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Practical Physics.Pdf This page intentionally left blank Copyright © 2006, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected] ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2482-9 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com Preface The book is an outcome of the experience of the authors, which they have acquired in guiding the under-graduate and post-graduate students. The book is written in a simple and systematic form to enable the students to follow and perform the experiments on their own. Procedure for conducting each experiment is given in detail. Important precautions for performing the experiments have been listed. Viva-voce given at the end of each chapter sets on the thinking process in the mind of the reader. The book is divided into sixteen chapters. Chapter 1 deals with the experimental errors and the general instructions for the performance of different experiments. Detailed description of several apparatus are given in chapter 2 which would be helpful in enabling the students to handle the laboratory apparatus and to take measurements. The experiments in the under-graduate courses prevalent at various Indian Universities are contained in chapters 3 to 15. The theory and the procedure associated with each experiment have been thoroughly described. The precautions to be taken are also enumerated. The determination of experimental error for the quantity to be determined is also given. Tables of physical constants, log tables etc. are given in chapter 16. We are also greatful to Prof. T.P. Pandya and Prof. L.M. Bali for their constructive suggestions and constant encouragement. We extend our thanks to Prof. G.P. Gupta, Head of our department for his constant support. We hope that the book will prove helpful and will meet the needs of the students at under- graduate level of almost all the Indian Universities. We shall welcome suggestions for the improvement of this book. R.K. Shukla Anchal Srivastava This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface v 1. Introductory Concepts 1 1.1 Aim of the Experiment 1 1.2 Importance of Laboratory Work 1 1.3 General Instructions for Performing Experiments 2 1.4 How to Record an Experiment in the Practical File 2 1.5 Errors and Observations 3 1.6 Accuracy of Observations 4 1.7 Accuracy of the Result 4 1.8 Permissible Error in the Result 4 1.9 How to Estimate the Permissible Error in the Result 5 1.10 Estimating Maximum Permissible Error 6 1.11 Percentage Error 7 1.12 Significant Figures (Precision of Measurement) 7 1.13 Rounding Off 7 1.14 Logarithms 8 1.15 How to Read Four Figure Logarithm Tables 9 1.16 Graph 10 1.17 Calculations of Slope of a Straight Line 11 1.18 International System of Units (S.I. Units) 12 1.19 Rules for Measurements in the Laboratory 12 2. Instruments and Accessories 13 2.1 Some Instruments for Measurement of Length 13 2.2 Travelling Microscope 19 2.3 Cathetometer 20 2.4 The Balance 21 2.5 The Optical Bench 25 2.6 Parallax 26 2.7 The Spectrometer 26 2.8 Adjustments of the Spectrometer 27 2.9 Theory of Schuster’s Method 30 2.10 A Sliding Rheostat 31 2.11 Power of Accommodation of the Eye 32 2.12 Visual Angle: Magnifying Power of Optical Instruments 32 2.13 Astronomical (Refracting) Telescope 33 2.14 Reflecting Telescope 35 2.15 Simple Microscope 36 2.16 Compound Microscope 38 2.17 Resolving Power of Optical Instruments 41 viii Contents 2.18 Electron Microscope 43 2.19 Eye-Piece (Oculars) 43 2.20 Huygens Eyepiece 43 2.21 Cardinal Points of a Huygens Eye-piece 45 2.22 Ramsden Eye-piece 46 2.23 Cardinal Points of a Ramsden Eye-piece 47 2.24 Gauss Eye-piece 48 2.25 Comparison of Eye-pieces 48 2.26 Spectrum 49 2.27 Sources of Light 50 2.28 Sodium Vapour Lamp 51 2.29 Mercury Vapour Lamp 52 2.30 Electromagnetic Spectrum 53 3. Elasticity 55 3.1 Elasticity 55 3.2 Load 55 3.3 Stress 55 3.4 Strain 56 3.5 Hooke’s Law 56 3.6 Elastic Limit 56 3.7 Types of Elasticity 56 3.8 Young‘s Modulus (or Elasticity of Length) 57 3.9 Bulk Modulus (or Elasticity of Volume) 57 3.10 Modulus of Rigidity (Torsion modulus or Elasticity of Shape) 58 3.11 Axial Modulus 58 3.12 Poisson’s Ratio 59 3.13 Relation between Elastic Constant 59 3.14 Limiting Values of Poisson’s Ratio (s)60 3.15 Twisting Couple on a Cylinder 60 3.16 Object (Barton’s Apparatus) 62 3.17 Beam 66 3.18 Bending of a Beam 66 3.19 Theory of Simple Bending 67 3.20 Bending Moment 67 3.21 The Cantilever 69 3.22 Beam Supported at both the Ends and Loaded in the Middle 70 3.23 Object (Young’s Modulus) 71 3.24 Object (Poisson’s Ratio for Rubber) 74 3.25 Fly-Wheel (Moment of Inertia) 78 3.26 Torsion Table (Elasticity) 81 3.27 Object (To determine the restoring force per unit extension of a spiral spring by statical and dynamical methods and also to determine the mass of the spring) 85 3.28 Object (To study the oscillations of a rubber band and a spring) 90 Contents ix 3.29 Object (To determine Young’s Modulus, Modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ratio of the material of a given wire by Searle’s dynamical method) 93 3.30 Object (To determine the value of the modulus of rigidity of the material of a given wire by a dynamical method using Maxwell’s needle) 99 3.31 Object (To study the variation of moment of inertia of a system with the variation in the distribution of mass and hence to verify the theorem of parallel axes) 103 3.32 Viva-Voce 105 4. Acceleration Due to Gravity 118 4.1 Acceleration Due to Gravity 118 4.2 Periodic Motion 118 4.3 Simple Harmonic Motion 118 4.4 Energy of a Harmonic Oscillator 120 4.5 The Simple Pendulum 121 4.6 Drawbacks of a Simple Pendulum 122 4.7 The Compound Pendulum 122 4.8 Centre of Oscillation 124 4.9 Interchangeability of Centres of Suspension and Oscillation 124 4.10 Maximum and Minimum Time-period of a Compound Pendulum 125 4.11 Advantages of a Compound Pendulum 126 4.12 Determination of the Value of G 126 4.13 Object (To determine the value of ‘g’ and the moment of inertia of a bar about C.G. by means of a bar pendulum) 126 4.14 Time-period of a Pendulum for Large Amplitude 131 4.15 Object (To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity at a place, by means of Kater’s reversible pendulum) 132 4.16 Viva-Voce 135 5. Surface Tension 140 5.1 Surface Tension 140 5.2 Definition of Surface Tension 140 5.3 Surface Energy 141 5.4 Molecular Theory of Surface Tension 142 5.5 Shape of Liquid Meniscus in a Glass Tube 143 5.6 Angle of Contact 143 5.7 Excess of Pressure on Curved Surface of Liquid 144 5.8 Capillarity Rise of Liquid 145 5.9 Object (To find the surface Tension of a liquid (water) by the method of Capillary Rise) 147 5.10 Object (To determine the surface tension of a liquid (water) by Jaeger’s method) 151 5.11 Viva-Voce 155 x Contents 6. Viscosity 160 6.1 Ideal Liquid 160 6.2 Stream-lined Flow 160 6.3 Principle of Continuity 160 6.4 Energy of a Flowing Liquid 161 6.5 Bernoulli’s Theorem 162 6.6 Velocity of Efflux 162 6.7 Viscosity 163 6.8 Critical Velocity 164 6.9 Velocity Gradient and Coefficient of Viscosity 165 6.10 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity 166 6.11 Poiseuille’s Formula 166 6.12 Stoke’s Law for Viscous Drag on Moving Bodies 168 6.13 Effect of Various Factors on Viscosity of Fluids 169 6.14 Object (Determination of the viscosity of water by method of capillary flow) 169 6.15 Rotating Cylinder Method 172 6.16 Object (To determine the coefficient of viscosity of water by rotating Cylinder method) 175 6.17 Viva-Voce 179 7. Sound 182 7.1 Speed of Transverse Wave in Stretched String 182 7.2 Vibrations of Stretched String 182 7.3 Fundamental and Overtones of a String 183 7.4 Sonometer 184 7.5 Object (To determine the frequency of A.C. mains by using a sonometer and a horse-shoe magnet) 185 7.6 Object (To determine the frequency of A.C. mains or of an electric vibrator, by Melde’s experiment using) 188 7.7 Viva-Voce 190 8. The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 194 8.1 Description of the Callender-and-Barnes Calorimeter 194 8.2 Object (To determine the Mechanical Equivalent of heat (J) by the Callender and Barnes method) 195 8.3 Viva-Voce 197 9. Thermoelectric Effect 199 9.1 Thermoelectric Effect 199 9.2 Origin of Thermo e.m.f.
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