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Surveying Is the Art of Determining the Relative Position

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Surveying Is the Art of Determining the Relative Position CE6304-SURVEYING-I UNIT-I INTRODUCTION AND CHAIN SURVEYING DEFINITION: Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction & elevation. Plane Survey: Surveying which the mean surface of earth regarded as plain surface and not curve it really is known as plain surveying. A following Assumption are made: (i) A level line is considered a strait line thus the plump line at a point is parallel plump line at any after point. (ii) The angles between two such lines that intersect is a plain angle and not a sphere angle. (iii) The meridian through any two points parallel. (iv) When we deal with only a small portion earths surface the above assumptions can justify. (v) The error induced for a length of an 18.5 kms it‘s only 0.0152 ms grater than sub dented chord 1.52 cm. Geodetic survey : Survey is which the shape (curvature) of the earth surface is taken in the account a higher degree of precision is exercised in linear and angular measurement is tanned as Geodetic Survey. A line connecting two points is regarded as an arc. Such surveys extend over large areas PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING Location of a point by measurement from 2 points of reference Working from whole to part. Location of a point by measurement from 2 points of reference There should be 2 points of reference say P & Q P,Q are the ground reference points and permanent points. Point R can be located by any one of the following direct methgods: Distance PR and QR can be measured and point R can be plotted by swinging the Two arcs of the same scale to which PQ has been plotted. The principle is very much used in chain surveying. Perpendicular RS can be dropped on the reference line PQ and the lengths PS and SR are measured. The point R can be plotted using this set square. This principle is used for defining details. The distance QR & the angle PQR can be measured and point R is plotted either by means of protractor or trigonometrically. The principle is used in traversing. In this distance PR and QR are not measured but angle RPQ are measured with an angle measuring instrument. Knowing the distance PQ point R is plotted either by means of protrctor or by solution of triangle PQR. This principle is used in triangulation. Angle RQP & distance PR are measured & point R is plotted either by protracting an angle & swinging an arc from P or plotted trigonometrically. Working from whole to part. First establish a system of control points & to fix them with higher precision. Minor control points can then be established by less precise methods & the details can then be located using these minor control points by running minor traverse etc., This method followed to prevent t the accumulation of errors & to control & localize minor errors. CLASSIFICATION (a)Classification based upon the nature of survey of field survey: (1) Land surveying Topographical surveys Cadastral surveys City surveying Topographical surveys: This consists of horizontal & vertical location of certain points by linear & angular measurements. To determine natural features of a country such as rivers, railways, canals, towns & villages. Cadastral surveys: Fixing of property lines, calculation of land area or transfer of land property from one owner to another. To fix boundaries of municipalities & of state & federal jurisdictions. City surveying: construction of streets, water supply system sewers & other works. (2) Marine/ Hydrographic survey: Bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water supply, harbour works or for determination of mean sea level. Measurement of discharge of streams, making topographic of shores & banks, taking& locating soundings to determine depth of water, fluctuations of the ocean tide. (3) Astronomical survey: To determine absolute location of any point & direction of any line on the surface of the earth. (b) Classification based on the object of survey : (1) Engineering survey: Determination of quantities or to afford sufficient data for the designing of engineering works such as road s& reservoirs, also sewage disposal or water supply. (2) Military survey: Points of strategic importance. (3) Mine Survey: Exploring mineral wealth (4) Geological Survey: Different strata in the earth‘ s crust (5) Archaeological survey: Unearthing relics of antiquity. ( c) Classification based on instrument used: 1) Chain survey 2) Theodolite survey 3) Triangular survey 4) Triangulation survey 5) Tacheometric survey 6) Plane table survey 7) Photographic survey 8) Aerial survey Field work & office work: Field work: 1. Establishing stations & bench marks of points of reference & thus to establish a system of horizontal & vertical control. 2. Measuring distance along the angles between the survey lines. 3. Locating details of survey with respect to stations & lines between stations, details such as boundary lines, streets, roads, buildings, streams, bridges & other natural & artificial features of area surveyed. 4. Giving lines & elevations for great variety of construction work such as that for buildings, boundaries, roads, culverts, bridges, sewers & water supply schemes. 5. Determining elevations of some existing points or establishing points @ given elevations. 6. Surveying contours of land areas in which the field work involve both horizontal & vertical control. 7. Carrying out miscellaneous operations such as, establishing parallel lines & perpendicular lines 8. Taking measurements to inaccessible points. 9.Surveying past the obstacles, & carrying on a great variety of similar field work that is based on geometric or trigonometric principles. 10. Making observations on the sun or a star to determine the meridian lartitude or longitude or to determine the local time. FIELD NOTES 1. Field notes are written records of field work made @ the time of work is done. 2. field notes should be legible, concise & comprehensive, written in clear, plain letters & figures. Rules for note-keepers: o Record directly in the field book as observations are made. o Use a sharp 2H or 3H pencil. Never use soft pencil or ink. o Follow a consistent simple style of writing. o Use a liberal number of carefully executed sketches. o Make the notes for each day‘ s work on the survey complete with a title of the survey, date, weather conditions, personnel of the crew, & list of equipment used. o Never erase. If a mistake is made, rule one line through the incorrect value and the correction above the mistake. o Sign the notes Field notes divided into 3 parts NUMERICAL VALUES o It includes the records of all measurements such as lengths of lines & offsets, staff readings & angles or directions. All significant figures should be recorded. o If length nearest to 0.01m is measured it should recorded as 342.30m & not 342.3m. record angles as 08 06‘ 20‖ using @ least 2 digits for each part of the angle. SKETCHES o Sketches are made as records of outlines, relative locations & topographic features. o Sketches are almost never made to scale. o If measurements are put directly on the sketches, make it clear where they belong. o Always make a sketch it will help to settle any dought. Make sketches large, open & clear. EXPLANATORY NOTES It is make clear that which is not perfectly evident from numerals & sketches, & to record such information concerning important features of the ground cover & the work done as might be of possible use later. OFFICE WORK Drafting: drafting consists of preparation of the plan and sections and to prepare topographic maps. Computing: it is of 2 kinds: 1. that done for purpose of plotting 2. that done for determining areas & volumes Designing: the surveyor may also be called upon to do some design works specially in case of route surveying. SCALES Scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with corresponding distance on the ground. Scale can be represented by following methods: NUMERICAL SCALE Engineer‟ s scale: one cm on the plan represents some whole number of meters on the ground, such as 1cm=10cm etc. This type of sale is called engineer‘ s scale. Representative Fraction one unit of length on the plan represents some number of same units of length on the ground, 1/1000, etc. This ratio of map distance to the corresponding ground distance is independent of units of measurement and is called representative fraction. Graphical scale: It is a line sub-divided into plan distance corresponding to convenient units of length on the ground. Choice of scale of a map The preliminary consideration in choosing the scale are: 1. the use to which the map will be put & 2. the extent of territory to be represented The following 2 rules should be followed: (1) Choose a scale large enough so that in plotting or in scaling distance from the finished map, it will not be necessary to read the scale closer than 0.25mm. (2) Choose as small as scale as is consistent with a clear declination of the smallest details to be plotted. Types of scales: 1. Plain Scale 2. Diagonal scale 3. Vernier scale 4. Scale of chords Plain scale: A plain scale is one in which it is possible to measure two dimensions only, such as units and lengths, metres and decimeters, miles & furlongs, etc. Diagonal scale: on a diagonal scale, it is possible to measure three dimensions such as metres, decimeters and centimeters; units, tenths and hundredths; yards, feet and inches etc. 1. A short length is divided into a number of parts by using the principle of similar triangles in which like sides are proportional. 2. For example let a short length PQ be divided into 10 parts. 3. At Q draw a line QR perpendicular to PQ and of any convenient length.
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