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An Introduction to Music Technology An Introduction to Music Technology provides a clear overview of the essential elements of music technology for today’s musician. It is designed to provide music students with the background necessary to apply technology in their creating, teaching, and performing. This book focuses on five topics that underlie the hardware and software in use today: Sound, Audio, MIDI, Synthesis and Sampling, and Computer Notation and Computer- Assisted Instruction. In addition, there is an appendix that covers necessary computer hardware and software concepts. Features: • Thorough explanations of key topics in music technology • Content applicable to all software and hardware, not linked to just one piece of software or gear • In-depth discussion of digital audio topics, such as sampling rates, resolutions, and file formats • Explanations of standard audio plug-ins including dynamics processors, EQs, and delay- based effects • Coverage of synthesis and sampling in software instruments • Pedagogical features, including: – Further Reading sections that allow the student to delve deeper into topics of interest – Suggested Activities that can be carried out with a variety of different programs – Key Terms at the end of each chapter – What do I need? Chapters covering the types of hardware and software needed in order to put together Audio and MIDI systems – The companion website contains links to audio examples that demonstrate various concepts, step-by-step tutorials, relevant hardware, software, and additional audio and video resources. Dan Hosken is Professor of Music at California State University, Northridge, where he teaches courses in music technology, electronic music, composition, and theory. As an educator, he is an active member of the Association for Technology in Music Instruction (ATMI). As a composer, he specializes in interactive electronic music involving dancers and musicians using live motion sensing and audio processing. Visit the companion website www.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415997294 An Introduction to Music Technology Dan Hosken California State University, Northridge First published 2011 by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010. To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk. © 2011 Taylor & Francis All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Windows is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and other countries. Apple, AppleTV, GarageBand, iPod, iPod Touch, iTunes, Logic Studio, Mac OS, MainStage, MobileMe, and Soundtrack Pro are trademarks of Apple Inc., registered in the U.S. and other countries. Finale, Finale Allegro, Finale PrintMusic, Finale Songwriter, Finale Notepad, and SmartMusic are registered trademarks of MakeMusic, Inc. Screenshots of these products are copyright of MakeMusic, Inc. and are used by permission. Except where noted, musical examples were created with Finale® software. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Figure 16.1: Screenshot from Alfred’s Interactive Musician Student Version (#23135) by Morton Manus. Copyright © 2004. Reprinted with permission of Alfred Music Publishing Co., Inc.: www.alfred.com Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hosken, Daniel W. (Daniel William) An introduction to music technology/Dan Hosken.—1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Music—Data processing. 2. Sound—Recording and reproducing— Digital techniques. I. Title. ML74.H67 2010 780.285—dc22 2009051982 ISBN 0-203-84951-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN13: 978–0–415–87827–2 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–99729–4 (pbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–84951–4 (ebk) Contents List of illustrations vii Preface xv Introduction 1 Section I: Sound 5 1 What is Sound? 7 2 Sound Properties and the Waveform View 17 3 The Overtone Series and the Spectrum View 32 Further Reading 44 Suggested Activities 45 Section II: Audio 49 4 Audio Hardware 51 5 Digital Audio Data 72 6 Digital Audio Software: The Digital Audio Workstation 86 7 Audio—What Do I Need? 107 Further Reading 116 Suggested Activities 117 vi CONTENTS Section III: MIDI 125 8 MIDI Hardware 128 9 MIDI Messages 142 10 MIDI Sequencing 159 11 MIDI—What Do I Need? 184 Further Reading 189 Suggested Activities 190 Section IV: Synthesis and Sampling 195 12 Electronic Sound Production 198 13 Synthesis Methods 215 14 Sampling Methods 233 Further Reading 244 Suggested Activities 246 Section V: Computer Notation and Computer-assisted Instruction 253 15 Computer Notation 255 16 Computer-assisted Instruction 282 Appendix: The Music Computer 309 Part 1 Computer Hardware 311 Part 2 Computer Software 329 Appendix: Further Reading 354 Appendix: Suggested Activities 355 Selected Bibliography 359 Index 363 Illustrations FIGURES 1.1 String moving forward and backward, showing compression and rarefaction 8 1.2 Air entering a clarinet mouthpiece, showing compression and rarefaction 10 1.3 Side cutaway view of a flute blowhole, showing compression and rarefaction 10 1.4 Side cutaway view of the mouthpiece of a brass instrument, showing compression and rarefaction 11 1.5 Side cutaway view of a speaker cone, showing compression and rarefaction 12 1.6 Basic anatomy of the human ear 14 1.7 Simplified view of an “unrolled” cochlea 15 2.1 Vibrating string produces a series of compressions and rarefactions 17 2.2 Waveform view of sound 18 2.3a Waveform view showing the period of the waveform measured from two different starting points 19 2.3b Two waves with the same amplitude but different frequencies 19 2.4 Frequencies associated with piano keys 20 2.5a Waveform view showing the amplitude of the waveform measured in two different ways 21 2.5b Two waves with the same frequency but different amplitudes graphed on the same axis 21 2.6 Custom-molded earplugs designed especially for music 24 2.7 Two cycles of a trumpet waveform 25 2.8 Basic waveforms 26 2.9 Amplitude plots of white noise and pink noise 26 2.10 “Zoom out” from individual cycles of a waveform to see the amplitude envelope 27 viii ILLUSTRATIONS 2.11 ADSR amplitude envelope characteristic of bowed or blown instruments 27 2.12 AR amplitude envelope characteristic of struck or plucked instruments 28 2.13 “Zoom out” from individual cycles of the waveform of a percussive sound 30 2.14 Results of transient analysis 30 3.1 First 16 partials of the overtone series built on A2 33 3.2 Spectrum view of sound 37 3.3 Three different views of a voice saying “oo-ah-ee-oh” on the same pitch 39 3.4 Basic waveforms and their spectra 40 3.5 Waveform and spectrum view of three sine waves adding together to form a more complex waveform 40 3.6 Inharmonic spectrum of a small bell 41 3.7 Frequency distributions of white noise and pink noise 42 3.8 Hip-Hop and Spoken Word settings of the graphic equalizer from Apple’s iTunes 43 4.1 Audio recording path from acoustic vibrations to digital signal 52 4.2 Audio playback path from digital signal to acoustic vibrations 53 4.3 Simplified drawings of microphone capsules 54 4.4 Shure SM-58 end-address, small-diaphragm dynamic microphone 56 4.5 AT4050 side-address, large-diaphragm condenser microphone 56 4.6 Snowball USB microphone 56 4.7 ATW-2120 wireless microphone/transmitter and receiver 56 4.8 Microphone polar (directional) patterns 57 4.9 Grace Design M201 two-channel microphone preamp 58 4.10 ART Z-direct passive direct box 60 4.11 Typical configuration for capturing a guitar signal 60 4.12 Audio connectors 61 4.13 Mackie 802-VLZ3 eight-input small analog mixer 63 4.14 Yamaha MG82CX eight-input small analog mixer 63 4.15 Euphonix MC Mix control surface 64 4.16 Mbox 2 USB audio interface 66 4.17 Edirol UA-25EX USB audio interface 66 4.18 M-Audio FireWire Solo audio interface 66 4.19 Edirol R-09HR flash-based portable recorder 69 4.20 Crown XLS 202 two-channel power amplifier 70 4.21 Genelec 6010A active monitors and 5040A subwoofer 70 5.1 Analog and digital representations 72 5.2 Waveform sampled in time 73 5.3 Hypothetical spectrum showing the Nyquist frequency 74 5.4 Waveform sampled in time and quantized in amplitude 76 5.5 Zoomed-in view of the sampled and quantized waveform 77 ILLUSTRATIONS ix 5.6 Masking of one tone by another 82 5.7 The same loop as a WAVE file and a REX file 84 6.1 Transport controls from various DAWs 87 6.2 Clocks from various DAWs 88 6.3 Track controls in Cubase Studio and Digital Performer 89 6.4 Edit view for tracks in Logic Pro and Cubase Studio 90 6.5 Mix view for tracks in Pro Tools LE and Logic Pro 91 6.6 Two recording levels and the resultant waveforms 92 6.7 Latency-related settings in Logic Pro 94 6.8 Non-destructive editing 95 6.9 Using Trim and Edge Edit in Digital Performer 96 6.10 Fade-in in Digital Performer, fade-out in Pro Tools LE, and crossfade in Logic Pro 97 6.11 Variously shaped fades 97 6.12 Pitch analysis and manipulation of digital audio 98 6.13 Pitch shift plug-in in Pro Tools LE 99 6.14 Edit view in Digital Performer 100 6.15 Mix view in Digital Performer 100 6.16 Dynamic range compression 101 6.17 “Rane Series” graphic EQ plug-in by Serato 102 6.18 Filter types 102 6.19 Masterworks parametric EQ in Digital Performer 103 6.20 Delay with feedback 104 6.21 Flanger plug-in and chorus plug-in from Digital Performer 104 6.22 Reason’s RV7000 reverb showing the density and shape of the reflections 105 6.23 ProVerb convolution reverb from Digital Performer 105 7.1 Audio System 1 108 7.2 Audio System 2 110 7.3a 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