o ml giutr.Tenra supinb atAinacaooit sta this that is archaeologists Asian East by by assumption made normal was The agriculture. imply not g eg u .-.19;Zag .19;Ysd 02 Boaretto East 2002; of Yasuda region 1999; years general C. 000 the Zhang, 20 1999; from T.L-D. about comes in Lu, —commencing world (e.g. separated southern the ago components, and in many Siberia pottery had Japan, earliest Asia Asia—particularly The arrival East the space. in means transition and the often time ‘Neolithic’ into the where But Pleistocene 2000), pottery. C. Late of (Zhang, the Neolithic Neolithic Early to from Palaeolithic or Post-Palaeolithic, period Mesolithic, transition, as the China southern to in Holocene variously Early refer archaeologists Chinese Introduction Chi Zhang BC 000–3000 18 China, southern in hunter-gatherers Later amr,rc cultivation rice farmers, land. varied big Keywords: practice a the in but links then, transition and linear adaptations simple strategies, No soils. ingenious fertile of less onto expanded they when turn in 2 1 ANTIQUITY C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity rhelg n nhoooy h utainNtoa nvriy abra C 20 Australia 0200, ACT Canberra, University, [email protected]) National (Email: Australian The Anthropology, and Archaeology eateto rhelg n aua itr,Sho fClue itr n agaeadSho of School and Language and History Culture, of School History, Natural and China Archaeology Beijing, of University, Peking Department Museology, and Archaeology of School 6(02:11–29 (2012): 86 otenCia otenVenm elti rniin utrgtees early hunter-gatherers, transition, Neolithic Vietnam, northern China, southern 1 sa-hnHung Hsiao-chun & oethunter-gatherers forest Ysd 02.Aot1 0 er ae,initial later, years 000 11 About 2002). (Yasuda 2 11 oearcluait eaehunter-foragers years. parallel became 5000 agriculturalists their Some than more , over the contemporaries on in non-farmers cultivators rice with colonising attributes cultural fish numerous These shared or dunes. shell and left ‘pottery- times. the who of and hunter-gatherers role sophisticated foragers’, places the using define different authors at The cultivation arrive rice all and aggregation, animal social pottery, where really human experience, the of doesn’t chapter fascinating package’ this for work ‘Neolithic millennia The fifth to BC. ninth Holocene, Early in the China southern in developments economic and social on research new present authors The http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/086/ant0860011.htm tal. et 09 u does but 2009)

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC pre-domestication rice cultivation began in the region between the Yellow and Huai rivers (Zhang, C. 2011), and perhaps also in the Middle Yangtze Valley at c. 7000–6000 cal BC (e.g. Crawford & Chen 1998; Yan 2002; Yasuda 2002; Bellwood 2005: 111; Zhang & Hung 2008; Fuller et al. 2009). Between 7000 and 2100 BC, some hunter-gatherer groups co-existed with early rice cultivators in the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley, and a variety of mixed economies co-existed in southern China (Table 1). Three types of likely subsistence strategy may be defined: Pleistocene hunting-gathering, documented mostly in caves; more complex hunting-gathering in the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene, in both caves and open settlements, with pottery and cemeteries; and the developing farming of food during the Middle Holocene. These three modes of subsistence were not exclusive, and each was associated with identifiable cultural characteristics that appeared with different chronologies, in different locations, in southern China. In a previous study, we proposed that rice cultivation was introduced into southern China and Southeast Asia from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley through population movement around 3000–2000 BC, via separate coastal and inland routes (Zhang & Hung 2010). In this paper we provide a social context for this innovation, focusing attention on the indigenous hunter-gatherer groups in China south of the Yangtze, and in particular exploring the nature of their economies before the introduction of rice—that is in the period between 18 000 and 3000 BC (all carbon dates are calibrated unless otherwise noted).

Sources The evidence comes predominantly from middens in caves (Figure 1) and open sites. The principal deposits and their cultural designations (see Figure 2 and Table 1) are the Dingsishan and Da But shell middens in Guangxi and northern Vietnam (Zone H), Gaomiao shell middens in the Middle Yuanshui Valley (Zone B), Chengbeixi-Daxi-Yuxiping deposits with dense fish bones in Xia-Jiang (the Three Gorges and western Hubei) (Zone Gh, within Zone G), Xiantouling sand dune sites in the Zhujiang (Pearl River) delta of Guangdong (Zone C), Keqiutou, Fuguodun (Zone D) and Dabenkeng (Zone F) shell middens along the south-eastern coasts of Guangdong, Fujian and northern Vietnam, together with Taiwan. None of these sites has so far yielded any evidence for farming, but all have produced large numbers of pottery sherds and edge- tools, and the open sites indicate settlements with -defined domestic, industrial and perhaps ritual areas. The task is to discover the possible role that these continuing hunter-gatherers played in subsequent cultural and population developments in Middle Holocene southern China.

Terminal Pleistocene sites in southern China (Figure 1) Cave sites with large quantities of shell are distributed north and south of the Nanling Mountains. Important excavated caves include Xianrendong (Figure 1, no. 1; Figures 3 & 4) and Diaotonghuan in Wannian (Jiangxi); Huangyandong in Fengkai, Dushizai in Yangchun, Niulandong in Yingde (Guangdong); Luobidong in Sanya (Hainan); Yuchanyan in Dao C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

12 Table 1. Chronological contexts of southern Chinese Neolithic cultures, both of farmers and of complex hunter-gatherers (the latter in italics). See also Figures 1 & 2. Region Yangtze alluvial plain South of the Nanling Mountains Age Phase Hubei & Dongting Southern Gan-Bo region Jiang-Zhe region Guangxi Guangdong Fujian Taiwan Xia-Jiang Lake Hunan region Xia-Jiang Hubei region Dongting Yuanshui Gan Valley Yangtze delta region: Three Lake River Poyang-Lake Gorges plain region plain

18000–7000 Late Palaeolithic Xianrendong & Dayan, Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang BC to Early Diao- Miaoyan & Neolithic tonghuan Zengpiyan caves caves Yuchanyan Niulandong Cave Cave

13 Shangshan culture 7000–5000 BC Middle Pengtoushan Pengtoushan Xiaohuangshan- Dingsishan Neolithic culture culture Kuahuqiao culture culture Xia-Jiang Chengbeixi Zaoshi Gaomiao variant of culture culture variant the Chengbeixi culture 5000–3000 BC Early Phase of Xia-Jiang Daxi culture Daxi culture Late Gao- Shinianshan Dingsishan Xiantouling Late variant of miao culture culture culture ∗∗ C Neolithic the Daxi niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity culture Yuanshui Keqiutou variant of & the Daxi Fuguo- culture∗ dun culture

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC Dabenkeng culture culture cord-marked pottery culture Early Late Dabenkeng Fine culture Shixia culture Tanshisan South of the Nanling Mountains culture? Phase 4 Guangxi Guangdong Fujian Taiwan Dingsishan Dingsishan culture region culture culture culture Early Songze Yangtze delta Late Songze Liangzhu Nandang Poyang-Lake plain Fanchengdui culture Fanchengdui culture and Shanbei culture Gan-Bo region Jiang-Zhe Gan Valley Early Late Hunan River region culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Southern Yuanshui Qujialing Early Middle Late Lake region Lake plain culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Shijiahe culture Yangtze alluvial plain Dongting Qujialing Early Middle Late culture culture Shijiahe culture Hubei region Dongting Qujialing Early Shijiahe Middle Xia-Jiang region: Three Gorges variant culture culture culture culture Xia-Jiang Yuxiping Qujialing Early Shijiahe Middle Shijiahe Late Shijiahe Late Neolithic Neolithic Phase Hubei & Alternatively known as the Lingnan variant of the Daxi culture Alternatively known as the Songxikou culture Region Table 1. Continued Age ∗ ∗∗ 3000–2100 BC Late Phase of 2100–1800 BC Terminal

C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

14 hnet rae s fsalflk ol,sc ssrpr n ons hs trends These no. points. 1, and (Figure Guangxi scrapers Liuzhou, as in Cave such Bailiandong tools, in flake was sequence there layer small the BP of in 000 use seen 30 greater associated be From can have a 2005). Y.P. archaeologists used (Wang, to Chinese be processing change some to and a that continued collection flakes China plant and southern wild tools with in pebble of artefacts Asia types Southeast stone make in instance, Hoabinhian to For the of 1–24). those 1994: to similar (Jiao are Mountains), Nanling the of (south Yangtze. iecliaini h egosa phase, Pengtoushan the in Boaretto 98–100; cultivation 2003: Wu rice & Zhao 1999; C. Zhang, al. to 1999; et dated T.L-D. Lu, is (e.g. Miaoyan BC and Jiao cal Yuchanyan 000 Xianrendong, 1991; 15 Chinese at (Yuan instance, phase For Vietnam. older. Holocene this are of they Early northern suggest beginning dates the the radiocarbon in new to but occur 6–18), middens 1999: Wu also cave 1–24; 1994: these deposits dated cave Liyuzui previously and Similar researchers Bailiandong (Guangxi). and Guilin, Liuzhou in Dayan in and Miaoyan Zengpiyan, (Hunan); county Zengpiyan, 7) Hunan; county, Guangxi. city, Dao Liuzhou Yuchanyan, Liyuzui, and Wannian 6) Bailiandong Diaotonghuan, 8) Hainan; and Guangxi; county, county, Xianrendong Guilin Sanya 1) Dayan, BC: Luobidong, and 7000 Miaoyan 5) and Niulandong, Guangdong; 000 4) Guangdong; 18 county, county, Yangchun between Dushizai, Yingde 3) dating Guangdong; county, sites Fengkai cave Huangyandong, 2) key Jiangxi; county, of Location 1. Figure ntrso tn ehooy h sebae nsuhr hn,epcal Lingnan especially China, southern in assemblages the , stone of terms In 09.Teselmdesi hs ae otne ni h dnial einnsof beginnings identifiable the until continued caves these in middens shell The 2009). hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang c. 15 00B,drn h elti fteMiddle the of Neolithic the during BC, 7000 C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity c. 8000– 18

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC

Figure 2. Suggested pre-farming cultural relationships in southern China: A) initial agricultural societies in the Middle Yangtze Valley. It is proposed that B developed on the periphery of A, and Gh developed on the periphery of G, but was originally from A. Later, group B moved to coastal south-eastern China to become C and D, and finally F, possibly with other influences from area E (Lower Yangtze). Area H was occupied by indigenous complex hunter-gatherers, descendants of the makers of pebble and flake tools. A) Pengtoushan-Zaoshi, 7000–5000 BC; B) Gaomiao, 5500–3500 BC; C) Xiantouling, 5000–3500/3000 BC; D) Keqiutou, 4500–3500 BC; E) unknown culture in the mountain regions near the Lower Yangtze River; F) Early Dabenkeng, 4000–3500 BC; G) Chengbeixi-Daxi, 5500–3000 BC; Gh) Xia-Jiang variant of the Chengbeixi-Daxi cultures & Yuxiping variant, 5500–3000 BC; H) Dingsishan, 7000–3000 BC; I) Da But, 5500–2000 BC; J) Hainan Island, 4000–3000 BC.

8). In northern China, contemporary sites contain a microlithic assemblage, regarded as representing a hunting economy (Wang, Y.P. 2005), found mostly in open sites. The main lithic found in Xianrendong, Bailiandong and Liyuzui during this phase included chert and quartz scrapers, pointed tools and other small flake tools. Bone and antler tools included awls, points and possible hoes. with one or two holes were made of large bivalve shells. At Xianrendong, bone needles, , fishing points, and shell knives were also found. Coarse pottery with temper of quartz grit was found in Xianrendong, Diaotonghuan, Yuchanyan, Dayan, Miaoyan, Zengpiyan and Niulandong caves. The oldest pottery is either plain or combed with a multiple toothed tool to form parallel rib-like striations over the surface. Later pottery is cord-impressed (Zhang, C. 2007: 1–16). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

16 fteNoihci otenCia oee,det h bec ffrigw rfrto prefer we farming of absence phase. the Palaeolithic to Late/Final due the However, as China. it designate southern origin in the Neolithic as the phase the this to regard of similar archaeologists Chinese degree many some and cultures, to Neolithic are following economy, fishing-hunting-gathering to the of evidence diversification insufficient is there 1–11). 122), 2000: 2000: (Nakamura W.X. cultivation rice Zhang, indicate 113–206; 1999: (Gu deposits CASS sativa IA, 35; 2000: (Yuan sp.) egia hr eeas ndnie hre ues(possibly In tubers seeds. charred plant unidentified edible gooseberries, also other many were Plant Chinese and there bones. nuts Zengpiyan include hickory bird hackberries, Zengpiyan Chinese are plums, and there grapes, wild Yuchanyan Zengpiyan and from Yuchanyan, recovered Xianrendong, macroremains in and turtles, and reevesi Muntiacus ntenme faia pce xlie.Gnrly h ae il 03 ye ffood of types 20–30 yield caves the Generally, as exploited. such deer, species especially animal animal, of number the in iue3 inedn ae inx rvne(htgah sa-hnHung). Hsiao-chun (photograph: Province Jiangxi Cave, Xianrendong 3. Figure h e ye fsoeatfc,bn ol n otr nti hs,a ela h apparent the as well as phase, this in pottery and tools bone artefact, stone of types new The hrceitco hspaei h xaae ae sa paetices hog time through increase apparent an is caves excavated the in phase this of Characteristic htltsocri h inedn,Datnha,Nuadn n Yuchanyan and Niulandong Diaotonghuan, Xianrendong, the in occur phytoliths and ocu berezovskii Moschus evsunicolor Cervus hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang tal. et 03 4) lhuhavr ml ubrof number small very a Although 343). 2003: h qai nml r anysels,fish shellfish, mainly are animals aquatic The . 17 , utau muntjak, Muntiacus Dioscorea C evsnpo taiouanus, nippon Cervus niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity p and sp. Colocasia Oryza

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC

Figure 4. Paul Goldberg examining the profile of Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi Province. Early pottery from layer 3C(1)A is dated to c. 16 000 BC and from 3C(1)B (below A) is dated to c. 18 000 BC (photograph: Hsiao-chun Hung).

Shell midden sites in Guangxi and northern Vietnam: Dingsishan & Da But (7000–3000 BC) (Zones H & I in Figure 2) From c. 7000 BC onwards, open settlements began to appear on river terraces, and represent the origin points of regional farming cultures. However, cave occupation endured, for example until 6000 BC in Xianrendong and 5000–4000 BC in Zengpiyan. Moreover, while rice-growing economies were developing in the Middle and Lower Yangtze, a contemporary complex hunting-gathering group termed the Dingsishan culture continued in existence and grew (Guangxi Team et al. 1998; Fu 2002a). Dingsishan cultural shell middens are widely distributed in Guangxi, western Guangdong and northern Vietnam c. 7000–3000 BC. Most of them are located on the terraces of the Zuojiang, Youjiang and Yongjiang rivers near Nanning, in southern Guangxi. Dingsishan subsistence during phases 1 to 3 (7000–3000/2100 BC) is suggested by phytoliths of grasses, palms, cucurbits and annonaceae. There is no evidence for rice phytoliths until Dingsishan phase 4 (Zhao et al. 2005: 76–84), c. 2500–2000 BC (Zhang & Hung 2010). The size of the shell midden at Dingsishan is around 5000m2, and excavation has revealed the existence of separate living areas, a cemetery and areas for dumping refuse. Sixteen burials have been excavated from phase 2 and 133 from phase 3, within a 500m2 excavated area C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

18 ihu rv od.Apteymnfcuigwrso fti utr a enreported Team been (Guangxi has culture midden this all shell of burials, workshop Baozitou dismembered manufacturing from even pottery and A crouched goods. flexed, grave without included cemeteries These Xian-guo). 5). Fu (Figure of courtesy photograph 237, 2002b: (Fu Guangxi southern in site cemetery Dingsishan The 5. Figure hr ee7 pce L,P 00 58)(e al ) oe fdmsi o appeared dog domestic of Bones itself, 2). Table Dingsishan (see In 75–80) 2010). 2010: P. P. (Lu, (Lu, species phase Aves, 74 cultural were Reptilia, this there Pisces, during Crustacea, belonging exploited Lamellibranchia, species middens were (Gastropoda, 84 shell Mammalia) animal that separate suggests of Valley 10 classes Yongjiang the from seven in unearthed to phase remains cultural animal Dingsishan the the of of study systematic A with sites. phase decoration. later cord-marked a and and shell phase ribbing; crushed earlier parallel or the and sand phases: featuring temper and cultural pottery quartz Dingsishan two with both into distinguished At divided pottery marked. be so- with cord can perforated assemblage or are pottery ribbed the parallel tools Baozitou, are shell surfaces common Pottery (all most temper. hooks sand The and pottery. and needles, tools awls, called arrowheads, shell bone), bone), and of stone made of (made and long a through occupied been have could middens shell period. these that suggests cemeteries and ag uniiso qai n ersra nmlbnshv endsoee nDingsishan in discovered been have bones animal terrestrial and aquatic of quantities Large stone polished include 3) to 1 (phases middens shell Dingsishan in found artefacts The fish-headed nvs h otr a rys-rw nclu ihcas urzor quartz coarse with colour in greyish-brown was pottery The knives. hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang 19 tal. et 03.Ti vdnefrworkshops for evidence This 2003). C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC (Gray (Richardson (Gray 1834) (Linnaeus 1758) (G.. Cuvier (Richardson (Boddaert 1785) hodgsoni (Gray 1864) (Wiegmann 1835) (Ogilby 1839) (Linnaeus 1758) (F. Cuvier 1825) (Hamilton-Smith (Temminck 1838) (Kerr 1792) Latin name (Linnaeus 1758) (Linnaeus) 1758 sp. sp. sp. sp. ) ( brachyura sp. sp (p). stor fiber 1847) 1846) 1845) (Valenciennes 1844) 1823) 1831) Hystrix Lepus Rhizomys Pelodiscus sinensis Mylopharyngodon piceus Pelochelys cantorii Canis lupus familiaris Nyctereutes procyonoides Selenarctos thibetanus Ctenopharyngodon idella Elopichthys bambusa Arctonyx collaris Lutra lutra Paguma larvata Elephas maximus Rhinoceros Sus Muntiacus vaginalis Muntiacus reevesi Rusa unicolor Cervus Nippon Bubalus Microtus Ca English name Hare Himalayan porcupine Bamboo rat Eurasian beaver Class (Ferussac) Northern Red Muntjac (Kobelt) Crustacea Decapoda (Morelet) Masked Palm Civet (Gray) Hog Badger ¨ (Nevill) Raccoon dog uller) (Brot) Eurasian otter (H. Adams) Pig (Heude) (Frauenfeld) Reptilia Crocodile/Aligator Crocodylia (Kobelt) Mammalia Old World monkey Cercopithecidae (Gredler) Asian Elephant (Heude) Buffalo (Dautzenberg & Fischer) (Gredler) Domestic dog (Benson) Pisces Common carp Cyprinidae (M (Heude) (Dautzenberg & Fischer) Asian black bear (Yen) Yellowcheek carp (Kobelt) Grass carp (Reeve) Asian giant soft shelled turtle Latin name (Quoi & Gaimard) Pond, box and leaf turtles Emydidae (Kobelt) Black carp (Dautzenberg & Fischer) Chinese softshell turtle (Gray) Field vole (Credaler) Rhinosceros sp. Sambar deer sp. Chinese Muntjac sp. sp. Sika deer sp. sp. Aves Bird Corbicula fluminea Anodonta Lamprotula mansuyi Lamprotula Cipangopaludina hainanensis Lamprotula polysticta Bellamya costatus Bellamya rivularis Bellamya polyzonatus Bellamya thersites Bellamya haudei Bellamya Rivularia porcellanea Rivularia rusiostoma Margarya mansuyi Bellamya quadratus Bellamya mutica Margarya meslanioides Bellamya wilhelmi Semisucospira henriettae Sulcospira hainanensis Eusphaedusa ridicula Opeas gracilior Cyclophorus songmaensis Acuticosta Bradybaena similaris similaris Margaritiana Limnoperna Camaena hainanensis Lanceolaria triformis Lamprotula leai Lamprotula scripta English name Asian clam Clam Freshwater pearl mussel Table 2. Animal remains fromClass the Dingsishan shell midden inGastropoda southern Guangxi (after Lu, P. 2010). River snail Lamellibranchia Mussel

C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

20 h r l ocnrtdplso s oe.Nihrhseiec o giutr.Typical agriculture. Chengbeixi for evidence the has of Neither phase bones. fish late (Zone of sites the Xia-Jiang piles the during concentrated and all middens, Gh), shell are in (Zone all Gh) are appeared later sites Gaomiao groups little the the Interestingly, which hunter-gatherer a culture. with of Related Valley, region Yangtze A) B) relationships. Xia-Jiang Middle (Zone (Zone cultural the the Zaoshi in group material early cultures shared Gaomiao farming the G) they the with (Zone chronology, contemporary Chengbeixi earlier, the of and Middle appeared terms south- the River and In Yangtze Yuanshui in Middle 2). Middle the BC (Figure between 5500 located China region, around west Xia-Jiang appeared the hunter-gatherers and River complex Yuanshui of group Another Gh) B and zones 2, (Figure BC) & (5500–3000 Gaomiao bone Chengbeixi-Daxi-Yuxiping region: fish Xia-Jiang and River, the Yuanshui in Middle middens the in sites midden Shell comms (Lu, association in buffalo water domestic or pig domestic without 2010). P. but BC, 5000 about at otwrsi o ih aNmadH a rvne.A o oNu,mr than more Ngua, Co Con At to provinces. dated Tay teeth Ha human occurred and have (two Nam also skeletons might Ha 100 and Binh, Vietnam, Hoa northern in of Province northwards Hoa Thanh in Trung Go late and the of culture Bacsonian or But Da 2005). V. the (Nguyen, formed Hoabinhian they where Vietnam, western northern in within, valleys Xijiang and Qianjiang, by Guangdong Xunjiang, Yujiang, Hongshui, Youjiang, the at Guangxi into appeared southern first of type valleys Yongjiang this and of Zuojiang sites the records, in current to According systems. river neighbouring into aebe cuidbfr 00B.W rps htteD u n igihncultures Dingsishan and But Da the origin. that the cultural propose We a of BC. shared duration 6000 the before 2006), occupied W.H. been Nguyen, have 2005; was V. (Nguyen, culture radiocarbon But sites available Da But the are Da to sites According the But Zengpiyan. from Da and dates in Dingsishan burials) stone from crouched pottery, those and The to seated 2005). identical the V. (especially (Nguyen, practices burial sedentary and relatively artefacts were They collecting hunting. by mainly and subsisted plants populations But Da the that believe archaeologists Vietnamese hnetruhtm,atog reatfrsadsye hwsih aito rmst to site from variation slight significant show little styles reveal and various forms sites site. artefact and midden although practices, Dingsishan-related time, burial these through strategies, change culture, subsistence material locations, of residential aspects of terms In But. textiles and pigs h aBtclua ie nld aBt o oNu,BnBnTu,Ln Cong Lang Thuy, Ban Ban Ngua, Co Con But, Da include sites cultural But Da The expanded gradually foragers Dingsishan these population, increasing an to due Perhaps giutr ea oapa nteYnteVle after Valley Yangtze the in appear to began Agriculture eefudbre nstigpstosi yidia isi nae faot200m about of area an in pits cylindrical in positions sitting in buried found were ) c. c. 0030 C taottesm iete pedit,o co-developed or into, spread they time same the about At BC. 4000–3500 50B;btalwr beti igihn(hss1t )adDa and 3) to 1 (phases Dingsishan in absent were all but BC; 5500 c. 5020 C u gynVe ugse htD u tefcould itself But Da that suggested Viet Nguyen but BC, 5500–2000 hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang c. 21 3000 − + 0B,P elod&D Huffer D. & Bellwood P. BC, 30 c. 00B,adte expanded then and BC, 7000 c. 00B n domestic and BC 7000 C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity pers. 2 .

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC

Chengbeixi-Daxi cultural sites in the Middle Yangtze contain plentiful remains of cultivated rice, but such remains are absent in the Xia-Jiang region. At Gaomiao (IA, Hunan 2000; He, G. 2006a), a sacrificial site featuring postholes and offering pits was discovered. Burnt bones of cattle, deer, turtle and fish, and a large quantity of gastropod shells, were found in the pits. Nearby, a three-roomed house of about 40m2 was excavated. So far, more than 20 such houses from early and late phases of occupation have been excavated at Gaomiao, constructed at ground level and enclosing 18–40m2,each with two or three rooms. More than 30 burials have been reported, the earlier ones flexed on their sides without (Figure 6). However, the later phase contained extended burials with jade and pottery grave goods, likely influenced by the agricultural Daxi culture in the Dongting Lake area. Many pebble tools, polished axes, adzes, chisels, millstones, pestles and net sinkers were found in the Gaomiao sites. In the later phase shouldered axes and adzes, and yue (large polished axes) appeared. Bone and antler implements include awls, needles, knives, daggers and perforated shell knives, but never in large quantities. The early Gaomiao pottery forms include fu, jars, plates and bowls, with very fine Figure 6. A flexed burial excavated from Gaomiao, Hunan decoration including cord impression and Province (IA, Hunan 2000: 6) dentate stamping, the latter forming animal faces, phoenixes, waves, trapezoids, circles and band-like motifs (Figure 7 & 8). All Gaomiao sites are shell middens that contain freshwater gastropods and bivalves, fish, turtles and other aquatic animals. There are also a large number of terrestrial mammals including deer, pigs, bear, elephant, rhinoceros and tapir. Some of the pigs have been identified as domestic, but there are no rice phytoliths (He, G. 2006b). Currently, only two sherds contained rice husks (from Zhenxikou), and there are three sherds with rice grain impressions and one with rice husk impressions from Gaomiao itself (Gu & Zhao 2009). However, the sources of these sherds are unknown. It is necessary to emphasise that contemporary sites in Hunan have unearthed abundant remains of cultivated rice, but this is almost absent in Gaomiao. C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

22 tnpay dnidellus, odon Ctenopharyn i-in Zn h.Ms r oae hr s ftespecies 1988). the (Ma of River Yangtze fish where located are Most Gh). (Zone Xia-Jiang iue7 eoae otr esl rmGoio ua rvne iia oicsdpteyfo inoln nGuangdong in Xiantouling from pottery incised to similar Province, Hunan Gaomiao, Province, from vessels pottery Decorated 7. Figure ttesm ie ag uniiso s oe,wtotsel,hv endsoee in discovered been have shells, without bones, fish of quantities large time, same the At c. 00B.Scale BC. 5000 = : I,Hnn20:11). 2000: Hunan (IA, 1:4 yohhlihhsmolitrix Hypophthalmichthys hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang 23 and rsihhsnobilis Aristichthys yohrnoo piceus Mylopharyngodon C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity pw nthe in spawn ,

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC

Figure 8. Decorated pottery vessel from Gaomiao, Hunan Province, c. 5000 BC (IA, Hunan 2006: pl. 4). It is possible to explain these sites by assuming that Chengbeixi immigrants gave up rice farming after entering Xia-Jiang, where there is a lack of cultivable land in the valley bottom. Likewise, the Gaomiao culture (Zone B) could have developed from the agricultural (Zone A). Such origins from agricultural populations could also explain the rarity of domestic pig bones in these derivative hunting and gathering contexts. Both Gaomiao and the Xia-Jiang variant of the Chengbeixi-Daxi culture had well-developed pottery and stone / industries, especially in the Three Gorges region in Xia-Jiang. Spindle whorls have also been found in these sites. In the late Gaomiao and the Xia-Jiang variant of the Daxi culture, foraging cultures that developed in the Middle Yuanshui River and in Xia-Jiang expanded into northern Guizhou (Wang, H.G. 2006: 3–10).

Sand dune sites and early shell middens in coastal south-eastern China (5000–3500/3000 BC) (Zones C, D & F in Figure 2) Between 5000 and 3500 BC, pottery-using foragers made an appearance in Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian provinces in coastal south-eastern China, and in coastal northern Vietnam. The earliest recognised group belonged to the Xiantouling or Dawan culture (sometimes termed the Lingnan variant of the Daxi culture) in the Zhujiang (Pearl) delta region and offshore coastal islands (Zone C). Most Xiantouling sites are located on sand dunes, but there are shell middens in coastal Guangdong, Fujian and Taiwan. In the Zhujiang delta, and indeed across the whole of Guangdong, there were no previous pottery-using groups with Neolithic material culture. This suggests that the Xiantouling culture did not have an indigenous source. Most Chinese archaeologists agree that the white and painted pottery styles of this culture in the Zhujiang estuary are derived from Gaomiao, Tangjiagang and Daxi sources in Hunan (e.g. He, J.J. 1994: 71–8; Tang 1999: 83–9). C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

24 ihGoioadDx,i h eino h ideYnte ihteDnssa in Dingsishan south-eastern the the toward with expanded gradually Yangtze, foragers Perhaps inland Middle Guangxi. these northern resources, the in food 5 of of phase need Zengpiyan in region with even the perhaps and in Guangxi, southern Daxi, and Xiantouling interactions Gaomiao later cultural long-term with The maintained Chengbeixi-Daxi derivation. Guangdong Neolithic the coastal of of of the foragers populations variant fisher-forager termed contrast, Xia-Jiang be By the can foragers. Yuxiping development. and indigenous and of River culture termed Yuanshui period and be Middle long Palaeolithic the can their local regard of during Gaomiao this the change in from cultural hunter-gatherer-foragers. people dramatic developed Dingsishan of or The Guangxi groups sharp in main noted no culture have three was we there Dingsishan defined BC, the and 7000 these, caves from Yangtze, Of of the use on continuous agriculture of the development the to Parallel in hunter-gatherers complex China of southern decline and expansion the Discussion: Xiantouling that spindle possible include is It can inventions. one local latter assemblage. be mixed-origin to the a appear for was beaters evidence cloth bark Amongst during region but 117–31). but Zhujiang whorls, 48–56), 1999: the 1999: entering (Pei (Bu were phase derivation Hunan from local this influences of continuous be that could agree pottery all incised the that suggest Others hn,teefrgr fMdl ooeecatlsuhes hn eetems recent most the complex. most were the southern China terms, in south-east socio-cultural in cultures coastal perhaps, Holocene non-farming also Middle other and of to foragers Compared these regions. Guo China, & other (Liu E) and (Zone River 135–95) Yangtze Lower 2005: and the Guangdong, from influences in cultural Xiantouling received with also relations perhaps close 2006; maintained Institute people (Shenzhen These culture 2008). Xiantouling Hung the than dates radiocarbon later from have Taiwan farmers was by it China but southern stage into early Yangtze. introduced Lower very were and a pigs Middle at the domestic hunter-gatherers that by later domesticated Guangxi. much were from only dogs records that zooarchaeological likely other with is animal consistent It domestic is known stage, which only this 40), The during 2007: T.L-D. 40). China 2007: isotope southern T.L-D. stable coastal (Lu, by remains in supported is human supposition the a of Such strategy analyses fishing. subsistence and a hunting suggest discoveries gathering, These on 270). reliant 1978: (Meacham F layer in found of were Seeds pig. wild Guangdong. and deer in fish, culture of (Lin Xiantouling BC the 3500 of and and phase 4500 production late between phase a pottery to to Dabenkeng dated with equivalent is early settlements 80), Keqiutou open-air 2005: the regions. their oldest and in the tools D) are stone (Zone polished F) islands (Zone shell Taiwan nearby Keqiutou-Fuguodun in and The sites ocean. Fujian the coastal facing in middens, shell middens estuarine all are Chaoan Shiweishan and in Beixiaoshan Malanzuishan, Yapushan, C). (Zone Guangdong in Chaoan and h eituFgou utr ncatlFja n h al aekn utr in culture Dabenkeng early the and Fujian coastal in culture Keqiutou-Fuguodun The bones contained Kong Hong in site (Shenwan) Wan Sham the shells, estuarine as well As Guangxi, in Qinzhou and Fangcheng in discovered been have middens shell 10 than More hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang iiu communis Ricinus 25 c. 0030 C stedmsi o (Lu, dog domestic the is BC, 5000–3000 cso-i ln)adpsil amaranth possibly and plant) (castor-oil C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC coastal areas, then across the sea to Hainan (Zone J), Taiwan (Zone F) and other coastal islands. When the complex hunter-gatherer cultures of the Yuanshui River and the Xia-Jiang regions reached their most developed phases, in c. 5500–3500 BC, agriculture was also progressing rapidly in the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley. However, the complex forager cultures all began to decline between 3500 and 3000 BC. During the climatic cooling that followed the Early/Mid Holocene optimum, the average annual temperature in southern China was about 2 degrees lower than at present. These changes perhaps affected foraging cultures adversely in south China. At the same time, farming groups from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley began to migrate directly into Lingnan and neighbouring areas. The Yuanshui and Xia-Jiang hunter-gatherers were replaced by the expansive Qujialing farming culture (3000 BC), located along the Middle Yangtze River. Also, during this phase, the numbers of Xiantouling sand dune sites and Keqiutou-Fuguodun shell middens were greatly reduced (Nishitani 1997: 1–56). Agricultural settlements first appeared at Shixia in northern Guangdong, Tanshishan in Fujian, and at Nanguanli (late Dabenkeng phase) in Taiwan. The late-appearing Dingsishan phase 4 cultural assemblage in Guangxi is believed to be associated with rice agriculture.

Conclusion As in northern China (Bettinger et al. 2010), the archaeological record in southern China records transitions from non-intensive to intensive hunting and gathering, and further from intensive hunting and gathering to low-level food production, and finally intensive agriculture. Southern China contains the oldest evidence for pottery manufacture and rice cultivation in the world, and we have shown that mixed economies involving intensive hunting and gathering, low-level food production and intensive agriculture, co-existed for 5000 years. We conclude that, outside agriculture, the Holocene developments south of the Yangtze can be classified into three phases: the first, between 18 000 and 7000 BC, saw the first pottery production and the continuing use of small cave sites. The second, between 7000 and 5000 BC, witnessed the indigenous appearance of the Dingsishan group on river terraces in southern Guangxi. Later, the Gaomiao and Xia-Jiang groups appeared in the Middle Yuanshui and Xia-Jiang regions respectively. It is hypothesised that these groups likely developed from nearby agricultural societies, such as Pengtoushan and Chengbeixi in the Middle Yangtze Valley (for similar examples see Bellwood 2005: 37–9). These groups always maintained close cultural relationships with contemporary agricultural societies. The third phase was one of prosperous development between 5000 and 3000 BC, associated with the late Dingsishan, and the Gaomiao and Xia-Jiang variant of the Daxi culture. At the same time, the farming cultures of the Middle and Lower Yangtze also reached high levels of devel- opment. Complex hunter-gatherer groups from Guangxi and Hunan migrated into south- eastern coastal areas, and settled the Xiantouling sand dune sites in Guangdong, together with coastal shell middens in Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, northern Vietnam and Taiwan. When farmers left the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley around 3000 BC to enter southern China, they expanded onwards towards mainland and Island Southeast Asia via C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

26 09 h ipraso salse food-producing established of dispersals The 2009. – B oga ag aju(tde fSuhatArchaeology) Southeast of (Studies Yanjiu Kaogu Dongnan Archaeology) (Eastern Kaogu Dongfang Relic) (Culture Wenwu Wenwu: (Archaeology) Kaogu Science Kaogu: Social of Region Academy Autonomous Chinese Zhuang CASS: Guangxi the of Team Archaeological ATGZ: Archaeology of Institute IA: Abbreviations Chiang and also Canberra We Council, encouragement remains. Research and Australian animal support the of by their names part for in English reviewers funded Taipei. and anonymous Foundation, was Latin Ching-Kuo two study of This and thank manuscript. to terminology Carver Mike this like Martin the on would Dr Professor We with and manuscript. thank help this Canberra to his on University, wish comments for National invaluable Piper Australian us Philip giving The for Dr of Guam Bellwood of University Peter of Professor Carson to grateful are We layers (Matsumura major Holocene two the were during there Asia the based that Southeast result, hypothesis namely, in a the Vietnam, settlement with As northern human consistent China. from of is developing remains south-east the evidence human into coastal archaeological integrated on in became Such Asia origin Southeast cultures. and exotic farming China speaking south of of Austronesian groups others and foraging foragers and Austroasiatic indigenous met early Guangxi thus farmers of expanding in These dispersal 2010). Hung the & (Zhang involved populations that routes two References Acknowledgements still questions many answered. but be China, to southern remain of societies hunter-gatherer exotic and indigenous that: societies argues hunter-gatherer Bellwood exotic latter farmers. the we and between and interaction attributes, cultural cultural long-term complex noted more with have hunter-gatherers villages late larger-scale developed these China subsistence, south Palaeolithic in presumed that to subsistence and Compared culture different. material of were aspects many were there similar, were China southern 2011). ELLWOOD nti ril,w aeosre ifrn rniin oeeta amn ewe the between farming eventual to transitions different observed have we article, this In in societies hunter-gatherer complex the of characteristics cultural the of some Although populations. dpe giutr yrmt cinars igorpia rniinznsor zones transition have biogeographical 623). not 2009: across would (Bellwood action terrain also uninhabited remote not They were by agriculturalists. they with agriculture if contact adopted agriculture continuous adopt and to direct unlikely in been have would Hunter-gatherers .2005. P. , urn Anthropology Current xod Blackwell. Oxford: . farmers First 05:621–6. 50(5): hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang 27 B ETTINGER .W H. 15:703–714. 51(5): China. Dadiwan, of at Republic People’s agriculture to transition The 2010. ANG .. .B L. R.L., , ,T.P.G UILDERSON ARTON C niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity ,C.M urn Anthropology Current ,D.J ORGAN I &D.Z tal. et ,F.C HANG 2008, HEN , .

Research Later hunter-gatherers in southern China, 18 000–3000 BC

BOARETTO,E,X.H.WU,J.R.YUAN,O.BAR-YOSEF,V. HUNG, H-C. 2008. Migration and cultural interaction CHU,Y.PAN,K.LIU,D.COHEN,T.L.JIAO,S.C. in southern coastal China, Taiwan and the northern LI, H.B. GU,P.GOLDBERG &S.WEINER. 2009. Philippines, 3000 BC to AD 100: the early history Radiocarbon dating of charcoal and bone collagen of the Austronesian-speaking populations. associated with early pottery at Yuchanyan Cave, Unpublished PhD dissertation, The Australian Hunan Province, China. Proceedings of the National National University. Academy of Science 106(24): 9595–9600. IA, CASS, ATGZ, Cultural Relic Survey Team of BU, G. 1999. Chronologies and genealogies of the Late Guilin City & Zengpiyan Site Museum 2003. Neolithic at the mouth of the Zhujiang River. Guilin Zengpiyan. Beijing: Wenwu (in Chinese). Wenwu 11: 48–56 (in Chinese). IA, HUNAN. 2000. Excavation of the Gaomiao site at CRAWFORD,G.W.&S.CHEN. 1998. The origins of rice Qiangyang in Hunan. Wenwu 4: 4–23 (in Chinese). agriculture: recent progress in East Asia. Antiquity – 2006. Excavation of the Neolithic Gaomiao site, 73: 858–66. Hongjiang in Hunan. Kaogu 7: 9–15 (in Chinese). FU, X.G. 2002a. The Dingsishan site and the JIAO, T.L. 1994. The prehistoric culture of the Lingnan of Guangxi, southern China. Bulletin of the region from the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 22: 63–72. Kaogu Xuebao 1: 1–24 (in Chinese). – 2002b. The first archaeological culture in Guangxi- LIN, G.W. 2005. Neolithic culture of the Fujian coastal Yongning Dingsishan site, in Wen-ru Li (ed.) Top region, in Z.Y. Chen & J.G. Pan (ed.) 100 new archaeological discoveries of China 1990– Archaeological seminar on the southeastern coastal 1999: 237. Beijing: Wenwu Press (in Chinese). islands of China: 75–90. Lienchiang: Cultural FULLER, D.Q., L. QIN,Y.ZHENG,Z.ZHAO,X.CHEN, Affairs Bureau (in Chinese). L.A. HOSOYA &G.P.SUN. 2009. The LIU, Y.C. & S.Q. GUO. 2005. Status and meaning of domestication process and domestication rate in Kinmen’s Fuguodun in the southeastern coastal rice: spikelet bases from the Lower Yangtze. Science areasofChina,inZ.Y.Chen&J.G.Pan(ed.) 323: 1607–1610. Archaeological seminar on the southeastern coastal GU, H.B. 1999. Studies of the phytoliths and pollen of islands of China: 135–95. Liechiang: Cultural the Yingde Niulandong Cave in Guangdong, in Affairs Bureau (in Chinese). Yingde City Museum, Anthropology Department LU, P. 2010. Zooarchaeological study on the shell of Zhongshan University & Guangdong Provincial middens in the Yong Valley of Guangxi. Museum (ed.) Treatises of international conference on Unpublished PhD dissertation, IA of CASS, Beijing Mesolithic culture: 113–206. Guangzhou: (in Chinese). Guangdong People (in Chinese). LU, T.L-D. 1999. The transition from foraging to GU, H.B. & Z.J. ZHAO. 2009. Study on carbonized rice farming in China. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific from different cultural phases in Hunan. Dongfang Prehistory Association 18: 77–80. Kaogu 6: 358–65 (in Chinese). – 2007. Natural resources and subsistence strategies in Guangxi Team, IA of CASS, ATGZ & Nanning prehistoric Hong Kong. Kaogu 6: 36–45 (in Museum. 1998. Excavation at Dingsishan in Chinese). Yongning, Guangxi. Kaogu 11: 11–33 (in Chinese). MA, J.X. 1988. Distribution characteristics of the Guangxi Team, IA of CASS & ATGZ. 2003. ancient sites in the Sanxia region of the Yangtze Excavation at Baozitou in Nanning, Guangxi. River. Jianghan Kaogu 4: 115–19 (in Chinese). Kaogu 10: 22–34 (in Chinese). MATSUMURA,H.,M.OXENHAM,Y.DODO,K. HE, G. 2006a. Reappearance of prehistoric religious DOMETT,K.T.NGUYEN,L.C.NGUYEN,K.D. and ritual scenario — the Neolithic Gaomiao site in NGUYEN,D.HUFFER &M.YAMAGATA. 2008. Hongjiang, Hunan. Paper presented at The Morphometric affinity of the late Neolithic human archaeology forum of the Chinese Academy of remains from Man Bac, Ninh Binh Province, Social Sciences: new discoveries in Chinese Vietnam: key skeletons with which to debate the archaeology in 2005, Chinese Academy of Social ‘two layer’ hypothesis. Anthropological Science Science, Beijing, 10 January 2006 (in Chinese). 116(2): 135–48. – 2006b. The big discovery of Hongjiang Gaomiao site MATSUMURA,H.,M.OXENHAM,K.T.NGUYEN,L.C. in Hunan. China Cultural Relics News, 6 January NGUYEN &K.D.NGUYEN. 2011. Population 2006, p. 1 (in Chinese). history of mainland Southeast Asia: the two layer HE, J.J. 1994. Prehistoric painted pottery and Daxi model in the context of northern Vietnam , in N. culture of the Zhujiang River mouth, in C. Tang Enfield & J. White (ed.) Dynamics of human (ed.) Ancient cultures of south China and diversity: the case of mainland Southeast Asia: 1–23. neighbouring regions: 71–8. Hong Kong: Chinese Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. University of Hong Kong (in Chinese).

C Antiquity Publications Ltd.

28 N Y P N W Y N hnhnIsiueo utrlRlc n Archaeology and Relics Cultural of Institute Shenzhen M W W N T eevd 4Jnay21;Acpe:1 ac 01 eie:2 ac 2011 March 23 Revised: 2011; March 14 Accepted: 2011; January 24 Received: EI ASUDA AN ANG GUYEN GUYEN ISHITANI AKAMURA ANG ANG EACHAM U ..19.Xatuigasmlg nteZhujiang the in assemblage Xiantouling 1999. A.P. , ..19.Lcltaiinadotieinfluence outside and tradition Local 1999. C.M. , ogKn:Hn ogAcaooia Society. Archaeological Kong Hong Kong: Hong study site archaeological Books. agriculture and pottery (ed.) Yoshinori of Y. in cities, and pottery cultivation. 1–2 e eh:Rl Books. Roli Delhi: New 119–42. agriculture: and EastAsia,inY.Yoshinori(ed.) pottery of origins The Chinese). Asia Southeast and (ed.) CASS IA, Association Prehistory Holocene. the Middle during Vietnam in development cultural Yanjiu brgnlcluei ot China. south in culture aboriginal epePes(nChinese). (in Press People issues related its and culture (ed.) Museum Provincial Guangdong and University SunYat-sen Anthropology, Yingde of in Department China, Museum, south City in culture Mesolithic the of aaeeHistory Japanese China. eisNews Relics Shenzhen. in Xintouling at found site Neolithic 7000-year-old 2006. Identification. Chinese). estuary. ejn:Sine(nChinese). (in Science Beijing: Chinese). (in archaeology. Guizhou of knowledge Japanese). ..20.Teoiiso ieagriculture, rice of origins The 2002. W.M. , .19.Acaooia eosrcino the of reconstruction Archaeological 1999. C. , Y.P. 2005. , new and discoveries New 2006. H.G. , .20.Oiiso otr n giutr in agriculture and pottery of Origins 2002. Y. , ..20.D u utr nVenm in Vietnam, in culture But Da 2006. W.H. , for evidence culture: But Da The 2005. V. , .19.TeNoihci osa southern coastal in Neolithic The 1997. M. , .1978. W. , :8– i Chinese). (in 83–9 2: .20.Teoii fCieerice Chinese of origin The 2000. S. , ultno h ainlMsu fthe of Museum National the of Bulletin oga ag Yanjiu Kaogu Dongnan eebr20,p i Chinese). (in 2 p. 2006, December 6 , hns Archaeology Chinese rhsoi utrloii nChina in origin cultural Prehistoric hsscleto fteMesolithic the of collection Thesis rhsoi rhelg fsuhChina south of archaeology Prehistoric 0 –6(nJapanese). (in 1–56 70: hmWn am sad an Island: Lamma Wan, Sham 4–.Biig ew (in Wenwu Beijing: 341–6. : ultno h Indo-Pacific the of Bulletin 5 89–93. 25: Junlmngah3). monograph (Journal 5–.NwDli Roli Delhi: New 151–6. : –8 Guangdong: 6–18. : :173 (in 117–31 2: 0 –1(in 1–11 10: hn Cultural China oga Kaogu Dongnan hn h,&Hiocu Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi, Zhang Kaogu h origins The :3–10 8: . 29 Y Z Z southern in agriculture of emergence The 2010. – Z of and husks rice 000-year-old 10 The 2000. – Z I. phase the of remains Cultural 2011. – in China, southern of potteries early The 2007. – of culture Neolithic Early the of review brief A 2000. – Z UAN HANG HAO HAO HANG HANG Chinese). Guangxi. of of site County Dingsishan Yongning the in phytoliths excavated the 810 ejn:Sine(nChinese). (in Science Beijing: 98–100. University(ed.) Beijing Museology, School and in Archaeology potteries, of early Chinese of issues related otenCia—oii,dvlpetand dispersal. development origin, — China southern China. 5 ejn:Wenwu Chinese). Beijing: (in 35. cities: and pottery, agriculture, (ed.) in Yasuda Y. Hunan, & in Yan county W.M. Dao of Cave Yuchanyan the Chinese). (in Press Tourism and Travel years 30 for Cave discovered Huangyandong being the of remembrance in collection (ed.) Province Guangdong of MuseumAssociation and Relics & Museum Guangdong Provincial Guangdong, Fengkai of in IA issues, Museum, related County its and Hunan of county :4–3(nChinese). (in 46–53 3: Chinese). (in Wenwu Beijing: al. et Archaeology Chinese (ed.) of Study the for Center Chinese of archaeology expectation and (ed.) reflection Zhang Z.P. century & New Xu Z.Y. in China, southern rhsoyAssociation Prehistory Jiangxi. Diaotonghuan, ejn:Wnu(nChinese). (in cities Wenwu and Beijing: pottery, agriculture, rice (ed.) of Yasuda origins Y. rice & of Yan W.M. origin in the cultivation, and rice, ancient of characteristics ..19.EryHlcn aestsi Dao in sites cave Holocene Early 1991. J.R. , ,Z.J.,L.D.L ,C.H.&X.H.W .19.Teecvtosa inedn and Xianrendong at excavations The 1999. C. , .X 00 ieb-ekdtbrls the tubercles, bi-peaked Rice 2000. X. W. , ,C.&H-C.H agxeYni Suyo Archaeology] of [Study Yanjiu Kaoguxue ua emn Acetcivilisation] [Ancient Wenming Gudai Antiquity sa Perspectives Asian 9–8 ejn:Sine(nChinese). (in Science Beijing: 190–98. : U 4 11–25. 84: &X.G.F UNG C U 8 97–100. 18: 03 h icvr n the and discovery The 2003. . niut ulctosLtd. Publications Antiquity 08 h elti of Neolithic The 2008. . ultno h Indo-Pacific the of Bulletin 0–0.Guangdong: 100–108. : 72:299–329. 47(2): U 05 h td of study The 2005. . h rgn frice of origins The Kaogu 1 68 (in 76–84 11: 122. : Thesis Wenwu :1–16. 5: The 5:

Research