Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

PERSGA

1998 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ THE WORLD BANK 1818 H. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

Manufactured in the United States of America

First Printing June 1998

This report has been prepared by the members of the PERSGA Strategic Action Programme Task Force. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the cooperating governments and organizations.

Cover Design by Beni Chibber-Rao Cover photographs by Jan C. Post

Printed on Recycled Paper

Preface

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is a unique The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are shared environment. Its waters have been used by many countries, and a regional approach for thousands of years by people for fishing is therefore essential to conserve and pro- and trading, and for religious pilgrimages. tect our shared heritage. The Strategic Ac- Today the people of the Region share tion Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf these waters with oil tankers and cargo of Aden has been developed by the coun- ships, representing potentially serious risks tries of the Region, in cooperation with the to marine ecosystems. Coastal populations Global Environment Facility and its imple- are increasing, posing new and increasing menting agencies, the United Nations Envi- threats to the environment if this growth is ronment Programme, the United Nations not managed properly. Development Programme, and the World Bank; a regional financial institution, the These ecosystems make the Red Sea and Islamic Development Bank; and the re- Gulf of Aden internationally significant— gion’s own environmental organization, the the extensive and very beautiful coral reefs Regional Organization for the Conservation are inhabited by many species which occur of the Environment of the Red Sea and nowhere else in the world. Today these Gulf of Aden—PERSGA. reefs are attracting tourists in ever– increasing numbers. However, if this grow- The Strategic Action Programme for the ing tourism industry is not well managed Red Sea and Gulf of Aden is based on the we are in danger of losing a great and sus- most recent information from throughout tainable resource. the Region, and in some cases provided previously unknown insights into our unique Fortunately, and unlike many other regional environment. It is my great hope that the seas around the world, the Red Sea and results of the Programme will be an asset Gulf of Aden are in a relatively pristine to the countries of the Region in their pla n- state. However, changes are rapidly occur- ning for the management and conservation ring and it is imperative that we act now as of our unique coastal and marine environ- a Region to prevent widespread degrada- ments. tion which is costly to repair. Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq Secretary General

iii PERSGA

Contents

Acknowledgments...... vii Abbreviations and Acronyms ...... ix Executive Summary ...... xi 1. The Strategic Action Programme Process ...... 1 The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: A Dynamic Region ...... 1 A Framework for Regional Cooperation: Jeddah Convention, PERSGA and the SAP ...... 2 The SAP: An Agenda for Regional, National and Local Action ...... 3 National and International Efforts...... 4 2. The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden...... 7 A Repository of Biodiversity ...... 7 Major Coastal and Marine Environments ...... 9 Cultural Heritage...... 11 3. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources...... 13 Environmental Degradation...... 13 Non–Sustainable Use of Living Marine Resources ...... 15 Maritime Traffic, Oil Production and Transport ...... 16 Urban and Industrial Development ...... 18 Rapid Expansion of Coastal Tourism ...... 19 Emerging Issues...... 20 4. An Agenda for Action at the Regional, National and Local Levels ...... 23 Long–Term, High Level Commitment and Public Awareness...... 23 Transboundary Environmental Issues...... 24 Preventive Measures...... 25 Curative Measures...... 29 Resource Management Programmes...... 32 Outreach Activities ...... 37

v Monitoring, Indicators and Evaluation ...... 38 5. Resource Mobilization...... 41 Introduction ...... 41 Linking the Programme to Public Investment Plans ...... 42 Domestic and International Financing ...... 42 Role of International Funding Organizations ...... 43 Private Sector Participation...... 43 Sustainable Financing of Coral Reef Conservation...... 43 Alternative Sources of Funding ...... 44 Boxes Box 1. Socotra Archipelago Box 2. An Agenda for Action Tables Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Table 2. Transboundary Analysis – Thematic Issues on a Sub–Regional Basis Table 3. Transboundary Analysis – Thematic Issues by Country Table 4. Transboundary Analysis – Common Concerns on a Sub–Regional Basis Table 5. Transboundary Analysis – Common Concerns by Country Table 6. Priority Actions – Regional Table 7. Priority Actions – Djibouti Table 8. Priority Actions – Egypt Table 9. Priority Actions – Jordan Table 10. Priority Actions – Saudi Arabia Table 11. Priority Actions – Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia Table 12. Priority Actions – Sudan Table 13. Priority Actions – Yemen Appendices Appendix A. PERSGA Secretariat, Task Force Members and Drafting Group Members Appendix B. Key Activities in the Preparation Process Appendix C. Selected Studies and Background Documents Appendix D. Status of International and Regional Agreements Appendix E. National Economic, Social and Environmental Indicators Map Map 1 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden – IBRD 29042

The documentation for the Strategic Action Programme includes three complementary pub- lications: (a) Strategic Action Programme – Volume 1 – Main Report (this volume); and (b) Strategic Action Programme – Volumes 2 and 3 – Supporting Studies. Volume 2 includes Country Reports for Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, northern coast of Somalia, and Yemen. Volume 3 contains the Navigation Risk Assessment and Management Plan for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and the Assessment and Status of the Living Marine Resources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and Their Management. The Strategic Action Programme

vi has also prepared a wall map which shows major environmental features of the PERSGA Region.

vii

Acknowledgments

Funding for preparation of the Strategic Action Programme has been provided by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) with implementation support from the United Nations Devel- opment Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank, and execution by the United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS). Special support for the Navigation Risk Assessment and Management Plan has been provided by the Government of Norway through an agreement with the World Bank. Staff, office space and operating costs for the PERSGA Secretariat have been provided by GEF, UNEP and the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

viii

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACOPS Advisory Committee on the Protection of the Seas BOD Biological Oxygen Demand EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EA Environmental Assessment Fund Convention International Convention on the Establishment of a Fund for the Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GIS Geographic Information System GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IFC International Finance Corporation IMO International Maritime Organization IsDB Islamic Development Bank IUCN World Conservation Union, formerly International Union for the Conservation of Nature MARPOL The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollu- tion from Ships MEMAC Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Center MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency MPA Marine Protected Area NEAP National Environmental Action Plan PERSGA Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Envi- ronment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden PIP Public Investment Plan Region Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region ROPME Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment RSCN Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature of Jordan SAP Strategic Action Programme SAR International Convention on Search and Rescue

ix SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Develop- ment UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- zation UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services VLCC Very Large Crude Carriers WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

Executive Summary

Background creasing jeopardy. There is a growing risk of marine pollution, and environmental deg- The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain radation from rapidly expanding maritime some of the world’s most important coastal activities. Coastal habitat is being con- and marine environments and resources. verted for urban and industrial develop- There is a great variety of reef types in the ment. Tourism and recreation usage are Red Sea with a structural complexity un- growing quickly. In the Gulf of Aden the matched on Earth. The diversity of corals fisheries are under great pressure from is greater than anywhere else in the Indian over–exploitation and illegal fishing, and Ocean, and the number of species that are there are reports of toxic waste dumping confined to the Red Sea and found no- by foreign vessels. where else is extremely high. The Red Sea is one of the most important repositories of Goals and Objectives marine biodiversity on a global scale and features a range of important coastal habi- In view of the environmental uniqueness of tats. The Gulf of Aden, one of the biologi- the coasts and waters of the Region, the cally least known branches of the Indian threats they are facing, and the necessity Ocean, holds fishery resources of interna- for actions, the preparation of the Strategic tional importance. The Socotra Archipel- Action Programme (SAP) for the Red Sea ago contains unique aquatic and terrestrial and Gulf of Aden was initiated in October ecosystems and species, with limited m-i 1995. The SAP process, coordinated by pact from human activities. The rich cul- the Regional Organization for the Conser- tural heritage of the Region, especially in vation of the Environment of the Red Sea the narrow coastal zone, includes large and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), has been numbers of significant archaeological, his- undertaken with support from the countries torical and sacred sites which are increas- of the Region, the Global Environment Fa- ingly at risk from development pressure. cility (GEF), selected international development institutions and donor organizations. Although the Red Sea is still one of the least ecologically disturbed seas relative to The SAP supports and facilitates the other enclosed water bodies, it is in in- primary goal of PERSGA, which is the

xi xii Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden conservation of the environment of the Red progress and agreed on the follow–up ac- Sea and Gulf of Aden. The aims of the tivities for the remaining stages of the SAP are to develop a regional framework SAP. The third and fourth meetings fo- for the protection of the environment and cused on technical discussion of recent the sustainable development of coastal and findings, the preparation of the final report marine resources. The Programme outlined including recommendations, and associated in the SAP focuses on both preventive and projects. curative measures required to maintain the Preparation of the SAP has been sup- rich and diverse coastal and marine reported by regional studies on navigation sources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. and fisheries. A Navigation Risk Assess- The SAP is a significant process for ment and Management Plan has been pre- reaching agreement concerning environ- pared to examine regional, national and lo- mental trends, threats and priorities at a re- cal issues. The Plan has been prepared gional level. It is also a product in the form with the support of a Working Group of re- of an Action Programme which provides a gional experts on maritime and port man- framework for continued cooperation in agement, which has held meetings in Egypt reaching short–, medium– and long–term and Yemen. The regional study on living goals through a series of complementary and marine resources has assessed their actions at all levels. The SAP document current status and has been prepared with will be implemented through a continuous, the support of a meeting of regional ex- consultative and cooperative process. perts held in Saudi Arabia.

The SAP Task Force Country Participation

The development of the SAP has been The development of the SAP has been a overseen by a Task Force which includes collaborative process whereby national ex- representatives of the PERSGA Secretar- perts have cooperated to produce reports iat and Member States, the Islamic Devel- which analyze environmental issues of re- opment Bank, the United Nations Devel- gional, national and local significance. Na- opment Programme (UNDP), the United tional reports were prepared by all cooper- Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), ating countries and field surveys were con- and the World Bank. The Government of ducted in countries where baseline data are Eritrea has also been invited to join the limited. To widen participation further and Task Force and to work as a partner in the to facilitate consensus building, a pilot na- SAP process. Under the chairmanship of tional workshop was held in Jordan in the Secretary General of PERSGA, the August 1996 to review the Country Report. Task Force has developed and supervised This was followed by a series of national the work programme, reviewed the results workshops in other countries to finalize the of the programme, and provided technical Country Reports and to develop priority ac- and administrative input. Four meetings of tions required by each country to address the Task Force have been held: in Jeddah the environmental threats identified. (October 1995), Amman (April 1996), The coastline of Eritrea occupies a Sana’a (January 1997), and Jeddah (May considerable portion of the western Red 1997). During the first meeting, the Task Sea, and its diverse range of marine habi- Force’s Terms of Reference were com- tats contains species unlike those found in piled and the work plan developed. The the central and northern Red Sea. For second meeting reviewed the technical these reasons, Eritrea holds a significant

Executive Summary xiii place in the overall marine biodiversity of These threats highlight the need for ef- the Red Sea and its participation in the fective use of environmental management SAP, as an active partner working along- practices. Most of the threats and impacts side the other states, is critically important. which have been identified can be pre- This will be facilitated through the devel- vented by proper environmental planning opment of a strong and equal working and management, use of environmental as- partnership between the Government of sessments, and also through the enforce- Eritrea and PERSGA. The Secretary Gen- ment of appropriate regulations, most of eral of PERSGA, through the assistance of which are already in place. UNDP, is actively discussing the modalities The SAP process has identified a num- for such a partnership with representatives ber of major threats to the environment, of the Government of Eritrea, so that the and to the coastal and marine resources of Programme will be a regional process the Region: which reflects the needs of each country. WIDESPREAD HABITAT DESTRUCTION: Regional Threats · Unplanned coastal development

The environment and resources of the Red · Extensive dredging and filling Sea and Gulf of Aden are threatened by a · Destruction of coral reefs variety of human activities. The rate of population and economic growth in the · Destruction of mangroves coastal zones of the Region has resulted in · Destruction of seagrass beds increased pressure on the environment, from dredging and filling operations, from NON–SUSTAINABLE USE OF LIVING the disposal of domestic and industrial ef- MARINE RESOURCES: fluent, and from the non–sustainable use of · Overfishing for local and export mar- freshwater resources. A major contributor kets to growth in the coastal zone, and the con- sequent impacts, is the rapidly expanding · Illegal shark fisheries for the East Asian tourism industry. Marine resources are be- shark fin market ing exploited in a non–sustainable way and · Turtle exploitation and egg collection also illegally. · Incidental capture of marine mammals The global importance of petroleum in fishing nets and the resulting maritime traffic in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden pose a serious NAVIGATION RISKS, PETROLEUM threat to the fragile coastal and marine en- TRANSPORT AND PETROLEUM vironments. Routine operational leaks and PRODUCTION: spills from production in the Gulf of Suez · Extensive risk of ship collision and and the transport of oil constitute the prin- grounding in major traffic lanes cipal source of marine pollution in the Re- gion. At the same time, the growing risk of · Discharge of sewage from vessels oil traffic –related accidents creates a con- · Ship discharge of solid waste siderable demand for emergency response combined with management skills to mini- · Oil spills from exploration, production, mize risks and control major spills. Emerg- and transport ing issues will need to be addressed in a IMPACTS OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL preventive fashion. DEVELOPMENT:

xiv Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

· Excessive use of surface and ground- Actions to Address Regional Threats water resources Many of the threats which have been iden- · Destruction of coastal and marine habi- tified are related to a lack of planning and tats during construction management of development in the coastal · Discharge of partially treated and un- zone, limited use of environmental assess- treated municipal wastewater ment procedures in making investment de- · Industrial pollution cisions, and the inadequate enforcement of existing laws. Living marine resources · Hazardous wastes need to be managed effectively so that · Cooling water discharge their long–term sustainable use is assured. Reducing the risks of navigation accidents · Waste oil disposal will eliminate an additional threat to the RAPID EXPANSION OF COASTAL marine environment. The management of TOURISM: coastal tourism and increased public awareness about the value of the marine · Surface and groundwater extraction environment will promote habitat and re- · Destruction of coastal and marine habi- source conservation. Areas in which man- tats during construction agement is hampered by a lack of information can be addressed by appropriate ap- · Inadequate sewage and solid waste dis- plied research. The SAP process has iden- posal tified the following actions to address these · Disturbance to wildlife and habitats by threats: tourists ENHANCING GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT · Illegal collection of corals and mollusks AND PUBLIC AWARENESS: for souvenir trade · Long–term high level commitment to OTHER CONCERNS: protection of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden · Illegal disposal of toxic substances by foreign vessels in the Gulf of Aden · Ratification of MARPOL Convention

· Sedimentation from agriculture and · Development and implementation of re- grazing in some locations gional programme for environmental awareness · Risks from pesticides and fertilizers in some locations IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING, EMERGING ISSUES: MANAGEMENT, AND ENFORCEMENT:

· Development of free zones · Strengthening the capacity for planning and management · Improperly managed expansion of small and medium industries · Strengthening the capacity for coastal zone management · Exploitation of offshore mineral deposits · Strengthening the capacity for environ- · Shrimp and fish farming mental assessment

· Ornamental fish collecting · Strengthening the capacity for enforcement of existing regulations

Executive Summary xv

· Strengthening regional environmental · Development and imple mentation of information systems through the stan- environmental guidelines for fish and dardization and updating of databases, shrimp farming including those maintained on geo- · Development of mechanisms for con- graphic information systems (GIS), to trolling the collection of corals and mol- facilitate data exchange lusks PROMOTING HABITAT CONSERVATION: REDUCING NAVIGATION RISKS AND OIL · Effectively implementing coastal zone SPILLS: management programmes · Adoption and implementation of Port · Development of a regional network of State Control Marine Protected Areas · Development and implementation of re- · Development of conservation and man- gional and sub–regional vessel traffic agement programmes for coral reefs systems

· Development of conservation and man- · Upgrading existing marine navigation agement programmes for mangroves aids in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

· Development of conservation and man- · Upgrading existing navigation aids in agement programmes for seagrass beds narrow passage areas and high risk ar- · Development of conservation and man- eas agement programmes for coastal wet- · Development and implementation of a lands regional oil spill contingency plan

· Rehabilitation of mangrove stands · Preparation or upgrading of national Oil Spill Contingency Plans MANAGING LIVING MARINE RESOURCES: · Upgrading of the existing Marine Emer- · Stock assessment programme for the gency Mutual Aid Centers and the es- development of a fisheries management tablishment of similar facilities in other strategy sub–regions · Development and implementation of a management programme for shark fish- REDUCING IMPACTS FROM URBAN AND ery INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:

· Development of a regional research and · Improving urban and industrial pla nning management programme on coral reefs · Improving coastal zone management

· Development and implementation of a · Routine use of environmental assess- programme for marine turtle conserva- ment tion · Development of control mechanisms for · Development and implementation of a construction work, dredging and recla- programme for marine mammal con- mation servation · Increased priority for management of · Development and implementation of a surface and groundwater resources programme for seabird conservation · Strengthening the capacity to manage · Strengthening the enforcement capacity municipal wastewater and industrial ef- for existing fisheries regulations fluents

xvi Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

· Strengthening the capacity to manage · Biodiversity studies and species inven- solid and hazardous waste tories

· Conservation of the cultural heritage of The SAP: A Framework for Action the coastal zone

· Environmentally sound development of The Strategic Action Programme process free zones provides a framework and a mechanism to enhance regional environmental manage- · Environmentally sound development of ment through a series of complementary small and medium industries policy, institutional strengthening and in- · Elaboration of regional environmental vestment actions. The Strategic Action guidelines for the development of non– Programme will be supported by projects petroleum offshore mineral deposits designed to address the identified issues. These projects will be implemented on a IMPROVING MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL short–, medium– and long–term basis ac- TOURISM: cording to the nature of the issue being ad- · Development of control mechanisms for dressed. The SAP may be periodically up- construction work, dredging and recla- dated to reflect progress in implementation mation and to identify new measures to address emerging issues or unanticipated events. It · Strengthening the capacity to manage is envisaged that the process will not end wastewater discharge from coastal re- with the completion of the initial SAP sorts document, but will continue through further · Development of mechanisms to prevent cooperation between PERSGA and the the over–exploitation of fish and shell- Task Force, with the Task Force acting as fish for tourist consumption an advisory body to PERSGA. The proc- · Enforcement of existing regulations ess will also continue through the estab- prohibiting the collection of corals, mol- lishment of selected Working Groups at the lusks, and other marine life regional and sub–regional level, whose function will be to address transboundary · Development of awareness pro- issues. National Working Groups will also grammes to reduce disturbance to wild- be established to deal with the implementa- life and habitats by tourists tion of projects and activities at the national · Proper site selection and planning for and local levels. tourism developments

· Establishing reasonable capacity limits for tourism developments

PROMOTING APPLIED RESEARCH:

· Preparation and dissemination of a species identification guide for fishery purposes and environmental management

· Strengthening the capacity for applied research and monitoring

· Strengthening of environmental laboratory capacity

1 The Strategic Action Programme Process

The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: coastal and marine environments of the A Dynamic Region Region are globally among the least disturbed, its living and non–living resources OVERVIEW . In the last three decades, are in increasing jeopardy. Coastal habitat many countries in the Red Sea and Gulf of is being converted to urban and industrial Aden (the Region) have had to address the development, and limited freshwater re- consequences of war, civil strife, drought sources are under intense pressure. Tour- and famine, as well as the challenges of ism and recreational use are growing environmentally and socially sustainable quickly in coastal areas, especially adjacent development. In addition to these political, to fragile coral reefs. There is a greater economic, environmental and social prob- risk of marine pollution and environmental lems, demographic changes and pressures degradation from rapidly expanding energy have remained major constraints. During development and maritime activities. this same period, the countries of the Re- Throughout the Region, fisheries are under gion have included among the lowest in per significant pressure from over–exploitation capita income, while some have good rates and in large areas illegal fishing is having of economic development, and one has a devastating results. In the Gulf of Aden, very high record of providing donor assis- there are reports of foreign vessels illegally tance. In spite of their significant eco- dumping toxic wastes. The social need for nomic, social and political differences, the development of basic infrastructure in the countries of the Region share several Socotra Archipelago will create potential common environmental problems and threats to the unique ecosystems of these threats. These shared concerns have pro- islands. The Red Sea remains one of the vided a firm justification for regional col- busiest marine transport regions of the laborative efforts. world, making this multi–national sea prone to major oil pollution. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS. Development activities in the Re- gion are heavily concentrated in coastal areas and depend on a combination of fragile terrestrial and marine resources. While the

1 2 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

A Framework for Regional Coopera- gional Intergovernmental Conference also tion: Jeddah Convention, PERSGA adopted a “Programme for the Environ- and the SAP ment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA),” and a Secretariat for the THREE COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES. Programme was established in Jeddah. In The environmental challenges brought addition, the Conference produced two im- about by developments in the Region have portant instruments: (a) an “Action Plan been recognized, and a series of coopera- for the Conservation of the Marine Envi- tive initiatives taken at the regional, national ronment and Coastal Areas in the Red Sea and local levels. A framework for regional and Gulf of Aden”; and (b) a “Protocol environmental cooperation is provided by Concerning Regional Cooperation in Com- three complementary elements: (a) the bating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Jeddah Convention; (b) the Regional Or- Substances in Cases of Emergency.” Cur- ganization for the Conservation of the En- rently, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, vironment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen Aden (PERSGA); and (c) the Strategic are parties to the Jeddah Convention. The Action Programme for the Red Sea and provisions of the Jeddah Convention are Gulf of Aden (SAP). Their common goal is complemented by those of MARPOL and to cooperatively identify and undertake a the Basel Conventions. programme of well designed actions to as- PERSGA . PERSGA is an official regional sure long–term management and conserva- organization responsible for the develop- tion of the coastal and marine resources of ment and implementation of regional pro- the Region, in order to support environmen- grammes for the protection and conserva- tally and socially sustainable development. tion of the marine environment of the Red These elements include a legal basis for Sea and Gulf of Aden, and was formally cooperation, an official regional organiza- established in September 1996, with the tion to coordinate activities, and develop- signing of the Cairo Declaration by all co- ment and implementation of a strategic operating parties to the Jeddah Convention. programme of preventive and curative ac- It is based in Jeddah. Major functions of tions. The initiatives complement and build PERSGA include the implementation of the upon a range of actions at the national and Jeddah Convention, the Action Plan, and local levels being taken by the cooperating the Protocol. It has also been given re- parties; they include support for improved sponsibility for preparation and wastewater services in coastal areas, man- implementation of the SAP and related agement measures for control of pollution activities. PERSGA has played an active from industries and ports, fisheries role in promoting regional cooperation and regulations and establishment of Marine has recently supported regional workshops Protected Areas at selected sites. concerning environmental assessment JEDDAH CONVENTION. The Jeddah Con- (EA), Marine Protected Areas, navigation vention of 1982, formally titled “Regional risks and living marine resources. In Convention for the Conservation of the addition, a series of national workshops Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment,” have been sponsored by PERSGA to provides an important basis for environ- facilitate the development and review of mental cooperation in the Region. It was Country Reports prepared as part of the SAP process. the result of a Regional Intergovernmental At the PERSGA Council of Ministers Conference, supported by the United Na- meeting in Jeddah on 26 October 1996, the tions Environment Programme. The Re- countries of the Region, having considered

The Strategic Action Programme Process 3 the Executive Summary before them, gave vironment Programme (UNEP), and the approval to the recommendations and re- World Bank. The SAP is complemented by sults of the SAP preparatory phase and the a series of specially prepared background process as a whole. The Council of Minis- documents which include Country Reports, ters resolved to heighten high level political a Regional Navigation Risk Assessment commitment to national and international and Management Plan, a Regional Study cooperation on the coastal and marine en- on the Status of the Living Marine Re- vironments. The preparatory process for sources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden the SAP included PERSGA Council meet- and Their Management, and an update of ings, PERSGA Task Force meetings, the bibliography of selected studies and Country Consultation workshops, a series background documents for the Red Sea of meetings on special topics and conduct and Gulf of Aden (see Appendix C). of field surveys in four countries (see Ap- pendices A and B). Furthermore, the The SAP: An Agenda for Regional, Council decided to strengthen national and National and Local Action regional institutional capabilities, promote public awareness, and support integrated THE SAP—PROCESS AND PRODUCT. The approaches to coastal zone management, SAP process was initiated in October 1995 environmental planning and impact as- with the first meeting of the Task Force, sessments. The Council also agreed to held in conjunction with the “Sea to Sea adopt the necessary measures to reduce Conference” in Jeddah. The SAP repre- navigation risks at the national and regional sents a significant “process” for reaching le vels, strengthen environmental legislation colle ctive agreement concerning environ- and enforcement capacities, reinforce re- mental trends, threats and priorities at a regional cooperation to ensure effective par- gional level, and a “product” in the form of ticipation in international environmental a Strategic Action Programme which pro- Agreements/Conventions, and strengthen vides a framework for continued coopera- environmental information systems. tion in reaching short–, medium– and long– term goals through a series of complemen- THE STRATEGIC ACTION PROGRAMME tary actions at all levels. The SAP presents FOR THE RED SEA AND GULF OF ADEN. an overview of the environmental trends The SAP provides a cooperatively devel- and threats on a regional basis and recom- oped framework for the long–term conser- mends a phased programme of comple- vation and management of the coastal and mentary “preventive” and “curative” ac- marine resources of the Region as man- tions to address current and emerging is- dated by the Jeddah Convention of 1982. sues. It delineates key measures for institu- Preparation of the SAP has been coordi- tional strengthening, human resources de- nated by PERSGA and has been under- velopment and expansion of public aware- taken with the financial support of its ness at the regional, national and local le v- members, the Global Environment Facility els. The SAP also reviews opportunities (GEF), selected international development for the mobilization of domestic and inter- institutions and selected donor organiza- national resources, both public and private, tions. The SAP is the product of a coop- to undertake the Programme. erative and consultative process undertaken by a Task Force which includes: KEY MEASURES FOR REGIONAL PERSGA members, Islamic Development ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT. The Bank (IsDB), United Nations Development SAP identifies a series of key measures Programme (UNDP), United Nations En- for regional environmental management to

4 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

support sustainable development, sound · Management Programmes. Upgrading management and effective conservation of and expansion of current management the coastal and marine environments. programmes for critical resources in the These measures include: coastal and marine environments;

· High Level Commitment. Effective de- · Monitoring and Evaluation. Estab- velopment of long–term high–level lishment of an affordable system for commitment to conservation of the monitoring and evaluation of the effec- coastal and marine resources of the tiveness of regional, national and local Region; interventions for management and conservation of the coastal and marine en- · Enhanced Public Awareness. En- vironments; and hancement of public awareness of the importance of these resources and the · Resource Mobilization. Adoption of active role of the public in their conser- measures at the regional, national and vation; local level that facilitate effective and timely mobilization of domestic and in- · Integration into Development Plan- ternational resources to undertake the ning. Integration of environmental man- Programme. agement into the public and private sector development planning and in- National and International Efforts vestment process, with the participation of stakeholders; NATIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES. In · Identification and Evaluation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, it is impera- Trends. Recognizing the dynamic and tive that national efforts to improve institu- rapid development of the Region, the tional, policy and legislative capacity for SAP supports identification and evalua- environmental protection be fully sup- tion of environmental trends in the ported. The cooperating parties have, in coastal and marine areas through peri- varying ways, included sustainable devel- odic focused studies; opment as a key goal in most of their na- · Strengthening of Institutions. Sus- tional development plans and strategies tained support for a diversity of meas- even though coastal and marine environ- ures for institutional strengthening and mental considerations still need to be fully human resources development in public addressed in sectoral development pro- and private institutions at all levels; grammes. The respective SAP–related Country Reports provide indications of the · Preventive Measures. Support for pre- programmes, plans and actions as well as ventive measures to avoid adverse envi- institutional arrangements put in place to ronmental impacts through proper envi- protect the marine environment. A number ronmental planning, use of environ- of PERSGA members have developed Na- mental assessment and targeted proac- tional Environmental Action Plans (NE- tive investments; APs), carried out country studies on the · Curative Measures. Support for cura- state of their environment and natural re- tive measures which can be imple- sources and/or prepared reports inspired by mented in a cost–effective manner to the United Nations Conference on Envi- correct existing environmental and natu- ronment and Development (UNCED). The ral resource management problems; improvement of institutional capacities for environmental management remains a major goal and challenge of the governments

The Strategic Action Programme Process 5 in the Region. Integrating environment and In this regard priority considerations development in sectoral decisionmaking covered the following: and economic planning is being accorded à Establishment of regional marine greater attention. pollution response centers; STRENGTHENING NATIONAL AND à Support for marine pollution re- INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL sponse organizations; LEGISLATION. The nations of the Region have approved many new environmental à Support for oil spill responses laws and standards in the last decade and through purchase of equipment, since the adoption of the Jeddah Conven- training of experts, development of tion and PERSGA. In their determination tools such as oil spill trajectory to strengthen participation in regional and models; and international agreements, the cooperating à Development of regional networks parties have signed or ratified a number of to monitor the incidence of oil spills Conventions (Appendix D). and other marine pollution incidents. GEF–SUPPORTED ACTIVITIES. A number A number of projects are also being of GEF–supported projects have been supported by the international commu- launched in some cooperating countries. nity, including: Those listed below are of special relevance to the conservation of the environment of à State of the Marine Environment the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: Report of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden; · Egypt–Red Sea Coastal and Marine Resource Management Plan; à A Review of the Environmental Legislation in the Red Sea and Gulf · Eritrea–Conservation and Management of Aden; of Eritrea’s Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity; à Study for the establishment of ship reception facilities for wastes in the · Jordan–Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Red Sea ports; Action Plan; à Training in oil spill response tech- · Yemen–Protection of the Marine Eco- niques for regional experts; and systems of the Red Sea Coast; and à Directory of national capabilities in · Yemen–Conservation and Sustainable marine sciences in the PERSGA Use of Biodiversity of the Socotra Ar- Region. chipelago. · Environmental Baseline Data. Ac- INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS. International tions have been directed to acquiring efforts and cooperation with the Region baseline data, with particular attention have focused on a number of critical areas, to field inventory of existing sources of the highlights of which include: pollutants, development of basic envi- · Capacity Building and Institutional ronmental information, and assistance to Development. Efforts have concen- national environmental agencies in de- trated on identification of issues and in- veloping environmental management ventory of capabilities to deal with the capabilities. International efforts include Region’s marine environment concerns. support for:

6 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

à Bibliography of Oceanographic and Marine Environmental Research: Red Sea and Gulf of Aden;

à Evaluation of the status of marine mammals in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden;

à Review of the geology of coral reefs in the Red Sea;

à Inventory and sustainable development of coastal habitats in the PERSGA Region; and

à Environmental inventories of the coasts of Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

· Information Services. International support is being extended to the development and dissemination of information. These resources generally fall under the following categories:

à Scientific and technical information on the baseline status of the marine environment;

à Institutional/legal information regarding modalities for the successful establishment and operation of regional and national programmes of environmental management; and

à Monitoring of the environment.

2 The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

A Repository of Biodiversity seagrass beds, reefs constructed of algae and intertidal habitats. Species endemism in A SERIES OF UNIQUE ENVIRONMENTS. The the Red Sea is extremely high, particularly Region contains some of the world’s among some groups of reef fishes and unique coastal and marine environments, in reef–associated invertebrates. the Gulfs of Aqaba and Suez, the Red Sea, THE GULF OF ADEN. The Gulf of Aden is and the Gulf of Aden. Among the most no- strongly influenced by the upwelling of table is the extraordinary system of coral cool, nutrient rich waters during the south- reefs and their associated animals and west and northeast monsoons and is char- plants. Surrounded by arid terrestrial envi- acterized by a prevailing high energy cli- ronments, which are themselves unique, mate. These pose major constraints on these environments support rich biological coral reef development, hence only 5 per- communities and representatives of several cent of the Yemeni Gulf of Aden coast is endangered species. The natural resources lined with fringing reefs. Rocky cliffs alter- have supported coastal populations for nating with long stretches of littoral and thousands of years, and nourished the de- sub–littoral sand along coastal plains domi- velopment of a maritime and trading cul- nate the coastline. Some of the sandy ture linking Arabia and Africa with Europe beaches, notably Ras Sharma and Dhob- and Asia. bah (Ash Shihr) of Yemen, form major THE RED SEA . The Red Sea is one of the nesting sites for green turtles in the Region. most important repositories of marine Little is known about the coastal and ma- biodiversity in the world. Its relative isola- rine resources of the Gulf of Aden coast of tion, and physical conditions which range Somalia although recent visits have re- from nearshore shallows to depths of over vealed the occurrence of previously un- 2,000 meters in the central rift, have given known coral reefs and mangrove stands. rise to an extraordinary range of ecosys- THE SOCOTRA ARCHIPELAGO. Situated at tems and biological diversity. Its most re- the eastern extreme of the Gulf of Aden, nowned expression is the elaborate system the Socotra Archipelago, which is part of of coral reefs. There are also mangroves,

7 8 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Yemen, is of global significance for island world, Socotra has remained virtually un- biodiversity and species endemism. Over touched by modern development and there one third of its plants are endemic to the is no evidence of recent extinction or archipelago, making it one of the top ten large–scale changes in the vegetation. The island groups in the world in terms of en- marine environments of Socotra Archipel- demism. Many of these endemics are rem- ago remain largely in a pristine state, unal- nants of an ancient flora which long ago tered by coastal pollution or over– disappeared from the African–Arabian exploitation (see Box 1). mainland. Unlike many island groups in the

The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 9

Major Coastal and Marine Environ- ecosystems are the basis of much of the ments Region’s rich and unique biodiversity, its fisheries production, its conservation and MAJOR ECOSYSTEMS. The coastal and recreational values. They are also vital to marine environments of the Region consist the livelihood of the coastal populations. of a range of ecosystems: an arid coastal They stabilize and protect the coastline, zone, coastal wetlands, mangroves, sea- and buffer changes in water quality. These grasses, and coral reefs. These contrasting ecosystems are linked by the movement of

Box 1: Socotra Archipelago Some 400 kilometers south of the Arabian Peninsula lies the Socotra Archipelago, which is part of the territory of the Republic of Yemen. The archipelago consists of Socotra and three outlying islands, Abd al–Kuri, Samba and Darsa. The islands are characterized by very high numbers of species found nowhere else on earth. Of the 850 plant species found on the island group, at least 277 are endemic. Six endemic bird species have been recorded on Socotra Island. Recent surveys revealed that the archipelago could be an extremely important area for marine biogeography. The archipelago has been described by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) as an “Indian Ocean version of the Galapagos,” based on the high degree of endemism and unique vegetation types on the islands. The total population of the Socotra Archipelago is estimated at 50,000–80,000, with the vast majority on Socotra Island. The majority of the population on the island is dependent on livestock, with the coastal population relying more on fishing and date cul- tivation. Traditional management practices of land, livestock and fisheries play a major role in the conservation of the archipelago's natural resources. These practices need strengthening during the process of basic development to avoid irreversible damage of the natural ecosystems and resources upon which the local people depend for livelihood. The Government of Yemen has shown keen commitment to conserve the natural resources of the Socotra Archipelago while supporting the basic development needs of the local people. In January 1996, a Government Decree declared the formation of the Inter–Ministerial High Committee for Development of Socotra, chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Planning. Soon after that, the Government announced an allocation of YR256 million (approximately USD2.0 million) for the initial costs of a Master Plan for Development of Socotra Archipelago. In September 1996, the Envi- ronmental Protection Council was designated as the Secretariat of the High Commit- tee. Upon requests by the Government of Yemen, UNDP approved in 1996 a Preparatory Assistance “Basic Needs Assistance for the People of the Socotra Archipelago” fo- cusing on health, education, water and sanitation, and renewable energy. This was further developed into a full–scale project (USD2.0 million). Complementary to this development initiative is the USD4.9 million GEF project “Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Biodiversity of Socotra Archipelago.” The five–year project seeks to conserve the unique biodiversity of Socotra Archipelago, by integrating resource management and development strategy, driven by the local communities, and building on sound ecological and socio–economic bases. The success of these newly developed initiatives relies not only on the commitment of the Government, the local people and UNDP, but also recognition and support from the global community for the islands’ globally significant biodiversity.

10 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden water through them, and decline in the for example, are some of the most impor- health of one will have impacts on the oth- tant wetlands in Yemen and the Arabian ers. The aridity of the coastal zone has his- peninsula, regularly holding over 10,000 torically concentrated human settlement waterfowl, three globally threatened spe- near available water supplies and created a cies, and twelve with regionally important traditionally heavy reliance on the marine populations. environment as a source of food. MANGROVES. There are extensive man- ARID COASTAL ZONE. Perhaps the most grove stands in the Red Sea and Gulf of distinctive characteristic of the Region is Aden, especially in the southern Red Sea. the existence of an arid coastal zone which Mangroves are an extremely important surrounds the Sea. The zone consists of a form of coastal vegetation: their extensive flat coastal plain of varying width which is root systems stabilize sediments and pro- often bordered inland by extensive moun- tect the coastline; they provide shelter for tain ranges. The coastal plain in many ar- an array of marine animals, birds— eas is dominated by large alluvial fans enhancing overall biodiversity—and the ju- characterized by seasonal discharge of wa- veniles of commercially important fish and ter in a limited series of flood flows. Close crustaceans. The dead leaves and to the shore the coastal zone is dominated branches of mangroves are a source of by salt–tolerant vegetation which grades food within the mangrove ecosystem and into arid–adapted plant associations. Areas also offshore, such as in shrimp communi- adjacent to springs or other sources of ties. However, environmental conditions in permanent water are traditionally charac- the Region, such as temperature and salin- terized by oasis–type vegetation. ity, are near the upper limits for mangrove existence, which makes them very sensi- COASTAL WETLANDS. Brackish and tive to disturbance and probably limits their freshwater ecosystems in the arid coastal ability to recover. zone are unique in their adaptation to stressful environmental conditions. They SEAGRASS BEDS. Seagrasses inhabit shal- contain particularly high concentrations of low and sheltered waters throughout much flora and fauna with a biodiversity which of the Region. The productivity of seagrass far surpasses that of surrounding areas. beds is greater than comparable areas of They host high numbers of rare plants and both coral reefs and mangroves. Seagrass animals, often including species endemic to roots stabilize sediments, and in conjunction the Region. Their areas of distribution are with nearby mangroves, protect the coast- usually very limited and some of the spe- line. Water currents are reduced in the vi- cies are relicts of taxa which were more cinity of seagrass beds leading to the depo- widely distributed in the geological past. sition of fine sediments and the clarifying Open freshwater bodies are the breeding of surrounding waters. Many marine ani- sites of insects that may venture deep into mals rely upon seagrass beds for shelter surrounding arid lands. The presence of and food, including water birds, fish and freshwater attracts large numbers of rep- crustaceans, and the internationally impor- tiles, birds and mammals and some of the tant dugong and green turtles. Commer- larger wetlands of the Region host bird cially important fish and crustaceans use populations of international importance. seagrass beds as nursery grounds. There Coastal wetlands are often associated with are strong connections between seagrass oases which are of great importance for beds and nearby coral reefs: nocturnally the local populations. The Aden Wetlands, active fish migrate at night from the reefs

The Uniqueness of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 11 to the seagrass beds to feed; dead sea- tionally important species, notably marine grass leaves carried offshore in currents mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds. Marine become food for animals inhabiting deeper mammals in the Region are represented by marine habitats. cetaceans such as dolphins and whales, and dugong. Although dugong were hunted CORAL REEFS. The coral reefs of the Re- in the past by artisanal fishermen, this is no gion are composed of approximately 200 longer the case and where surveys of their species of stony corals, representing the populations have been done, such as in highest diversity in any section of the In- Saudi Arabian waters, the populations are dian Ocean. The warm water and absence healthy. In the absence of major human of freshwater input provide very suitable impacts, conservation of dugong is directed conditions for coral reef formation adjacent towards conservation of feeding habitats, to the coastline. In the northern Red Sea the seagrass beds. Sea turtles feed and the coast is fringed by an almost continu- nest in the Region and at least three spe- ous band of coral reef, which physically cies—green, hawksbill and loggerhead— protects the nearby shoreline. This beauti- have been observed. They rely on sea- ful environment is extremely attractive as a grass, algae, and invertebrates for their tourist resource and is currently visited by food. Information on their status is gener- hundreds of thousands of people each year, ally lacking and hunting by humans contin- who dive, walk, and swim in the waters ad- ues in some parts of the Region. jacent to the reefs. Further south the coastal shelf becomes much broader and RESIDENT AND MIGRATORY BIRD POPU- shallower and the fringing reefs gradually LATIONS. Coastal wetlands, the shallow disappear to be replaced by shallow, sandy waters adjacent to reefs and islands, and shorelines and mangroves. Coral reefs be- the numerous islands throughout the Re- come more numerous offshore in this part gion provide ideal habitat for a large num- of the Region. ber of seabirds. Some of the important resident species include the Lesser Flamin- CORAL REEF FRAGILITY. Coral reefs also goes (Phoenicopterus minor) and the occur as offshore patch reefs and reefs Yellow–vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus xan- fringing islands. They provide food and thopygos), while the important wintering shelter for a large and diverse fauna and species include the Greater Spotted Eagle flora. Most fishing activities in the Region (Aquila clanga), White–eyed Gull (Larus occur in shallow waters in the vicinity of leucophthalmus) and the Greater and coral reefs. Corals require a range of Lesser Sand Plover (Charadrius physical conditions for healthy growth and leschenault, C. mongolus). The Red Sea reproduction, all of which are influenced by is a flyway for many species of birds human activities. Physical destruction, which seasonally migrate between Europe changes in water quality—such as raised and Africa, and the islands of the southern nutrient levels, and changes in salinity and Red Sea, in particular the Farasan Islands, temperature—high levels of sedimentation, are utilized by many hundreds of thousands and changes in water currents can all dam- of birds in the spring and autumn migra- age coral reefs. Recovery, through new tions. Here there are internationally impor- growth and larval settlement, requires a tant populations of Saunders’ Little Tern considerable amount of time and freedom (Sterna saundersi), Bridled Tern (Sterna from chronic stress. anaethetus) and the resident Egyptian GLOBALLY IMPORTANT SPECIES. The wa- Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). ters of the Region support many interna-

12 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Cultural Heritage coast of Sudan. Given the significant risk in most coastal areas within the Region that SITES UNDER DEVELOPMENT PRESSURE. buried cultural heritage sites might remain The important cultural heritage of the Re- unknown, the use of “archaeological gion, concentrated in the narrow coastal chance find procedures” in projects pro- zone, includes many archaeological, histori- vides clear guidance if cultural materials cal and sacred sites which are increasingly are encountered during excavation and at risk from development pressure through construction activities. The economic im- both direct destruction and disturbance. portance of cultural heritage sites is ex- The Red Sea has served as a major route pected to grow given the need to diversify for communication and trade between activities for tourists in order to ni crease Asia, Africa and Europe, as the result of their length of stay in the Region. which it has a large number of cultural TRADITIONAL MARITIME CULTURE. The heritage sites from a diversity of periods inhabitants of the coastal areas of the Re- and cultures. The Region has long been the gion have a rich history of association with focus of international religious pilgrimage, the sea, and are an integral part of the di- especially to the Holy cities of Mecca and verse cultural heritage of each country. Medina, which are traditionally reached Artisanal fishermen have fished the Re- through the ports of Jeddah and Yanbu. gion’s waters for thousands of years in a This long tradition of pilgrimage and trade sustainable manner and in many places has diversified the kinds of sites and arti- continue to do so with little advancement in facts. A little examined aspect of the Re- technology. These artisanal fishermen have gion is the high potential for underwater established forms of traditional manage- sites of archaeological significance, such as ment of their resources, including the rota- prehistoric and early historic sites which tion of fishing activities among reefs to were covered as the result of land move- prevent over–fishing and decline of stocks. ment or sea level rise, or stemmed from An extensive knowledge of the sea, fishing ancient as well as modern shipwrecks. techniques, and habits of species caught by CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE. fishermen are retained by a few individuals Conservation of this resource requires rec- who serve as leaders in each fishing com- ognition of its value in the pla nning and de- munity. In a few places the tradition of velopment process. In many nations of the pearl diving continues, although the number Region, archaeological and historical site of divers is dwindling. This part of the Re- surveys are often conducted as part of the gion’s cultural heritage is at risk of disap- environmental assessment process for a pearing in some localities as local fisher- proposed project and are especially impor- men are replaced by foreign workers, tant given the limited surveys and excava- pric es for fish fall, and competition with in- tions in the Region. In other cases cultural dustrial fisheries grows. heritage values are integrated into the development process, such as the measures adopted for the conservation of the Islamic city of Aqaba, historic buildings of “Old Jeddah” and the programme supported by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for the restoration of the important historic trading center of Suakin on the southern

3 Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources

A RANGE OF THREATS. The important The land is dominated by an arid coastal coastal and marine environments and re- zone that is the traditional site of human sources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden settlement and economic activities. The are subject to a series of individual and coastal zone is bordered by four major eco- cumulative threats which have significant systems: coastal wetlands, which provide short– and long–term consequences for extensive habitat for resident and migratory sustainable development of the Region. bird species; mangroves, which extend The threats include habitat destruction, from the water’s edge across the tidal zone over–exploitation of living marine re- in many places, providing critical habitat for sources, environmental degradation from fishery resources and buffering the coast petroleum development, significant risks from erosion; seagrass beds, found in from marine transportation, pollution from shallow waters adjacent to the coastline, industrial activities, diverse environmental which provide breeding habitat and refuge impacts from urban and tourism develop- for marine life; and offshore coral reefs ment and a series of emerging environ- with a great diversity of life. These ecosys- mental issues associated with new types of tems are under variable pressure in the economic developments and uses of new Region, with greatest stress adjacent to ur- technologies. A summary of the threats to ban and industrial areas, near port facilities coastal and marine environments and re- and major shipping lanes, and in the vicinity sources is provided as Table 1. of coastal tourism areas. DEGRADATION OF THE ARID COASTAL Environmental Degradation ZONE. Ecosystems in arid zones are deli- cately balanced and particularly sensitive to THREATS TO KEY ECOSYSTEMS. The disturbance. An increasing number of no- unique environment of the Red Sea and mads are moving into the coastal zone with Gulf of Aden rests on the interaction be- their livestock, especially following long pe- tween five key ecosystems which form a riods of drought in large parts of the Re- continuum between the land and the sea.

13 14 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden gion. Grazing by goats and sheep, and to a are cut for firewood and for construction. lesser extent by camels, reduces the plant Grazing by camels reduces the height of cover. As a result, dunes and sand sheets, mangrove trees, their productivity, and their which were formerly stabilized by vegeta- reproductive capacity. The damming of tion, are being remobilized, smothering rivers and wadis has reduced natural mangroves and other coastal vegetation. freshwater inputs to the coast and de- Plants are also being removed for fodder graded mangrove stands. Causeways con- and firewood. An increase in cross– structed across bays have reduced the tidal country driving destroys the plant cover exchange of seawater leading to extensive and remobilizes the sand. Urban and indus- mangrove death. Degradation in man- trial development result in the degradation groves leads to impacts on fish and crusta- and removal of coastal vegetation, intro- cean catches. These impacts are com- duction of exotic species, and ultimately in pounded by a lack of awareness about the loss of biological diversity. Extensive use of importance of mangroves in the coastal limited freshwater resources places addi- and marine environments, especially the tional pressure on biota which already have relationship between mangroves and to contend with a naturally irregular and fisheries, and by the limited use of environ- limited water supply. Coastal wetlands and mental assessment procedures. oases are partic ularly at risk. LOSS OF SEAGRASS BEDS. Their location in DISTURBANCE TO COASTAL WETLANDS. shallow waters close to the shoreline ren- Aquatic ecosystems in arid areas, which ders seagrasses very susceptible to activi- have limited and irregular freshwater sup- ties related to unplanned and unmanaged plies, are particularly fragile and sensitive urban, industrial, tourism, and fishing activi- to disturbance. Their small size makes ties. Seagrasses are destroyed directly by them especially vulnerable to pollution. dredging and landfilling. Productivity is de- Those that are easily accessible or have a graded by changes in water flow caused high concentration of birds and mammals, by coastal constructions, by excessive tend to attract large numbers of visitors, sediment in the water reducing available which often results in solid waste dumping light, and by the impacts of increased nutri- and use of detergents. Wetlands also suf- ents in the water from sewage disposal. fer from grazing by livestock, who destroy These problems are compounded by a lack the vegetation cover through trampling, and of environmental assessment procedures pollute the water body with excrement. for developments, lack of awareness about The lowering of the water level for agricul- the importance of seagrasses, and lack of ture and households poses the greatest information on their distribution. Although threat, often resulting in a collapse of these legally protected from trawling, seagrass fragile natural systems and the irreplace- beds are destroyed by illegal trawling be- able loss of biological diversity. cause of difficulties in enforcement. Im- pacts on seagrass beds affect the fauna CLEARING AND DEGRADATION OF which depend upon them, most importantly MANGROVES. Mangroves are prone to turtles, dugong, commercial fish and crus- degradation and removal from a multitude taceans, and birds. of developmental and exploitative activities. Mangroves are destroyed by landfilling and DESTRUCTION OF CORAL REEFS. Coral cleared for the construction of shrimp reefs throughout the Region are being ponds. In coastal areas where human damaged by a variety of coastal develop- population is increasing rapidly, mangroves ments, and as a direct result of human ac-

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 15 tivities. Landfilling for urban expansion and ster and strombids are rapidly declining. tourism developments are destroying. Con- Cuttlefish stocks in major fishing grounds struction activities also alter the flow of have completely collapsed. Although in clear seawater that corals need to survive. some areas shrimp catches have grown Corals are affected by the reduced light recently due to an increase in fishing ef- levels, and sometimes smothered by sedi- forts, in other areas there are indications of ment from dredging. Release of semi– stock depletion. The present situation is at- treated and untreated sewage directly onto tributed to destructive fishing practices, coral reefs causes a proliferation of algae possible exploitation beyond maximum sus- that can overgrow corals. Although coral tainable yield, the absence of fisheries reefs are attractive to tourists, unmanaged management plans, and a lack of surveil- activities of divers and reef–walkers, and lance and enforcement of existing regula- anchors from boats, destroy corals in high– tions. Important nursery habitats, such as use areas. Damaged areas become mangrove and seagrass beds, have been unattractive and the numbers of animals severely damaged or destroyed. living there decline. Damage to coral reefs UNREGULATED SHARK FISHERIES. As top is further compounded by the limited use of predators, sharks are critical to the health environmental assessment for of the Region’s marine ecosystems. Sharks developments and low enforcement of the are slow growing, begin reproduction rela- existing, adequate regulations. A lack of tively late in life, and produce only a small awareness about the importance of coral number of offspring. They are very vulner- reefs and their sensitivity puts them further able to stock collapse from overfishing, and at risk. Non–Sustainable Use of Living Ma- recovery takes several decades. The traditional artisanal fishery in the Region rine Resources catches only small numbers of sharks and the whole animal is utilized. However, OVER–EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES. there is a large–scale illegal fishery for the Over–exploitation of species, destruction of East Asian shark fin market involving fish- spawning, nursery and feeding grounds, ermen working outside their normal territo- improper resource management and inade- rial boundaries. Sharks are caught by lines quate fisheries regulations, in conjunction and also by nets which damage the coral with a lack of law enforcement, are barri- reefs. The fins are removed, often while ers to sustainable development of the Re- the shark is still alive, and the body is gion’s rich living marine resources. Ulti- thrown back into the sea or deposited on mately, this poses a serious threat to the offshore islands. Fins are dried and sold to biological diversity and productivity of the foreign vessels waiting in international wa- Region, and puts at risk the livelihoods of ters, thus escaping control. Large amounts people engaged in potentially sustainable of bycatch from net fishing, including tur- activities, such as fisheries, aquaculture tles, dolphins and finfish, are discarded, al- and tourism. most invariably dead. OVERFISHING. The status of fisheries in CAPTURE OF MARINE TURTLES. Through- some nations of the Region is unknown, out the southern Red Sea and Gulf of because of a lack of stock assessments Aden, turtles are caught either accidentally and incomplete fisheries statistics. Re- or intentionally by fishermen. Turtle oil, ported declines in catches and average size meat, and eggs are eaten, and the shells of fish landed are possible indicators of are sold to tourists. Capture of turtles, to- overfishing. Besides finfish, catches of lob-

16 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden gether with egg collection and disturbance specific ornithological surveys when pre- or destruction of nesting sites and nesting paring environmental studies in these sensi- beaches, has resulted in a decline in nesting tive areas. populations. In areas with poor finfish re- SHRIMP AND FISH FARMING. Currently, sources, fishermen often depend on turtles shrimp and fish farming play a minor role in for subsidiary food. Stray dogs that feed on the Region, but growth is expected in the turtle eggs and hatchlings aggravate the near future. Fish farming in floating rafts problem in some areas. The light coming has a minor impact from addition of nutri- from nearby urban areas and coastal roads ents into the ecosystem. Fish ponds in and highways has a distortion effect on the coastal areas, if poorly planned, may result navigation system of newly hatched turtles, in destruction of coastal habitats and a de- causing massive casualties. cline in water and soil quality. Shrimp THREATS TO MARINE MAMMALS. ponds, which are usually built in or near Knowledge of species composition and mangrove areas, lead to a modification of population sizes of marine mammals in the the coastline, irreversible conversion of Region is limited. Detailed studies of du- coastal habitats, mangrove destruction and gong, which are considered vulnerable to degraded water quality. Water quality is extinction on a worldwide scale, exist only also adversely affected by the use of for Saudi Arabia. The Red Sea population chemicals, hormones and nutrients in the is estimated at up to 4,000 dugong. It ponds. Shrimp farms are a source of seems that they are no longer hunted sys- short–term profit, but can result in the tematically, but are frequently taken as by- permanent loss of some of the most sensi- catch in trawls and nets. Their meat is tive and precious habitats. used for human consumption. Destruction of seagrass beds poses an additional threat. Maritime Traffic, Oil Production and As slow swimmers living in shallow water, Transport dugong also suffer from the increasing use of motor boats, which may easily injure A WORLD TRANSPORTATION ROUTE. In them near the water surface. the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region, exploration, production, processing and trans- THREATS TO SEABIRDS. The status of sea- portation of more than half the world’s birds of the Region is poorly known. In the proven oil reserves take place. Most of the portions of the Red Sea adjoining Saudi oil produced from both inland and offshore Arabia where systematic surveys have wells is exported, transforming the Red been undertaken, the number of seabirds Sea into an oil tanker highway. Entering present in summer may approach 200,000. the Gulf each year are some 20,000– Seabirds are threatened by hunting, distur- 35,000 tankers which load their cargoes of bance at their breeding sites and habitat oil for shipment to the far East and Europe. destruction. During the breeding season, Many tankers proceed from the Gulf egg collecting occurs wherever there are around the Arabian peninsula into the Red fishermen. Seabirds are particularly sensi- Sea, where they either continue north tive to oil spills. When considering devel- through the Suez Canal to the Mediterra- opment of rocky coasts and offshore is- nean, or deposit their cargo at the entrance lands, special attention is required through- to the Sumed pipeline at Ain Sukhna in out the Region to avoid and/or minimize po- Egypt. Besides oil cargoes, many ships tential adverse impacts to seabird popula- transit the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden fully tions and their habitats. This mandates site or partly loaded with hazardous or toxic

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 17 substances that pose an added threat to the hazardous materials from drilling operations coastal and marine environments. are chronic sources of pollution. These risks will increase with the antic ipated de- PETROLEUM AND MARITIME TRAFFIC. velopment of gas reserves and offshore oil The global importance of petroleum and resources in the southern Red Sea and the resulting maritime traffic pose a serious Gulf of Aden. The marine and coastal en- threat to the fragile coastal and marine environment of the Region is constantly vironments of the semi–enclosed waters of threatened by the possibility of vessels the Region. Routine operational leaks and foundering while carrying harmful materi- spills from the production and transport of als other than oil. Though some measures oil constitute the major source of marine have been taken and others are planned to pollution. At the same time, the growing deal with oil spills, preparedness to deal risk of oil traffic –related accidents urgently with chemical and other hazardous materi- requires emergency response plans com- als is almost non–existent. bined with management skills, to minimize risks and control major spills. NAVIGATION RISKS. In the Red Sea, insufficient and poorly maintained navigational MAJOR SOURCES OF MARINE POLLUTION. aids, and unregulated maritime traffic in In contrast to other regional seas around most parts, have created several high risk the world where most pollution comes from zones. These include the southern part of land–based activities, the main source of the Red Sea at Bab-al-Mandab and the marine pollution in the Region is from ship– Huneish Archipelago area, further north at based sources, oil exploration and offshore the loading points for the Yanbu Petroline oil production. While production and trans- in Saudi Arabia and the Sumed pipeline at port of oil continue to play a critical role in Ain Sukhna in Egypt, at the entrance to the the Region’s economy, they also constitute Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal, and the major source of marine pollution. Over through the Straits of Tiran at the entrance 100 million tons of oil are transported to the Gulf of Aqaba. There are other through the Red Sea annually, nearly half points in the Red Sea where south and of which enters the Region via the Yanbu northbound traffic converge to change Petroline from the Gulf. This high volume course and where risks of collision are high of transport traffic results in chronic ma- and Traffic Separation Schemes should be rine pollution from discharges of oily ballast established. Shipwrecks and cargo spills water and tank washings by vessels, occurring in these high risk zones result in operational spills from vessels loading or significant oil pollution and marine debris. unloading at port, accidental spills from Special risks are created in the Gulf of foundered vessels, and leaks from vessels Suez by offshore platforms and well caps. in transit. In the southern Red Sea hazards are asso- OTHER TYPES OF MARINE POLLUTION. ciated with the increasing numbers of Other forms of ship–generated waste in- commercial and fishing vessels, including clude oily sludge, bilge water, garbage and many small local vessels. Additional risks marine debris. The risks of oil well blow– to navigation in the Region include inaccu- outs, spills and other production accidents rate navigation charts in some areas, and associated with the offshore oil industry in difficulties in radio communication. The po- the northern Red Sea constitute another tential for resumption of full–scale export significant threat to human and wildlife re- of oil from the Gulf region and plans to in- sources. Routine oil leaks, gas flaring, and crease the volume of oil transported via the dumping of oily sludge and muds containing Yanbu Petroline in Saudi Arabia and the

18 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Sumed pipeline in Egypt, along with the Region, especially on the west coast of the possibility of expanding the capacity of the Red Sea south of Suez, the discharge of Suez Canal to accommodate fully laden domestic sewage contributes, through nu- very large crude carriers (VLCCs) of up to trient loading and high biological oxygen 250,000 tons pose increased risks for major demand (BOD), to the eutrophication of oil spills in the Region. coastal waters around selected population centers, major ports and tourist facilities. Urban and Industrial Development Considerable progress has been made in the Region in the collection and treatment LAND USE AND COASTAL ZONE of municipal wastewater; however, in- PLANNING. The lack of proper land use vestments continue to be required for ex- planning, including effective zoning and en- tension of collection networks, expansion vironmental review procedures in the and upgrading of treatment facilities, and coastal zone—particularly with regard to development of safe wastewater reuse and urban development, industrial expansion disposal systems. Serious efforts are also and investment for domestic and foreign needed to ensure proper operation and tourism expansion—is a growing problem maintenance and reliable performance of in many parts of the Region. Development existing treatment facilities. While levels of often proceeds without benefit of adequate discharge into the waters of the Region are planning or evaluation of potential environ- not as acute as in other regional seas given mental impacts. In some cases local the limited number of major population cen- authorities allow construction activities to ters, results are cumulative and add to the proceed which are inconsistent with land stress already imposed on fragile coastal use plans and which do not make adequate habitats by oil and other forms of marine provision for the collection and treatment pollution. of liquid and solid wastes. Poorly controlled INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS. Industrial efflu- development has especially been a problem ents, in the form of thermal pollution from associated with medium– and small–scale power and desalinization plants, hypersaline industries outside planned industrial areas brinewater from desalinization plants, par- and for a wide range of tourism develop- ticulate matter and mineral dust from fertil- ments in the northern section of the Red izer and cement factories, and chemicals Sea. If steps are not taken to conserve and and organic wastes from food processing protect the unique environments of the Re- factories, contribute to the land–based gion through planning activities within a sources of pollution affecting coastal wa- framework for integrated coastal zone ters. Environmental standards regulating management (ICZM), the high costs of industrial effluents are not uniformly pre- remediation and possibly irreversible im- scribed or enforced. Institutional capacity pacts from development could quickly un- needs to be strengthened in the area of dermine the ecological integrity of the regulatory policy and environmental over- coastal environment and prospects for fur- sight. Technical capacity also needs to be ther economic growth. strengthened in terms of providing options MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER. The dis- to industry to monitor, evaluate and reduce charge of municipal wastewater continues harmful effluents through efficient use of to present considerable management prob- energy, raw materials and production tech- lems, despite the significant progress made nologies that incorporate waste minimiza- over the last decade through investments to tion approaches. In many cases industrial control pollution from this source. In the complexes and facilities continue to be de-

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 19 veloped without adequate environmental tries, municipalities and agricultural sources assessment. There is also insufficient ap- further constrains the use of already plication of land use planning and zoning scarce resources. Priority should be given procedures to assure that industrial com- to the adoption of alternative approaches plexes and facilities are sited in a manner such as demand management and devel- consistent with long–term urban develop- opment of non–traditional sources of water ment objectives and proper coastal zone such as restricted wastewater reuse and management. expanded use of brackish water. In addition, greater emphasis should be placed on DREDGING AND FILLING. Dredging and fill- integrated approaches to pollution control ing operations associated with urban ex- to protect the quality of available renew- pansion, industrial development and tourism able and non–renewable sources of potable along the coast are a significant source of water. environmental degradation in the Region. Sedimentation from these operations suffo- REDUCTION OF FRESHWATER FLOWS. The cates the surrounding coral reef communi- reduction of seasonal freshwater flows into ties and has an adverse effect on other the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden from on- ecosystems to which currents transport the shore water resource developments has suspended sediment. The net results are local, long–term impacts on coastal and the irreversible loss of the most productive marine ecosystems, especially coastal wet- coastal ecosystems — mangroves, sea- lands and mangroves. Pressure to divert grass beds, and coral reefs, dependent ma- limited freshwater flows for urban, indus- rine communities — and the potential for trial and tourism development in the north- local extinction of endemic species, along ern Red Sea and for agricultural develop- with declines in the productivity of sur- ment in the central and southern Red Sea rounding areas such as shrimping grounds will continue to affect these fragile habitats and other demersal fisheries. Dredging and unless their importance is recognized and filling also alters shorelines, leading to ero- measures taken to balance needs between sion in some sites and accretion in others. competing uses for scarce resources. De- velopments which reduce freshwater DEPLETION OF WATER RESOURCES. In the flows, both seasonal surface water and Region, the depletion of groundwater re- permanent shallow groundwater, may resources as a result of over–consumption sult in saline intrusion into coastal aquifers and over–extraction, pollution of aquifers, and limited areas of coastal wetlands. In insufficient recycling and inadequate reuse Sudan and Yemen reports exist of potential of treated wastewater may seriously ham- adverse effects on coastal ecology from per development of coastal areas. Water the use of pesticides, application of dated scarcity is a major constraint, at the na- pesticides and the improper disposal of tional level and in coastal areas, to security their used containers. and development in many parts of the Re- gion. The principal consumptive uses of Rapid Expansion of Coastal Tourism water are agricultural, municipal and industrial. The total annual water use in Egypt is IMPACTS FROM TOURISM. The negative about 97 percent of the net annual renew- impacts of coastal tourism are evident in able water resources, whereas in Saudi many parts of the Region, especially in the Arabia and Yemen, total annual use is northern Red Sea. These impacts include thought to already exceed the net annual physical destruction of coastal habitats by renewable resources. Pollution from indus- construction works, dredging, and reclama-

20 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden tion; anchor damage to corals by tourist pected to result in new environmental pres- boats and coral breakage by divers; pollu- sures and threats to coastal and marine re- tion from wastewater discharge from sources. The management of emerging is- coastal resorts; over–exploitation of fish sues should be addressed through adoption and shellfish to meet increased demand of of preventive actions to avoid unnecessary the food and souvenir markets; disturbance environmental degradation or resource de- to wildlife such as nesting turtles and sea- pletion. Major emerging issues that require birds leading to higher mortality and de- action are discussed below. creased fecundity. The planned massive expansion of tourism for both domestic and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF FREE foreign visitors in coastal areas throughout ZONES. The proposed development of free the Region creates a significant demand zones with combined port, production, for effective integration of environmental warehousing and transfer facilities will concerns into the planning of government– provide welcome opportunities for eco- supported infrastructure and private sec- nomic growth and employment generation. tor–supported tourism facilities. Actions The use of environmental planning studies should be taken over the short and medium and environmental assessments as an inte- term to avoid potentially significant adverse gral part of free zone siting, design and im- impacts which undermine the stability of plementation will support their development the coastal and marine environments that in an environmentally sound manner. Site attract tourists to the Region. selection for free zone development should recognize the potentially extensive direct TOURISM IN SUPPORT OF CONSERVATION. and indirect environmental impacts, and Although tourism mi pacts in the southern measures should be taken to address pla n- Red Sea and Gulf of Aden are not as ning needs both within and outside the free prominent as in the north, growing tourism zone. investment plans will potentially cause environmental impacts on a regional scale. FREE ZONE ENVIRONMENTAL UNITS. The The pressures from tourism are spreading establishment of special environmental to new areas as popular sites become units within each free zone will allow for over–used and as foreign tourists continue “on–site” management of environmental to seek new, exotic destinations. However, issues by local staff and make environment when carefully managed, marine tourism part of “good practice.” These environ- can provide substantial revenue for con- mental units should conduct “day–to–day” servation projects. In Ras Mohammed Na- environmental functions on the basis of tional Park in Egypt, fees collected from formal delegation of responsibility from the visitors and diving tourists exceed the op- national environmental authority. The work erational cost of the marine park. In Jor- of these environmental units should be dan, there is the potential to absorb part of complemented by oversight activities by the growing revenue from the tourism in- the national environmental authority. The dustry in Aqaba to support conservation development of free zones should include efforts. specific guidelines for the management of emissions and of hazardous and solid Emerging Issues waste, including the requirements for associated residential and commercial areas. NEW ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES. Environmental management plans for free Current and anticipated economic and so- zones should include the use of economic cial developments in the Region are ex- instruments such as fees and fines for

Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources 21 emissions, incentives for waste minimiza- opment of these resources on a regional tion, and pricing of inputs, especially water, level. that encourages conservation. ORNAMENTAL FISH COLLECTING. In re- EXPANSION OF SMALL AND MEDIUM cent years, the collection of reef fishes for INDUSTRIES. Although the industrial sector the aquarium trade has gained increasing in the Region has historically been domi- importance as a foreign currency earner. nated by large enterprises, it is anticipated However, the maximum sustainable yields that significant growth will occur in small of the species collected are unknown and and medium industries in the medium and there is no monitoring of collecting meth- long term. In order to avoid serious envi- ods. The survival rate of captured orna- ronmental problems, including coastal deg- mental fish is often very low due to imper- radation and groundwater pollution, meas- fect handling and transport. This low sur- ures should be taken to develop an envi- vival rate, together with demands from for- ronmental management framework for li- eign markets and the depletion of species censing and operation of these facilities. in many parts of Asia, escalates the pres- Key environmental concerns include: siting sures for exploitation. This practice can of industrial estates; siting of individual in- also be harmful to the reef environment if it dustries outside of industrial estates; estab- involves the breaking of corals or the use lishment and implementation of environ- of cyanide. There is need for further re- mental guidelines for industries at this search into the effects of this activity and scale; provision of water, wastewater and its management. solid/hazardous services; and environmental monitoring and enforcement. Rec- ognizing the key role that will be played by private investors in these investments, special measures need to be taken to provide small and medium investors with a clear understanding of environmental requirements and to create incentives for cost– effective compliance.

DEVELOPMENT OF OFFSHORE MINERAL DEPOSITS. The Red Sea has extensive offshore non–petroleum mineral deposits that are of considerable long–term economic interest. Economically, it may be highly de- sirable from a regional and national perspective to develop these resources; however, measures should be developed and adopted to ensure that these activities do not cause significant or irreversible damage. Given the unique nature of the Red Sea and limited worldwide experience with the offshore recovery of manganese nod- ules and other forms of marine mineral wealth, measures should be taken to establish environmental guidelines for the devel-

4 An Agenda for Action at the Regional, National and Local Levels

AN AGENDA FOR ACTION. The Strategic programmes for sustained use and conser- Action Programme supports and endorses vation of resources. The development of an “Agenda for Action” at the regional, applied monitoring programmes, use of en- national and local levels, the objective of vironmental indicators and conduct of which is the conservation of the environ- evaluations are recommended to provide ment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. routine assessments of progress made in The SAP includes a series of complemen- the implementation of the SAP. tary actions to be implemented in a phased FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Key manner over a decade or more (see Box findings and recommendations of the Task 2). This Agenda recognizes the critical Force are presented as a series of tables to need for high level commitment and m-i allow for comparative review of issues and proved public awareness for successful actions at the regional, national and local long–term management and conservation level. The transboundary analysis, which of the coastal and marine resources of the evaluates “thematic issues” and “common Region. It emphasizes the integration of concerns” shared on the sub–regional and these these concerns into the development national level, is provided in Tables 2, 3, 4 process through the use of environmental and 5. The recommendations of the SAP planning, environmental assessment and Task Force for actions at the regional level review procedures and adoption of coastal are provided in Table 6; these are comple- zone management. mented by a range of actions identified by A DIVERSITY OF ACTIONS. The Agenda the Country Reports and endorsed by the supports the strengthening of institutions Task Force. They are provided on a coun- and development of human resources re- try–by–country basis in Tables 7–13. quired for environmental management. Im- Long–Term, High Level Commitment portantly, the Agenda proposes a series of and Public Awareness preventive policy and technical interventions to avoid potential damage to re- HIGH LEVEL COMMITMENT. The effective sources; curative measures to address cur- conservation and management of the rent problems; and resource management

23 24 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden unique coastal and marine environments cilitated through existing fisheries extension and resources of the Region will primarily networks. The water conservation out- depend on long–term, high level commit- reach programme undertaken in Jordan by ment by governments. Government support the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, with is required to ensure that the priorities the cooperation of the Jordan Environment established under the SAP are supported Society, is an excellent example of an ef- through policy measures, effective imple- fective public awareness programme n-i mentation of laws and regulations, invest- volving government and nongovernmental ment activities and capacity building of re- organizations. gional, national and local institutions. Gov- ernment support for the SAP will be criti- Transboundary Environmental Issues cal given the need to take preventive actions that require control of development in OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL COOP– sensitive areas, enforcement of existing ERATION. The SAP provides a framework regulations, and investments to avoid po- for PERSGA and the cooperating parties tential adverse impacts. to address management of transboundary environmental issues as an opportunity for ENHANCED PUBLIC AWARENESS AND regional cooperation. The Task Force pre- PARTICIPATION. Environmental aware- pared a transboundary analysis that identi- ness is key to obtaining and maintaining fied both thematic issues (Tables 2 and 3) public support for environmental protection and common concerns (Tables 4 and 5). and nature conservation. The large number The thematic issues encompass marine of stakeholders involved in the coastal zone pollution, vessel traffic, and many types of requires multi–level awareness pro- fishery resources, among others, that can grammes targeting different groups. The be effectively addressed only if understood SAP antic ipates broad–based participation and managed on a broader transboundary by representatives of the general public, basis. Common concerns, on the other private sector associations, academic and hand, are primarily those environmental applied research institutions and local non- impacts felt at a national level, but which governmental organizations. The active can also result in significant long–term and participation of these parties will promote cumulative secondary impacts at the re- effective dissemination of information to a gional or sub–regional level. They are most wide audience, allowing the programme to effectively managed by joint activities or benefit from the experience of others. adoption of complementary approaches. TYPES OF ACTIVITIES. At the national SUB–REGIONAL ANALYSIS. In preparing level, frequent environmental workshops the transboundary analysis, the Task Force and meetings can be held to trigger interest evaluated the issues from a sub–regional among decisionmakers in the government perspective, recognizing the diversity of and different sectors such as fisheries, in- environments within the Region, and from dustry and tourism. Integration or strength- a national perspective, given the range of ening of environmental subjects in existing common problems shared by the countries. academic curricula is crucial in building The sub–regions adopted for use in the awareness among the younger generations. SAP are based on scientifically recognized The public media, educational displays and geological and biogeographical units which well designed aquaria will reach an even reflect distinct natural differences of sig- wider audience. At the local level, envi- nificance for environmental management. ronmental awareness activities may be fa-

An Agenda for Action 25

APPLICATION IN SAP IMPLEMENTATION. and local level, the Programme gives high The transboundary analysis will be used to priority to promoting expanded use of envi- support planning and organization of SAP– ronmental assessments in the planning and related preventive and curative measures review of proposed proje cts. This is a sig- and outreach activities, to allow for more nificant preventive action, which although effective cooperation between parties who mandated by many countries in the Region, share an interest in management of envi- is not being used on a systematic basis to ronmental issues that transcend borders at support environmentally sound develop- the regional and sub–regional level. In de- ment decisions. It is especially important signing SAP activities to address specific that environmental assessments be pre- concerns in the various parts of the Region, pared for all actions concerning coastal the findings of the analysis will promote dredging and landfilling, port and harbor use of a consistent strategy, effective de- development and expansion, siting and con- velopment of joint actions, transfer of ex- struction of major industrial and energy fa- perience and opportunities for collective cilities, large tourism developments, and training. aquaculture. ADOPTION OF MEASURES TO CONSERVE Preventive Measures CULTURAL HERITAGE. All countries in the Region have legislation protecting archaeo- KEY PREVENTIVE ACTIONS. In the Region, logical, historical and sacred sites. This le g- especially where environmental degrada- islation is normally implemented by gov- tion is still limited to specific locations as- ernment agencies responsible for antiqui- sociated with coastal development, the ties, or religious affairs in the case of sa- timely introduction of enforceable preven- cred sites and graves. These organizations, tive measures can be an extremely cost– given the limited staff and budgets, are of- effective approach to reducing the risk of ten unable to fully implement the provisions major environmental impacts in the future. of the laws. Steps should be taken to inte- Suggested measures for prevention include grate measures to conserve cultural heri- the following: tage into the planning and development EMPHASIS ON INTEGRATED COASTAL process. This includes addressing cultural ZONE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT. heritage issues in integrated coastal zone The use of integrated coastal zone planning management plans. The evaluation of po- combined with implementation of approved tential impacts to cultural heritage values plans could significantly reduce the degra- should be a routine element of all environ- dation of the coastal environment occurring mental assessments conducted for pro- in many parts of the Region. The experi- posed projects. Given the often high risk of ence of Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia in unknown buried sites being encountered the inventory of coastal and offshore habi- during the course of construction activities, tats and the preparation of integrated the use of archaeological chance find pro- coastal zone management plans should be cedures should be a standard part of con- reviewed for application elsewhere. It struction contracts. should be noted that a number of practical REPLICATION OF SUCCESSFUL REGIONAL guidelines are available to support efforts MODELS IN THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR. The within the Region. Region has some successful models of en- EXPANDED USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL vironmental management that should be ASSESSMENTS. At the regional, national considered for replication elsewhere. An

26 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden example is the effective integration of envi- provement of navigational systems and ronmental protection measures into the de- aids to lower the risk of maritime acci- sign and management of the industrial port dents. The large volume of vessel traf- cities of the Royal Commission for Jubail fic, increasingly dominated by oil tank- and Yanbu in Saudi Arabia. The measures ers, warrants significant improvements used by the Commission and other organi- in navigational services at the regional, zations to promote the use of integrated sub–regional, national and local levels. pollution control, energy– and water– At the regional level, an effective coor- efficient industrial processes and waste dination mechanism for management of minimization approaches in industrial facili- navigational issues should be adopted, ties of all scales, should be promoted. complemented by specific arrangements between concerned parties on a ADOPTION OF MEASURES TO CONTROL sub–regional basis. The development of EXPLOITATION OF COASTAL AQUIFERS. new and improved Traffic Separation In the Region, as in the case of the Medi- Schemes is a key regional measure, terranean, improved management and pro- while at the sub–regional level coopera- tection of coastal groundwater aquifers is a tive agreements on vessel traffic man- high priority. Measures should be taken by agement should be given priority for all nations to establish firm regulatory con- Bab-al-Mandab and the Straits of Tiran. trol over the extraction of groundwater and National and local actions include m-i all wells should be licensed. Efforts should proved navigation management in the be made, especially for non–renewable Gulf of Suez, the loading points for the groundwater, to ensure that the water is Yanbu Petroline and Sumed pipeline, being appropriately used, that proper con- and in the vicinity of all major regional servation measures are being applied, and ports. Special measures should be con- that pollution is prevented. Land use pla n- sidered for the current and planned free ning should include measures to avoid the zone ports in Djibouti, Sudan, and placement of industrial facilities and waste Yemen. The Navigation Risk Assess- disposal sites on aquifer recharge zones. ment and Management Plan for the ACTIONS TO REDUCE RISKS OF MARINE Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, prepared as ACCIDENTS. The Programme supports ac- an element of the SAP, provides de- tions to reduce the risk of marine acci- tailed recommendations on these issues. dents, a major threat to environmental qual- · Adoption of Port State Control. The ity in the Region. Establishment of Traffic Paris Memorandum of Understanding Separation Schemes and improved naviga- on Port State Control, operating in tional aids, especially in high risk areas, Europe, provides a potential model for should be given priority. The adoption of a establishment of a similar system in the system of Port State Control will allow for Region. Because of ships’ right of free effective enforcement of marine pollution passage while transiting through waters control and safety standards. The following that may fall within the Exclusive Eco- actions, to be undertaken by the appropri- nomic Zone (EEZ) of sovereign states, ate marine and port authorities, should be the only opportunity for coastal states to viewed as significant contributions to envi- ensure that vessels are complying with ronmental protection: international agreements that are in · Improved Navigational Systems and force in the Region is through inspec- Aids. An important opportunity for pre- tions and certification of vessels at port. ventive action in the Region lies in im- A systematic and well executed inspec-

An Agenda for Action 27

tion programme should be operational- vention. The Fund is financed by oil im- ized in every major port in the Region, porting countries or oil industries in so that vessels will not resort to calling these countries. Port states that do not at ports where regulations are lax and import oil, but are vulnerable to pollution reception facilities inadequate. Such a because of their location along transport regional system will enable govern- routes, are afforded free and full cover- ments to pool scarce resources and en- age in the case of an oil spill, provided sure that as many ships as possible are they are contracting parties to the Con- inspected for their compliance with In- vention. In 1992, the CLC and Fund ternational Maritime Organization Conventions were amended to signifi- (IMO) regulations regarding safety and cantly increase compensation that marine pollution prevention. Under the coastal states can receive under them memorandum of understanding, the Port for damages caused by oil spills and for State has the right to inspect vessels en- the first time, damage by other harmful tering its national jurisdiction and could substances was included. Despite this, detain vessels that did not meet their only one country in the Region is a Fund certification requirements until deficie n- member. cies were corrected. The enforcement · Radio Communications. The Global of such a system in the Region will go a Maritime Distress and Safety System long way to reducing the risks posed by (GMDSS) has come into force and is unseaworthy or sub–standard vessels related to the International Convention with respect to accidents and spills, and for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS will facilitate the imposition of penalties 1974), as amended, and the Interna- or fees for violations. tional Convention on Search and Res- · Adoption of Complementary Conven- cue (SAR 1979). Under GMDSS, all tions and Protocols. There are a num- ships must be fitted with certain radio ber of complementary legal instruments communication equipment and coastal that reinforce regional conventions and, states must properly equip coastal sta- if subscribed to on a regional basis, tions to communicate with vessels could advance the objectives of the which ply in waters that fall under their PERSGA agreements. Some of these, responsibility. Such radio communic a- such as the International Convention on tion systems should be established and Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage organized on a regional level to give full (CLC) of 1969, have already been rati- coverage to the Red Sea and Gulf of fied by selected contracting parties to Aden. the Jeddah Convention. The purpose of the CLC is to provide insurance to ship STRENGTHENED MANAGEMENT OF OIL owners for liability for oil spills from SPILLS. Oil is one of the major polluters in their vessels in the territorial waters of the Region, and various surveys of the a sovereign state. A parallel agreement state of the marine environment indicate is the 1971 International Convention on that the most significant forms of pollution the Establishment of a Fund for Com- include pollution by oil. Furthermore, the pensation for Oil Pollution Damage Red Sea is one of the most important ma- (Fund Convention). The purpose of this rine routes in the area. Consequently, oil Fund is to provide compensation to pollution resulting from tank washing and coastal states for damages in excess of discharges from passing ships is increasing, the sums provided for by the CLC Con- and as new oil exploration and production

28 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden activities take place, the Region is more regard is the current UNEP–funded and more susceptible to major oil incidents. PERSGA project, entitled “Protection of A number of such incidents have already the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environ- been reported in certain coastal waters. ment: Initiation of Marine Pollution Control Policies and Development of Tools for IMPACTS FROM OIL. At the local level, oil Coastal Area Management.” As part of pollution is evidently more severe in the this project, it has been agreed that the first oil–producing areas of the Region. Chronic phase of a trajectory model for oil spills in oil pollution has been observed in the im- the Red Sea will be developed. This consti- mediate vicinity of some major ports as a tutes an important step in the preparation result of operations at oil terminals or dis- of regional Contingency Plans for oil spills. charges from power plants. Oil spills and The development of the model will also as- incidents have constituted serious threats sist oil spill working groups in the Region to and have visible and invisible impacts. The make the decisions necessary to minimize greatest danger to coral reefs from an oil oil spill impacts and to use available re- spill is probably the indiscriminate use of sources to combat oil pollution in a cost– dispersants. There is also a threat to all effective manner. Such a model can aid in forms of marine life as a result of oil spills. predicting the spread and fate of oil spills. Such spills affect the dugong that are fre- It also includes calculations regarding the quently found in shallow inshore waters. dispersal of oil on water as well as in the There is evidence of significant damage to water column, oil evaporation, and its bird populations, which are normally de- spread on the coast. The project is ex- pendent on the seas and coastlines for pected to be completed within two years. feeding and reproduction, and also to fisheries production from impacts on the vul- OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANS. When an nerable larval stages. oil spill takes place the most important fac- tor is time. A spill can spread over a large REGIONAL PROGRAMMES TO CONTROL area very quickly depending on the OIL SPILLS. Given these threats and the strength of wind and surface currents and importance of the Region as an interna- therefore no time should be wasted in deal- tional shipping lane for oil transportation, ing with it. This can only be achieved if a regional programmes to promote monitor- proper Contingency Plan is in effect and all ing of oil spills and oil pollution should be partic ipants, through regular exercises, ac- established or strengthened. In particular, cept the proper chain of command and per- such programmes should promote en- form their respective roles for spill re- forcement standards for limiting oil spills. sponse. Therefore National Contingency Greater attention should be accorded to is- Plans are essential for all countries of the sues such as coordinating oil pollution Region. On the other hand, oil spills do not monitoring; carrying out pollution studies; recognize political boundaries and an oil undertaking surveillance by ships, aircraft, spill in one country could cause far more and satellites within national and interna- damage in a neighboring country depending tional waters; strengthening enforcement on the strength and direction of prevailing procedures; and developing comprehensive winds and surface currents. Therefore Re- Oil Spill Contingency Plans. gional and Sub–Regional Contingency CURRENT REGIONAL EFFORTS. Current ef- Plans are essential. forts to address oil spills should be the sub- MARINE EMERGENCY MUTUAL AID ject of increased national and international CENTERS. Very few countries in the world support. A significant contribution in this

An Agenda for Action 29 have the full capacity to combat a major oil to control the export of highly priced fisher- spill on their own. All the major oil spills ies products, such as shark fins. that happened recently such as the “Tor- rey Canyon” in the UK, the “Amoco Curative Measures Cadiz” in France or the “Exxon Valdez” in Alaska, USA, required the resources of KEY CURATIVE ACTIONS. Within the Re- more than one country. Mutual Aid Cen- gion a series of key curative actions are ters are therefore most appropriate. At needed to address current sources of pollu- present only one such center exists in the tion and resource degradation. These prob- Region. It was established in Djibouti with lems tend to be focused in the coastal ur- the help of the International Maritime Or- ban and industrial areas, in the vicinity of ganization and financed by the Government ports and major maritime traffic lanes, and of Norway to serve the countries bordering in areas with coastal and offshore exploita- the Gulf of Aden only. The reunification of tion of oil. Key issues that need to be ad- Yemen with a coastline on the Red Sea as dressed through curative measures include well as the Gulf of Aden and the estab- the following: lishment of PERSGA in Jeddah, call for the WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT. The revision of the Agreement of the Djibouti availability of water is a serious constraint Center to make it a Regional Center under to development in the Region and a major the umbrella of PERSGA. Measures environmental management issue in the should also be taken for establishment of coastal zone. Surface water sources occur the planned Sub–Regional Mutual Aid only on a seasonal basis and play a critical Center in Hurghada, Egypt. The Govern- role in the recharge of groundwater aqui- ment of Egypt has indicated that it would fers and in the ecology of mangroves, be prepared to support this initiative freshwater–dependent vegetation and through the provision of land and infra- coastal wetlands. Groundwater resources structure for the facility. In addition, a re- are being depleted in the cooperating coun- view should be conducted to determine if tries through over–consumption, which re- an additional Sub–Regional Mutual Aid duces the quantity of the resource, and pol- Center is required to provide adequate lution of aquifers, which reduces quality. In coverage of the Red Sea. order to address this issue, priority meas- JOINT MANAGEMENT OF ures need to be taken in all littoral nations TRANSBOUNDARY FISHERIES RESOURCES. to promote the efficient use of these limited In order to achieve sustainable use of water resources through improved man- transboundary fish stocks, the management agement actions and investment activities. and exploitation of this resource should be From a management perspective the regulated in a regional agreement. Joint ef- most critical issue is to effectively regulate forts among the littoral nations are needed development and allocation to ensure effi- to carry out stock assessment of major mi- cient use. Key interventions include a for- gratory species, including data on their mal permit process for use, demand man- routes of migration and seasonality, fol- agement programmes to assist users in lowed by adoption of regional management making a transition to more effective use plans for the concerned species. Sustain- of water, water charges that promote con- able management could include monitoring, servation, and specialized waste reduction surveillance and control of fishing, based programmes in all sectors. Support should on a regionally coordinated licensing and also be provided for innovative investments quota system. Special attention is needed to develop non–traditional sources of wa-

30 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ter, including restricted reuse of treated settlements along the coast that often lack domestic wastewater and expanded use of formal systems for waste collection and brackish water for irrigation. In conjunction disposal. In many cases, the existing solid with these measures, actions should be waste disposal facilities have been devel- taken to control pollution in order to protect oped and are operated without adequate the quality of potable water sources and concern for environmental factors. Often ensure that basic allocations are maintained selected sites endanger groundwater aqui- to support the needs of critical aquatic eco- fers or involve disposal of waste at the systems such as mangroves and coastal margins of mangroves and coastal wet- wetlands. lands. In some instances solid waste disposal has been used as a technique for WATER SUPPLY AND WASTEWATER small–scale land reclamation in coastal ar- TREATMENT. Actions to improve water eas. Measures should be adopted to sup- quality through upgrading of water and port properly located and developed dis- wastewater services remain a priority at posal sites in the Region. A special issue is the regional level to protect public health, the marine disposal of solid waste from reduce ecological damage and control ad- ships in both national and international wa- verse economic impacts. Successful devel- ters. This is especially a problem in areas opment and implementation of projects in that have heavy ferry service traffic. Ship this sector requires the commitment of na- operators should be held accountable for tional/local governments and utilities to un- the proper disposal of solid wastes and dertake institutional, financial and technical adequate onshore facilities should be pro- measures. Such measures should promote vided to accept these wastes at an afford- the long–term development of autonomous able cost. and self–financing institutions that provide reliable services to their customers. In- INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL. Indus- vestments in wastewater treatment should trial pollution—thermal pollution, hyper- focus on technologies that are reliable un- saline brines, particulate matter and chemi- der local conditions and provide opportuni- cals—contributes to land–based sources of ties for full or partial restricted reuse of pollution affecting the shoreline and coastal treated wastewater. Care should be taken waters of the Region. In many cases major in the design of projects to ensure that in- industrial facilities, both estates and individ- vestments are balanced between water ual plants, have been sited without regard supply and wastewater management. The to their potential environmental impact on absence of bala nced investments, espe- groundwater quality, air quality or coastal cially provision of extensive household wa- environments. Within the Region environ- ter services without complementary in- mental standards regulating industrial facili- vestments in wastewater collection and ties are not uniformly prescribed or en- treatment, has led to rising groundwater forced. Institutional and technical capacity tables, street flooding and standing pools of is weak and policy incentives for private raw sewage in many cities of the Region. sector compliance are inadequate. Activi- ties to strengthen and enforce regulatory SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT. The man- standards for industry should be supported; agement of solid waste from household, new plants should be subject to environ- commercial, industrial and construction ac- mental assessments and existing pla nts tivities is a major problem for coastal urban should have environmental audits con- areas, industrial facilities and ports. It is ducted on a regular basis; cost–effective also an increasing problem in the smalle r control technologies should be adopted

An Agenda for Action 31

where absent; and support should be pro- CONTROL OF POLLUTION FROM OIL vided for the implementation of waste EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION. Opera- minimization programmes. The success of tional spills, periodic blow–outs, oil well Saudi Arabia’s Yanbu industrial city in in- leakage, gas flaring and oily sludge from tegrating environmental concerns into all drilling operations all contribute to the cu- phases of project development, implemen- mulative impacts of marine pollution in the tation and operation should serve as a Region. Little regulatory oversight exists to model for major industrial ports and free mitigate these impacts. The Gulf of Suez is zone investments. National and local particularly vulnerable given its enclosed authorities, in particular specia l environ- nature and large number of oil fields. In mental units established for industrial ports conjunction with the Jeddah Convention, a and free zones, should promote regular en- protocol should be adopted and imple- vironmental auditing by industries and im- mented that provides clear measures for plementation of management–oriented ap- control of pollution resulting from explora- plied monitoring programmes. tion and exploitation of coastal and off- PORT RECEPTION FACILITIES. The lack of shore oil reserves. PERSGA and national adequate port reception facilities to collect authorities should undertake a dialog with and process ship waste is a leading cause the oil companies, both national and inter- of illegal dumping and marine pollution by national, to establish an understanding on vessels in the Region. A number of major good environmental practices and to supports do not have adequate waste recep- port their cooperative implementation. In tion facilities and in others the existing fa- addition, the oil companies should under- cilities require significant rehabilitation due take environmental audits and, in coopera- to inadequate maintenance. Recognizing tion with national environmental authorities, the ecological sensitivity of coastal and ma- establish programmes to address routine rine resources to these discharges and the operational problems and development of impacts on tourist facilities, measures special measures for emergency and acci- should be taken to ensure that ship waste dent situations. Applied monitoring pro- reception facilities are available at all major grammes should be developed by the op- ports in the Region and that their use is ef- erators that evaluate their performance and fectively enforced. This problem should be are subject to review by environmental coordinated on a regional basis, with m-i authorities. plementation at the national and local level. DREDGING AND FILLING. Dredging and fill- The construction of ship waste reception ing of coastal areas are permanently elimi- facilities should be mandated for all new nating many of the most productive and di- industrial port and free zone developments. verse coastal and marine habitats in the At established ports that lack facilities or Region, often filling in mangroves and require rehabilitation of existing facilities, coastal wetlands and suffocating nearby priority should be given to these invest- coral reefs. Given the extensive areas of ments. User fees should not be set so high undeveloped coastline in many littoral na- as to discourage operators from using the tions of the Region, these operations are facilities. Effective enforcement will re- often environmentally unjustified and con- quire cooperation among ship operators, tinue in many places despite government environmental authorities and maritime restrictions. Existing legislation prohibiting authorities, including the coast guard and these activities should be enforced; all pro- naval vessels operating in the Region. posed dredging and filling operations should require a formal permit and be conducted

32 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden consistent with land use and coastal zone coastal zone. Coastal zone management management plans; all large operations and concerns can be addressed in a cost– those adjacent to environmentally sensitive effective manner through integration into areas should require the preparation of an land use planning; preparation of environ- environmental assessment; and clear stan- mental assessments and environmental dards should be adopted for environmental audits; processes for issuing licenses and management and monitoring of authorized permits for activities in the coastal zone; dredging operations. Measures should be decisions on the siting of public and private developed in the planning process to avoid, facilities; and monitoring of development to the fullest extent possible, dredging and trends and environmental impacts. filling operations that adversely impact NATIONAL AND LOCAL PLANS. It is mangroves, coastal wetlands and coral strongly recommended that priority be reefs unless they are fully justified and given to the development of coastal zone have been subject to proper analysis and management plans in all littoral countries, review. In addition, set backs should be re- as appropriate for the various types of is- quired for all coastal construction to reduce sues that currently or potentially exist in the tendency in many locations to expand different areas of the coastal zone. In this existing facilities incrementally by dredging context, it is anticipated that national plans and filling. will be developed to provide an overall Resource Management Programmes framework for coastal zone management, complemented by more specific plans for urban and industrial areas, zones around STRENGTHENING RESOURCE industrial ports and free zones, and special MANAGEMENT. A major challenge in the plans for management of tourist areas and Region is the strengthening of resource ecologically sensitive areas including management in the coastal and marine ar- coastal and marine reserves. To be effec- eas. This includes adoption and implemen- tively implemented, these plans should be tation of coastal zone management, a broad developed in cooperation with all the con- range of measures to support conservation cerned users of the coastal zone and of terrestrial and marine ecosystems and should provide agreed mechanisms for all habitats, and development of effective pro- parties to support sustainable development grammes for sustainable management of of these areas. Experience throughout the living marine resources. world has demonstrated that the coopera- IMPROVING COASTAL ZONE tive process used in development and im- MANAGEMENT. The use of integrated plementation of ICZM plans provides an coastal zone management plans provides important mechanism to achieve consensus an effective mechanism for sustainable on the use of coastal areas and avoids ma- long–term use of the coastal zone that jor conflicts between user groups which forms the interface between land and sea. can be highly disruptive to the development Throughout the Region adoption of ICZM process. to support development decisions could KEY FEATURES OF PLANS. ICZM plans significantly decrease unnecessary degra- should emphasize siting of new develop- dation of coastal and marine environments. ments and resource exploitation activities in This is especially important for long–term areas that do not adversely affect fragile development of high value local and inter- and non–renewable resources or disrupt national tourism and for maintenance of the coastal processes such as currents, and rich and diverse cultural heritage of the

An Agenda for Action 33 that avoid creation of physically unfavor- ence and lessons learned shared among able conditions such as embayments with countries. poor circulation. The plans should give special attention to properly locating PROTECTION OF THE ARID COASTAL coastal urban infrastructure such as power ZONE. The incremental costs of soil ero- plants, desalinization plants, and wastewa- sion are usually much higher than the bene- ter treatment plants. They should support fit from livestock husbandry. Therefore the environmentally sound development of in- carrying capacity of coastal areas for dustrial ports and free zones by ensuring goats, sheep and camels should be estab- that construction and operation maximize lished and livestock access regulated, pref- effective use of the coastal zone and mini- erably by promoting traditional conserva- mize impacts on key coastal resources and tion schemes. The introduction of exotic industrial facilities. In developing plans, pri- species of plants or animals should be ority should be given to areas of rapid ur- banned entirely. In certain cases, the re- ban, industrial and tourism growth. moval of exotic species that are in the pro- PERSGA can play a key role in this proc- cess of replacing indigenous flora or fauna ess by facilitating the sharing of experience may be considered. Vehicle traffic in the between the cooperating parties and by coastal zone has to be restricted to clearly identifying regional experts from the public marked tracks. Special consideration and private sector. should be given to the fragile nature of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in arid HABITAT CONSERVATION. The protection zones when preparing environmental as- and, where necessary, restoration of sessments for urban, industrial or tourism coastal and marine habitats is of highest development. Sufficiently large terrestrial priority for biodiversity conservation. sectors should be included in coastal and Spawning grounds and critical nursery ar- marine protected areas, in order to serve eas of key species are of particular impor- as buffer zones and to protect plant and tance. The integrity of the Region must be animal communities indigenous to the area. taken into consideration and areas that are Re–stabilization of mobile dunes by resto- of regional significance should receive spe- ration of the plant cover may be under- cial attention. Both national and regional taken where necessary. regulatory systems need to be improved to enhance habitat conservation. Specific PROTECTION OF COASTAL WETLANDS. schemes for key habitats, such as coastal The diversion of water from coastal wet- wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves, sea- lands should only be allowed where there is grass beds and coral reefs must be devel- good scientific evidence that the amount oped. An efficient means of habitat con- taken will not adversely affect the ecosys- servation is establishment of a network of tem. Measures to protect quantity and coastal and marine protected areas sup- quality of water entering coastal wetlands ported by effective ICZM and planning. should be taken, with special attention to Management of existing conservation ar- critical periods of water availability for eas should be improved and new areas aquatic and terrestrial species in these ar- designated. Public awareness programmes eas. Access to coastal wetlands by tourists for selected target groups will support habi- and livestock must be regulated. Use of tat conservation efforts. Where appropri- coastal wetlands as disposal sites for liquid ate, they should be coordinated at the re- and solid wastes must be avoided. The gional level, so that conservation of migra- wetlands should also be protected from fill- tory species can be achieved and experi- ing for land reclamation, a common threat

34 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

in many areas. Surrounding areas should PROTECTION OF SEAGRASS BEDS. Be- be protected from overgrazing, to prevent cause of the value of seagrasses to endan- damage to wetlands by wind–blown sedi- gered species and a host of commercially ments. The more important coastal wet- important finfish and shellfish, their conser- lands should be included in protected areas vation and protection must be a high prior- and traditional conservation systems should ity in coastal zone management pla nning. be revived and supported. Direct and indi- Activities which are particularly detrimen- rect impacts to the ecological values of tal to seagrasses—dredging, landfilling, coastal wetlands should be considered in all wastewater disposal, illegal shrimp trawl- environmental assessments prepared for ing—need to be effectively managed and water resources development programmes existing regulations enforced. Impacts on in the drainage area of the Red Sea and seagrass beds must be considered in envi- Gulf of Aden. Studies for coastal agricul- ronmental assessments. Especially impor- ture and aquaculture developments should tant seagrass beds, such as those used by include systematic evaluation of potential dugong, need to be included in Marine Pro- impacts to these fragile and important eco- tected Areas. Links between seagrass systems. beds and the value of commercial and artisanal fisheries should be an element in MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF awareness programmes, and the locations MANGROVES. Because of their value as of seagrass beds throughout the Region spawning grounds and nurseries of com- mapped. mercially important fish and shrimp species, the protection of mangrove ecosys- CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEFS. Con- tems needs special attention. National servation of coral reefs in the face of rap- schemes for forestry management and idly growing coastal development requires conservation should be extended to man- preparation and implementation of coastal groves. Grazing access should be con- zone management plans. The plans should trolled and selected mangrove areas must specifically address the activities that are be set aside for complete protection. It is particularly damaging to coral reefs, includ- essential that alternative sources of building ing dredging, physical destruction, landfill- materials and fuel for communities living ing, wastewater disposal, and disturbance near mangrove areas be explored. The di- from excessive tourism activities. This can version of freshwater from mangrove ar- be accomplished by requiring environ- eas needs strict regulation, to guarantee at mental assessment for all developments. least a minimum supply to the mangrove Reefs that are representative and of par- stands, and to prevent sea water intrusion ticularly high value for conservation require and increased salinity. Environmental as- protection through the establishment of sessments for development, especially for Marine Protected Areas, ideally as part of construction of shrimp farms, must give a regional network. Laws relating to special attention to the protection of man- coastal zone management and Marine Pro- grove areas. Where mangroves have been tected Areas must be effectively enforced. severely damaged or destroyed, natural re- A large number of people use coral reefs covery must be enhanced, supported as in a variety of ways that are potentially necessary by repla ntation schemes and es- damaging; these impacts can be limited tablishment of local mangrove nurseries. It through controlled access, quotas on the is imperative that within these replantation number of visitors, and awareness cam- programmes, special attention be given to paigns addressing the commercial value the genetic source of the seedlings. and ecological significance of coral reefs.

An Agenda for Action 35

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS. The Region marine resources, the extent, intensity, and has many sites of unique beauty, that sup- types of human uses vary throughout the port populations of globally important spe- Region. Information about use as well as cies or contain ecologically critical habitats. socio–economic values is inadequate. In These require protection from human ac- some instances there is also very little sci- tivities, to maintain their ecological impor- entific information available on the species tance and their availability to be appreci- targeted. Tools for management include ated and enjoyed by the Region’s inhabi- le gislation, specific management pro- tants. If protected, they can also serve as grammes (e.g. stock quotas, seasonal clo- areas for scientific research and as valu- sures and gear restrictions), training, ap- able assets for raising public awareness. plied research, stock assessments, and Such sites should be designated as Marine public awareness. Protected Areas and form an important MANAGEMENT OF COMMERCIAL FISH- component of national coastal zone man- ERIES. Commercially exploited living re- agement programmes. A network of Ma- sources are an integral part of the marine rine Protected Areas throughout the Re- and coastal ecosystems. The sustainable gion will ensure conservation of important use of these resources depends on proper representative sites, including sites in the management of fishing activities and pro- Gulf of Aqaba, the Straits of Tiran, the Si- tection of resources essential to the fisher- nai Peninsula, the Wejh Bank, the Sanga- ies. Spawning and nursery areas, such as nab Atoll, the Farasan Islands, the Dhahlak mangroves and seagrass beds, need special Archipelago, and the Socotra Archipelago. protection, or rehabilitation where already The establishment of Marine Protected damaged. Stock assessment of trans- Areas requires management planning, pub- boundary species requires collaborative ef- lic awareness, enforcement, supporting le g- forts among littoral countries. Where nec- islation, trained personnel, and monitoring essary, field guides should be updated and and evaluation programmes. adapted for use as a tool for stock assess- MANAGEMENT OF LIVING MARINE ment, and training provided to fisheries RESOURCES. Proper management of living workers. Based on the results, fishing ef- marine resources is important to sustain the forts and methods will be reviewed, fisher- livelihoods of people dependent on the re- ies management policies defined, and catch sources, to maintain the ecological integrity quota assigned to the user groups in mutual of marine communities, and to conserve agreement. The implementation of a fisher- biodiversity. This is generally the responsi- ies management programme, and the en- bility of national governments; however, in forcement of regional and national fisheries the Region there are a number of important regulations will largely depend upon species that migrate across national strengthening the enforcement capacity in boundaries, posing additional challenges to the Region. Public awareness programmes management agencies. Management capa- should stress the linkages between healthy bilities are further stretched by the impacts ecosystems and the sustainability of fisher- of foreign fishermen in national waters, and ies resources. trends in seafood consumption in interna- SHARK FISHERIES MANAGEMENT. Since tional markets. This is exemplified by the many shark species are migratory, both re- demand for shark fins that are increasingly gional and national management systems being supplied from the Region. Although it are required to prevent the collapse of is understood that there is a great reliance shark populations—as has happened in for subsistence by coastal populations on

36 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

many other parts of the world—and to at- CONSERVATION OF SEABIRDS. To ade- tain a sustainable level of use of this impor- quately manage the conservation of sea- tant resource. Management systems should birds, their status must be assessed region- include stock assessments, protection of ally, including a mapping of breeding colo- areas used by sharks for breeding and nies, a census of the number of breeding nurseries, gear restrictions, a coordinated birds, evaluation of breeding success, and national fishing licensing system for all documentation of breeding and feeding bi- shark fishing vessels, and a quota system. ology. These studies should be combined Greater enforcement of existing regulations with a ringing programme. Birds must be will limit exploitation through illegal fishing protected from direct threats, such as non– for the non–sustainable shark fin market sustainable hunting, egg collecting, and fe- outside the Region. ral cats. During the breeding season, tourists and fishermen should be kept away CONSERVATION OF MARINE TURTLES. from islands with breeding colonies. Major Thus far, only Saudi Arabia has established breeding sites should be included in Marine a comprehensive conservation and moni- Protected Areas. Nesting and feeding sites toring programme for marine turtles. Such of seabirds must be given a high priority in a programme should be extended to the re- oil spill contingency pla nning. gional level. It should include a survey of nesting areas and feeding grounds; annual CONTROL OF CORAL AND SHELL tagging of adult turtles and collection of re- COLLECTION. In most of the Region, col- capture data; protection of nesting sites lection of corals and reef–associated inver- from egg collecting and other forms of dis- tebrates is illegal, but marine curios are still turbance; and annual monitoring of nesting offered for sale throughout the Region. Ex- success. The use of turtle exclusion de- isting regulations are in need of revision in vices should be compulsory in trawl fisher- a regional context. Control mechanisms ies. The ban on trade in turtle shells, which and enforcement of regulations should be already exists in most countries, must be strengthened and accompanied by an ex- strictly enforced. The success of these ac- tensive public awareness programme. Ex- tivities will be enhanced by a public aware- isting initiatives in Egypt, Jordan, Saudi ness programme and a rural development Arabia, and Sudan may serve as a basis programme to improve local food supply for the development of a comprehensive and diet, reducing the need for turtle meat programme. as a supplementary food. MANAGEMENT OF THE AQUARIUM FISH CONSERVATION OF MARINE MAMMALS. TRADE. Reef fishes for the aquarium trade A survey of the diversity and distribution of can be collected at a sustainable level if marine mammals in the Region is required properly managed. This requires the identi- for sound conservation. Case studies from fication of suitable reef areas, assessment other regions should be considered to for- of fish stock and determination of catch mulate management strategies for individ- quota and size ranges. Collection should be ual species in the Region. Consideration restricted to suitable aquarium species. should be given to modifying fishing prac- Destructive collecting methods and the use tices that affect marine mammals, as by- of poison or anesthetics must be banned catch, during normal operations. Seagrass entirely. Divers should be trained to collect beds with heavy concentrations of dugong fishes with hand nets without damaging the should be included as high priority in Ma- reef. Proper transport and adaptation of rine Protected Areas. fishes to aquarium conditions will assure

An Agenda for Action 37 high quality, keeping fish mortality low and Management Plan, and the Study on the promoting credibility on international mar- Status of the Living Marine Resources in kets. the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and Their Management. This process demonstrated Outreach Activities that both regional and national level consul- tations can contribute significantly to the PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL AQUARIA AND development of a better strategy that is NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUMS. Museums more firmly based on “facts on the and public aquaria play an important role in ground” and can be more readily imple- informing and educating the general public mented due to “broad–based support” for on environmental issues. There is a clear the recommended interventions. They also need to improve taxonomic knowledge and showed that effective dialogue can be held plant and animal species inventories, based between representatives of PERSGA, na- on well curated scientific collections. tional and local governments, academic and Taxonomic research institutes and natural applied research institutions and nongov- history museums are essential to biodiver- ernmental organizations in development sity research and conservation. Museum and implementation of programme and pro- collections provide evidence of organism ject activities in support of the SAP. Ex- diversity with documented geographical panded use of these approaches will pro- data and are a major source of compara- vide widespread information about the fra- tive information. Well managed museums gility of coastal and marine resources and can provide the needed venue and materi- measures for their efficient use and protec- als to train local scientists in biodiversity tion to decisionmakers, user groups and the conservation. public.

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND COOPERATION WITH CONSULTATION. Evidence around the NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGA NIZATIONS. world demonstrates that the use of broad– The participation of international, national based consultation and participation can, in and local nongovernmental organizations many instances, improve the quality, effec- will be important for realization of the tiveness and sustainability of programmes long–term goals of the SAP. Development and projects. Consultation provides oppor- of the SAP has benefited from environ- tunities for interested parties to make input mental information developed at the re- into the development, review and approval gional and national level by international of proposeds projects. The participation nongovernmental organizations such as the process involves a dialogue with interested World Conservation Union (IUCN), Bird- parties in the review of key issues and de- life International and the World Wide Fund cisions related to the programmes and pro- for Nature (WWF). The preparation of the jects under development and/or implemen- Country Reports benefited from participa- tation. The development of the SAP has tion of national nongovernmental organiza- benefited from both these approaches and tions in the provision of data, review of they will be continue to be used at a variety threats and identification of recommended of levels to support the programme. actions. Representatives of these organizations also participated in many of the An important element of SAP prepara- PERSGA–sponsored workshops on the tion was the use of a consultation process Country Reports. for development and review of the Country Reports, Navigation Risk Assessment and

38 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

National nongovernmental organiza- and evaluation of programmes at the re- tions are currently playing important roles gional and national level. Following a re- in implementation of SAP–related activities view of experience from other regional en- in the Region. In Jordan, the Royal Society vironmental programmes such as those for for the Conservation of Nature (RSCN) the Baltic, Black and Mediterranean Seas, supports a number of government organi- PERSGA will work with the cooperating zations in planning, development and man- parties in the development of applied moni- agement of protected areas in several loca- toring programmes. Priority will be given to tions. Also in Jordan, the Royal Jordanian establishment of an affordable programme Ecological Divers’ Society has begun a that includes routine and reliable monitoring programme of monitoring coral reefs in the of parameters to evaluate environmental Gulf of Aqaba with the support of a small management activities. The monitoring grant from the GEF. The Sudan Nature programme will complement ongoing scie n- Conservation Society, with 5,000 members, tific programmes that have a research ob- plays an extremely important role in pro- jective. In order to support effective moting public awareness of environmental evaluation of the Programme, PERSGA and conservation issues in the country. The plans to establish environmental indicators Yemeni branch of Birdlife International has for assessment of trends and evaluation of conducted studies of critical habitats for progress in addressing environmental man- resident and migratory birds and collects agement issues at the regional and national data collection on bird migration. levels. These indicators will be designed to include measures of progress in establish- Monitoring, Indicators and Evaluation ment of a regional framework for cooperation, performance of key preventive and MEASURING PROGRESS. The SAP includes curative actions, and assessment of cumu- support for development and implementa- lative and specific impacts from operational tion of cost–effective applied monitoring activities.

An Agenda for Action 39

Box 2: An Agenda for Action

The SAP supports and facilitates the primary goal of PERSGA, which is the conservation of the environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The aims of the SAP are to develop a regional framework for the protection of the environment and the sustainable development of coastal and marine resources. The Programme outlined in the SAP focuses on both preventive and curative measures required to maintain the rich and diverse coastal and marine resources of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Long–Term, High Level Commitment Curative Measures and Public Awareness · Water Resources Management. · High Level Commitment. · Water Supply and Wastewater Treatment. · Enhanced Public Awareness and Par- · Solid Waste Management. ticipation. · Industrial Pollution Control. · Types of Activities. · Port Reception Facilities. · Control of Pollution from Oil Exploration and Pro- Transboundary Environmental Issues duction. · Opportunities for Regional Coopera- · Control of Dredging And Filling. tion. · Sub–Regional Analysis. Resource Management Programmes · Application in SAP Implementation. · Strengthening Resource Management. Preventive Measures · Improving Coastal Zone Management. · National and Local Plans. · Integrated Coastal Zone Planning and · Habitat Conservation. Management. · Protection of Arid Coastal Zone. · Expanded Use of Environmental As- · Protection of Coastal Wetlands. sessments. · Management and Conservation of Mangroves. · Measures to Conserve Cultural Heri- · Protection of Seagrass Beds. tage. · Conservation of Coral Reefs. · Replication of Successful Regional · Marine Protected Areas. Models in Industrial Sector. · Management of Living Marine Resources. · Measures to Control Exploitation of · Management of Commercial Fisheries. Coastal Aquifers. · Shark Fisheries Management. · Actions to Reduce Risks of Marine · Conservation of Marine Turtles. Accidents. · Conservation of Marine Mammals. à Improved Navigational Systems · Conservation of Sea Birds. and Aids. · Control of Coral and Shell Collection. à Port State Control. · Management of Aquarium Fish Trade. à Complementary Conventions and Protocols. Outreach Activities à Radio Communications. · Strengthened Management of Oil · Public Educational Aquaria. Spills. · Natural History Museums. · Regional Programmes to Control Oil · Public Participation and Consultation. Spills. · Cooperation with NGOs. · Oil Spill Contingency Plans. · Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Cen- Monitoring, Indicators and Evaluation ters. · Joint Management of Transboundary · Measuring Progress. Fisheries Resources.

40 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

5 Resource Mobilization

Introduction text, it is important to clearly limit expecta- tions concerning the pace at which actions FROM PLANNING TO IMPLEMENTATION. can be funded, as environment and natural The most important challenge for all parties resources management are not the only concerned with sustainable development priorities for scarce resources within the and conservation of the unique environ- Region. ment of the Region is to successfully make A RANGE OF RESOURCES. Successful im- the critical transition from the “planning plementation of the SAP requires mobiliza- stage” of the Programme in which goals tion of a range of resources—human and and priorities are established, to the “im- financia l—to support Programme priorities. plementation stage” during which the ob- The work of existing regional, national and jectives are incrementally reached on a re- local organizations should be effectively gional, national and local basis. To achieve directed to address SAP objectives; this this transition, resources from domestic and can be accomplished by making current international sources, both public and pri- staff and budget resources available to vate, must be mobilized. The diverse range support priority actions. Integration of Pro- of actions identified in the SAP cannot all gramme priorities into public investment be undertaken at once; however, with the plans is a critical measure to facilitate allo- commitment of the cooperating parties, re- cation of domestic and international resources can be identified for key activities sources for investment activities. In imple- to launch the implementation phase of the menting Programme investments, a bal- SAP. Additional activities can begin as ance between preventive and curative success is achieved in the first phase of the measures must be part of long–term devel- Programme and as more funding becomes opment strategies. Domestic funding, at the available. Resource mobilization should be national and local level, should be antic i- viewed as a continuous process for realiza- pated in most nations to be the primary tion of SAP objectives that will require co- source for investment activities. These ordination by PERSGA and national gov- funds can be supplemented by loans and ernments over the long term. In this con- grants from international financial institu-

41 42 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden tions and bila teral donors to support the im- implementation and long–term operation. plementation of priority investments. Investments for environmental improvements should be well justified and should NEW SOURCES OF SUPPORT. Environment be expected to compete with other priority and natural resource management pro- sectors for the use of the limited funds grammes and investments in the Region available to any government from both do- has traditionally been funded by national mestic and international sources. This governments, often with support from in- should be viewed as a continuous and international and bilateral organizations. In teractive process that must be conducted implementing the SAP, consideration regularly during the course of the Pro- should be given to the new types of re- gramme to assure adequate access to fi- sources being used in many countries to nancial resources. support such measures. Especially in municipal services and industry, the private Domestic and International Financing sector should be viewed as a potential partner in investments to provide environ- Normally in regional environmental pro- mental services on a commercial basis, grammes, the higher income countries pro- with appropriate measures to ensure that vide self–financing for Programme activi- their activities are environmentally respon- ties, while the lower–income countries use sible. Full or partial self–financing of man- a mixture of domestic resources, long–term agement costs for protected areas used by and concessional loans, and grants. In tourists can also be considered. Other non– some cases limited international grant fund- traditional sources may also be mobilized ing is available to support institutional for selected SAP activities. strengthening, human resources development, and cooperative applied research ac- Linking the Programme to Public In- tivities on a regional basis. With rare ex- vestment Plans ceptions, all types of loans and most types of grant funds from international sources Many governments have adopted Public for investment activities are only available Investment Plans (PIPs) to effectively use on a “bilateral basis” rather than from a their available domestic budget, interna- pooled regional fund. The availability of tional loans and foreign grants to support concessional loans and grants is “means development objectives. To ensure timely tested” whereby a country’s financial need implementation of regional environmental is assessed by international financial institu- programmes such as the SAP, priority actions and bilateral donors so that funds are tivities should be integrated into national targeted to the lower–income countries. In PIPs. Representatives of the environ- addition, local governments, major ports mental ministry, which normally coordi- and industrial complexes should be ex- nates participation in such programmes, pected to play a role in the investment pro- must work regularly and closely with the gramme to assure their facilities meet the ministries of planning and finance to in- environmental objectives of the Pro- clude priority Programme actions at the na- gramme in a cost–effective and timely tional and local level in the PIP. To ac- manner. For effective mobilization of re- complish this, basic information should be sources, it important to adopt a phased ap- available concerning the projected invest- proach to Programme implementation, with ment and operation/maintenance cost, investments to be made over several years, length of implementation period, and clear consistent with an established schedule that identification of the parties responsible for allows budget support for other priority in-

Resource Mobilization 43

vestments required for economic and social · Solid waste collection and disposal serv- development. ices;

· Industrial pollution control measures; Role of International Funding Organi- zations · Development of tourism facilities that are environmentally friendly;

In addition to the donor coordination role of · Improved environmental management UNDP and catalytic role of UNEP, spe- of ports and free zones; cific provisions have been made in the development of the SAP for direct participa- · Adoption and implementation of good tion of potential international, regional and practices in the oil industry; bila teral funding organizations in pro- · In cooperation with regional and na- gramme design, implementation, monitoring tional authorities, identification and im- and evaluation. It is recognized by plementation of measures to reduce PERSGA and the cooperating parties that navigation risks; and these organizations can provide financial support and specialized expertise gained · Development of sustainable fisheries from their participation in other regional practices, including reduction of by- environmental programmes and individual catch. development projects. PERSGA and the The private sector can also play an im- cooperating parties plan to seek the active portant role in providing opportunities and partic ipation of these organizations, at the facilities for training experts from regional, regional and national level, in the identific a- national and local organizations concerned tion of investment activities, development with environmental management. Public of institutional strengthening programmes and private partnerships can also be a ma- and cooperative preparation of implemen- jor source of support for public awareness tation plans and cost estimates for these and environmental education activities. The measures. World Bank, working through its affiliates, the International Finance Corporation Private Sector Participation (IFC) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), can support Implementation of the SAP provides an the participation of the private sector in se- excellent opportunity for strong collabora- lected aspects of the Programme. tion between PERSGA, the cooperating parties and the private sector in improved Sustainable Financing of Coral Reef management of the coastal and marine en- Conservation vironments. The private sector has a significant role to play in both preventive and The wide range of coral reefs and their curative actions in all sectors in which it is ecological and economic importance to the involved and the formation of an effective Region mandate that special attention be “public –private partnership” at the regional given to development of sustainable financ- and national level is important to the suc- ing mechanisms for their conservation. Re- cess of the Programme. Major elements of cent reviews prepared by the World Bank the SAP in which the private sector can provide examples of the worldwide range play an important role include: of experience in addressing this complex · Expansion and management of water issue. Key to success is establishing the and wastewater services; principle that coral reefs are economic re-

44 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden sources and that their users should pay fees, where appropriate. Measures to assure their sustainable use by a range of user groups must also be taken. This is especially important in the Region, given the increased demand from the rapidly expanding tourism industry to use the coral reefs for recreational purposes. The innovative work undertaken by Egypt in the South Sinai for the conservation of these resources, which includes the use of an “Environmental Cost Recovery Charge,” may provide a model that could be replicated elsewhere in the Region.

Alternative Sources of Funding

Given the limited financial resources of national and local governments, international organizations, international financial institutions and bilateral donors, it is necessary that non–traditional financial resources be mobilized to support implementation of the SAP at the regional and national level. These alternative approaches could include the use of environmental fees and fines; tourism taxes; user fees for parks and protected areas; application of lottery proceeds for SAP activities; debt for nature swaps; public –private cooperation for special activities; and use of funds from private foundations from within and outside the Region. The Saudi Environmental Awareness Programme, funded jointly by government and the private sector, provides a model of non–traditional funding that should be considered for extension to other nations in the Region.

Tables

45 46 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Habitat Destruction: Coastal Extensive dredging Large–scale urban Inadequate Localized, Moderate to development and filling; change and industrial environmental throughout the severe of currents and development; port planning guidelines Region; coastal processes; development and for coastal concentrated destruction of maintenance development; lack of in urban, coral reefs, dredging; tourist enforcement; limited industrial, intertidal areas, development use of environmental tourism areas lagoons, seagrass assessment; limited and free beds and sabkhas awareness zones Beach mining Disturbance of Sand collecting Lack of regulations, Localized Low to and quarrying sandy beaches, and quarrying for and lack of moderate increased coral rock enforcement sedimentation, smothering of seagrass and corals Mangrove Deterioration of Landfill, camel Mangroves exist Regional Moderate to destruction mangrove habitats; grazing, wood under sub–optimal severe decreased fish collection, shrimp conditions; lack of and shrimp farm construction, regulations and catches; reduced decreased management, lack of water quality; freshwater supply awareness, coastal erosion damming of wadis and rivers; increased population pressure Destruction of Signs of physical Trawling, including Lack of adequate Localized, Moderate to seagrass beds disturbance; loss illegal trawling by regulations and adjacent to severe and other sub– of seagrass– foreign vessels; enforcement; limited urban and tidal habitats associated coastal dredging awareness; limited industrial species and filling; release knowledge of areas; of untreated seagrass distribution trawling waste waters impacts from municipalities severe in Gulf and shrimp/fish of Suez, farms southern Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Physical Loss of coral Anchor damage, Poor navigational Regional Moderate to damage to habitat by collision coral mining, ship control systems and severe coral reefs and removal; groundings error; lack of indirect impacts moorings; lack of through siltation; awareness; declining reef– inappropriate mining associated fauna operations; inadequate training Damage to Coral breakage by Trampling of Lack of education Northern Red Moderate to coral reefs by visitors; decrease shallow reef flats, about sensitivity of Sea and severe visitors in live coral cover; breaking of corals, marine ecosystems; western Gulf decline in reef– collecting of lack of management; of Aden; associated fauna; marine souvenirs; lack of enforcement problem presence of solid anchor damage anticipated to waste spread Region–wide

Tables 47

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Exploitation of Living Marine Resources: Overfishing of Decline in landings, Increased fishing Lack of stock Regional Moderate to finfish for local decrease in efforts, landing assessment and severe and export average size beyond Maximum reliable statistics markets Sustainable Yield hampers fisheries management; mangroves destroyed; lack of surveillance and enforcement of existing regulations Capture of Decline in shark Increased fishing Lack of surveillance Regional Severe sharks for stocks; Other effort, use of nets and enforcement of shark fin impacts include in shark fisheries, existing regulations; market, bycatch of turtles, high profits expanding demand frequently in dolphins and outside the Region areas beyond finfish for shark fins territorial waters Overfishing of Decline in catches, Increased fishing Lack of monitoring Gulf of Aden Severe shrimp and decrease in effort, illegal and enforcement of and southern lobster for average size fishing existing regulations; Red Sea export markets lack of stock assessment hampers resource management; destruction of nursery habitats (mangroves and seagrasses); illegal trawling Overfishing of Decline in catches Fishing effort Lack of monitoring Gulf of Aden Severe cuttlefish for beyond Maximum and enforcement of export markets Sustainable Yield, regulations; lack of improper fishing trained staff for practices surveillance Overfishing of Decline in landings Increased fishing Lack of stock Southern Red Severe Strombus for efforts assessment Sea local markets hampers resource management Overfishing of Decrease in Increased fishing Lack of stock Southern Red Low to sea cucumber average size efforts in limited assessment Sea and Gulf moderate for export areas hampers resource of Aden markets management Turtle capture Decrease in Need for Lack of public Southern Red Severe and egg nesting populations subsidiary food awareness, lack of Sea and Gulf collection by supply in areas of alternative food of Aden local fishermen poor fish sources; lack of and resources; enforcement and communities; Economic returns stock assessment; sale of shells from sales to lack of protection of to tourists and tourists; Bycatch eggs from stray for export of turtles in dogs fisheries; Lack of turtle–excluding devices Collection of Breakage of corals Unregulated Expansion of Regional, Moderate to corals and and decline of live collection of corals tourism; lack of especially the severe mollusks for coral cover; and mollusks awareness; lack of central and souvenir trade decline in reef– regulations and southern Red associated fauna enforcement Sea

48 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Ornamental Potential decrease Potential Lack of stock Localized, Presently fish collection in reef fish overfishing of assessment, throughout the low for export populations, individual species, monitoring and Region damage to the reef destructive fishing management; lack of methods collector training Conservation Potential decline in Accidental capture Lack of awareness Regional Moderate to of marine populations in fisheries severe mammals (dugong as an (especially endangered dugong) species) Spearfishing Decline in size and Indiscriminate Lack of enforcement Localized, Locally stocks of reef fish; spearing of many of existing throughout the severe reef fish avoid species of reef regulations; lack of Region divers fishes, of all sizes; relevant legislation in often in dive sites some countries Shrimp and Irreversible Pond construction; Lack of regulations Currently Severe fish farming conversion of mangrove and poor planning localized with coastal habitats; destruction a growing mangrove resulting in potential destruction; reduced water throughout the declining water quality; use of Region quality; chemicals, modification of hormones and coastline nutrients Navigation Risks and Maritime Transport: Regional Extensive and Limited Complex navigational Regional, with Moderate to navigation routine risks of navigational hazards combined serious issues severe risks ship collisions and devices and poorly with heavy maritime in the Gulf of groundings in separated traffic; traffic, including Suez, Gulf of major international weak regional large–scale Aqaba and the traffic lanes coordination on movement of oil and Bab-al- navigation issues; other cargoes Mandab inaccurate navigational charts Local Extensive and Limited Complex navigational Significant Moderate to navigation routine risks of navigational hazards due to problems in severe risks ship collisions and devices and poorly limited depth of areas of major groundings in separated traffic; shipping channels ports and key approaches to weak regional and and approaches to oil loading major and minor national ports; large volumes facilities; ports, oil loading coordination on of maritime traffic Anticipated to facilities and near navigation issues; which includes a become a coral reefs inaccurate variety of vessels concern in navigational operating with a areas adjacent charts; increasing wide range of safety to proposed local traffic by standards free ports and small vessels free zones;

Tables 49

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Petroleum and Mineral Development and Transport: Oil and gas Construction Capped wells as a Normal risks Gulf of Suez, Moderate to exploration and debris; tar balls navigation hazard; associated with oil northern Red severe production and slicks on seepage of oil; exploration and Sea and beaches and in production production, made southern Red water emergencies worse by poor Sea including blow – operator outs; pipeline performance and breakages poor field procedures Small oil spills Beach Discharge of Lack of reception Localized, Moderate (< 20 tons) contamination, ballast and bilge facilities at ports; throughout the damage to coastal water, bunker oil inadequate control, Region and marine biota spill lack of enforcement Medium oil Beach Discharges from Inadequate control Localized, Moderate to spills contamination, pipelines or and monitoring of throughout the severe (< 100 tons) damage to coastal terminals, small procedures, Region and marine biota accidents at sea equipment and personnel; Inadequate training Potential large Destruction of Rupture of oil Insufficient tanker Localized, Severe oil spills and coastal and marine tanks in collision or safety throughout the disasters habitats and biota, wreckage specifications; Poor Region devastation of navigation aids beaches Industrial Activities: Surface and Excessive Use of industrial Allocation of limited Regional, Moderate to groundwater exploitation for technology often surface and especially in severe use industrial use and with inadequate groundwater coastal urban cooling; re– concern for water sources for industrial areas allocation to conservation and use with limited industrial uses; excessive regard for overall draw –down of pumping of usage needs and limited groundwater inadequate pricing; groundwater resources lack of incentives for resources; water conservation; saltwater intrusion poor regulation of into coastal water exploitation aquifers Industrial Health risk, Accidental spill Inadequate Localized, Moderate to chemical spills potential damage to during transport, monitoring and vicinity of severe marine life storage or use of control of hazardous chemical chemicals substances industrial installations Cooling water Increased Release of high Inadequate thermal Localized in Low discharges temperatures, temperature pollution control the vicinity of alteration of marine cooling waters standards power plants, environment from power plants, industries and industries and desalinization desalinization plants plants Hypersaline Increased salinity Release of Inadequate salinity Localized, in Low water near outfalls, hypersaline water control standards vicinity of discharges alteration of marine from desalination seawater environment plants desalination plants

50 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Phosphate Decreased coral Release of Inadequate pollution Local Low dust emissions growth phosphate dust control standards, during port monitoring and operations enforcement Industrial Decline in water Chronic release of Lack of regulations Localized in Currently pollution quality, marine life pollutants and enforcement; the vicinity of moderate affected Inadequate industrial technology zones and at individual facilities Pollution from Consolidation of Deposition of Lack of controls and Localized Severe cement beach sands; cement dust inadequate factories Altered coastal technology and marine sediments; Hampered turtle nesting Waste oil Soil and Improper disposal Lack of proper oil Localized, Moderate to disposal groundwater of used motor oil, disposal or recovery throughout the severe impacts use of oil as dust options; lack of Region suppressant effective regulations and enforcement Urban and Tourism Development: Surface and Excessive Use of water Allocation of limited Regional, in Moderate to groundwater exploitation of distribution and surface and municipal severe surface and household groundwater areas groundwater for systems often sources for municipal use; re– with inadequate municipal use with allocation of concern for water inadequate regard surface water to conservation and for conservation municipal uses; excessive measures including draw –down of pumping of maintenance of limited groundwater distribution systems groundwater resources and household resources; plumbing; inadequate saltwater intrusion pricing of water; lack into coastal of incentives for aquifers water conservation Urban land use Destruction of Extensive Inadequate Regional Moderate to coastal areas and development of development severe adjacent marine coastal areas planning and coastal habitats often with limited zone management; regard to lack of coordination availability of between ministries; water resources; limited enforcement inadequate of regulations infrastructure and development in areas with fragile coastal ecology

Tables 51

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Discharge of Raised water Lack of sewage Inadequate pollution Localized in Severe untreated or table, groundwater treatment plants or control regulations, the vicinity of insufficiently impacts, lack of monitoring and coastal urban treated eutrophication and maintenance of enforcement areas and sewage alteration of marine existing sewage large tourist (municipal, environment, treatment plants developments hospital, threats to public slaughter health house) Disposal of Deterioration of Improper garbage Lack of adequate Localized in Moderate solid waste aesthetics, disposal, beach waste disposal the vicinity of alteration of litter regulations and coastal urban coastal habitats, enforcement, areas, coastal physical damage to inadequate public villages, coastal and marine awareness tourism life; contamination developments of groundwater and adjacent from landfill to major shipping lanes Tourism Destruction of Intense tourism Limited use of Regional; with Low to development coastal areas and development; coastal zone current severe adjacent marine over–exploitation planning and problems in habitats of available water infrastructure the Gulf of resources; poor planning; limited Suez, Gulf of infrastructure awareness of Aqaba and linkages; adverse tourism northern Red excessive use of impacts; unregulated Sea; Problems marine habitat; tourism activities and are developing landfilling access in the central and southern Red Sea Degradation of Direct and indirect Inadequate Lack of adequate Regional, Moderate to Cultural adverse impacts to evaluation of recognition of the especially in severe Heritage archaeological, potential impacts to importance of coastal urban historical and cultural heritage in cultural heritage, areas and sacred sites; the planning, limited application of along destruction of design, Antiquities Laws in traditional unique and non– construction and the cooperating transportation renewable cultural operation of countries and poor routes heritage sites in investments; integration of these coastal areas with Limited use of concerns into the serious pressure chance find planning process on historic urban procedures to areas address the discovery of unknown buried artifacts during construction Special Concerns:

52 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 1. Threats to Coastal and Marine Environments and Resources Issue Symptoms / Immediate Root Causes Scale Severity Impacts Causes Illegal disposal Threat to marine Intentional disposal Lack of control Southern Gulf Severe of harmful biota and human of hazardous mechanisms and of Aden substances health waste at sea enforcement Sedimentation Depletion of Overgrazing by Inadequate Central and Low to from vegetation cover livestock, management of southern Red moderate agriculture and resulting in especially sheep coastal grazing Sea and Gulf grazing mobilization of and goats areas; increased, of Aden formerly stabilized unregulated access sand sheets and to imported feed dunes; smothering supplements; use of of seagrass and tankers for corals supplemental water supplies Discharge of Detection of Occasional runoff Lack of control and Southern Red Low pesticides and pesticides in from agricultural management of Sea fertilizers sediments and areas after agrochemicals biota, fish kills, torrential floods; eutrophication dust storms Coral die–off Large areas of Unknown Unknown, but could Southern Red Severe dead coral reefs, be natural and Sea decrease in coral– related to unusual associated sea temperatures; no organisms and apparent human fisheries cause Pollution from Declining water Mangrove Lack of planning, Localized Moderate shrimp and fish quality destruction; use of regulations and farming chemicals and enforcement nutrients Marine vessel Localized marine Direct discharge Inadequate on–board Regional Moderate to sewage and beach pollution from ships treatment, lack of severe port reception facilities Ship discharge Solid waste on Discharge of solid Inadequate disposal Regional Low to of solid waste shoreline, waste from ships facilities; excessive severe mangroves, fees for onshore seagrass and disposal; lack of coral reefs; awareness; aesthetic impacts inadequate on recreation and surveillance and tourism; risks from enforcement ingestion to marine animals

54 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 2. Transboundary Analysis – Thematic Issues on a Sub–Regional Basis THEMATIC ISSUES Gulf of Gulf of North and South Red Gulf of Socotra Suez Aqaba Central Sea & Bab- Aden Archipelago Red Sea al-Mandab A. Management of Marine ** *** *** ** *** *** Protected Areas (MPAs) 1. Establish a system of MPAs

2. Strengthen understanding and experience in principles of MPAs

3. Support stakeholder involvement in planning and implementation

4. Facilitate the mobilization of resources from international and domestic sources

B. Sustainable Use of Living *** ** ** *** *** ** Marine Resources 1. Avoid and mitigate coastal impacts from current and proposed shrimp and fish farming

2. Improve regional data on transboundary stocks

3. Address regulation of exploitation of high profile species (including sharks & lobster)

3. Reduce threats to marine turtles, seabirds and marine mammals

4. Strengthen surveillance and enforcement mechanisms for existing fisheries

5. Support regional cooperation in management of shared stocks

C. Reduction of Navigation *** *** ** *** ** * Risks and Marine Pollu- tion 1. Continuation of PERSGA Navigation Working Group

2. Implementation of International Conventions and adoption of Port State control measures

3. Development of improved traffic separation schemes and other routing systems in coordination with IMO

4. Development and implementation of Sub–Regional Vessel Traffic Systems for Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab

5. Establishment of a radio communications network to support Global Maritime Distress and Safety Systems (GMDSS)

6. Upgrading of existing maritime navigation aids in Main Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al- Mandab

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important

Tables 55

Table 2. Transboundary Analysis – Thematic Issues on a Sub–Regional Basis THEMATIC ISSUES Gulf of Gulf of North and South Red Gulf of Socotra Suez Aqaba Central Sea & Bab- Aden Archipelago Red Sea al-Mandab D. Emergency Management *** ** ** *** ** * 1. Development and implementation of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan

2. Development of a Sub–Regional System for Emergency Mutual Aid Centers

3. Expand system of Sub–Regional Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centers by establishing the planned center at Hurghada, in Egypt

4. Strengthen existing Sub–Regional Marine Emergency Aid Center in Djibouti

E. Environmental Education ** ** *** *** *** *** Public Awareness and Participation 1. Support for training and public awareness in resource use

2. Increase awareness and priority within existing government structure

3. Increase expertise within countries for environmental education

4. Increase participation of community groups

5. Increase emphasis on environmental education and awareness in school curriculum

6. Increase financial resources for community groups concerned with the environment

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important

56 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 3. Transboundary Analysis – Thematic Issues by Country THEMATIC ISSUES PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia Arabia A. Institutional Strengthen- *** ** ** ** *** *** *** *** ing 1. Reinforce institutional capacity of PERSGA Secretariat

2. Strengthen environmental planning and management capacity

3. Introduce of new policies and legislation

4. Establishing and reinforcing better linkages between national and regional goals

5. Strengthen national legislation and administrative support for Integrated Coastal Zone Manage- ment

B. Management of Marine *** *** ** ** *** ** ** * Protected Areas (MPAs) 1. Establish a system of MPAs.

2. Strengthen understanding and experience in principles of MPAs.

3. Support stakeholder involvement in planning and implementation

4. Facilitate the mobilization of resources from international and domestic sources

C. Sustainable Use of Liv- *** ** ** ** ** ** ** *** ing Marine Resources 1. Avoid and mitigate coastal impacts from current and proposed shrimp and fish farming

2. Improve regional data on transboundary stocks

3. Address regulation of exploitation of high profile species (including sharks & lobster)

4. Reduce threats to marine turtles, seabirds and marine mammals

5. Strengthen surveillance and enforcement mechanisms for existing fisheries

6. Support regional cooperation in management of shared stocks

D. Reduction of Navigation *** *** *** ** *** *** ** * Risks and Marine Pollu- tion 1. Continuation of PERSGA Navigation Working Group

2. Implementation of international Conventions and adoption of Port State Control measures

3. Development of improved Traffic Separation Schemes and other routing systems in coordination with IMO

4. Development and implementation of Sub–Regional Vessel Traffic Systems for Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab =not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important

Tables 57

Table 3. Transboundary Analysis – Thematic Issues by Country THEMATIC ISSUES PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia Arabia

5. Establishment of a radio communication network to support Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)

6. Upgrading of existing maritime navigation aids in Main Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab

E. Emergency Management *** *** ** ** ** *** ** * 1. Development and implementation of a Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan

2. Development of a Sub–Regional System for Emergency Mutual Aid Centers

3. Expand system of Sub–Regional Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centers by establishing the planned center at Hurghada, in Egypt

4. Strengthen existing Sub–Regional Marine Emergency Aid Center in Djibouti

F. Environmental Education *** ** ** *** *** *** *** *** Public Awareness and Participation 1. Support for training and public awareness in resource use

2. Increase awareness and priority within existing government structure

3. Increase expertise within countries for environmental education

4. Increase participation of community groups

5. Increase emphasis on environmental education and awareness in existing school curriculum

6. Increase financial resources for community groups concerned with the environment

G. Monitoring and Indicator *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** Evaluation 1. Establish Working Group

2. Establish Monitoring System

3. Prepare Annual Reports

4. Dissemination of Lessons Learned

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important

58 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 4. Transboundary Analysis – Common Concerns on a Sub–Regional Basis COMMON CONCERNS Gulf of Gulf of North and South Red Gulf Socotra Suez Aqaba Central Sea & Bab- of Archipelago Red Sea al-Mandab Aden A. Habitat Destruction *** *** *** *** * * 1. Coastal development

2. Beach mining and quarrying

3. Mangrove destruction

4. Destruction of seagrass beds and other sub–tidal habitats

5. Physical damage to coral reefs

6. Damage to coral reefs by visitors

B. Living Marine Re- *** *** ** *** *** ** sources 1. Current and potential overfishing of finfish for local and export markets

2. Capture of sharks for shark fin market, frequently in areas beyond territorial waters

3. Current and potential overfishing of shrimp and lobster for export markets

4. Current and potential overfishing of sea cucumber for export markets

5. Turtle capture and egg collection by local fishermen and communities; sale of shells to tourists and for export

6. Collection of corals and mollusks for souvenir trade

7. Ornamental fish collection for export

8. Conservation of marine mammals (especially dugong)

9. Spearfishing

10. Shrimp and fish farming

C. Navigation Risks *** *** ** *** * * 1. Review current navigation charts, conduct hydrographic re–surveys and prepare updated charts in vicinity of major ports

2. Expanded use of emergency anchors

3. Expanded use of harbor tugs

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important n.a. =not applicable

Tables 59

Table 4. Transboundary Analysis – Common Concerns on a Sub–Regional Basis COMMON CONCERNS Gulf of Gulf of North and South Red Gulf Socotra Suez Aqaba Central Sea & Bab- of Archipelago Red Sea al-Mandab Aden D. Emergency Manage- ** ** ** ** * * ment 1. Update or prepare National and Local Oil Spill Contingency Plans

E. Oil and Gas Develop- *** *** ** *** ** n.a. ment 1. Use of environmental management practices in oil and gas development, including major pipelines and marine terminals

F. Industrial Activities *** *** ** ** * n.a. 1. Surface and groundwater use

2. Industrial Pollution

G. Urban and Tourism De- *** *** * * * * velopment 1. Surface and groundwater use

2. Disposal of solid waste

3. Tourism Development

H. Special Concerns * * ** ** *** * 1. Illegal disposal of harmful substances

2. Sedimentation from agriculture and grazing

3. Discharge of pesticides and fertilizers

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important n.a. =not applicable

60 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 5. Transboundary Analysis – Common Concerns by Country COMMON CONCERNS PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia Arabia A. Habitat Destruction *** *** ** ** *** ** *** * 1. Coastal development

2. Beach mining and quarrying

3. Mangrove destruction

4. Destruction of seagrass beds and other sub–tidal habitats

5. Physical damage to coral reefs

6. Damage to coral reefs by visitors

B. Living Marine Re- *** ** * ** ** *** ** ** sources 1. Current and potential overfishing of finfish for local and export markets

2. Capture of sharks for shark fin market, frequently in areas beyond territorial waters

3. Current and potential overfishing of shrimp and lobster for export markets

4. Current and potential overfishing of sea cucumber for export markets

5. Turtle capture and egg collection by local fishermen and communities; sale of shells to tourists and for export

6. Collection of corals and mollusks for souvenir trade

7. Ornamental fish collection for export

8. Conservation of marine mammals (especially dugong)

9. Spearfishing

10. Shrimp and fish farming

C. Navigation Risks ** *** ** ** ** ** ** * 1 .Review current navigation charts, conduct hydrographic re–surveys and prepare updated charts in vicinity of major ports

2. Expanded use of emergency anchors

3. Expanded use of harbor tugs

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important

Tables 61

Table 5. Transboundary Analysis – Common Concerns by Country COMMON CONCERNS PERSGA Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia Arabia D. Emergency Man- *** ** ** ** ** ** ** * agement 1. Update or prepare National and Local Oil Spill Contingency Plans

E. Oil and Gas Devel- ** *** * *** * *** * * opment 1. Use of environmental management practices in oil and gas development, including major pipelines and marine terminals

F. Industrial Activities * *** *** *** ** ** 1. Surface and groundwater use

2. Industrial pollution

G. Urban and Tourism *** *** *** *** * ** *** * Development 1. Surface and groundwater use

2. Urban land use

3. Discharge of untreated or insufficiently treated sewage (municipal, hospital, slaughter house)

4. Disposal of solid waste

5. Tourism Development

H. Special Concerns ** * ** ** *** 1. Illegal disposal of harmful substances

2. Sedimentation from agriculture and grazing

3. Discharge of pesticides and fertilizers

=not applicable * =important =requires action ** =very important =requires priority action *** =extremely important

Tables 63

Table 6. Priority Actions: REGIONAL Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency l Issue Long–term High–level commitment by Regional Commitment *** commitment governments to achieve long–term National Public awareness goal of conservation and sustainable Local use of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Public Development and implementation of a Regional Capacity building *** awareness regional programme for environmental National Public awareness awareness, including educational Local materials, media information, training International Ratification of MARPOL Convention International International *** agreements Civil Liability Convention (CLC) 1969 Regional framework and 1992 Protocol National Preventive action The Fund Convention 1971 and 1992 Protocol Maritime Adoption of Port State Control by Regional National framework for *** transport countries in the Region National maritime supervision Preventive action Environmental Strengthened capacity of Regional Preventive action *** management governments to regularly use National Capacity building environmental assessments in Local Planning studies development decisions and project implementation Environmental Strengthened regional capacity for Regional Preventive action *** management development and implementation of National Capacity building coastal zone management Local Planning studies programmes Environmental Preparation and dissemination of Regional Management ** management guidelines for standardization and National information routine updating of Geographic Capacity building Information Systems data collection , Technical development input and display to allow for a compatible spatial data base Habitat Development of a regional programme Regional Management *** conservation for the conservation of key bird National programme habitats, turtle nesting sites and Local Capacity building conservation of other ecosystems in Enforcement the coastal and marine zones Habitat Development of institutional capacity Regional Management *** conservation and framework for a regional National programme network of Marine Protected Areas Capacity building Living marine Regional stock assessment of pelagic Regional Management *** resources species and development of regional National information management programme Management programme Living marine Development and implementation of Regional Management *** resources management programme for shark National information fisheries Local Management programme Living marine Development and implementation of Regional Management *** resources management programme for turtles National information Local Management programme Living marine Strengthened enforcement capacity Regional Management *** resources for fisheries regulations National programme Local Technical development

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

64 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 6. Priority Actions: REGIONAL Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency l Issue Living marine Development and implementation of Regional Management ** resources marine mammal management and National information conservation programme Local Management programme Living marine Development and implementation of Regional Management ** resources management programme for reef National information fisheries Local Management programme Living marine Development of a regional research Regional Management * resources programme on coral reef information management, including coral die–off, Capacity building fisheries dynamics and environmental monitoring, using indicator species Living marine Development of regulations and National Enforcement * resources control mechanisms for the collection Public awareness of corals and shells for souvenir trade Living marine Development of regulations and Regional Legislative framework/ * resources control mechanisms for collection of National Enforcement and trade in ornamental fish Public awareness Navigation risk Development of improved Traffic Regional Preventive action *** Separation Schemes in coordination Sub– Capacity building with IMO Regional Management National information Navigation risk Development and implementation of Sub– Preventive action ** sub–regional vessel traffic systems Regional Capacity building for Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Aqaba , National Technical development Bab-al-Mandab Navigation risk Review of current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building *** conduct hydrographic surveys and Sub– Technical development prepare updated charts for key areas Regional Management along shipping routes and in vicinity National information of major ports Local Navigation risk Establishment of a radio Regional Preventive action ** communication network to support Sub– Capacity building GMDSS Regional Technical development National Management Local information Navigation risk Upgrading of existing marine Regional, Preventive action ** navigation aids in main Red Sea, Gulf Sub– Technical development of Aqaba and Bab-al-Mandab Regional Management National information Petroleum Development and implementation of a Regional Capacity building *** development regional oil spill contingency plan Sub– Technical development and transport Regional National Local Petroleum Expand system of Sub–Regional Regional Capacity building *** development Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Sub– Technical development and transport Centers by establishing the planned Regional Management center at Hurghada, in Egypt, National information strengthening the existing MEMAC in Djibouti and upgrading national capacities in emergency response

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 65

Table 6. Priority Actions: REGIONAL Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency l Issue Urban and Increased priority for management of Regional Capacity building *** industrial surface and groundwater, through National Technical development development technical and non–technical Local Public awareness interventions, to promote water conservation and reuse of treated wastewater Urban and Increased priority for management of Regional Capacity building ** industrial solid waste, through technical and National Technical development development non–technical interventions, including Local Public awareness public awareness activities Urban Development and implementation of Regional Management *** development measures for conservation of the National information rich cultural heritage of the coastal Local Management zone, including archaeological, programme historical and sacred sites Enforcement Public awareness Applied Preparation and dissemination of Regional Basic scientific ** research species identification guides to living National information coastal and marine resources of the Capacity building Region in a variety of languages Management information Public awareness Applied Strengthening of environmental Regional Management ** research laboratory and monitoring capacity, National information including standardization of sample Capacity building collection, testing and reporting Technical development procedures on a regional basis

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

66 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 7. Priority Actions: DJIBOUTI Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Legislation Development of national maritime law National Legal framework ** and revision of related laws Environmental Strengthened enforcement of National Capacity building *** management legislation related to management of Technical development coastal and marine areas Environmental Development and implementation of Local Legal framework *** management management plan for Marine Management information Protected Areas (Parc Territorial de Management programme Musha, Réserve Intégrale de Maskali–Sud) Environmental Feasibility study for conservation National Legal framework ** management and management of additional Marine Local Management information Protected Areas (including Iles des Technical development Sept Frères, Ras Bir, Mangrove de Godoriya) Environmental Preparation and implementation of a National Legal framework ** management coastal zone management plan, Capacity building mangrove management plan and Planning framework coral reef management plan Habitat Rehabilitation of coral reefs from National Legal framework *** conservation damage by visitors Local Management information Management programme Public awareness Habitat Rehabilitation of mangroves from National Legal framework ** conservation damages caused by landfilling and Local Management information camel grazing and identification of Management programme alternative sources of fuel Tourism Development of a framework and National Legal framework *** management programme for visitors to coral reef Local Management programme areas, including guidelines for boats Technical development and moorings Public awareness Living marine Development and implementation of National Management information ** resources fisheries production and marketing Production programme plan, based on results of recent stock assessments Living marine Development and implementation of National Enforcement ** resources turtle protection and management Local Management information programme Management programme Public awareness Living marine Stock assessment of reef fish Local Legal framework * resources population, development and Management information implementation of management Management programme programme for collection of ornamental fish Community Development and implementation of National Feasibility studies *** development poverty alleviation programmes in Local Technical assistance fishing communities, including Technical development provision of basic fishing gear Navigation risk Review of current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building ** hydrographic re–surveys and National Technical development preparation of updated charts for Local Management information key areas along shipping routes and in vicinity of key ports

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 67

Table 7. Priority Actions: DJIBOUTI Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Navigation risk Improved navigational aids and radio National Capacity building * communication, especially along Local Technical development major shipping lanes Petroleum Revision and implementation of oil National Capacity building ** development and spill contingency plan in the Local Technical development transport framework of the Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Center (MEMAC) in Djibouti Industrial Preparation of feasibility study and Local Feasibility study ** development development of port reception Capacity building facilities Technical development Urban Upgrading of wastewater collection Local Feasibility studies *** development and treatment in coastal areas, Capacity building especially Djibouti town Technical development Urban Upgrading of solid waste Local Feasibility studies *** development management and disposal in coastal Capacity building areas, especially in the vicinity of Technical development Djibouti town Institutional Establishment of a marine biology National Capacity building *** strengthening department and training of marine Technical development biologists and marine ecologists Applied research Development of data base for National Management information *** biological resources and environmental information; establishment of a monitoring programme to support operations and enforcement activities

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

68 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 8. Priority Actions: EGYPT Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Legislation Review and update existing National Legislative framework *** regulations for the protection of Local natural resources Legislation Review and update existing National Legislative framework *** pollution control regulations Local Institutional Training programmes for National Capacity building ** strengthening strengthening institutional Local capacities of agencies involved in management of Red Sea coastal areas Institutional Establishment of water pollution National Management information ** strengthening monitoring units for Red Sea Local Capacity building linked to the national level Technical development Environmental Development of National Coastal National Legal framework *** Management Zone Management Plan for Red Local Management information Sea coast, including the Gulfs of Management programme Aqaba and Suez

Environmental Strengthened enforcement National Capacity building *** management capacity of Egyptian Local Environmental Affairs Agency Habitat Effective enforcement of Law National; Capacity building *** conservation 4/94 for protected areas Local Enforcement Living marine Review and update of current National Legal framework *** resources fishery legislation Local Living marine Establishment of a stock Regional Management information ** resources assessment data base National Capacity building Living marine Development and adoption of National Capacity building ** resources improved fishing techniques Local Technical development Living marine Establishment of Marine Protected Regional Preventive action *** resources Areas at priority sites National Capacity building Local Technical development Navigation risk Development and implementation Sub– Preventive action *** of sub–regional vessel traffic Regional Capacity building systems for the Gulf of Aqaba National Technical development and Gulf of Suez Local Navigation Risk Establishment of a Regional Regional Preventive action ** and Pollution Emergency Aid Center in Sub– Capacity building Control Hurghada, with Egypt providing Regional Technical development the land and infrastructure National Local Navigation Risk Provision of adequate reception Sub– Preventive action *** and Pollution facilities for oily wastes in Regional Capacity building Control Egyptian Red Sea ports National Technical development consistent with MARPOL (1973– Local 1978) Petroleum Development of an Oil Spill National ** development and Contingency Plan Local transportation Petroleum Preparation of guidelines for the National Technical development ** development and use of dispersants for use in oil Local transportation spills given the ecological vulnerability of the Red Sea

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 69

Table 8. Priority Actions: EGYPT Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Urban and Development of an evaluation of National Environmental information ** industrial point source pollution from urban Local Capacity building development and industrial sites Urban Development of a National Plan National Planning studies *** development for Solid Waste Management in Local Capacity building coastal cities in the Red Sea Technical development Urban Public awareness programme for National Feasibility studies ** development recycling of wastes in coastal Local Capacity building areas Technical development Urban Shoreline profiling programme Local Technical studies ** development and identification of “hot spots” Urban Evaluation and implementation of Local Management information development flood control measures to protect Capacity building coastal zone and marine Technical development environment Urban Establishment of flood prediction Regional Capacity building ** development and warning centers Local Technical development

Urban Support for the expanded use of Local Capacity building ** development flood water in agriculture Technical development

Environmental Creation of an inventory of land National Management information ** Information resources of the coastal areas Local Capacity building as an element of a National GIS Technical development Data Base

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

70 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 9. Priority Actions: JORDAN Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgenc l Issue y Environmental Recruitment and training of staff National Capacity building *** management to implement Gulf of Aqaba Local Management programme environmental protection policies and regulations Environmental Development of an improved Local Management information * management computer and GIS database Capacity building capability for environmental management of the Gulf of Aqaba Habitat Implementation of GEF Project– National Management programme *** conservation supported Advance Coastal Zone Local Enforcement Management and Environmental Assessment procedures Habitat Establishment and implementation Regional Legal framework *** conservation of a management plan and National Capacity building regulations for a Gulf of Aqaba Local Management programme Marine Park, including fisheries Enforcement management Habitat Recruitment and training of staff Local Capacity building ** conservation to implement regulations for new Management programme coastal development to reduce Enforcement physical threats to coral reef ecosystems Navigation risk Improvement of navigational aids Sub– Capacity building ** and radio communications in Regional Technical development Jordanian waters, especially on National major shipping channels Local Maritime Development and implementation Local Legal framework *** transport of pollution prevention for ship– Capacity building based sources, control standards Enforcement and regulations Maritime Development and implementation Regional Legal framework *** transport of a management programme to National Enforcement control disposal of solid waste Local Public awareness and litter from ships and ferry boats Maritime Preparation of a feasibility study Local Feasibility study *** transport for bilge and ballast water Technical development reception facilities at the Port of Aqaba and implementation of priority recommendations Petroleum Preparation of a pre–feasibility Regional Management information *** development study on mechanisms to reduce National Management programme and transport the risk of catastrophic oil spills Local

Industrial Design and implementation of a Regional Demonstration activity *** development demonstration project for marine Local Technical development waste oil recovery Industrial Adoption and implementation of National Strengthening standards *** development regulations, standards, coastal Local Enforcement zone management and environmental auditing procedures for coastal industries

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 71

Table 9. Priority Actions: JORDAN Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgenc l Issue y Industrial Recruitment and training of staff National Capacity building *** development for implementation of industrial Local Strengthening standards pollution prevention regulations Enforcement Industrial Waste oil contamination monitoring Local Management information ** development and demonstration project in Technical development waste oil recovery from land– based sources Industrial Programme to monitor marine Local Information gathering ** development water quality for pollution from industries Industrial Implementation of measures to Local Technical development * development further reduce phosphate dust emissions Urban and Cooperative actions to manage Sub– Regional cooperation ** industrial transboundary marine pollution in Regional Management programme development the upper Gulf of Aqaba National Technical development Local Urban Development and implementation Local Technical development *** development of a plan for municipal wastewater conservation and reuse Urban Development and implementation Regional Management information ** development of a groundwater quality Local Management programme management programme Urban Development and implementation Local Technical development ** development of a solid waste collection, Regional cooperation recycling and disposal plan Applied Strengthening of current National Capacity building * research programme for development of Local Management information data base for biological resources and environmental information; further strengthening and expansion of programmes to support operations and enforcement activities

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

72 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 10. Priority Actions: SAUDI ARABIA Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Legislation Enforcement of legislation related to National Capacity building *** management of coastal and marine Technical development areas Environmental Final approval and effective National Legal framework *** management implementation of the coastal zone Capacity building management plan Environmental Implementation of management National Legal framework *** management programme for the Farasan Islands Local Management information Marine Protected Area Management programme Environmental Development and implementation of National Legal framework *** management management programme for Marine Local Management information Protected Areas at Wejh Bank, sites Management programme in Straits of Tiran and other areas on the Red Sea Habitat Rehabilitation of mangroves from National Management programme ** conservation damages caused by landfilling and Local Public awareness camel grazing Living marine Stock assessment and management National Management information *** resources programme for finfish and shrimp Management programme with an evaluation of catch and effort Living marine Measures to control intensive National Enforcement ** resources collection of fish and invertebrates Local Public awareness on reef flats and spearfishing Living marine Development and implementation of a National Legal framework ** resources conservation and management Local Management information programme for breeding birds and Management programme nesting turtles on offshore islands Living marine Update of current fisheries National Management information * resources management programme Management programme Production programme Tourism Enforcement and public awareness National Legal framework ** management activities for coral reef conservation, Local Management programme including control of overfishing, Public awareness trampling of corals, anchor damage, littering and souvenir collection Navigation risk Review current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building ** conduct hydrographic re–surveys National Technical development and prepare updated charts for key Local Management information areas along shipping routes and in vicinity of key ports Navigation risk Improvement of navigational aids and National Capacity building ** radio communication in Saudi Local Technical development waters, especially on major shipping channels Petroleum Implementation of current Oil Spill National Capacity building ** development and Contingency Plan, including Local Technical development transport development of local response plans Maritime transport Review of port reception facilities Local Technical review ** and upgrade of measures as Technical development appropriate

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 73

Table 10. Priority Actions: SAUDI ARABIA Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Industrial Improved management of air National Technical development ** development pollution, brine disposal and thermal Local discharges from desalination plants at urban areas and industrial ports Industrial Improved control of emissions from National Technical development * development cement plants in coastal areas, Local especially Ras Baridi Urban Effective control of dredging and Local Enforcement *** development filling for urban and industrial Environmental planning development, port construction and Monitoring maintenance dredging of navigation Public awareness channels Urban Upgrading of wastewater collection Local Feasibility studies *** development and treatment in coastal areas, Capacity building especially Jeddah Technical development Urban Development and implementation of a Local Management programme *** development special programme for the Technical development management and reduction of elevated groundwater tables in the Jeddah urban area Urban Strengthening of environmental Local Environmental planning ** development planning and management of urban development in the Jeddah Region Applied research Strengthening of current programme National Capacity building * for development of database for Management information biological resources and environmental information, and further strengthening and expansion of monitoring programmes to support operations and enforcement activities Environmental Expand activities of Saudi Public National Public awareness *** Education Awareness Programme implemented Local Environmental education by public and private sector parties

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

74 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 11. Priority Actions: GULF OF ADEN COAST OF SOMALIA Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Special issue Introduction of control Gulf of Enforcement *** measures against illegal Aden dumping of hazardous waste Coast by foreign vessels Environmental Establishment of a joint Gulf of Capacity building ** management Coastal and Marine Aden Technical assistance Environment Commission Coast Technical development Environmental Preparation and Gulf of Legal framework ** management implementation of a coastal Aden Capacity building zone management plan Coast Planning framework Environmental Feasibility study for Gulf of Legal framework * management establishment of Marine Aden Management information Protected Areas Coast Management programme Environmental Development and Gulf of Capacity building ** management implementation of Aden Management information conservation and Coast Management programme management plans for Mait Island and Saadadin Island Habitat Development of a mangrove Gulf of Management programme * conservation conservation programme and Aden identification of alternative Coast sources of fuel Living marine Introduction of measures Gulf of Enforcement *** resources against illegal fishing activities Aden by foreign vessels Coast Local Living marine Stock assessment for shark Gulf of Management information *** resources fishery Aden Management programme Coast Living marine Stock assessment for finfish Gulf of Management information *** resources and lobster fisheries Aden Management programme Coast Living marine Development of a Gulf of Technical study *** resources management programme for Aden Management information fisheries, including marketing Coast Management programme Production programme Community Development and Gulf of Feasibility studies *** development implementation of poverty Aden Technical assistance alleviation programmes in Coast Technical development fishing communities, including provision of basic fishing gear Navigation risk Review current navigation Gulf of Capacity building * charts, conduct hydrographic Aden Technical development re–surveys and prepare Coast Management information updated charts for key areas Local along shipping routes and in vicinity of key ports Navigation risk Improvement of navigational Gulf of Capacity building * aids and radio Aden Technical development communications in northern Coast Somali waters, especially on Local major shipping channels

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 75

Table 11. Priority Actions: GULF OF ADEN COAST OF SOMALIA Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Petroleum Development and Gulf of Capacity building ** development and implementation of oil spill Aden Technical development transport contingency plan, in the Coast framework of the Marine Local Emergency Mutual Aide Center (MEMAC) in Djibouti Industrial Preparation of feasibility study Local Feasibility study * development and development of port Capacity building reception facilities for Berbera Technical development port, in the medium term Urban Development of wastewater Local Feasibility study * development collection and treatment Capacity building facilities in Berbera and Technical development Boosaaso, in the medium term Applied research Establishment of database for Gulf of Capacity building ** biological resources and Aden Management information environmental information; Coast preparation of a programme for environmental monitoring Applied research Development of a proposed Gulf of Legal framework * sub–regional maritime law and Aden Capacity building proposed revision of Coast legislation for application in the Gulf of Aden Coast management area Note: Information provided in this table covers proposed priority activities on the Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia which is included as a portion of the PERSGA Region.

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

76 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 12. Priority Actions: SUDAN Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Legislation Strengthened enforcement of National Capacity building *** legislation related to management of Technical development coastal and marine areas Legislation Issuance of National Maritime Law National Legislative framework ** and revision of related laws Environmental Declaration of all mangrove stands National Legal framework *** management as Reserved Forest, development Local Management information and implementation of a Management programme management programme Environmental Preparation and implementation of a National Legal framework ** management coastal zone management plan Capacity building Planning framework Environmental Development of management National Legal framework ** management programme for Marine Protected Local Management information Areas (including Sanganab Marine Technical development National Park and proposed protected areas at Shaub Rumi, Meshairifa, Magarsum and some islands in Suakin Archipelago) Tourism Development of a framework and National Legal framework *** management programme for visitors to coral reef Local Management programme areas, including guidelines for Technical development boats and moorings Public awareness Living marine Stock assessment and National Management information *** resources management programme for finfish, Management programme shellfish and sea cucumber, including Trochus, Strombus and Najil (Plectromus) Living marine Development of a fisheries National Technical study * resources management plan, including Management information marketing Management programme Production programme Community Development and implementation of National Feasibility studies ** development poverty alleviation programmes in Local Technical assistance fishing communities, including Technical development provision of basic fishing gear Navigation risk Review current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building *** conduct hydrographic re–surveys National Technical development and prepare updated charts for key Local Management information areas along shipping routes and in vicinity of key ports Navigation risk Improved navigational aids and National Capacity building *** radio communication in Sudanese Local Technical development waters, especially along major shipping lanes Petroleum Development and implementation of National Capacity building *** transport oil spill contingency plan Local Technical development Industrial Preparation of feasibility study and Local Feasibility study *** development development of port reception Capacity building facilities Technical development Industrial Establishment of framework for National Environmental studies *** development development and operation of the Local Capacity building Free Zone in an environmentally Technical development sound manner

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 77

Table 12. Priority Actions: SUDAN Environmental Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency Issue Urban Upgrading of wastewater Local Feasibility study ** development collection and treatment in coastal Capacity building areas, especially Port Sudan Technical development Urban Upgrading of solid waste Local Feasibility study ** development management and disposal in Capacity building coastal areas, especially Port Technical development Sudan Applied Development of database for National Management information *** research biological resources and environmental information and establishment of a monitoring programme to support operations and enforcement activities

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

78 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Table 13. Priority Actions: YEMEN Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency l Issue Legislation Development of rules and human National Legislative framework *** resources to implement the Maritime Law and the Law for Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution Legislation Finalization and implementation of National Legislative framework *** environmental assessment procedures and guidelines Legislation Development and implementation of a National Legislative framework ** protected area law Local Institutional Strengthening the institutional National Capacity building *** strengthening capability of the Environment Local Management information Protection Council to coordinate and Enforcement monitor activities affecting the marine environment Institutional Strengthening the Public Corporation National Capacity building *** strengthening for Maritime Affairs to enable it to Local Management information protect the marine environment from Enforcement pollution and promote the safety of shipping, including Port and Flag State duties Institutional Strengthening institutional capacity National Capacity building *** strengthening for enforcement of environmental Enforcement and fisheries regulations Environmental Development and implementation of a National Legal framework *** management mangrove management programme Local Management information involving protected mangrove Management programme reserves, regulatory mechanisms and identification of alternative sources of fuel Environmental Development and implementation of a National Legal framework *** management master plan for conservation and Local Management information sustainable development of Socotra Management programme Archipelago Technical development Environmental Preparation and implementation of a National Management information *** management coastal zone management plan Management programme Capacity building Environmental Strengthening the capacity of GTA, National Management programme ** management GIA and the Free Zone Authority for Local Capacity building environmental management Environmental Development and establishment of a National Legal framework ** management system of representative Marine Local Management information Pr otected Areas with effectively Management programme implemented management plans Habitat Design and conduct of inventory National Management information ** conservation surveys, habitat mapping and Local Capacity building sensitivity analyses of the entire coastline, including distribution of rare and endangered species Living marine Development and implementation of a National Management information *** resources turtle conservation programme, Local Management programme involving protection of nesting sites, Public awareness monitoring of nesting turtles and Enforcement public awareness

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Tables 79

Table 13. Priority Actions: YEMEN Environmenta Priority Action Scale Emphasis Urgency l Issue Living marine Stock assessment and management National Management information *** resources programme for finfish (including Management programme cuttlefish and sharks), shellfish and Public awareness sea cucumbers Navigation risk Improve navigational aids and radio National Capacity building *** communication in Yemeni waters, Technical development especially along major shipping lanes Navigation risk Review current navigation charts, Regional Capacity building *** conduct hydrographic re–surveys National Technical development and prepare updated charts for key Local Management information areas along shipping routes and in vicinity of key ports Petroleum Development and implementation of National Capacity building *** development oil spill contingency plan, in the Local Technical development and transport framework of the Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Center (MEMAC) in Djibouti Industrial Establishment of framework for National Environmental studies *** development development and operation of the Local Capacity building Aden Free Zone in an Technical development environmentally sound manner Industrial Development and implementation of a National Technical studies ** development port reception facilities plan Local Capacity building Technical development Urban Upgrading of wastewater collection Local Feasibility studies ** development and treatment in coastal areas, Capacity building including Aden, Hudaydah, and Technical development Mukallah Urban Upgrading of solid waste Local Feasibility studies ** development management and disposal in coastal Capacity building areas, including Aden, Hudaydah, Technical development and Mukallah Applied Development of database for National Management information *** research biological resources and environmental information and establishment of a monitoring programme to support operations and enforcement activities Applied Development of training programmes National Management information ** research for marine resource surveys, Capacity building monitoring and management, and geographic information systems applications Applied Design and implementation of Local Management information * research programme to evaluate potential Management programme impacts from agricultural chemicals on the Tihama coastal zone Public Promote the broad–based National Public awareness * participation participation of nongovernmental Local organizations

* =important ** =very important *** =extremely important

Appendix A PERSGA Secretariat, Task Force Members and Drafting Group Members

PERSGA Secretariat Task Force Members Dr. Nizar I. Tawfiq DJIBOUTI Secretary General, PERSGA, and Chair- Mr. Mohammed Ali Mumen man of the Task Force Deputy Director of Soil Improvement and PO Box 1358 Environment Jeddah 21431 PO Box 2344 Saudi Arabia Djibouti Tel/fax: 966 2 651 9868 Tel: 253 351 559, 253 352 801 Dr. William Gladstone Fax: 253 351 812 Chief Technical Adviser and Coordinator, Mr. Ahmed Osman Omar PERSGA Director of Maritime Affairs PO Box 1358 Ministry of Transport and Telecommunica- Jeddah 21431 tions Saudi Arabia PO Box 59 Tel: 966 2 651 4472 Djibouti Fax: 966 2 651 9868 Tel: 253 353 475 Dr. Dirar Nasr Fax: 253 351 538 Assistant Coordinator, PERSGA EGYPT PO Box 1358 Jeddah 21431 Dr. Mohamad Fawzi Saudi Arabia Head, Environmental Management Sector Tel: 966 2 651 4472 Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency Fax: 966 2 651 9868 30 Misr–Helwan Agricultural Road Back of Maadi Sovotel Cairo Egypt Tel: 202 3750874, 3753441, 3757306 Fax: 202 3784285

81 82 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENT BANK SUDAN Mr. Ahmed Salih Hariri Professor Yousif B. Abu Gideiri Operations Officer Director Operations and Projects Department Institute of Environmental Studies PO Box 5925 University of Khartoum Jeddah 21432 PO Box 321 Saudi Arabia Khartoum Tel: 966 2 636 1400/6620 Sudan Fax: 966 2 636 6871 Tel: 249 11 80993 Fax. 249 11 773807 JORDAN Telex: 22738KUP / 22113GAMA SD Dr. Salih A. Al–Shara YEMEN Director General General Corporation for the Protection of Dr. Hussein Al Gunied the Environment Secretary General PO Box 35206 Environmental Protection Council Amman PO Box 19719 Jordan Sana’a Tel: 962 6 673 149 Yemen Fax: 962 6 695 627 Tel: 967 1 264 072 Fax: 967 1 264 062 Eng. Ahmed Khattab Head, Water and Marine Environment UNDP General Corporation for the Protection of Ms. Catherine Cheung the Environment International Waters and Biodiversity Spe- PO Box 540841 cialist Amman RBAS/UNDP Jordan One United Nations Plaza Tel: 962 6 672 131 New York, NY 10017 Fax: 962 6 695 627 USA SAUDI ARABIA Tel: 1 212 906 5456 Fax: 1 212 906 5487 Mr. Abdulwahab Dakkak

Director General of Natural Resources Meteorology and Environmental Protection Dr. Friedhelm Krupp Administration Chief Technical Consultant, SAP PO Box 1358 Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg Jeddah 21431 Senckenberganlage 25 Saudi Arabia 60235 Frankfurt a.M. Tel: 966 2 651 7832 Germany Fax: 966 2 651 7832 Tel: 49 69 754 2255 Fax: 49 69 754 2253 E–mail: [email protected]–frankfurt.de

Appendices 83

UNEP Dr. Abdul Majeid Haddad Sustainable Development Advisor UNDP Mr. Halifa Drammeh PO Box 551 Senior Programme Officer Sana’a Water Branch, UNEP Republic of Yemen PO Box 47074 Tel: 967 1 415505 Nairobi Fax: 967 1 412541 Kenya E–mail: undp 017 Tel: 254 2 624 278 Fax: 254 2 624 249 Dr. Khaled I. Hariri E–mail: [email protected] Fisheries Specialist PO Box 234 WORLD BANK Crater, Aden Dr. Stephen F. Lintner Yemen Principal Environmental Specialist Tel: 967 2 253 595 or 231 042 Environment Department Dr. Sherif E. Ramadan World Bank National Institute of Oceanography and 1818 H Street, NW Fisheries Washington, DC 20433 Kayet Bey USA Alexandria Tel: 1 202 473 2508 Egypt Fax: 1 202 522 0367 Tel: 203 4807138, 4807140 E–mail: [email protected] Fax: 203 4801174, 4801189 Drafting Group Captain Saeed A.H. Yafai Mr. Roger Aertgeerts Chairman Senior Portfolio Manager Public Corporation for Maritime Affairs UNOPS PO Box 19395 220 East 42nd Street, 15th Floor Sana’a New York, New York 10017 Yemen USA Tel: 967 1 414412, 419914 Tel: 1 212 906 6544 Fax: 967 1 414645 Fax: 212 906 6903 Telex: 4025 BIMAR E–mail: [email protected] Report Preparation Dr. Ali I. Beltagy This document was prepared for publica- National Institute of Oceanography and tion at the World Bank by Katherin Fisheries Golitzen and Anthony J. Hooten. Support Kayet Bey was also provided by Jennifer Bossard, Alexandria Marea E. Hatziolos, and Jeffrey N. Egypt Lecksell. Tel: 203 480 1189 Fax: 203 480 1189

Appendix B Key Activities in the Preparation Process

A. Meetings of the PERSGA Coun- C. Country Report Consultation cil Workshops (PERSGA/GEF) 1. First PERSGA Council Meeting 1. Djibouti Country Report September 1995 December 1996 Cairo, Egypt Djibouti City, Djibouti 2. Second PERSGA Council Meet- 2. Egypt Country Report ing May 1997 October 1996 Cairo, Egypt Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 3. Jordan Country Report 3. Third PERSGA Council Meeting July 1996 Planned for November 1998 Aqaba, Jordan B. Meetings of the PERSGA Task 4. Sudan Country Report Force November 1996 Port Sudan 1. First Task Force Meeting October 1995 5. Yemen Country Report Jeddah, Saudi Arabia December 1996 Sana’a, Yemen 2. Second Task Force Meeting April 1996 D. Regional Navigation Risk As- Amman, Jordan sessment and Management Plan Meetings (PERSGA/World Bank) 3. Third Task Force Meeting January 1997 1. First Meeting of Expert Group Sana’a, Yemen November 1996 Aden, Yemen 4. Fourth Task Force Meeting May 1997 2. Second Meeting of Expert Group Jeddah, Saudi Arabia April 1997 Ismailia, Egypt

84 Appendices 85

E. Regional Study on Status of the H. Meetings of the PERSGA SAP Living Marine Resources in the Drafting Group Red Sea and Gulf of Aden and 1. First Meeting of the Drafting Their Management Group (PERSGA/GEF) September 1996 1. Meeting of Expert Group Jeddah, Saudi Arabia May 1997 2. Second Meeting of the Drafting Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Group F. Special Meetings and Regional January 1997 Training Programmes Sana’a, Yemen 1. Sea to Sea Conference 3. Third Meeting of the Drafting (PERSGA/ROPME/ACOPS/ Group UNEP) May 1997 October 1995 Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 2. Coastal Zone Management (World Bank/EDI) October 1995 Aqaba, Jordan 3. Environmental Assessment (PERSGA/GEF) January 1996 Jeddah, Saudi Arabia 4. Marine Protected Areas Man- agement (PERSGA/GEF) June 1996 Ras Mohammed National Park, Egypt 5. Marine Surveys and Monitoring (PERSGA/GEF) Planned for 1997 Al Hudaydah, Yemen G. Field Surveys (PERSGA/GEF) 1. Northern Coast of Somalia Field Survey March–April 1996 2. Sudan Field Survey June 1996 3. Djibouti Fie ld Survey June–July 1996 4. Yemen Field Survey July–August 1996

Appendix C Selected Studies and Background Documents

A. SAP Country Reports B. SAP Technical Reports

Arab Republic of Egypt. 1997. Country Det Norske Veritas (DNV). 1997. Navi- Report. Prepared for PERSGA with gation Risk Assessment and Manage- support of GEF. ment Plan for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Prepared for PERSGA and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. 1997. World Bank with support from the Gov- Country Report. Prepared for PERSGA ernment of Norway. and the World Bank with support of GEF. Elder, D. 1997. Analysis of Regional Ma- rine and Ground Water Problems and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 1997. Country Ongoing Projects Addressing Re- Report. Prepared for PERSGA with gional Environmental Concerns. Pre- support of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pared for PERSGA and UNEP with Republic of Sudan. 1997. Country Report. support from GEF. Prepared for PERSGA and UNDP with Krupp, F. and K.I. Hariri (eds.) 1998. Re- support of GEF. gional Study on the Status of the Liv- Republic of Djibouti. 1997. Country Re- ing Marine Resources in the Red Sea port. Prepared for PERSGA and UNDP and Gulf of Aden and Their Manage- with support of GEF. ment. Prepared for PERSGA and Gulf of Aden Coast of Somalia. 1997. UNDP with support of GEF. Country Report. Prepared for PERSGA Rogge Marine Consulting. 1995. Maritime and UNDP with support of GEF. Traffic and Marine Pollution in the Republic of Yemen. 1997. Country Re- Red Sea. Prepared for the World Bank. port. Prepared for PERSGA and UNDP C. Background Documents with support of GEF. Berkoff, J. 1994. A Strategy for Manag- ing Water Resources in the Middle East and North Africa. Directions in Development. The World Bank.

86 Appendices 87

Douable, A. 1997. Update of the Bibliog- Lintner, S.F., S.A. Arif, M.E. Hatziolos. raphy of the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden 1995. The Experience of the World and Gulf of Suez. Prepared for Bank in the Legal, Institutional and PERSGA with support of UNEP. Financial Aspects of Regional Envi- ronmental Programmes: Potential Ap- Edwards, A.J., S.M. Head. (eds.). 1987. plication of Lessons Learned for the Key Environments – Red Sea. Oxford. ROPME and PERSGA Programmes. Evans, M.L. 1994. Important Bird Areas Background Paper for the Sea to Sea in the Middle East. Bird Life Conserva- Conference. World Bank. (Arabic and tion Series No. 2. Bird Life Interna- English). tional. Lundin, C.G. and J. Post. (eds.). 1996. IOC, PERSGA, UNEP, ACOPS, IUCN. Guidelines for Integrated Coastal 1995. Workshop on oceanographic Zone Management. World Bank– input to the integrated coastal zone Environmentally Sustainable Develop- development in the Red Sea and Gulf ment Studies and Monographs, Series of Aden. No. 9. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, MacAlister, Elliott and Partners, 1996. So- World Bank, International Union for the cotra Coastal and Marine Habitat Conservation of Nature. 1995. A Global Survey, Biodiversity Conservation and Representative System of Marine Pro- Sustainable Development Programme. tected Areas. Volume III – Central In- Mission Report. MacAlister, Elliott and dian Ocean, Arabian Seas, East Af- Partners, Ltd. Lymington, United King- rica and East Asian Seas. dom. Hatziolos, M.E., A.J. Hooten and M. Fodor Miller, J.D. 1989. Marine Turtles. Vol. 1: (Eds). 1998. Coral Reefs: Challenges An Assessment of the Conservation and Opportunities for Sustainable Status of Marine Turtles in Saudi Management. Proceedings of an associ- Arabia. MEPA Coastal and Marine ated event of the 1997 Environmentally Management Series, Report No. 9. and Socially Sustainable Development Morcos, S.A. and A. Varley. 1990. Red Conference. October 9-11, 1997, Wash- Sea, Gulf of Aden and Suez Canal: A ington D.C. Bibliography on Oceanographic and Hatziolos, M., C.G. Lundin and A. Alm, Marine Environmental Research. 1996. Africa: A Framework for Inte- United Nations Educational, Scientific grated Coastal Zone Management. and Cultural Organization/Arab League Washington, D.C. (second edition). Envi- Educational, Cultural and Scientific Or- ronment Department and Africa Techni- ganization. cal Department. PERSGA, GEF, World Bank, Public Cor- Hughes, R.H. and J.S. Hughes. 1992. A poration for Maritime Affairs of Yemen. Directory of African Wetlands. IUCN, 1996. Recommendations of the expert Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK; working group on navigation risks UNEP, Nairobi; WCMC, Cambridge. and navigation management in the Koenig, P. 1995. From Scarcity to Secu- Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Aden. No- rity: Averting a Water Crisis in the vember. Middle East and North Africa. The PERSGA. 1995. Regional Programme of World Bank. Action for Sustainable Utilization of

88 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

the Marine Environment of the Red World Bank. 1995. Environmental As- Sea and Gulf of Aden. sessment Sourcebook (3 Volumes – Arabic and English). PERSGA, UNEP, ACOPS, ROPME. 1995. Background Papers. Sea to Sea World Bank. 1995. “Cultural Heritage Is- Regional Conference on Sustainable Use sues in Environmental Assessment,” En- of the Marine Environment. Jeddah. vironmental Assessment Sourcebook Update (Arabic and English). Preen, A. 1989. Dugongs. Vol. 1: The Status and Conservation of Dugongs World Bank. 1995. “Coastal Zone Man- in the Arabian Region. MEPA Coastal agement in Environmental Assessment,” and Marine Management Series. Report Environmental Assessment Source- No. 10. book Update (Arabic and English). Sanders, M.J. and G.R. Morgan. 1989. World Bank. 1994. Forging a Partner- “Review of the fisheries resources of the ship for Environmental Action: An En- Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.” FAO Fish- vironmental Strategy Toward Sustain- eries Paper 304. able Development in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank, Wash- Scott, D.A. (ed.) 1995. A Directory of ington, DC. Wetlands in the Middle East. IUCN. World Bank. 1993. Ecologically Sensitive Sheppard, C., A. Price, C. Roberts. 1992. Sites in Africa. Volume II: Eastern Af- Marine Ecology of the Arabian Re- rica. Compiled by the World Conserva- gion. London. tion Monitoring Center for the World United Nations Environment Programme / Bank. World Bank, Washington DC. PERSGA. 1997. Assessment of Land- based Sources and Activities affecting the Marine Environment in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 166. United Nations Environment Programme. 1986. Action Plan for the Conserva- tion of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Studies No. 81. United Nations Environment Programme. 1985. Management and Conservation of Renewable Marine Resources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Region. Studies No. 64. In cooperation with IUCN. United Nations Environment Programme. 1983. Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment.

Appendix D Status of International Agreements

International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions related to the Marine Environment (as of June 1998) Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yeme Djibouti Soma- Arabia n lia IMO Convention 48 ü ü ü ü ü ü ü IMO amendments 91 ü IMO amendments 93 ü ü SOLAS Convention 74 ü ü ü ü ü ü SOLAS Protocol 78 ü ü SOLAS Protocol 88 ü Stockholm Agreement 96 LOAD LINES Convention 66 ü ü ü ü ü ü LOAD LINES Pr otocol 88 ü TONNAGE Convention 69 ü ü ü COLREG Convention 72 ü ü ü ü CSC Convention 72 ü ü CSC amendments 93 SFV Protocol 93 STCW Convention 78 ü ü ü STCW–F Convention 95 SAR Convention 79 STP Agreement 71 ü ü ü STP Protocol 73 ü ü ü INMARSAT Convention 76 ü ü INMARSAT amendments 94 ü INMARSAT OA 76 ü ü INMARSAT OA amendments 94 ü FACILITATION Convention 65 ü ü ü MARPOL 73/78 Annex I/II) ü ü MARPOL 7378 (Annex III) ü MARPOL 73/78 (Annex IV) ü MARPOL 73/78 (Annex V) ü MARPOL Protocol 97 (Annex VI) LC Convention 72 ü ü LC Protocol 96 Intervention Convention 69 ü ü ü Intervention Protocol 73 ü ü

90 Appendices 91

International Maritime Organization (IMO) Conventions related to the Marine Environment (as of June 1998) Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yeme Djibouti Soma- Arabia n lia CLC Convention 69 ü ü ü ü CLC Protocol 76 ü ü ü CLC Protocol 92 ü Fund Convention 71 ü Fund Protocol 76 Fund Protocol 92 NUCLEAR Convention 71 ü PAL Convention 74 ü ü ü PAL Protocol 76 ü PAL Protocol 90 ü LLMC Convention 76 ü ü LLMC Protocol 96 SUA Convention 88 ü SUA Protocol 88 ü SALVAGE Convention 89 ü ü ü OPRC Convention 90 ü ü HNS Convention 96

IMO Convention International Convention to establish the International Maritime Organization SOLAS Convention International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea Stockholm Agreement United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm 1972 LOAD LINES Convention International Convention on Load Lines TONNAGE Convention International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships COLREG Convention International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea CSC Convention International Convention for Safe Containers SFV Protocol The Torremolinos International Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels STCW Convention International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeep- ing for Seafarers STCW–F Convention International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeep- ing for Fishing Vessel Personnel SAR Convention International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue STP Agreement Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement INMARSAT Convention Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization FACILITATION Convention Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic MARPOL 73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto LC Convention Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter Intervention Convention International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties Intervention Protocol Protocol related to Intervention on the High Seas in cases of Pollution by Sub- stances other than Oil, 1973, as amended. CLC Convention International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage Fund Convention International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Com- pensation for Oil Pollution Damage NUCLEAR Convention Convention relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Materials PAL Convention Athens Convention relating to the Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by Sea LLMC Convention Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims SUA Convention Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Mari- time Navigation SALVAGE Convention International Convention on Salvage OPRC Convention International Convention on Oill Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co- operation

92 Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

HNS Convention International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in connec- tion with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea

Appendix E National Economic and Social Indicators

Egypt Jordan Saudi Sudan Yemen Djibouti Somalia Arabia Area (million km2) 1.01 0.09 2.25 2.51 0.53 0.02 0.64 Estimated length of Red Sea/Gulf of Aden 1,800 26 1,840 853 2,200 370 1,300b Coastline (kms)a Total population (mil- 65.9 4.9 19.4 28.0 13.2 0.6 9.2 lions) Population in coastal urban areas on Red Sea and Gulf of Aden 0.62 0.06 2.50 .70 1.20 0.50 0.27 (millions)c Projected population growth rate 2.0 3.8 3.1 2.7 3.7 2.1 2.7 (1993–2000) Urban population 2.6 4.7 3.6 4.6 6.6 7.6 4.3 growth rate GDP per capita 3,847 4,187 9,338 1,084 805 1,270 712* Literacy rate 50.5 85.5 61.8 44.8 41.1 45 24.9* HDI .614 .73 .77 .33 .33 .31 .22* HDI rank 109 84 73 158 148 162 172*

Sources: Except where noted below, Human Development Report 1997, UNDP; World Re- sources 1994–1995 and 1996–1997, World Resources Institute, and the World De- velopment Indicators 1998, World Bank. a Source: Country Reports prepared for the Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. b This is for the North Coast of Somalia, which is included under the Jeddah Conven- tion as part of the PERSGA area. c Source: Country Reports prepared for the Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. * = 1994 data (more recent data unavailable). HDI = Human Development Index.