stoetzel,Oil,2000,Oil on paper mounted to aluminum,20 x 30 inches tCouresy ofthe artist and Mixed Greens (www.mixedgreens.com) Edited by Paul R. Epstein and Jesse Selber Contributors Santiago Borasin, Susannah Foster, Kebba Jobarteh, Nathaniel Link, Jose Miranda, Elise Pomeranse, Jennifer Rabke-Verani, David Reyes, Jesse Selber,Samir Sodha, Pratikshe Somaia Published By The Center for Health and the Global Environment Harvard Medical School March 2002 333 Longwood Ave Suite 640 Boston, Mass 02115 March 2002 Ph: 617 432 0493 Fx: 617 432 2595 Em: [email protected] www.med.harvard.edu/chge/oil.html Edited by Paul R. Epstein1 and Jesse Selber 2 An oiled penguin walks the beach after a Contributors South African oil spill Santiago Borasin,2 Susannah Foster,3 Reviewers Kebba Jobarteh,2 Nathaniel Link,3 Jose Miranda,2 Elise Pomeranse,2 Jennifer Rabke- Joanna Burger,Ph.D. Verani,2 David Reyes,4 Distinguished Professor Jesse Selber,2 Samir Sodha,2 Pratikshe Somaia2 Nelson Biological Laboratory Rutgers University 1. Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School David Jessup,D.V.M. 2. Harvard School of Public Health graduates Wildlife Veterinarian 3. Center for Health and the Global Wildlife Health Center Environment intern University of California, Davis 4. The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University graduate Flo Tseng,D.V.M. student Assistant Professor Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine Production Coordinator Center for Conservation Medicine Kathleen Frith, M.S.1 Grafton, MA Definitions Richard Clapp,D.Sc. VOCs:Volatile Organic PM-10s - Particulate matter with Associate Professor Compounds a diameter of 10 microns or less Dept. of Environmental Health NOxs - Oxides of Nitrogen PM-2.5s - Particulate matter SOxs - Oxides of Sulfur with a diameter of 2.5 microns Boston University School of Public Health H2S - Hydrogen Sulfide or less CO - Carbon Monoxide Pb – Lead CO2 – Carbon Dioxide PAHs - Polycyclic Aromatic 1 micron = 1 millionth Hydrocarbons (10-6) of a meter Table Of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Page 4 Part 2. CONSUMPTION AND Figure 1: Effcts of Oil Recovery Page 6 COMBUSTION Page 30 by Stage Figure 2:Global Distribution of Page 7 V. HEALTH EFFECTS OF GASOLINE Proven Oil Reserves at the AND GASOLINE ADDITIVES Page 30 end of 2000 A. Exposures to gasoline Page 30 Figure 3: Number of Global Oil B.Acute toxicities Page 31 Drilling Sites Page 7 C. Chronic toxicities Page 32 PART 1: RECOVERY OF OIL VI.AIR POLLUTION Page 35 A.The pollutants Page 35 I. EXPLORATION,DRILLING B. Environmental impact Page 36 AND EXTRACTION Page 8 C. Human health impacts Page 36 A. Scope Page 8 Figure 5:Average Monthly Asthma Page 37 B.Technical process Page 8 Compared with PM-10 C. Environmental impacts Page 9 Figure 6:Age and Gender-adjusted Page 39 D. Human health impacts Page 12 Asthma Hospitalization E. Spills,explosions, fires and blowouts Page 14 å Case studies: VII.ACID RAIN Page 40 Nigeria Page 12 A.Terrestrial impacts Page 40 Ecuador Page 15 B.Aquatic impacts Page 41 Mexico Page 16 C.The recovery process Page 41 F. Human rights and environmental legal Implications Page 16 VIII. GREENHOUSE GASES Page 43 G. Chapter summary Page 17 A. Introduction Page 43 B.The greenhouse effect Page 43 II. POPULATION DISPLACEMENTS Figure 7:The Greenhouse Effect Page 43 AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE Page 18 Figure 8: Global Warming Potentials Page 45 å Case study:The Peruvian Amazon Page 18 Over 100 Years • Other implications Page 19 C. Emissions Page 45 D.The changing climate Page 46 III.TRANSPORT Figure 9: Global Temperature Changes Page 46 A. Introduction Page 20 E. Health impacts Page 47 B.Oil spills Page 20 Figure 4:The Largest Oil Spills Page 21 IX. OIL AND MACROECONOMIC in History DEVELOPMENT Page 51 C. Environmental impacts of oil spills Page 22 Oil and security Page 51 å Case study: Nigeria revisited Page 24 Environmental justice Page 51 IV. REFINING Page 27 X.CONCLUSIONS Page 52 A. Environmental pollution Page 27 B. Chronic occupational hazards Page 27 APPENDIX: CALIFORNIA Page 54 C.Accident potential Page 29 WILDLIFE STATISTICS FOR OIL SPILLS D. Environmental protection Page 29 REFERENCES Page 62 Introduction When significant deposits of oil were discovered in the 19th Century, this fossil fuel appeared to offer a limitless source of energy to drive development. While oil and the energy it supplies provide multi- ple benefits to human society, every stage in the life cycle from exploration to use can have harmful effects on our health and the environment. This re p o rt examines the health and envi ro n m e n t a l impacts of oil exploration, drilling, extraction, trans- port, refining and combustion. Drilling and extraction carry acute and View of an oil rig from a helicopter chronic hazards, including fires and blowouts, occu- pational injury and disease, and can lead to long- has impacts on terre s t r i a l , aquatic and marine term harm to plant and animal communities. Oil coastal systems. Finally, the aggregate of gas and spills and leaks along coastlines pose risks for particulate emissions from burning oil have begun marine life and fisheries, and can threaten the liveli- to alter the world’s climate system; with implica- hoods of human communities. Refining exposes tions for human health, agricultural productivity, workers and wildlife to petroleum, its by-products vulnerable ecosystems and societal infrastructure. and the chemicals used in the refining process. At This report, while not exhaustive, is intend- the pump, gasoline can be both toxic and carcino- ed to provide a comprehensive framework for eval- genic. uating the true costs of our use of oil.The authors Refining and combustion result in air pollu- hope it will serve as a resource for further study. tion and acid rain. Pollutant chemicals can be toxic to humans, other animals and plants, while acid rain Key Points Oil Extraction approximately 32 million gallons of oil spilled worldwide into • Each year, 0.75-1.8 billion gallons of crude oil are uninten- marine and inland environments as a result of 257 transport tionally released into the environment. incidents that year. • Occupationally-related fatalities among workers in the oil • While large tanker accidents attract the most attention, and gas extraction process are higher than deaths for work- the cumulative effect of spills and chronic leaks cause the ers from all other U.S.industries combined. greatest environmental damage and harm to wildlife commu- • Oil well workers risk injury and chronic disease from nities. exposure to chemicals such as cadmium, arsenic, cyanide, • Many leaks and spills occur in developing nations where PAHs and lead. safety regulations for pipelines and oil rigs are inadequately • Gulf Coast offshore oil rigs contaminate sediments, fish enforced. and fish consumers with mercury at levels far exceeding EPA • Coastal marine and human communities in developed standards. nations also experience significant impacts from oil spills and • Spills,explosions,fires and blowouts have multiple environ- leaks. mental and public health impacts. • Marine mammals are affected by the oiling of their fur and • Operational discharges of water, drill cuttings and mud skin, and through consumption of oil-contaminated foods have chronic effects on benthic (bottom-dwelling) marine (e.g., mussels),or via inhalation of fumes that have liver, kidney communities,mammals,birds and humans. and central nervous system toxicity. • Inadequately regulated drilling of oil has harmed sensitive • The marine mammals most commonly affected include: ecosystems in several developing countries. seals, sea otters,walruses, sea lions and whales; manatees and dugongs (in tropical waters); and polar bears in the Arctic. Oil Transport (Detailed in appendix of report.) • Spills and leaks from the transport of petroleum and • Sea otters are particularly vulnerable as they feed near the petroleum by-products occur from the point of extraction to surface, have little blubber and depend upon an intact fur coat refineries and to the sites of consumption. to maintain their body temperature. • According to the Oil Spill Intelligence Report, 1999, 4 Oil Refining studies demonstrate that even allowable levels of many of the • Oil, by-products and chemicals used in the refining process pollutants result in significant negative health effects. cause chemical, thermal,and noise pollution. • Oil refining affects the health and safety of refinery work- Combustion:Acid Rain ers through accidents and from chronic illness (e.g.,leukemia) • Acids formed from oxides of nitrogen (NOxs) and sulfur associated with exposure to petroleum and its by-products (SOxs) acidify all forms of precipitation. (e.g.,benzene). • The anticipated recovery of acidified soils appears to be a • Petroleum refineries present major health hazards for longer, more protracted process than originally projected, as human communities living near refineries, and for marine and the depletion of minerals (calcium and magnesium) persists terrestrial ecosystems where they are situated. even after correction of soil acidity. • Regulations on labor, safety, emission standards and envi- • Calcium and magnesium deficiencies in soils harm plants ronmental protection are often inadequate in developing and animals. nations and in poor communities in developed nations. • Acidification leaches lead,copper and aluminum into drink- ing water. Gasoline • NOxs from oil combustion (along with sewage and fertiliz- • Gasoline and many of its additives can lead to acute and er runoff) cause eutrophication of lakes, estuaries and marine chronic toxicity, and is associated with some types of cancer. coasts. • Groups at high risk for exposure to gasoline and its addi- • Eutrophication (excessive nitrogen and phosphorus) con- tives include: employees in the distribution, storage and tributes to harmful algal blooms in inland waters and coastal pumping of gasoline;people living near refineries, transfer and "red tides" that contaminate seafood, and leads to biologically storage facilities,and service stations;automobile drivers who unproductive "dead zones".