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Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC pre-domestication rice cultivation began in the region between the Yellow and Huai rivers (Zhang, C. 2011), and perhaps also in the Middle Yangtze Valley at c. 7000–6000 cal BC (e.g. Crawford & Chen 1998; Yan 2002; Yasuda 2002; Bellwood 2005: 111; Zhang & Hung 2008; Fuller et al. 2009). Between 7000 and 2100 BC, some hunter-gatherer groups co-existed with early rice cultivators in the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley, and a variety of mixed economies co-existed in southern China (Table 1). Three types of likely subsistence strategy may be defined: Pleistocene hunting-gathering, documented mostly in caves; more complex hunting-gathering in the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene, in both caves and open settlements, with pottery and cemeteries; and the developing farming of food during the Middle Holocene. These three modes of subsistence were not exclusive, and each was associated with identifiable cultural characteristics that appeared with different chronologies, in different locations, in southern China. In a previous study, we proposed that rice cultivation was introduced into southern China and Southeast Asia from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley through population movement around 3000–2000 BC, via separate coastal and inland routes (Zhang & Hung 2010). In this paper we provide a social context for this innovation, focusing attention on the indigenous hunter-gatherer groups in China south of the Yangtze, and in particular exploring the nature of their economies before the introduction of rice—that is in the period between 18 000 and 3000 BC (all carbon dates are calibrated unless otherwise noted).
Sources The evidence comes predominantly from middens in caves (Figure 1) and open sites. The principal deposits and their cultural designations (see Figure 2 and Table 1) are the Dingsishan and Da But shell middens in Guangxi and northern Vietnam (Zone H), Gaomiao shell middens in the Middle Yuanshui Valley (Zone B), Chengbeixi-Daxi-Yuxiping deposits with dense fish bones in Xia-Jiang (the Three Gorges and western Hubei) (Zone Gh, within Zone G), Xiantouling sand dune sites in the Zhujiang (Pearl River) delta of Guangdong (Zone C), Keqiutou, Fuguodun (Zone D) and Dabenkeng (Zone F) shell middens along the south-eastern coasts of Guangdong, Fujian and northern Vietnam, together with Taiwan. None of these sites has so far yielded any evidence for farming, but all have produced large numbers of pottery sherds and edge-ground stone tools, and the open sites indicate settlements with well-defined domestic, industrial and perhaps ritual areas. The task is to discover the possible role that these continuing hunter-gatherers played in subsequent cultural and population developments in Middle Holocene southern China.
Terminal Pleistocene cave sites in southern China (Figure 1) Cave sites with large quantities of shell midden are distributed north and south of the Nanling Mountains. Important excavated caves include Xianrendong (Figure 1, no. 1; Figures 3 & 4) and Diaotonghuan in Wannian (Jiangxi); Huangyandong in Fengkai, Dushizai in Yangchun, Niulandong in Yingde (Guangdong); Luobidong in Sanya (Hainan); Yuchanyan in Dao C Antiquity Publications Ltd.
12 Table 1. Chronological contexts of southern Chinese Neolithic cultures, both of farmers and of complex hunter-gatherers (the latter in italics). See also Figures 1 & 2. Region Yangtze alluvial plain South of the Nanling Mountains Age Phase Hubei & Dongting Southern Gan-Bo region Jiang-Zhe region Guangxi Guangdong Fujian Taiwan Xia-Jiang Lake Hunan region Xia-Jiang Hubei region Dongting Yuanshui Gan Valley Yangtze delta region: Three Lake River Poyang-Lake Gorges plain region plain
18000–7000 Late Palaeolithic Xianrendong & Dayan, Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang BC to Early Diao- Miaoyan & Neolithic tonghuan Zengpiyan caves caves Yuchanyan Niulandong Cave Cave
13 Shangshan culture 7000–5000 BC Middle Pengtoushan Pengtoushan Xiaohuangshan- Dingsishan Neolithic culture culture Kuahuqiao culture culture Xia-Jiang Chengbeixi Zaoshi Gaomiao variant of culture culture variant the Chengbeixi culture 5000–3000 BC Early Phase of Xia-Jiang Daxi culture Daxi culture Late Gao- Shinianshan Hemudu culture Dingsishan Xiantouling Late variant of miao culture culture culture ∗∗ C Neolithic the Daxi niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity culture Yuanshui Majiabang culture Keqiutou variant of & the Daxi Fuguo- culture∗ dun culture
Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC Dabenkeng culture culture cord-marked pottery culture Early Late Dabenkeng Fine culture Shixia culture Tanshisan South of the Nanling Mountains culture? Phase 4 Guangxi Guangdong Fujian Taiwan Dingsishan Dingsishan culture region culture culture culture Early Songze Yangtze delta Late Songze Liangzhu Nandang Poyang-Lake plain Fanchengdui culture Fanchengdui culture and Shanbei culture Gan-Bo region Jiang-Zhe Gan Valley Early Late Hunan River region culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Southern Yuanshui Qujialing Early Middle Late Lake region Lake plain culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Yangtze alluvial plain Dongting Qujialing Early Middle Late culture culture Shijiahe culture Hubei region Dongting Qujialing Early Shijiahe Middle Xia-Jiang region: Three Gorges variant culture culture culture culture Xia-Jiang Yuxiping Qujialing Early Shijiahe Middle Shijiahe Late Shijiahe Late Neolithic Neolithic Phase Hubei & Alternatively known as the Lingnan variant of the Daxi culture Alternatively known as the Songxikou culture Region Table 1. Continued Age ∗ ∗∗ 3000–2100 BC Late Phase of 2100–1800 BC Terminal