1

THE HEROON OF ODYSSEUS IN RECONSIDERED

Abstract* School of , a site which The aim of this paper is to reconsider “seems to be a promising the view expressed by the late Prof. candidate”2 Αt the same time H.G.Buchholz in the honorary volume he maintained that the admittedly Δώρον for Prof. S.Iakovidis in 2009, that the Heroon of Odysseus or rare Bronze Age finds (Early Oδυσσείον is situated at the site of the Helladic and Middle Helladic School of Homer in North Ithaca. My pottery) in this area, “are no suggestion is, however, based on argument in favour of Homer!” earlier archaeological data (of the It must be stressed that the aim British School at Athens from the of this paper is not to 1930’s ) and my recent excavations on the island (1994-2011),is that this underestimate in any way the heroon was not at this place but most valuable work and great probably near the well-known cave at contribution to Aegean Polis. At the site of the School of archaeology of the eminent Homer , where a prehistoric acropolis, scholar and my close friend architectural remains and a Mycenaean Buchholz nor to deny the underground spring and workshops were recognized , I suggest that it was possibility that his hypothesis and the place of the Homeric palace of theory may be to some extent Odysseus. right, but to reconsider his It was Professor H.- suggestion in the light of and on G.Buchholz who published in the basis of the archaeological 2009 a paper in the honorary data already known to him from volume “Δώρον» for Professor the pre-War British excavations S.Iakοvidis 1 suggesting that the and those deriving from our Heroon of Odysseus recent excavation project in the (Οδυσσείον), the existence of island of Ithaca (Pl.. 1a) and which is known only from an especially at the site of the inscription of the Hellenistic School of Homer. It is worth period (208 B.C.) cannot have noting that some of the most been the cave on the shore at the important came to light during Polis bay (Louizos cave), but the three last digging seasons most probably at the site of the (2009-2011) and therefore after Buchholz’s paper was written

* Preliminary version of this paper was Before entering into the main presented at the 2nd Religious Seminar at the discussion, it seems advisable to Swedish Archaeological Institute in November remind ourselves that there is a 2015 in Athens. I thank the organizer of the seminar Dr Jenny Wallensten , Assistant general agreement about the use Director of the Institute, for her kind invitation of the Polis cave as a sanctuary, to this Seminar and all the participants for their constractive discussion and comments. Also, I warmly thank my friend Dr. C.MacDonald for reading and improving my English text. 2 Buchholz 2009,133; See also, Heurtley 1935, 1 Buchholz 2009, 127-142 410 n. 1

2 a cult place for offerings3 The Benton produced a rich stratified problem is the location and deposit of pottery and votive identification of the Heroon of offerings ranging from the Odysseus or Odysseion Most Bronze Age to the 1st century scholars suggest that most A.D.. Of exceptional interest and probably was at the sea-shore importance are Late Mycenaean sanctuary at Polis bay (Pl.. 1b-c) pottery of local style (Fig. 2a), connected with performances the well-known fragment of a called Οδύσσεια the only terracotta mask of the 1st or 2nd dissidents being so far Rigsby “ it century B.C., inscribed ΕΥΧΉΝ was certainly not the cave at ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙ, (Pl.. 2b)showing an Polis”4 and more recently association with Odysseus, and Buchholz, whose theory that it the most remarkable of all the lay at the site of School of Homer votive objects, the twelve bronze has some weaknesses. tripods (Pl.. 2c-d) of the 9th-8th What I intend to do is to cent. B.C. , their number, present briefly the main points of together with one found the available archaeological previously by Louizos, evidence first from the Polis corresponding to those given to cave and second from the Odysseus by Alkinoos and his School of Homer. Before fellow-rulers (Od. Θ 387ff.) considering the evidence of the For the Polis cave used as a Polis cave a brief description of it sanctuary and its probable is desirable. The cave, known as identification with the Heroon of “Cave of the Tripods”, or “cave Odysseus-Οδυσσείον , it is worth of the Nymphs” or “Louizos mentioning and quoting the late cave” is a Karstic formation just Sylvia Benton, excavator of the at the edge of the sea and on the cave (1930 and 1932) western side of the bay, which is acknowledged expert and leading the natural access by sea from authority for the archaeology of the west to the northern Ithaca Ithaca:“ The most imposing The coastal plain around it was dedications are the bronze until recently a marshy land but tripod-cauldrons…. There are may have been drier in pieces of at least twelve tripods prehistoric times, as the sea level and there is the tripod said to was lower. Excavation by have been found by Louizos. How can we account for the 3 Benton 1934,45ff., 1938, 1ff, 44 (1949) presence of all these elaborate 307ff., .Heurtley 1943, 11.; .Stubbings 1962, 418-19.; Cook 1953, 113; Lorimer 1950, tripods in a little sea-side shrine? 499;.Desborough 1964, 108, idem 1972, 88; I suggest that they may be Hägg 1968, 51; .Hope Simpson &.Dickinson 1979,186; .Rutkowski 1986, 210; dedications to Odysseus possibly .Μαζαράκης-Αινιάν 2000, 58-60, 193; by victors at the Odysseia, like Αλεξίου 2009, 25 the tripods found at Olympia, 4 .Rigsby 1996, 215 n.61

3

Argos, Delphi and Delos The Buchholz maintains that there masks denote a period of is not enough space for a stadiun popularity of the shrine , and an at Polis or “we may well expect a indirect commentary is supplied place of limited space where by the Magnesian inscription , contests could be performed”7 which records the answer of the and believes, based only on Ithacesians to an invitation to the Vollgraff,’s report for a “tessère games of Artemis Leukophrryene de theater”8 that the only suitable instituted in 206 B.C. They invite place “is a very small theatre the Magnesians to their games, within the area of the School of the Odysseia, and order that the Homer, cut in the natural rock”9. inscription be set up in the Without excluding the possibility Odysseion , perhaps this very that he is right, I must note that shrine the games no doubt held the morphology of the site is not in the small plain outside.” , and suitable for a civic assembly and “The shrine at Polis was of at athletic or other performances least local importance in (αγώνες), being rather steep and Mycenaean, Geometric Archaic sloping downhill. Furthermore, and Hellenistic times and it is no such a theatre has been reasonable to connect this recognized during our importance with the Odyssey”5. excavations at this site nor did Her view is supported and Buchholz ever show or suggest strengthened by the words of it to us during his two years Prof, Heurtley, also a well-known participation and personal help excavator and specialist on the and advice in the project. Ithacesian archaeology : “The Therefore, its drawing and existence of a small town in location in fig. 4 of his paper is Mycenaean times stretching hypothetical and not yet round the head of the (Polis) bay archaeologically documented. On is thus sufficiently well attested” the other hand Benton’s10 and “ There is some reason for suggestion that “the games no thinking that the long hollow that doubt (were) held in the small lies at the foot of the slopes plain outside” the Polis cave- overlooking the bay of Polis is sanctuary, seems to be , in my the site of a stadium”6 opinion and on the basis of the already mentioned associated cultic and votive finds, most 5 Benton 1934, 45ff, ; 39 idem 1938,1ff.; idem probable and persuasive. 1949, 307ff. For possible connection of the tripods found at Polis with thοse given as gifts to Odysseus by Alkinoos and his fellow-rulers mentioned by Homer in the Odysey ((θ 387ff, and ν 13-14) see also, Stubbings 1962,.419 and 7 Buchholz 2009,131 Mazarakis-Ainian 2000, 58; .Luce, 1998, 8 Vollgaff, 1905, 168 no. 19 226-7. 9 Buchholz 2009,131 6 Heurtley 1939—1940 10, 11. 10 Benton 1934-35, 54

4

Turning to the second place, 3, 9, 6, 8, 23) (Pl. 3b) - dated that at School of Homer (Pl.. from late Middle Helladic to LH 3a), which according to IIIC periods were revealed east Buchholz “seems to be a of the architectural remains promising candidate”11 for the shown in fig.3b of the Buchholz Heroon of Odysseus, the paper. It is rather similar in type archaeological facts appear as construction and dimensions follows. First, we were able to (ca.21.50X11,20m). to those of recognize there a prehistoric Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos acropolis with partly preserved (Pl.3c-d). However, one would walls the construction of which not expect anything on the scale , typifies the Cyclopean technique. luxury and finds of the i.e. large boulders, hammer metropolitan Mycenaean centres. dressed and stacked in irregular The primitive simplicity of courses, with smaller stones construction of this megaron, inserted into the interstices for most probably corresponding to stability , and a complex of Odysseus palace, would explain buildings arranged on two the wonder of Telemachos when terraces and dating from the he beheld the magnificence of Bronze Age to Late Hellenistic the palace of Menelaos at Sparta and Roman periods. During the (δ 44-47). One can approach the final Mycenaean building phase megaron from the south through the acropolis was enlarged by the a partly destroyed stone staircase addition of a roughly rectangular and an entrance. Before reaching eastern extension, small in size it, a heavy retaining wall supports but of crucial importance , i.e. to the terrace on which it stands and include and protect the its construction is Mycenaean underground spring characteristically Mycenaean (Pl. that provided the inhabitants of 4a), giving an appearance of the acropolis in difficult times strength and stability. At least with water and which will be two main phases of construction discussed below. may be distinguished, although On the lower terrace or άνδηρον their date cannot be definitely the foundations of a three- established. Near the east side of roomed rectangular building in the first room (aithousa) and the form of a megaron - omitted before the opening leading to the in Buchholz’s fig.3, but next room (prodomos) a relief of mentioned in the text p. 136 (nos. a rough, irregular “oxhide ingot” 16,18,5, 30,7, 11- and supposed (τάλαντον) cut into the surface of by him to be a vestibule or the rock bed has been recognized lounge of his main building (nos (Pl .4b). Referring to this find Buchholz notes “ If she ( Prof. Papadopoulou) will find more 11 Buchholz 2009, 133

5 metallurgical evidence at the site the lower half is decorated with and can explain the use of it as a a clay (αναθύρωσις ). workshop, she could argue with a Unfortunately most of the date about 1200 B.C.”12 It is contents had been looted ,but we important to note that in 2009 were able to find one at least the much sought after prehistoric pithos broken and metallurgical workshop was standing upright in situ and traces found in the upper terrace ( visible hollows on the floor) of together with some of its three others in a series along the products described below. western side of the cave Whether or not the discovered fragments of which were thrown “oxhide ingot” was used as an out by illicit intruders. altar I cannot say. At this point it must be noted In the northern room ( domos) that no bones of any kind was the floor with the hearth found in this underground cave (εστία)(diam. 3m.) was sinking. and that the osteological It was built of a ring of big poros material given by us to Prof. stones (Pl.5a-d) filled in the Nobis for examination comes centre with fragments of Middle exclusively from the so-called and Late Bronze Age pottery(Pl. “kykloteres”(Buchholz’s fig. 4E) 5e), animal bones in greasy soil which will be discussed below. mixed with traces of burning. So, I think that the underground West of the megaron there are cave must be taken as a auxiliary rooms (Buchholz’s fig. storeroom of the adjacent 3, nos 3,9, 6, 8, 23, where a Mycenaean megaron and not as broken Mycenaean IIIC kylix Buchhloz wrongly suggests “the and sherds from others, main bothros for keeping what prehistoric handmade sherds , was left of meals”13 in later big broken pithoi of later times times. (Pl.6), a circular destroyed An opening of a large door in bothros, remains of prehistoric the northern wall of the megaron, walls and an underground cave- leads to a second door of the like storeroom –not a cleft- nearby three-roomed building, (Buchholz’s fig. 3, no. 10) were orientated E-W, with a round found. At the end of a small stone structure (0.72 m. high and destroyed staircase leading from 1.23 m.) diam.) in the middle Buchholz’s room 23 (fig.3b) to room (Pl. 7a) . Judging from its the interior of this underground style of architecture, its storeroom, there is a door with adjacency to the megaron, the apsidal lintel, the upper half of round structure (altar?) and the which is closed with stones and few, but very important finds

12 Buchholz 2009,137 13 Buchholz 2009, 136

6

(two triton shells14, one Minoan- a model column in ivory18) (Pl. type leaden votive idol of 7b-f), it is tempting to think of it worshipper15 , a stone altar- being a Late Bronze Age shaped seal16, two stone feet17and sanctuary. I would not claim that it is proved beyond all

14 As triton or charonia shell is a well known reasonable doubt, but on the cult object in the East Mediterranean , Cyprus balance of probabilities I think it and the Aegean and such objects made into is may well be correct. trumpets, like our examples are known only in sanctuary sites. Cf. Evans 1936,344, fig. 288, Another point of Buchholz’s Nilsson 1950, 153-4, fig.61, Foster 1979, 137- paper is of exceptional interest 140, Warren 1969, 91, 167. For a recent discussion, references and catalogue of all and needs to be reconsidered. I known examples, see Aström .& Reese 1990, quote : “ If the place was 5-15 , Lloyd 1994, 75-88 and Buchholz 1999, identical with the heroon of 601- 602. Also, Papadopoulos 1997, 172-184, Pelon et al. 1996 92, Aström 2001, 151-58, Odysseus, mentioned in the Demakopoulou 1990, 276-8 (she suggests that inscription discussed before, it they had some special religious significance, are connected with marine deities and occur was chosen because the site was mainly in palaces and sancturies), Baltzinger understood by the late classic- 2002, 72; Wedde 2003, 285-296, fig. 2, hellenistic Ithacians Doumas 1992, pl. 66b; Rutkowski 1986, 146 (…triton shells must have been used for sacred as a mythical locus and must purposes.). Karali 1999, 59, pl. 4, Renfrew have had to do for them with 1985, 327, 383., Betankourt & Davaras 1999,136; Platon 1974, 204, figs. 117-8 , their most prominent hero. It is Doumas 2016, 196a possible that they looked for the palace as described by Homer”. 15 Human idols made of lead are rarely found in the Aegean Bronze Age and are used as For the modern excavator, i.e for offerings by poor people. No exact parallel is us there are signs of prehistoric known to me but it seems quite possible that it belongs to the type of human statuettes of occupation like handmade sherds worshipers, frequently found in Minoan Crete of Early and Middle Bronze Age and Kythera and only rarely in Mycenaean types and wares. Some of the .Date. LM/LH II-IIIA?.Cf. Buchholz 1972, 13 -15, 22 cat.no. 79, 81(Kampos- stones in the fundaments of walls Laconia and Knossos); Verlinden 1984; Pilali- seem to go back to that age, Papasteriou 1992; Sapouna- Sakellarakis 1995, Sakellarakis 2012 ,1-212; Sakellarakis centuries before the Trojan war, 1997, 122, εικ. 95; Karetsou 1981,150, fig. 25 long before the lifetime of the (sanctuary of Mt Juktas).; Rethymniotakis 2001,4,6, 13, figs. 5,9, 18 ( MH 15146 and MH 21809 from Gortyna –Messaras and 106-7, pl.65, Tsipopoulou 1992, 147, fig. 154 Kalou-Pediados (clay foot), Rutkowski 1986, 234-5, fig. 312 16 It belongs to a very typical Minoan and Anemospilia, pair of clay feet Mycenaean form with incurved sides, known 18 Model columns of ivory or bone are from different sites.Cf. e.g. Evans 1921, figs. known mainly from Mainland Greece and 166H (Knossos); 167 (Idean cave), Nilsson only rarely from Crete. Our example is 1950,169, fig. 69 (Psychro cave) ; Iakovidis closely similar to those from 1983, pl. 26 (Mycenae, lion gate relief), Mycenae(Poursat 1977, pl. XIII, Blegen . et al. 1973, 89, fig. 172: 6 (glass 153/7591) and Archanes Tholos tomb B, beads), Xenaki-Sakellariou 1985, pl.41: 2495 (Sakellakis 1997, fig.864) which belong to (13) the LH/LM IIIA (Mycenaean) period, a date to which could be also assigned, on 17 Cf. Gessel 1985, Tzedakis .&Hallager 1983, the basis of its context, our specimen. 3-17, fig. 14(Kastelli-Chania), Caskey 1986,

7 mythical hero Odysseus”19. Indeed the modern excavator As regards the krene or found not only Early and Middle underground spring to the east of bronze Age pottery but also, as the megaron, it was carefully was already mentioned above , examined and safely dated to the Mycenaean pottery (a LH IIIC second half of the 13th century kylix and sherds from other B.C.(LH IIIB2) by J. Knauss, shapes) while the preserved Professor of the Technical foundations of the megaron University of Munich and leading ,cavities for the base of columns authority and specialist on (Pl.8a-c) and parts of the wall ancient hydraulic techniques and dividing the two terraces have works (Pl. 9), who concluded exact parallels at Mycenae20 that “the underground well-house Otherwise I agree with Buchholz is a sophisticated example of that “ it is possible that the Mycenaean architecture and Ithacesians of later times looked engineering and an impressive for the palace as described by example of urban technical Homer at this important and infrastructure of the Mycenaean strategic place”, where I suggest world’. He compared it with the palace of Odysseus most those known from other palatial probably existed.My suggestion and prehistoric sites (Mycenae, is strengthened by the opinions of Tiryns, Ayia Eirini-Keas and Tsountas, Nilsson, Lorimer, Hatusa) and the results of his Pausanias, Iakovidis, Camp, study were presented in two Immerwahr, and O.Komninou- recent international congresses23. Kakridi21 ,i.e. that later The Ithaca spring like those of constructions covered the the others from elsewhere, prehistoric residence after the provided water to the residents of collapse of the Mycenaean the Mycenaean acropolis in the palatial centres and that times of droughts or of war and sanctuaries or temples ( but not its position protected it from heroa!) dedicated to local deities disclosure to the enemy making it were constructed in the place of safe from attack. the palaces22 It is surprising therefore, that Buchholz although following and

19 Buchholz 2009,136 accepting Knauss’s dating, 20 Mylonas 1962, 1965, 62, 64, figs. 36-37 ignores however the Mycenaean 21Tsountas 1893, 35; Nilsson 1950, finds (stems of two kylikes and 488;Lorimer 1950, 447; Pausanias Book IX, 16.5; Iakovidis 1983, 24, 56; Camp 2009, 37; of one stemmed bowl) and based Immerwahr 1971,155; Komninou-Kakridi only on the small amount of pre- 1989 , 324 22 Cf. Temples of Athena at the Mycenaean Mycenaean pottery from the acropolises at Mycenae and Athens, the temple of Hera at Tiryns, Pelopion at Olympia and that of Apollo at Thermon 23 .Knauss 2006, 4-18; Idem 2008, 471-86

8 vicinity suggests that “They , of sherds and a great number of course , are no argument in animal bones ( 400) already favour of Homer!”24 indirectly examined by the late Professor doubting the importance and the G.Nobis, archaeozoologist and connexion of the spring with a Director of the Zoological Mycenaean residence at the Research Institute and the School of Homer. But in such a Alexander König-Museum in case, we must also doubt the Bonn. It is worthy of special note Mycenaean character and that among these bones the most connexion with Homer of all important were two bucrania others springs mentioned above (oxen crania)(Pl.10c), which may from elsewhere. So, in view of be related with bull sacrifices26 the general similarity with the and bones of bos primigenius27 other known Mycenaean springs Buchholz therefore is mistaken and taking into account the when he says that this careful study of Knauss I find it osteological material comes from difficult to dissociate the Ithaca a cleft-bothros used for keeping spring from the adjacent the remains of meals at the Mycenaean megaron. Odysseus Heroon. His suggestion One further impressive therefore must be reconsidered prehistoric(?) monument as the bones examined come deserves brief discussion, and from the kykloteres and a great that is the so-called kykloteres or part of them is dated to the tholos (Buchholz, fig. 4.E) (Pl. prehistoric times. On the basis of 10a-b). It lies to the east of the this material I am inclined to underground spring and was believe that part of these bones badly destroyed and looted . It mixed with others of later date produced, however, many not yet examined28, most interesting finds, among which probably comes from cultic the most important were one clay dinners and sacrifices that took tablet bearing incised figures of a place in the Bronze Age ship and a man tied on its mast residence or its adjacent (Odysseus?) accompanied by sanctuary, following a Minoan mythical creatures and possible tradition29 and on the basis of symbol(s) of Linear A or B presence of some other bones 25 (AB09 “SE”) (Pl. 10d), pottery 26 Bucrania as remains of bull sacrifices, have 24 Buchholz 2009,137 been found in cult places in the Aegean and 25 .Kontorli-Papadopoulou et al. 2005, 183- Cyprus and have been associated with the cult 186 The absence of more clay tablets, may be of the bull-god. For a recent discussion and accidental or may be due to the catastrophe references see, Papadopoulos 1995, 176-178; and abandonment of the palace, as is the case Nobis 2000, 121-134, Tafel 32-33. with the Mycenaean palace of Athens, where 27 Recognised as such by Prof. Nobis. no such tablets have been found (See, Camp 28 Dr Argyro Nafplioti, osteoarchaeologist, has 2009, 33-38 ) undertaken the study of this material 29 Cf.Buchholz 2009, 136 and n. 56.

9 probably coming from exact parallel is recorded in any Buchholz’s heroon provisionally other site its purpose remains dated to later periods, that this problematic. At first we suggest, custom continued in historical on the basis of a somewhat times. similar cut in the throne room of The next stage to consider is the Pylos palace 31,that it was the situation and the new finds in made to provide a place for the the upper terrace.. But before I do throne of the local ruler Other so it may be noted that three possible uses can no doubt be stone staircases (Pl. 10e-f), partly imagined e.g. for the vertical cut in the rock and partly built part of a timber frame, of the were used to facilitate vertical wall, rather similar to communication berween the that from the South House at residences of the upper and lower Mycenae32 Prof. Aström , who terraces, the difference in height saw it, suggested it could have of which is more than 5m. been to support a mechanism of Homer clearly imagined his unknown type. characters as going up and down A return may now be made to stairs (α 362, τ 602) . “The the Buchholz ‘s 33 question palaces and houses excavated at concerning the new architectural Mycenae , Tiryns and Pylos all remains and finds on the upper had staircases and upper floors. A terrace discovered by our staircase is an essential feature of excavation there. Leaving aside a Homeric house”30.Parts of the the remains of historical times, I steep vertical face of the rock shall concentrate on the dividing upper and lower terraces presentation and discussion of the were partly embellished with prehistoric ones, i.e. the large blocks of stone in pseudo- metallurgical installation and ashlar style ,exactly similar to workshop and the bathroom. those used in the Cyclopean wall As regards the metallurgical of Mycenae at the east side of the workshop, recognised as such by approach to the Lion Gate, and Professor G.Papademetriou and partly with completely unworked Dr N. Georgakellos of the irregular or roughly polygonal National Metsoveion Technical stones (Pl. 11a-b) University of Athens34 it was West of the megaron and on the vertical surface of the rock a 31 Blegen &Rawson 1966, 88, fig. 70 rectangular recessed niche ( 32 Iakovidis S.E.- French E.B, 2003, 17, fig. 12 33 Buchholz 2009, 135 1.35-1.50m high, 0.75- 34 “ Το υλικό λόγω της μεγάλης του 080m.wide and 1.35deep )was καθαρότητας (απουσίας σιδήρου) και της απουσίας μολύβδου ως κραμάτωσης ή elaborately cut (Pl. 11c). As no ακαθαρσίας είναι απολύτως συμβατό με τις συνθέσεις προ»ιστορικών αντικειμένων, που παράγονται ως σφυρήλατα …Με βάση τα 30 Wace 1962, 493 προηγούμενα συμπεράσματα , η

10 found, as mentioned above, awl37, a needle38, a flat (or ½ of during the 2009 excavation double axe?)39 and most season at a distance of ca. 50 m. importantly one broken low- NW of the Hellenistic tower. Its stemmed monochrome LH construction consists of tubular III2early kylix40, two lamps - one pouring channels cut out on the of bronze (Catling’s Form 27b) rock and ending in small uneven the other of lead with skillet cavities(Pl.12a), while clear handle, broken and badly remains of a roughly circular corroded.(Pls. 12e-f, 13-14) melting hearth or furnace Catlng says that “ llamps with (Pl.12b) were recognized nearby skillet handles (Form 27b) were to the east of the channels. The for long represented in Crete only workshop was bordered by a by a single piece from Zafer platform of slabs and supported Papoura, Tomb 14, while at least at the east by a well- built and six were known on the Mainland. strong retaining wall (Pl. 12c-d). Relevant products were bronze 37 Cf. for refs. and discussion, Catling 1964 , 35 36 65, 97-98 (Eutresis, Mycenae, Mallia, Rhodes, pins and nails , fish-hooks , an Lapithos, Ayios Iakovos, Enkomi, Kouklia). See also, Deshayes 1960, 39ff, II, 3 n. 58; περιεκτικότητα σε κασσίτερο περί το 9%, η Blegen et al.1973, 158, fig. 230: 8, Iakovidis απουσία αρσενικού και η υψηλή καθαρότητα 1970, 339, fig. 145, pl. 128γ; Benzi 1992, 180, (απουσία σιδήρου και μολύβδου), το pl. 181.l-m τοποθετούν με μεγάλη πιθανότητα στην μυκηναϊκή περίοδο» (personal communication 38 The type is well known throughout the and official written opinion of Prof. Bronze Age, especially in Early Bronze Papademetriou) Age II-III deposits. Our example belongs to Branigan’s Type III with parallels from 35 For refs. and discussion see. Jacobstal elsewhere (Chalandriani, Zygouries and 1956, 1ff. ; Sandars 1958-59, 236; Higgins Troy).. Cf. Branigan 1974, 30, pl.15 nos. 1961, 86; Desborough 1964, 53-54; Iakovides 1230-34 1970, 289-290; Hood 1968, 214ff.; (EBA II-III) Hammond 1967, 350-361; Papanthimou 1979, 206-9; Blegen .et al.. 1973, 160, fig. 230: 11- 39 Flat axes, most probably inserted in a slot 14; Papadopoulos 1978-79, 139-140; cut in the long axis of the haft, are known from Vlachopoulos 2006, 272-3 (pins). and. see several Aegean and Cypriot sites since EBA (for nails),e.g. Iakovides 1989, 23, 66, times and have been discussed in detail by pls..10α, 28β; Wace 1921-1922;1922-1923, Branigan and Catling The possibility that our 350 (As is well known there are parallel small example is a chisel cannot be ruled out, horizontal rows in the walls of the dome, as Catling suggests that “possibly some of the smallest, were mounted for use as chisels in a which according to the usually accepted bone or horn slieve”. Another possibility is to belief, attached gilt bronze rosettes or be half of a double axe (Buchholz’s Type some other form of decoration to the I/III), but this is to be more fully considered. walls”); Idem, 1964,32 (Treasury of Cf. Branigan 1974, 24; Catling 1964, 63-64, Atreus) 85-86; Buchholz 1989, 48, Taf. X.b . Also, Buchholz & Karageorghis V., 1971, 278: 737 (Agrinion) 36 Cf. Keramopoullos 1917, 178-180; Iakovidis 1970,354-5 ; Buchholz et al. 1973, (MBA or LBA?) J170-3, Abb. 55h-w; Papadopoulos 1978-79, 158-9. Cf. also, Catling 1974, , 246, , Benzi 40 FS. 264. Cf. Frödin .& Persson 1938,, 405, 1992, 180 fig. 265; BMA, NT48: 10,11; Mountjoy 1986, 90, fig. 108

11

But the two Sellopoulo finds plus entrance to the east and a low fragments of two more from inner dividing wall. Immediately tomb 3 and another in the after the entrance part of a slab- Archanes tholos41have shown paved floor is preserved, while that the type was equally several sherds of Late common in both areas. This form Mycenaean pottery and parts of seems to be no earlier than LM a broken clay bath-tub IIIA1/LH IIIA1. The lamp from (ασάμινθος) , somewhat similar an LH II group in Dendra Tomb to that found in the Palace of 8 stands apart from these with its Nestor46 have been scattered on it separately attached handle”42. .One cannot exclude the The Ithaki bronze lamp was possibility that the buth-tub has safely dated on the basis of its been transferred to this room context and parallels from other after its primary use elsewhere in sites (Dendra, Mycenae, order to be used in the workshop. Archanes, Zafer Papoura, The metallurgical workshop Sellopoulo and Cyprus) to the remind us the reference of Late Mycenaean /Minoan period Odysseia Σ 328 (χαλκήιον ες (14os cent. B.C.)43 δόμον) and the bathroom the Leaden lamps are generally reference Ρ 85-90 (ες δ’ rare and in their typical form ασαμίνθους βάντες). (“shallow bowl with one pinched Other prehistoric finds from the nozzle”44) are known from few excavation at the site include prehistoric (Bronze Age) sites45, coarse handmade (barbaric but we cannot find any parallel ware), Middle (Grey and yellow to our skillet lamp elsewhere in Minyan) and Late Bronze age the Aegean or Cyprus. Our (Mycenaean ) pottery( mainly example is dated, on the basis of sherds of: 1 jar, 1 jug, 4 kylikes, its context, to LH IIIA1 period. 1 stirrup-jar, 2 deep bowls, 1 The bathroom, SE of the stemmed bowl, 2 kraters , a metallurgical workshop, has an bronze spearhead, leaden rivets of the “double rivet” type, broken

41 Sakellarakis 1970,152, fig.5.10) stone vases, a clay seal, and 42 Catling 1974, 251 objects of ivory/bone (a small 43For refs. and discussion see, Catling spoon, fragments of an ivory 1964, 182-3, fig. 21: 8,9; Idem 1974, 238- 9, fig.24: 35-36, and p. 251 pyxis and a a pin) (Pls. 15-16). Also, Matthäus 1980,302-4, Taf. 52-54; It must be noticed that the Demakopoulou K. (ed.),1988, 228 no. relative scarcity of 221; Xenaki-Sakellariou 1985, 206, pl.92.V (Χλ. 3045); Immerwahr, Agora, Prehistoric/Mycenaean finds is 167-8,pl.33. most likely due to the continuous 44 Cf. Aström 1972, 474, fig,60.9 45 Aström 1972, 474;. Buchholz 1972, 12, 41 habitation of the site and, as has nos 20a-b; Dikaios 1969, 100, 278, 463, 519, 813, pl. 163: 64, 65; Matthäus 1980, 267- 46 Blegen & Rawson 1966, 187-8, figs. 37, 8, Taf. 163, nos. 586-588 139-40, 422

12 been rightly observed by Hope - be sought at the Polis bay and to Simpson and Dickinson47 “later my mind it cannot be elsewhere (Hellenistic and Roman) remains than this site. On the other hand , on the hill above the spring may I still consider, based on the have removed much of the LH presented above archaeological (Mycenaean) level”. It is also evidence, and until more worth mentioning that many significant remains and objects more prehistoric finds and of are found in an equally suitable later periods of habitation at the place elsewhere, that “School of site have been unearthed and are Homer” covers an important and housed in the storerooms of the strategic prehistoric residence, local archaeological museums, commanding the whole awaiting preservation and undulating plateau which detailed study. constitutes the most fertile area Finally an answer may be of the rocky island with easy permitted to the Buchholz’s last access to the harbours of Polis, statement “I have argued that we Aphales and Frikes, and seems to have to expect ancient “heroic” be a promising and strong evidence at a site, where a heroon candidate for the political centre was placed afterwards. Who ever of the island and the Homeric will do more archaeological palace of Odysseus (Pls.17-18). investigation at the “School of In conclusion, it is tempting to Homer” is well advised to look suggest a correlation of the for more prehistoric finds in that archaeological record with the area.”48 After doing more Homeric tradition. archaeological investigation and discovering more and, to my opinion, very important prehistoric finds from the area presented here, I shall continue , following the opinion of the British excavators and other scholars , as well as, my experience and knowledge of Ithaca, to believe that the “heroon of Odysseus” or Odysse;ion is to

47 Hope Simpson &Dickinson 1979, 185-6 . Cf. also, Camp 2009, 37 (…η μεταγενέστερη οικοδομική δραστηριότητα και η εκτεταμένη χρήση της Ακρόπολης (των Αθηνών) ως ιερού, κατά την Αρχαϊκή και την Κλασική περίοδο, έχουν εξαλείψει σχεδόν κάθε ίχνος του (μυκηναϊκού ) ανακτόρου”). 48 Buchholz 2009, 138

13

Buchholz , H.-G.& Karageorghis V. 1971. Altägäis und Altkypros, Tübingen

Buchholz, H.-G. 1972. ., “Das Blei in der mykenischen Kultur und in der bronzezeitlichen Metallurgie Zyperns”, JdI 87 , 12, 41 nos 20a-b

Buchholz, H.-G. et al. 1973. Jagd und Fischfang Arch. Homerica Kap. J, J170-3, Abb. 55h-w, Göttingen

Buchholz, H.-G. 2009. « Some remarks Bibliography concerning the Heroon of Odysseus at Ithaca”, ( Daniilidou D. (ed.)., ΔΩΡΟΝ. Τιμητικός Τόμος για τον Καθηγητή Σπύρο Ιακωβίδη Alexiou S. 2000. Ποικίλα Ελληνικά, (Ακαδημία Αθηνών Κέντρον Ερεύνης της Μελέτες, Athens Αρχαιότητος, Σειρά Μονογραφιών 6, Athens , 127-142 Aström, L. 1972. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition Vol. .IV:ID, Lund Camp, J.M. 2009.Οι Αρχαιότητες της Αθήνας και της Αττικής, Athens Aström ,P.& Reese, D.S. 1990. “Triton shells in East Mediterranean Cults”, JPR III-IV, 1-14 Caskey, M.E. 1986. Keos I1,i,The Temple at Ayia Irini: The Statues, Princeton Aström, P.. 2001. “ Zwei wahrscheinliche spätbronzezeitliche Kultanlangen von Hala Catling, H.W.. 1964. Cypriot Bronzework in Sultan Tekke”, Tagunsband Kreta und the Mycenaean World. Zypern:Religion und Schrift 26-28.02.1999 in Ohlstadt/Obb. Deutschland, 151-158 Catling, H.W. 1974. “Sellopoulo tombs 3 and 4, two Late Minoan graves near Knossos.. V. Baaltzinger, F. 2002.”The study of sea-shells” The Bronzes”, BSA 69, 238, fig. 24 in Ministry of Culture (ed.) Minoans and Mycenaeans flavours of their time, Athens 70- Cook, J.M.1953. “The cult of Agamemnon at 72 Mycenae” in Γέρας Αντωνίου Κεραμοπούλλου,, Athens , 113 Benton, S. 1934- 35. “Excavations in Ithaca, III. The Cave at Polis, I” , BSA 35, 45-73 Demakopoulou, K. (ed.) 1988. The Mycenaean World , Athens, 228 no. 221 Benton, S. 1938-39. “Excavations in Ithaca III. The Cave at Polis, II, BSA 39, 1-51 Demakopoulou, K. (ed.) 1990). . Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Orchomenos. Heinrich Betancourt, P.P. & Davaras, C. 1999. “ |The Schliemann: The 100th Anniversary of his Triton Shell , Building BQ”, Pseira IV, 136 Death, Athens, 276-8

Blegen ,C.W. & Rawson, M. 1966. The Palace Desborough, V. R.d’A. 1964. The Last of Nestor in Western Messenia, Vol. Mycenaeans and their Successors, Oxford I.Princeton University Press Deshayes, J. 1960. Les Outils de Bronze de l’ Blegen, C.W. et al. 1973. The Palace of Nestor Indus au Danube( IV au II millénaire) Paris in Western Messenia. Vol. III. Princeton University Press Dikaios, P. 1969, 1971. Enkomi, Excavations1948-1958,Vol. I-III, Mainz Branigan, K. 1974. Aegean Meralwork of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages,Oxford Doumas, Chr. 1992. Aκρωτήρι Θήρας, Athens

Buchholz, H.-G. 1959. ., Zur Herkunft der Evans, A. 1921, 1936. The Palace of Minos at kretischen Doppelaxt. München Knossos I, IV,

14

Foster, K.P 1979. , Aegean Faience of the Karetsou, A. 1981. “ The peak sanctuary of Mt Bronze Age, Yale University Press Juktas” ,in Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the First Frödin O.& Persson A.W. 1938, Asine;Results International Sympsium at the Swedish of the Swedish Excavations, Stockholm Institute in Athens, 12-13 May, 1980, eds. R,Hägg & N. Marinatos, Stockholm, 137-153 Gessel, G.C. 1985. Town Palace and House Cult in Minoan Crete, SIMA 67, Göteborg Keramopoullos, A. 1917 “Θηβαϊκά», ArchDelt 3, 1ff. Hägg R. 1968. “ Mykenische Kultstätten im archäologischen Material”, “, OpAth. 8, 39-60 Knauss,J. , 2006 “Observations and considerations concerning Mycenaean Hammond, N.G.L. 1967. Epirus:The underground well-houses or spring-chambers, Geography, the Ancient Remains, the History especially at Mycenae, Tiryns and Ithaka”, and the Topography of Epirus and Adjacent Proceedings of the 2nd International Areas, Oxford Conference for the Ancient Greek Technology,ed. Th. Tassios, Athens , 4-18 Higgins, R. A. 1961. Greek and Roman Jewellery,London Knauss, J. 2008. , “Prähistorische Grundwasserbrunnen rund und um die Ägäis”, Heurtley, W.A. 1932-33. “Excavations in Tagungsband, Austausch von Gùtern, Ideen Ithaca, I, BSA 33, 22-65 und Technologien in der Ägäis und im östlichen Mittelmeer von prähistorischen zu Heurtley,W.A. 1934-35. “Excavations in der archaischen Zeit, 19-21,05.2006 in Ithaca II, The Early Helladic Settlement at Oblstadt/Obb., ed. A.Kyriatsoulis, Pelikata”, BSA 35, 1-44 e.V.Weilheim/Obb. Deutschland, 471-86

Heurtley, W.A. 1939-1940. “Excavations in Komninou-Kakridi, O. 1989. Σχέδιο και Ithaca , 1930-35, Summary of the work, Τεχνική της Οδύσσειας, Athens , 324 Summary of Conclusions”, BSA 40, 1-13 Kontorli-Papadopoulou, L.et al. , 2005. “A Hood, M.F.S & Coldstream, N.J 1968 .”A Late possible Linear sign from Ithaki (AB09 “SE) ?, Minoan Tomb at Ayios Ioannis near Kadmos 44, 2005, 183-186 Knossos”,.BSA 63, 205-218. Lloyd, J.F. 1994. “A clay triton shell in a Hope Simpson, R .& Dickinson, O.T.P.K. private collection in New York”, OpAth 20 1979. A Gazetteerof Aegean Civilisation in the (1994) 75-88 Bronze Age, Vol. I: The Mainland and Islands, SIMA 52, Göteborg Lorimer, H. 1950. Homer and the Monuments, London Iakovidis, S. 1970. Περατή. Το Νκροταφείον. Γενικαί Παρατηρήσεις Vol. B’, Athens Luce, J.V. 1998. Homer’s Landscapes. Troy and Ithaca Revisited, Yale University, 226-7. Iakovidis S. 1983. Late Helladic Citadels on Mainland Greece, Leiden Matthäus, H. 1980. Die Bronzgefässe der kretisch-mykenischen Kultur, PBF II.1, Iakovidis S.. 1989. Γλάς Ι.. Η Ανασκαφή 1955- München 1961,Athens Iakovidis, S.- French E., 2003, Archaeological .Mazarakis-Ainian, A. 2000. Όμηρος και Atlas of Mycenae, Athens Αρχαιολογία, Athens, 58-60

Immerwahr, S. A. 1971. The Athenian Agora Mountjoy, P.A. 1986. Mycenaean Decorated XIII. The Neolithic and Bronze Ages, Princeton Pottery. A guide to identification, SIMA 73, Göteborg Jacobstal,.P. 1956.Greek Pins and their connexions with Europe and Asia, Oxford Mylonas, G.E. 1962. Η ακρόπολις των Μυκηνών, ΑΕ 1962 Karali, I. 1999. Shells in Aegean Prehistory Athens, 59

15

Nilsson, M. L. 1950. The Minoan-Mycenaean Sandars, N. 1958-59. in Hood S. et al. “A Religion and its Survival in Greek Religion, Minoan cemetery on Upper Gypsades” BSA Lund 53-54, 232-237

G.Nobis, G. 2000. “Tierreste aus dem Sapouna- Sakellarakis, E., 1995. Die phönizischen Kition”, Periplus. Festschrift für bronzenen Menschenfiguren auf Kreta und in Hans-Gönter Buchholz zu seinem achtzingen der gäis, PBF. 1:5 , München Geburstag am 24 December 1999 SIMA 127, 121-134, Tafel 32-33. Sapouna-Sakellarakis, E. 2012. Κύθηρα. Το Μινωικό Ιερό Κορυφής στον Άγιο Γεώργιο στο Papadopoulos, Th. 1995. “Cyprus and the βουνό.2. :Τα Ευρήματα , Athens Aegean World: Links in Religion” , Πρακτικά του Διεθνούς Αρχαιολογικού Συνεδρίου, Η Stubbings, F.H. et al. 1967. A Companion to Κυπρος και το Αιγαίο στην Αρχαιότητα από την Homer, London, 418-19 προϊστορική περίοδο ως τον 7ο αιώνα μ.Χ., Λευκωσία 8-10.12. 1995, Nicosia 1997, 176-8 Tsipopoulou, M. 1992 in Minoan and Greek civilization from the Mitsotakis Collection, Papadopoulos,Th. 1978-79, Mycenaean Athens, 147 Achaea, SIMA 55, Göteborg Tsountas, Chr. 1893. Μυκήναι και Μυκηναίος Papanthimou, Aik. 1979. Σκεύη και σύνεργα Πολιτισμός, Athens του καλλωπισμού στον Κρητομυκηναϊκό χώρο, Τhessaloniki Tzedakis, Y. &.-Hallager, E. 1983. ,”The Greek-Swedish Excavations at Kastelli Khania Pelon, O. et al. 1996. Οδηγός Μαλίων. Το 1980” AAA 16 , 3-17, fig. 14 ανάκτορο και η νεκρόπολη του Χρυσολάκκου, Paris, 92 Verlinden, C. 1984. Les Statuettes anthropomorphes crétoises en bronze et en Poursat, J-C. 1977. Catalogue des Ivoires plomb, du IIIe millénaire au VIIe siècle av. J.- Myceniens du Musee National d’ Athenes, C. (Archaeologia Transatlantica ) Paris Vlachopoulos, A. 2006. Η Υστεροελλαδική ΙΙΙΓ Pilali- Papastergiou, A. 1992. Mινωικά πήλινα περίοδος στη Νάξο. Τα ταφικά σύνολα και οι ανθρωπόμορφα ειδώλια της συλλογής Μεταξά, συσχετισμοί τους με το Αιγαίο, Vol. A. Athens Thessaloniki Vollgraff, C. 1905. “Fouilles d’ Ithaque”, BCH Platon, N. 1974. Zάκρος. Το νέον μινωικόν 29, 145-168 ανάκτορον, Athens.

Renfrew, C. 1985. The Archaeology of Cult. The Sanctuary at Phylakopi, London,

Rethymiotakis, G. 2001. Minoan clay idols , Wace, A. et al. 1921-23.. “ Excavations at Athens Mycenae”, Sessions 1921-1922, 1922- 1923, BSA 25 Rigsby, K . J. 1996. Asylia. Territorial Inviolability in the Hellenic World, University Warren, P. 1969. Minoan Stone Vases, of Callifornia Cambridge Press Wedde, M. 2003. “The boat model from the Rutkowski, B. 1986. The Cult places of the Late Helladic IIIA-B sanctuary at Agios Aegean, Yale University Press Konstantinos (Methana) and its typological context” Αργοσαρωνικός. Πρακτικά 1ου Sakellarakis, Y. 1970. Das Kuppelgrab A von Διεθνούς Συνεδρίου Ιστορίας και Αρχαιολογίας Archanes und das kretisch-mykenische του Αργοσαρωνικού. Πόρος, 26-29 Ιουνίου Tieropferritual PZ 45, 135-218, Heidelberg 1998 Α’, (2003) 285-296, fig. 2,

Sakellarakis, Y. & E. 1997. Αρχάνες. Μια νέα Xenaki-Sakellariou, A. 1985. Οι θαλαμωτοί ματιά στη Μινωική Κρήτη Ι , Athens τάφοι των Μυκηνών ανασκαφής Χρ. Τσούντα (1887-1898), Paris

16

Plate 6. a-e. School of Homer, Prehistoric pottery from the megaron,

f. Pottery of historical times

Plate 7. a. School of Homer, Sanctuary(?) north of the megaron, b-f. Finds from the sanctuary (?)

Plate 8. School of Homer, lower terrace, Mycenaean architectural remains

Plate 9. a- e. School of Homer, Underground spring (Knauss, 2006, figs. 2, 5, table, 2008, figs. 1-2,6, d. Provisional reconstruction

Plate 10. a,c-d. School of Homer , The List of plates so-called “Κυκλοτερές» monument and finds, e-f. Staircases cut on the Plate 1. a. Map of Ithaca. b- c. Polis rock bay from NE., Plate 11. a-d School of Homer, Plate 2. a. Mycenaean pottery from remains of Mycenaean walls and Tris Langades –Polis (Benton- parallel from the acropolis of Waterhouse, BSA 68, 1973, fig. 3), b. Mycenae,e. Recessed niche west of the Inscribed mask “EΥΧΗΝ ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙ» megaron (Βenton, BSA 35, 1934-35, fig. 7, c. Tripods in situ , d Reconstruction of Plate 12. School of Homer, upper tripod , (Benton, op.cit.. figs. 6,15 terrace. Metallurfical workshop, provisional reconstruction and finds Plate 3. a. School of Homer (air photo), b. Retaining wall and south Plate 13. School of Homer. gate leading to megaron, c.-d. Air Metallurgical workshop, bronze and photo of the lower terrace and lead lamps provisional reconstruction of the megaron Plate 14. School of Homer. Several prehistoric finds ( bronze and Plate 4. a. School of Homer bonepins, nails, fish-hooks) (Buchholz, Δώρον, 2009, fig. 3b), b. Lower terrce-megaron , c. “oxhide Plate 15. School of Homer, a-c. ingot” cut on the rock Prehistoric finds (handmade and Mycenaean pottery, d. broken stone Plate 5. a. School of Homer, vases, e-f. bronze spearhead and leaden Megaron, b-c. Hearth and provisional rivet reconstruction of the domos, d. cavity on the rock for the base of a column, e, Plate 16. School of Homer. a-f. Bone Handmade and Mycenaean pottery prehistoric obects, g. clay seal and from the hearth Minoan parallel

17

Plate 17. School of Homer. Topographical plans of the Mycenaean acropolis

Plate 18. School of Homer. Provisional reconstruction of the palace of Odysseus

18