PhysicsPhysics 101101 LectureLecture 2121 DopplerDoppler EffectEffect LoudnessLoudness HumanHuman HearingHearing InterferenceInterference ofof SoundSound WavesWaves ReflectionReflection && RefractionRefraction ofof SoundSound Quiz: Monday Oct. 18; Chaps. 16,17,18(as covered in class),19 CR/NC Deadline Oct. 19

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DemoDemo:: DopplerDoppler ShiftShift Hear frequency as higher when whistle is moving towards you and hear it as lower when moving away from you.

Summary: Source & observer approaching, fobs>fs Source & observer separating, fobs

Higher Shorter Wavelength Frequency

Lower Frequency Longer Wavelength

13-Oct-10 2/32 LoudnessLoudness && AmplitudeAmplitude Loudness depends on amplitude of pressure and density variations in sound waves.

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deciBelsdeciBels (dB) (dB) Loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of pressure variation in the sound wave.

Loudness is measured in deciBels (dB), which is a logarithmic scale (since our perception of loudness varies logarithmically).

From the threshold of hearing (0 dB) to the threshold of pain (120 dB), the pressure amplitude is a million times higher.

At the threshold of pain (120 db), the pressure variation is still only about 10 Pascals, which is one ten thousandth of atmospheric pressure.

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Human Hearing

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HearingHearing LossLoss The hair cells that line the cochlea are a delicate and vulnerable part of the ear. Repeated or sustained exposure to loud noise destroys the neurons in this region. Once destroyed, the hair cells are not replaced, and the sound frequencies interpreted by them are no longer heard. Hair cells that respond to high frequency sound are very vulnerable to destruction, and loss of these neurons typically produces difficulty understanding human voices. Much of this type of permanent hearing loss is avoidable by What? reducing exposure, such as to

loud music. 8/32 AudiogramAudiogram -- Chart Chart ofof HearingHearing LossLoss

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InterferenceInterference ofof SoundSound WavesWaves

• Sound waves from multiple sources can occupy a region of space. • The sound waves can interfere constructively in the are “in step” (in phase) • The sound waves interfere destructively if they are out of step (out of phase)

10/32 DemoDemo:: InIn && OutOut ofof PhasePhase

Pair of speakers constructively interfere when they are in phase (oscillating together). When out of phase (reverse wires on one of the speakers) then they destructively interfere.

Out of Phase

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Noise-CancelingNoise-Canceling HeadphonesHeadphones Noise-canceling headphones use a microphone that listens for noise and a speaker that produces the same noise but out of phase (cancellation by destructive interference)

External Noise

Canceling Sound 12/32 SpeakerSpeaker BaffleBaffle Why are speakers mounted behind a baffle board and inside an enclosure?

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ReflectionReflection ofof SoundSound Sound reflects strongly from rigid surfaces. Softer surfaces absorb sound.

Quiet after a fresh snowfall because the soft, irregular surface of the snow absorbs sound instead of reflecting it.

13-Oct-10 14/32 CCheckheck YYourselfourself When crowded, which restaurant will be quieter?

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ReflectionReflection ofof SoundSound Reflection • Process in which sound encountering a surface is returned • Often called an echo • Multiple reflections—called reverberations

16/32 SingingSinging inin thethe ShowerShower Multiple reflections from the hard walls create reverberation. Hear your voice from several sources, slightly shifted in time. Reverberation extends each note and smears Your voice sounds (smoothens) the better when singing in the shower 13-Oct-10pitch. Demos 17/32

RefractionRefraction (bending)(bending) ofof SoundSound Sound speed can vary by material or temperature. Sound moving into a different region will bend in direction, in the same way that light bends when it passes through a glass lens.

Fig. 20.8

13-Oct-10 18/32 UltrasoundUltrasound Ultrasound is high frequency (Megahertz), short wavelength (0.1 mm) sound. Reflections and refractions of ultrasound by flesh and bone allow “seeing” inside the human body. 13-Oct-10 19/32

MusicalMusical SoundSound A musical “note” has four characteristics: • Duration • Loudness • Pitch (e.g., Middle C, A above middle C) • Timbre or Quality (e.g, piano versus violin) Let’s investigate the physical properties underlying these four characteristics.

13-Oct-10 20/32 PitchPitch && FrequencyFrequency The faster the vibrations (higher the frequency), the higher the “pitch” of the musical note produced.

There is a direct relationship between the pitch of a note and the frequency of the sound wave.

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FundamentalFundamental FrequencyFrequency RangeRange ofof MusicalMusical InstrumentsInstruments

Piccolo

Soprano Voice Bass Voice Piano Freq (Hz) 27.5 82 131 262 523 1046 2093 4186

Pitch AEC3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 Note(!) that going up an octave in pitch doubles frequency

22/32 OctaveOctave The note produced by two strings, one half the length of the other, sounded similar. In Western music these two notes are said to be an octave apart. The frequencies have a 2:1 ratio. Men and women typically sing an octave apart.

C5 C4

13-Oct-10 Sing “SomePhysics-where 1 (Garcia)over SJSU the rainbow…” 23/32

WaveformsWaveforms && SoundSound “Quality”“Quality” •The waveform of a sound wave is the pattern of air pressure changes over one cycle Sine Wave: Perceived as a “pure tone”. Excites only one region of the Basilar Membrane

Triangle Wave: Perceived as “complex tone”. Excites several areas of Basilar Membrane. Can be made by combining sine wave “building blocks”. 24/32 MusicalMusical WaveformsWaveforms

Tuning Fork Clarinet Cornet

Demonstration – Listen to & see some waveforms

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WaveformWaveform SpectrumSpectrum (Harmonics)(Harmonics) • Complex tones (triangle wave, clarinet waveform) can be made by combining sine waves with different frequencies. • The sine wave frequencies used, and the amount of each, determine the spectrum of the waveform • Compare to the situation of “complex light” such as white light, which is made up of a mixture of the “pure” colors of the rainbow

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28/32 MusicalMusical “Tone“Tone Quality”Quality” (Timbre)(Timbre) • Tone quality, or timbre, is determined by the waveform, or alternately, by the spectrum or harmonic content of the sound.

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HarmonicsHarmonics • Complex music tones (waveforms) built up from: –A fundamental sine wave (frequency f) – Harmonics of the fundamental – i.e., sine waves whose frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency f •2nd harmonic: sine wave of frequency 2f •3rd harmonic: sine wave of frequency 3f, etc. • For example, “A above middle C” on a cornet has – 3 units 440 Hz sine wave (fundamental) – 4.5 units 880 Hz sine (2nd harmonic) – 8 units 1320 Hz sine (3rd harmonic) – 3 units 1760 Hz sine (4th harmonic), etc.

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KeyKey PointsPoints ofof LectureLecture 2121 • Doppler Effect • Loudness • Human Hearing • Interference of Sound Waves • Reflection and Refraction of Sound Waves • Musical Sounds z Before Monday, read Hewitt Chap. 21 (first 6 pages). z Homework Assignment #14 is due before 11:00 PM on Friday, Oct. 15. z Homework #15 due by 11:00 PM Sunday Oct. 17.

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