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Late Cretaceous Plume-Induced Subduction Initiation Along The Gondwana Research 27 (2015) 38–63 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Gondwana Research journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gr GR focus review Late Cretaceous plume-induced subduction initiation along the southern margin of the Caribbean and NW South America: The first documented example with implications for the onset of plate tectonics Scott A. Whattam a,⁎,RobertJ.Sternb a Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea University, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea b Geosciences Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75083-0688, USA article info abstract Article history: Plate tectonics is the governing theory that unifies the Earth Sciences and is unique to Earth. The sinking of Received 8 February 2014 lithosphere in subduction zones drives plate tectonics but exactly how and why subduction begins (subduction Received in revised form 19 July 2014 initiation, SI) remains enigmatic. Most SI models require exploitation of existing lithospheric weaknesses but Accepted 19 July 2014 these are now produced by plate tectonics; so how did the first subduction zones form? One possibility is SI Available online 23 August 2014 along a plume head-cold lithosphere interface, but no examples have been documented. On the basis of three Handling Editor: T. Gerya key observations, we show here that the Late Cretaceous tectonic evolution of Central America, NW South America and the Leeward Antilles is consistent with plume-induced SI (PISI) which nucleated along the southern Keywords: and western margins of the Caribbean Plate (Caribbean Large Igneous Province, CLIP) at ~100 Ma. (1) Trace ele- Mantle plume ment chemistry of most 100 Ma and younger units interpreted as CLIP that are exposed along the southern mar- Subduction initiation gin of the Caribbean Plate and NW South America, record subduction additions which increased with time Volcanic arc beginning at 100 Ma. These ‘plume- and arc-related’ (PAR) units are distinguishable from: (a) global oceanic pla- Caribbean teau basalts (OPB); (b) 140–110 Ma OPB along the western edge of the CLIP; and (c) post-100 Ma OPB in the South America northernmost CLIP. Whereas the older OPB are compositionally identical to global OPB, the younger northerly CLIP units are similar to oceanic island basalts and record lower degrees of partial melting than PAR units exposed along the southern and western peripheries of the CLIP. Both the older and the younger northerly CLIP units lack evidence of subduction modification. (2) There is no known hiatus between CLIP and younger arc units, suggesting continuous tectono-magmatic evolution from plume to arc. (3) Generation of the CLIP and ear- liest, overlying and crosscutting arc units overlaps in time, space, chemical and isotopic compositions; both units are consistent with derivation from Galapagos Plume-like mantle which became increasingly subduction- modified with time. These observations illustrate that formation of the CLIP and earliest arc volcanism reflects partial melting of the same hybrid plume-subduction-modified source in a single, rapidly evolving tectonic envi- ronment. The scale of Late Cretaceous PISI in the SW Caribbean realm is consistent with the expected large scale of lithospheric collapse as seen for other SI examples, extending some 1400 km from southern Costa Rica– Panama to western Colombia and 1700 km from Ecuador to the Leeward Antilles (Aruba and Curaçao). This first documented example of PISI may be relevant to the start of plate tectonics which may have started when subduction began around Precambrian plume heads. Establishment of lava chemostratigraphy designed to estab- lish the composition of early SI magmatic successions might provide keys for deciphering whether SI occurred along a collapsed transform (like the IBM arc; early MORB-like lavas) or around a mantle plume (like the Carib- bean; early plateau-like lavas). Recognition of this first example of PISI further suggests that interaction of a suf- ficiently large plume head with sufficiently dense oceanic lithosphere in Precambrian time may have triggered the modern regime of plate tectonics. © 2014 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Contents 1. Introduction...............................................................39 2. Oceanicplateau-andarc-relatedoceanicunitsinCentralAmericaandNWSouthAmerica............................39 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 2 3290 3172; fax: +82 2 3290 3189. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.A. Whattam). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.07.011 1342-937X/© 2014 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. S.A. Whattam, R.J. Stern / Gondwana Research 27 (2015) 38–63 39 3. Materialsandmethods.......................................................... 40 3.1. Caribbeandatacompilation.................................................... 40 3.2. Compilationsofbasaltgeochemistryfromotherrelevanttectonicenvironments.............................43 3.3. Agedata............................................................. 43 4. Results................................................................. 43 4.1. AgeoftheCLIPandthetimingofinceptionofarcigneousactivity................................... 43 4.2. Changesinmagmacompositionatandafterarcinception....................................... 47 4.2.1. Temporal variations of tholeiitic and calc-alkaline affinities.................................. 47 4.2.2. TemporalvariationsofmantledepletionanddegreesofpartialmeltingasrecordedbyNb/Yb.................. 49 4.2.3. TemporalvariationsofmantlefugacityasrecordedbyTi/V.................................. 49 4.2.4. Temporalvariationsofsubductionadditions:Ba/Th,Ba/Nb,andTh/Nb............................. 50 4.3. Isotopicconstraints........................................................ 53 5. Discussion............................................................... 53 5.1. Synopsisofgeochemicalandisotopicconstraints........................................... 54 5.2. Significance of 99–79Maarc-related,felsicgranitoidsuites:Implicationsforthetimingofsubductioninitiation.............. 55 5.3. ComparisonofCaribbeanPISIsequencesandotherSIexamples.................................... 55 5.4. IsthereahiatusbetweenLateCretaceousCLIPandarcigneousactivity?................................ 56 5.5. CriticalevaluationofexistingmodelsforSWCaribbeansubductionzoneformation........................... 56 5.5.1. Littleevidenceforcollision-inducedSI........................................... 56 5.5.2. Necessityofwest-dippingsubductiontofacilitateeastwardsemplacementofPARunitsuponSouthAmerica........... 57 5.6. AdvantagesofaPISImodelforunderstandingCaribbeantectonicevolution............................... 57 5.7. ImplicationsofthePISImodelforunderstandinghowplatetectonicsbegan.............................. 59 6. Conclusions............................................................... 59 Acknowledgments.............................................................. 60 AppendixA. Supplementarydata...................................................... 60 References.................................................................. 60 1. Introduction Caribbean as the first plausible PISI example further suggests that a sim- ilar mechanism may have been responsible for making the first subduc- Subduction zones return old, cold, oceanic lithosphere to the deep tion zone in Precambrian time. Interaction of a sufficiently large plume mantle and generate distinctive arc magmas. However, exactly how head with sufficiently dense oceanic lithosphere could have caused and why subduction initiation (SI) (see Table 1 for a list of abbrevia- the lithospheric weakness that formed the first subduction zones and tions used and their definitions) occurs remains controversial. It is con- catalyzed the modern episode of plate tectonics. tentious whether SI requires a priori convergence (e.g., McKenzie, 1977; In spite of it being simple and plausible, PISI is not widely considered Gurnis et al., 2004) or can occur spontaneously (due to collapse of dense an important way that new subduction zones form. The early sugges- lithosphere above underlying asthenosphere, Kemp and Stevenson, tion of Niu et al. (2003) that subduction could initiate along the periph- 1996; Stern, 2004; Mart et al., 2005; Nikolaeva et al., 2010). Attempted ery of an oceanic plateau finds support from numerical models (Ueda subduction of buoyant lithosphere (e.g., with thick crust) can lead to et al., 2008; Burov and Cloetingh, 2010). Perhaps the most important collision-induced SI (e.g., Cloos, 1993) as in the case of the Miocene reason that the hypothesis has not gained wider currency is that until Solomon Arc system where collision of the Ontong Java Plateau shut now no convincing examples of PISI have been identified in the rock re- down the south-dipping subduction zone and induced a new north- cord. In this paper, we demonstrate that the Late Cretaceous tectonic dipping subduction zone on the south side of the arc (Cooper and evolution of Central America and NW South America is consistent Taylor, 1985). This is an example of induced nucleation of a subduction with a PISI model. It is widely recognized that subduction in this region zone (INSZ), reflecting continued plate convergence to form a new began around the southern and western margins of the Caribbean Large subduction zone (Stern, 2004) as reproduced by geodynamic models Igneous Province oceanic plateau (hereafter referred to as CLIP),
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