•
The Erinyes in Sophocles' Oedipus al Colonu.\".
by
Linda pearcey
Department of Classics • McGill university Montreal July 1993
©
A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Gradu~te Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of M"ster of Arts
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ACKNOWLEDGE~1ENTS
• 1 wish ta thank Professor G. L. Snider, my supervisor, for his guidance and advice, and for hlS encouragement and
interest. To my parents and friands for thejr constant
support and endless patience, l am vE~ry grateful .
•
• • TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract...... 1
Introduction ...... 3
Chapter I: The Eumenides: Dread-Eyed Goddesses ...... 7
Chapter II: The Sinfulness of Oedipus ...... 30
Chapter III: The Fate of Oedipus .•...... •...... 51
Ct'Jnclusion ." ...... 84
Blbl iography ...... 86
•
• ABSTRACT
• Chapter One of this the::.is explored the identi ty of the Eumenides, the resident: dei tieB in Sophocles' Oedipus al
Cotonlls. By examining the language and contents of two
important ritual acts in the play, it is proven that their
title is euphemisticj these goddesses are the transforrned
Erinyes of Aeschylus.
Oedipus and his sinfulness is the focus of Chapter Two.
Although he has cornrnitted the heinous crimes of incest and
parricide, Oedipus seems to be exempt from the Erinyes'
hounding. By reviewing the charges laid against him, it is
revealed that Oedipus is a morally innocent man .
The final chapter deals with Oedipus' apotheosis and • the role played by the Eurnenides. By examining the play' s dramatic action, it is dernonstrated that oedipus, a man of
innate heroic nature, i5 deserving of heroization. But to
reach his exalted end, the championship of the Eumenides is
required .
• 1 .------
RÉSUMÉ
• Dans le premier chapitre de cette thèse, on explore l' iden'\: i té des Euménides, déesses qui peuplent l' Oetlipf! à
Cololllle de Sophocle. Par l'étude du langdge et du contenu de
deux rites importants qui se trouvent dans la pièce, on
prouve que leur titre est un euphémisme; ces déesses sont
lbS trinyes d'Eschyle transformées.
Le sujet du deuxième chapitre traite d'Oedipe et de son
péché. Malgré qu'il soit coupable d'avoir commis les crimes
abominables d'inceste et de parricide, Oedipe semble être
épargné par la venqeance des trinyes. En révisant les
accusations portées contre lui, on révèle qu'Oedipe est un
homme moralement innocent. • Dans le dernier chapitre, il s'agit de l'apothéose d'Oedipe et du rôle joué par les Euménides. L'examen de
l'action dramatique de la pièce démontre qu'Oedipe, homme
dont la na~~re héroïque est innée, mérite d'~tre appelé
héros. Mais pour atteindre ce but, il lui faut l'appui des
Euménides .
• 2 • ~NTRODUCTION The Oedipus al C%nu.\' is a play which has und~rgone mu ch
exegetical scrutiny and consequently has suffered much
criticism. Because the play was written by Sophocles in
extreme old age and because he returns to the story of
Oedipus, the subject of his greatest tragedy, many scholars
have assumed that the O. C is the plavwright's last poetic
will and artistic testament. Searching for allegorical
meaning in Sophocles' dramatic intention and purpose,
scholars have put forth various interpretations of the play.
Sorne modern scholars such as C. M. Bowra, see the O. C
l as a religious pageant • The transfiguration of Oedipus is
viewed as a divine act which confirms the equitableness of • the gods; just as they had thrown him down in the past, so they are making amenrls to him to prove that they are indeed
just.
At the other extreme is what may be called the secular
interpretation and its most ardent proponent is l. M.
Linforth, who rejects the notion of religion and religious
overtones in the O. C 2 He views the play solely on human
1C M B"wm. S"I'II,,
JI M Lllltnrlh, " Rch!,-I"II lUIt! Dmml! III 0",111'115 ,1/ C"I(I/lu~" UCPCP 14 1\\1 4 (1951) 75-192 I\rguc~ lha. "no cOII.,ldcrnllon " gl\ Cil 1<' Ihc pllrl""c' ,,) lhc g"d,. "hclhlr hCllclï.cnl "r I1lllhgnllnl No ullcnllon 1" glVcn III lhc prohlcl1l of tntc Thc god& urc 'tngulnrl) I\h~cnt" (1 S.J l • 3 termsj devoid of religion, the O. C. becomes a study of • Oedipus' "persona lity amidst the experience wh ich be f(llIs him at Col()nus, no more and no less."\ For Linforth,
Sophocles is merely presenting a single example of human
fortune as it is played out against human circumstances in
which the gods have no part.
In order to understand the O. C. many cri tics argue that
it must be viewed as sorne sort of sequel, a continuation of
the Oedipus Tyral/nus. ~ At the end of the O. T, Sophocles had
left oedipus in total ruin; he had pushed him over the edge
of despair and misery. Some scholars argue that Sophocles
could not, nor did he ever intend, to leave Oed ipus in such
a depraved state. 5 Viewed in this light, the O. C. cecomes a • reversaI of the O. T. Instead of descending from greatness to misery, Oedipus, at long last, is elevated from misery to
greatness.
Yet for other scholars, the O. C. i s seen as Sophocles'
patriotic vision of his native land. written long after the
glory of imperial Athens had passed, Sophocles does not
dwell on her demise but Instead exalts and immortalizes her
4T G Rn~~'l1l11cycr, "The Wrlllh 01 Oedlpu~" Phoenix 6 (1952) 92-112 open\ 111\ urude wllh Ihe .,I .. te..rnclii "Th" O"dll'III Coloneu~ complete\ the talc nI the Oedipul Rex' (92) ln Ihe () T Oedlpu\ proph~"c\ Ihat he hn\ nee..n \lIvc..d Irolll dculh l,y \O/lle.. ,trange eY11 fllte (/i,,"'Î> "~KlÎ1 1457), It "the unloldlllg of Iim fute whlc..h Sophode\ dc,cnhelo III Ihe () ('
5 F H Lctter\, The Life and Work of .'iophodel (London 1953) 395 note\ thUl" wc muy douhl If Il wnh eYer III S"I'hoc..iCf> ' mind 10 lcave hlm cru\hcd, hldden from hight in the Thchlln Plllae..c " • 4 strength, power and beauty of yesterday. ~
As valid as these interpretations rnay seem to be, the
(J. C. cannot be reduced to any of these. In essence, the O.
C. plays out Oedipus' final hours. Once a famed king, he is
now a blind aged beggar, a wandering exile. Having stumbled
into a grove sacred to the Eumenides, he prays to them for
assistance in ending his ill-fated life. Once he has
rebuffed the feigned overtures of Creon and POlyneices wi th
curses and bestowed a divinely ordained blessing upon
Athens, Oedipus' prayers are answered. He passes from life
in a mysterious flash of light in which he is taken onto the
gods as one of their owni he is transformed into a semi-
divine being .
This study is te show that the O. C. cannet be reduced • to a religious pageanti a study in personalitYi to a mere sequel to the O. T.; or a patriotic epi taph. What th en is
Sophocles' dramatic purpose and how is i t achieved? To f ind
the answer to these questions, it is necessary to place
greater ernphasis, not on Oedipus, but on the Eumenides. For
their role, as vague a'îd rernote as it may seem to be,
perll1eates the play. They are the play's resident deities;
it is ta them that Oedipus praysi it is to thern that he
1\; Klrkw"od, "l'rom I\1d,,~ hl CllllllIU~ TIN -\~ X\lPOY~ A4'II'MEO' ,TAPA 116 (1986) 99-117 IIrguel> thnt Sophocle~ " Jln'~l'lIllI1g 1\ UIIU~UC ""1\111 ni t\lhcn~ III hl, hl~l pluy "II l' mdccd Il dccply putrll\tic VII>l\)II, of un Alhcll~, Ilf un AlllClI, &ccn nllt prsllll'rll) II' 1111 IIlll'crlnl ~lllIc or 111'011111:111 power, hut 11\ Il pillee ul helHuy IlIld \lr Il MrclIgth Ihul Clnnllllte\ froln the IlInd Il,clf •. " ( 109) • 5 makes libation; and it is with their assistance that Oed ipus
achieves his final exaltation. To comprehend the me~ning
behind the O. C. three important questions must be ra ised:
who are the Eumenides; what is their relationship to
Oedipus; and what role do they play in oedipus' apotheosis?
This study is to demonstrate that in the answer to these
questions 1 i ps the possible key ta understanding the O. ('
and Sophocles' dramatic intentions. Let us therefore bcgin
by examining the identity of the Eumenides .
•
• 6 • 1
THE EUMENIDES: DREAD-EYED GODDESSES
In the prologue of Oedlpus ar C%nuJ the blind and aged
Oedipus is led by his daughter Antigone to a stone seat
within a grove near Athens' towers. A passing stranger
hurriedly approaches and orders Oedipus to vacate his seat
at once, warning that he is trespassing upon inviolable
ground belonging to the all-seeing Eumenides (T~C rr&vO'
opwcac Ev~€vioac 42}1. As soon as Oedipus hears the name of
the se goddesses, he immediately announces himself to be
their suppliant (Tbv iK~T~V 44). He takes the mention of
their name to be the watchword of his fa te (~v~~opâc ~vvO~~' • €~~c 46). In an oracle Apollo had once told Oedipus that he would find rest (naûÀav 88), a seat (€opav 90) and an
hospitable home (~€V6CTaCLv 90) among august goddesses
(8€&v/ c€~v~v 89-90). Convinced that this place is destined
to be his burial ground, he prays to the local deities for
assistance in ending his wretched life in accordance with
Apollo's oracle (KaT' b~~àc Tàc 'ArroÀÀwvoc l02).
Oedipus does not share the stranger's apprehension but
boldly refuses to move from his new-found resting place and
fearlessly appeals to the goddesses of the grove for pitYi
'Whell lillll)! the GrccJ.. t.lr S'lphlldc,' 0 C l ,hnll he U'IIl)! the cntl\;nltcxt of H L1oyd-Jollc& and N.G Wil&OIl, Sophoclis F dread in the stranger while their name invokes hope from Oedipus? Has Sophocles introduced an actual cult of goddesses or has he created a fictitious one to suit his drarnatic needs?2 As the key to understanding the O. C. seems to lie with these goddesses and their ties to Oedipus and his prophesied destiny, we should try to determine the idelltity of these deities and to examine their role in the play. Let us begin by looking more closely at what is said about thern and their precinct in the prologue (1-116). In the play's opening, a vivid sense of locality and an atmosphere of solemnity is quickly established. In response • to her father's inquiry, Antigone describes the place whcre they find themselves (14-18): Father, poor tired Oedipus, the towers That crown the city still seem far away; As for this place, it is clearly a holy one, Shady with vines and olive trees and laurel; Snug in their wings within, the nightingales Make a sweet music. 1 2There I~ mu<.h dehule III modern ~<.h()lur,llIp regurdmg Ihc Idcnllly nf Ihc~c dCIIII!' III Ihe () (' Sd... lllr\ cllhcr urglJL Ihlll Ihe EumeOldcl. of thl!. play urc Identlcul wllh the Ermyc" the IInphll .hle <..hlhorlil. avengcr, of wrollg' nr Ihey nllelllpi III Ih,IIfI~lllhh Ihe two al. !.eparute entllle, For cxample, R P WmnlIIgton-lngrum, Sop//Oder An Int"'p'l'ltlwm (Culllhndge 1980) 264 72 und (' M Bowra. SnphocleCln Tragedy (Oxford 1944) 317-19 argue thut the,e Eumenldc, IIn"lhe Erlllyc:' Irlln,torrn<.d trcom 1 urie' min lIelllgll Bcmg!o at the end of Ae'<..hylu,· EU/IIentdeJ On the other hund A L Brown, "The EUIII<"lIld<.' lf1 Gre<..k -1 rIIj!<. 3 R FIIIgerald, "Ocdlpu, al Cnlonu,· (;,,· .. k Trt/8t'dlt'j vol 3 ed hy D Gr<.ne II/ul f{ 1..Jlltllnor<. (('hlul)!" lWJ») 107 )17 Thil. Il. the Engl"h trun,llIlIon of the () C thal l ,hllll<..lte Ihroughout It 1\ IlIter<.\IIII)! III 1101<.. Ihllt Anll).'IIII<.'h d~'<'fll'lI1111 or the hcauty of the place cleurly untlclpale, Ihe famou, ode III prime of Colollu~ (668-93, e'pc~mlly 670 76) • 8 The distant ramparts belong to the city of Athens (24) but • Antigone is unfamiliar with the location \Jhich she observes to be a sacred (i f.pOC 16) one. The quiet beauty of the grove is interrupted by the entrance of the distraught stranger. Instead of extending a gracious welcome to the newcomers, the stranger is perturbed by their presence. He tells them that they are treading upon inviolable soil (xwpov oux à1VOP na1€îv 37), a sacred precinct (aBLK10c OUo' OiK~10C 39) belonging to fearful goddesses (€~~O~OL / BEat 39-40). The strangpr proceeds to inform Oedipus that this sacred ground (xwpoc ••. i€poc 54) lies in the deme of Colonus (54-61): This country, aIl of it, is blessed groundj The god of the sea loves itj in it the firecarrier Prometheus has his influencej in particular That spot you rest on has been called this earth's Doorsill of Brass, and buttress of great Athens. • AlI men of this land claim descent from him Whose statue stands near-by: Colonus the horseman, And bear his name in common with their own. The township is said to be governed from Athens by Theseus, the Athenian King. Far from presenting a fictional landscape, Sophocles is undoubtedly recreating a locale which would have been familiar to his audience. The area within which the play is set is described in careful topographie detail. Colonus is indeed a small deme situated just outside the city of • 9 Athens;~ the township's proper name is Colonus Hippius, the • epithet deriving from poseidon Hippius, the horse-loving and horse-taming god who is worshipped there. In honour of the local deity, the deme's eponymous founder and hero is qiven the epithet of Hippotes or Horseman (inn6rqv Ko~wvbv 59) as weIl. But is Colonus home to a cult of deities who are ~orshipped locally under the title of Eumenides?' According to the stranger, the ground upon which Oedipus rests is a grove belonging to fearful goddesses, daughters of Earth and Oarkness (~~~O~OL / OEa[ ... r~c rE rai CK6rou r6puL 39-40). When Oedipus requests the cult title (cE~vhv ~vo~' 41) of the deities, the stranger replies that locally (~vOô6' 42) they are called the all-seeing Eumenides (T~C navO' bp~cac EV~Ev[oac 42); but he adds that they are known by other • names elsewhere (aÀ~a é' aÀÀaxoû raÀô 43). To what other names or titles is Sophocles subtly alluding and what light, if any, do they shed on the identity of the Eumenides? Just as the deities of the grove are worshipped under su ch a euphemistic title as "Kindly Ones", the same goddesses are closely ~ssociated and often 4When dl~cu~,ing thc ~urroundlng~ of thc Athellinn A\..ndemy _ Pnu~lIIl1n, hnelly mllke, meut 1<"1 of (,oloulI'_ Il knoll ~1l1l1l11,.(1 about n mile and a quarter from Athen~, Hc report' thntlt I~ reputcd tll he the fir\t pl/l\..e III AIII\../lto wlllLlI Oc 5The cXl\tence of the Eumelllde,' prCl..In\..t /l' dC'lnhed hy Sophll(,./c, "dchntuhl\.. '1 lm \..ult \Ile l' ulle,tl..d hy 110 , .. une "Iher thllll thc 0 C ln hl~ hncf dc,cnptl local deities are called, he asks for their august or venerable (c€~vàv 41) title. Through Oedipus' reference to the epi thet Sl'fllll0.\, is Sophocles implying the designation Semnai?7 And if so, what significance does this title bring to the identity of the Eumenides? Like the Eumenides, the Semnai were chthonic deities who were worshipped under a propitious title. When discussing a sanctuary of the Eurnenides near Sicyon, Pausanias testifies that these goddesses were sufficiently similar to the Sernnai to be equated with them (2.11.4): . .. we come to a grove of evergreen oaks and a temple of the goddesses whorn the Athenians name Venerable [L€~vàç] • and the Sicyonians name Eumenides [Ev~€vi6aç]. One day every year they celebrate a festival in their honour, at which they sacrifice sheep big with young, pour libations of honey mixed with water and use flowers instead of wreaths. 8 In a cult exclusive to the Attic state, the Semnai were closely associated with the council of the Areopagus; at 6111 lm Ihnrnll!!h 'Illdy ni Ihe ElIlIlcllIdc, /llId nlhcd hcm!!, BroWII (up cil Il 2) 260-62 prc~cnl~ Ihe eVldence whlch ~upporls cul" nt Ihe EUlllcnldc, III Colollu,. Sicyon, CcryncII III Achnell. Tlryn~, Cyrene, ScllI1u~ III S:clly, Thc~pl8c 111 80eollllllnd two l'n'hlhlc cullh 11\ CllI"" IInd Ar"lIdlll Two cuh .. uf thc Sl'mlllll Theal lire knowll. onc lit Phyla 111 AUlcu and onc heneath the Arc0l'"!!u~ 8t Alhcll' 7 TllI!o hll~ hcclI "U!!!!c,lcd hy WlIIlllllglnn-lngrullI (op Clt n 2) 267, n.52 He !ohtlc~ "The nllme Scmlllli 18 &uggc&ted by the u'c 01 the epuhcl ut 41 8PtIIHdll/'H' D,-.H rll'lIOII of (;n'<,c,- trllll' hy J G Frn.lcr. vol. 1 (Oxford 1913) 87 • 11 trials before the Areopagus oaths were taken in their name and sacrifices were made in their honour by those acquitted • q before it. Their shrine was also an inviolable asylum for suppliants and slaves. III In a literary tradition which perhaps originated with Aeschylus, the Semnai Theai became virtually synonymous with the Erinyes, implacable avengers of wrongdoings. Il Again we turn to Pausanias who clearly equates the Semnai of the Areopagus with the Erinyes (1.28.6): Near this is a sanctuary of the goddesses whom the Athenians calI the Venerable Ones [L€~Vaç], but whom Hesiod in the Theogony calls the Furies [. Ep L vÎJÇ] • Aeschylus was the first to represent them with snakes in their hair. 12 Pausanias then, not only identifies the Semnai with the Erinyes but he credits Aeschylus with imposing an horrific • appearance on them. In the EI1l1111lidl',\' Aeschylus portrays the Erinyes as gorgon-like creatures (roP1€tOtCtv •.• 1vnOtC 49) 13 in a quasi -human form. Reeling at their sight, the 10 Ar, Eq 1312, The,lm 224, TllUC 1 126 Il, Puu~ 7 25 1 1'ln hl!. Ore,telllll tnlngy, Ae'lhylu, " thought tn he the lir'l lo Idellilly the SCJJlIlUI wlth the [nllye" who hy trullillllll, h/ld houndcd Orc,tc!> for thc murdcr oflm mothcr Clytcmne'tra Ae'Lhylu, hud Ore-tel, hrought tll trllll helorc the Areop/l~Il' wlth Ihe Ermye., al> pro!>ecutorb Il ha!. heclI 'pcLulatcd that Ac,chylu~' ver"ltlll of the Ore!.!c' myth LlIllIe from the Il ....0\,11111011 hc\wccn Ihe Scmnal ThclII and thelr role wlth the Arcopllgu, Scc A J PodlcLkl, Anthylui Euml'f/"J,'\ (WIlrJJlIllI~lLr 198')) 26 ulld A If SommcrMcm, AeJchyl/ls Eumemdes (Cumhndgc 1989) 1-12 for dctllll, Ill> to hllw AC\Lhyluj, Ildllptcd thc myth 01 OrclotL' 12 Friller (op Cil Il 8) 42 13WhcII cllmg lhc Greek for Ael>chylu,' Eumenides, Il>hull he u!>JJlg the '-nliclil text of D PU!!C, At'Ilhyll Tra1{(J(·dwl' (Oxford 1972) • 12 Pythia des~ribes thern as physically repugnant (52-56): They are black and utterly • repulsive, and they snore with breath that drives one back. From their eyes drips the fouI ooze, and their dress is su ch as is not right to wear in the presence of the gods' sta tues, nor even into any human house. 14 Perhaps their vile and loathsome appearance is a physical reflection of their function. The Erinyes are merciless avengers; they correct any infringement of the natural order of things. For exarnple, they are the protectors of the rights of parents and are often portrayed as the ernbodirnent of a wronged parent' s curse. 1~ They are invoked to come to the assistance of an oppressed party and punish the wrcngdoer. When this oppression takes the form of violence, the Erinyes are sumrnoned to avenge a rnurder . In Aeschylus' • EUl11l'lIfde\ the chorus of Erinyes sing of their ancient dut Y to hound murderers for their crime (334-40): This js purpose that the all-involving destiny spun, to be ours and to be shaken never: when mortals assume outrage of own hand in violence, these we dog, till one goes under earth. Nor does death set them altogether frce. At the end of his trilogy, Aeschylus has these vengeful spiri ts y ield to the persuasions of Athena and they are transforrned into goddesses with a twofold power - beneficent 14R Lnllllllnrc, "The [UIIlClIllICl>" ("t'ek Tragt'd/t's vol. ] ed hy 0 Grene IInd R LaUllllore (Chicago 1960) 1-41 This IS the En)!h\h trun\lutulilof Ae\lh)'lu", EII11It'mdt's thul 1 ~hull cite Ihroughout 15// 9454,571,11412,0.1 2 U5,II 280 • 13 deities who nonetheless retain their power to blight and hound wrongdoers (916-47). The Erinyes are transformed from • th Furies into August Goddesses or Semnai. Out of this transformation, a conflation takes place bebleen the Erinyes, the Semnai and the Eumenides. 17 AlI three titles become interchangeable and synonymous wjt~ one another to represent these deities with a twofold nature. When they are the implacable Furies, they are the Erinyes; when they are the Kindly Gracious Ones, they are the Eumenides or Semnai. Returning to the D.C., it is necessary to ask why Oedipus feels an affinity with these goddesses of the grove. When the Colonean stranger calls them the Eumenides, what does this particular title signify to Oedipus? For as soon • as he hears this name, he declares himself to be thejr suppliant (iK~r~p 44). Feeling a'n irr.iaIediate aff ini ty wi th his location and with the goddesses, Oedipus refuses to leave. He has come to recognize Colonus as his final stop; this is to be his destined buriai ground as prophesied by Apollo. The mention of the local goddes5es' appellation i5 161n the E~memdes Ihe d\llru~ Ilf Ennyc .. n:fcr Illlll\'m,>clvc~ Il' Semnlll (l:'I!VItI) IIl1d the c'>LIlfI, deLlnre IhLlIIl1I he ~errll'''' Thcm (!;(jlvai) Uf,lhey IClld Ihem 10 Ihm dwclhng pluLe dn .. e 10 Ihe Areopnl!u~ (833, 8',4 55, 916, 1022·2(,) Wllhlll the lexl of Acschylus' Eumemdcs Ihe word EUlm:nlde, (Evpt VW(c) Il,clf d(}e~ nolllppcnl, Itllhltugh Il " Ihl. plny\ tltle IIlId It "1'I'e/lr~ III Ihe pisy'. hYf,olhe\i. Il Il> gcnerlllly hellcvcd Ihlll wh en Ihe Erln}e, wcre Illmed, Alhclill relllllllcd them the Lumell/(k~ hut th" 1"lhMI!!C ws. 10&1 111 a IlIcunll occumng IIft~ r IlI1e 1027 d' pll'lullltcd ny G Hermllnn, Itt'\(h}/r Trr/1{(}('dlt/t' 1 (I.ell"l!! 18'i2) 17 S')phoc!e, pro~ Ide& lin eXllmplc of thc confllltlOn 10 III~ AJlH (835-37) Herc the [rIllYL' IIfC cnll ... llhe l.vcr look 11l~ Illl/(Uhi Ermycb (c'lL (J' bOWLf~C 1 CtI!VC"- 'EPIVt.ç 836-37), Il dc~crlptlon CLhocd ln the () C (11 .... 7mv/J' ti"Wll'L EÜI!I "J.I'L 42) 'II IIIN c(lmmcntary R (' Jchh, Sophoclt's The Pll/ys und Frtl1{I1I"'nr, , PurI VII. 1ht' AJlu (Camhr"l!!c 19(7) 110 ,>tlltL' Ihllt III 1Ille 817 C(l!v&c H. "an c,pccllllly AlhclllllO cplthet uf thc,c g()dde,~c-, " He then 1.1Ie, Ac,~hylllh' EUIIII'nIiIl" (l.II1VIIt 1040» II/Id ~I)phodeh' V C (C{#ll'WV 89) • 14 the spark which ignites his memory • In a sudden revelation, • Oedipus recalls the divine oracle which promised him rest among aügust goddesses (O€WP / C€~VWP 89-90). He recognizes that these deities and the Eumenides are one and the same. Having hinted that he brings a boon (K€POaVV 72) with him, Oedipus is allowed to retain his seat while the stranger takes leave to consult his fellow citizens. Alone with Antigone, he prays to these local deities. On behalf of himself and Apollo, he appeals to the Eumenides for assistance in the fulfilment of the oracle which prophesied his passing in their sanctuary (84-110): Ladies whose eyes Are terrible: Spirits: IK Upon your sacred ground l have first bent my knees in this new land; Therefore be mindful of me and of Apollo, For when he gave me oracles of evil, • He also spoke of this: A resting place After long years, in the last country, where l should find home among the sacred Furies: That there l might round out my bitter life, conferring benefit on those who received me, A curse on those who have driven me away. Portents, he said, would make me sure of this: Earthquake, thunder, or God's smiling lightning; But l am sure of it now, sure that you guided me with feathery influence upon this road, And led me here into your hallowed wood. How otherwise could l, in my wandering, Have sat down first with you in aIl this land, l who drink not, with you who love not wine? TSR . C Jchh, s"p'/Oc; s 77lt' Pillys IInd Frll8/11t'/1ts. PlIrr li. Th~ Ot'dlJlus Col o hear my prayer, Sweet children of original Darkness! Hear me, Athe~s, city narned for great Athena, Honoured above aIl cities in the world! plty a man's carcase and his ghost For Oedipus is not the strength he was. convinced that he has been divinely guided (nLc1bv ••• n1€pbv 97) to his present location, Oedipus ends his prayer cdlling upon the city of Athens and the Eumenides for compassion • 1 • (oLKTLpaT 109). To whom does Sophocles wish us to think Oedipus is praying? When Oedipus equates the Eurnenides with the August Goddesses or Sernnai of the prophecy, what is Sophocles • irnplying about the idéntity and the nature of the goddesses of the grove? Is the playwright identifying the Eumenides as the Attic Sernnai who are worshipped at Colonus under R different cult title or is he echoing Aeschylus by identifying the Eumenides as the Semnai, the transformed Erinyes?19 As Oedipus prays with conviction and does not hesitate when addressing the goddesses, let us closely examine the content and the language of his supplication for further evidence that these goddesses are indeed Aeschylus' Erinyes transformed. 19 Il lb mlcrc"lmg 10 nolc Ihallh", ,'> Ihc pllbillon tnken hy our lran"lntnr Flt/~eruld (op cil n 3) When OCdlpUh l.III1H Ihc gOd~CbbCS of Apollo's oruclc the Scmlllll Thelll (O/Wl' / C( Il,,wl' 89-90), FllIgcrnld dcnrly cqualch Ihem wllh the EnnycH, IrllllHllltl/lg the Grcck liS "sacrcd Furies ft • 16 prayer is a pious and reverent act, a well-formulated entreaty which is marked by precise wording, particularly • w when naming the deity invoked. As the goddesses are already identified by the Colonean stranger as the Eumenides (42), Oedipus decides not to summon them by this title. Instead, he opts for a form of address which seems to be distressfully perplexing; he begins his supplication unpropitiously -appare~tly- by summoning the goddesses as dread-visaged or fierce-eyed mistresses, potniai deinopes (w norVLOL O€LVWn€C 84). How can Oedipus hope to gain favour from these divinities when he invokes them in su ch an unflattering manner? What can be deduced from Sophocles' peculiar choice of words? The title potnia or Mistress is a reverent form of • address which is applicable to numerous female divinities, in particular Demeter and Kore. 21 To differentiate between deities who sh8re such a common and general title, a personal designation is often assigned by means of an additional epithet. The distinguishing epithet used by Sophocles is lfl>if/ope.\' (O€ L vwn€c), terrible to behold. Such a grimly unique and vivid adjective personifles the Eumenides as possessing awesome and vile lineaments, a feature which 20w Burkcrl, C;n'el; R,'hgw" IrlllI~ l1y J Rullull (Cuml1f1dgc, MU_b 1985) 74 sllltCb thllt whclI IIl1mlllg Il dClty III prayer "grcui IInptlrllllllC" ulludu:d 10 tilldlllg the f1ght IIUllle, ebpecmlly npprO'lflllte epllhels" A wrong word could I1rlllg hllrm 2/11l thc () C Dcmctcr 1\llll Kure tue refcrrcd to Uh Potnu\I (lr(\TVU'Il 1050) ny the chorub Burkert (lnld) 44 btutes that "the tlppCllf/lllCC uf tI Wllllic 'Cfleb 01 gndde'hch l1e/lrlllg Ihe IItle POI"IIl, MI,lress, cOlllirlllb the ,pccl/Il role of femtllc dellles alrcady 1II11111/11cd 11\ the lloll\l)!rul'h) • • 17 conjures up strong images of the Erinyes in their Aesehylean • form. Just as the Sophoclean Eumenides are c!('ÙWPl'J, so the Aesehylean Erinyes are ~1na. When the Pythia first sees the slumbering Erinyes in Apollo's temple, she flees exclaiming that she has seen things too terrible to talk about, things too terrible upon which to look (O€LP~ ~~EaL, O€LP~ 0' ôcpOCL~J.l.oîc OPCLK€î l' EUIl/. 34-37) : Things terrible to tell and for the eyes to sce terrible drove me out again from Loxias' house so that l have no strength and cannot stand on springing feet, but run with hands' help and my legs have no speed. Even in the peaceful state of sleep, the Erinyes are unspeakably horrible in appearance, terrible tu bchold. When their disposition has been mollified by the gentle • persuasion of Athena, the se deities still retain their frightening visages. Just before declaring the Erinycs to be the Gracious Ones (Eüpol'ae EUII/. 992), Athena makes reference to their loathsome eountenances (o~€P~V T~I'6€ llpoeWllWI' ElinI. 990) • It is interesting to note that when the chorus of eIders first look upon Oedipus and hear him speak, their reaetion echoes that of the Pythia when she first lays her eyes upon the Erinyes. Seeing Oedipus emerge from the grove, they exclaim (140): Ah! His faee is dreadful! His voiee is dreadful! • 18 Oedipus is a terrible sight to behold and terrible ta hear • (O€tV()C j.û:.v bpâ.v, ouvoc of; KÀU€tV 140). The chorus is horrified at the vision of the impious man who has dared to trespass upon holy ground (àCTt~€C aÀcoc 125) belonging to turious maidens (àMat~aK€Tâ.v KOPâ.V 127).n The impiety of his transgression has made him deinos,' he has trod upon forbidden terr i tory. But Oed ipus is dread or demos in appearance as weIl. Years as an aimless wanderer have taken atoll upon his ageG body. When Polyneices looks upon his decrepit father he cries (1258-63) an outcast for so long, And with such garments! The abominable Filth grown old with him, rotting his sides! And on his sightless face the ragged hair streams in the wind. There's the same quality In the food he carries for his thin old belly . • At first glance, oedipus and the goddesses of the grove inspire terror. Oedipus is seen as an impious, sordid wanderer and the Eumenides are personified as having fearsome visages. These goddesses with dread faces are chthonian powers, spirits who dwell in the dark recesses of the earth. According to Sophocles, the Eumenides are the daughters of Earth and Skotos or Darkness (r~c T€ Kat CKOTOV KopaL 40). Having sprunq from such primeval forces, these deities 22Thc 1'1"_e " eJ,cwhcre .lc,cnhcJ '" Il grovc (i,Àc(lC 114) hy Oe.l,l'u' IInd n remt'nos (Tip.t Pile 136) by the chorus. A.u'nllIIg h' Bur(,.erl (.,1' III Il :!Q) 86, Il Grec" '1llKtunry " "Iund cut off und dcdlcalcd tu the god. "and' lb known by the 1111_ Il'nl lerm Wllll Il rellll) "!!llItie, IlIIy l"'"1/1I11 111/111, 1"lIIt'fII""" III ,ome ,II~C' Il '1I1J1:tullry mlly lIIc1ude Il wooded IIrea or Il grove, 1111 ,111'" Sudl I! Imd lit IlIlId 111/1) C\CII CIlIIMllulc Il '1Il1clullry Il,clf • 19 belong to the older, pre-Olympian order. Because of their • chthonic nature, the Eumenides are complex creatures." On the one hand, they are primaI and infernal - dark bcings associated with evii and destruction. Their dark and numinous nature and their ability to wreak havoc is fcaredi the Coloniates are fearfui even to look at their shrine or audibly utter their name (127-32): In the inviolate thicket Of those whom it's futile to fight, Those whom we tremble to name. When we pass we avert our eyes Close our eyes!- In silence, without conversation, Shaping our prayers \\'; th our l ips. 21 On the other hand, the Eumenides are maternaI and nurturing, earthly spirits firmly entren~hed in the soil and its productivity. Their close ties with Mother Earth are • clearly visible in the munificent harvest which the land bears and in the beauty of the tranquil landscape. When singing praise for Colonus, the chorus exol the limitless virtues of the fruitful land and aIl its bounty (671-77): In the god's untrodden vale Where leaves and berries throng, And wine-dark ivy climbs the bough, The sweet, sojourning nightingale Murmurs aIl day long. 23W. K C GUlhne, The G,eeks i1nd the.' \;odr (London 1950) 218 expllllll~ Ihul Ihc CllllwlIIOI who dwcll hCIIl-Ulh Ihc curlh "have two prunllry ïuncl\On~ they CII\urc the ferllilty 01 the lund, /lnd they prc~lde ovcr, or hllvc ~OIllC IUlilhon or olhu LCI/IIIC<.lul Wllh, the rClilm of the ~oull. of Ihe delld " 24Jehh (op cil Il 18) 32 lIole\ thul Il WII\ u.,ullilo ~lIlule whell PIl\Mllg Il ~Ilrme u/Jd 10 uudlhly llIvoke IIIL dClly III hund Bul when pllhhlllg Ihe Emenlde\' grove, lhe !ocllh uVOId !ookmg al Il /lnd Ihey Lan only move Ihelr lip~, Ihcy dllrc 1101 urilluluic nr vocalilC Ihe /JIIIIIC of Ihc\e g()dde\~e~ Acwrdlf1g ln Burkert (op III Il 20) 200 [,hlho/ll(' god\ "ure IIJwllonul nllly Wilh IIIlhglVlIIgh and uhually only hy wuy of allu~lOn • • 20 As we can see, these divinities are ambivalent en~ities . • They are an embodiment of opposites. They are fearsome (f.jJ.c/J0{30L 39) and sweet (')'ÀUK€Î.CH 106); they are dread-eyed (O€LVWff€C 84) and they possess gracious he arts (€vjJ.€VWV / Crf:PVWP 486-87); their grove is inviolable (aOLKToc 39) and inaccessible (aC1L{3€C 125) and it is peaceful and beautiful. The Eumenides' chthonic origins and dual nature echo that of the Aeschylean Erinyes. Both share a common progen i tor. The Sophoclean Eumenides are the daughters of prirneval Darkness (1Ta'iO€C aPXcr[ou CKorou 106) ;2'i the Aeschylean Erinyes are the gloomy offspring of Night (NUK10C cria/'~ TEK//a Eum. 416. )2f1 And both share an ambivalent nature . As chthonic powers, they are feared and loathed by aIl. When Apollo looks upon their sleeping forms, he speaks • of thern with nothing less than utter contempt (Elim. 68-73): The repulsive maidens have been stilled to sleep, those gray and aged children, they with whom no mortal man, no god, nor even any beast, will have to do. It was because of evil they were born, because they hold the evil darknessv of the pit below Earth, loathed alike by men and by the heavenly gods. But their chthonic nature also binds them to the soil. They }('Thc ~Irnn):l'r hllJ cmllcr relcrred 1" Ihe goJde"c, "' the dnu)!hterl> of Enrlh /lnd Dnrl..nc,., (l'Î/c 1( K'tL CK';TOV KI'p 211 "L ,,'nllll): (l' Ac,dl) lu,' !!cneuh,!!) , the Ertll) C~ ure the futhcrle,s chlldrcil of NIght, NIÎ~ (Eum 321, 416, 745, 729 = 8~~. 844 = 878, IOU) Bm"" (op Clt Il 2) 278 h)r(lthc~llel> thnt Skotos or Durkne'l>, the futher of the Eurnellldcs, cun he \ ,,·w.,.III\ "Ihe lIeur.:,t 11l1" .. ultnc cqulvulellt of Nv~ • • )7111 h ... \.l'IIII1..-nlllr} PIldlccl..1 (Ill' Clt Il Il) US IlIlte .. thnt MUIIV 1 C/((ITOP P(JlovrOlt T(WT~{l()P (71-72) Îs un tnterel>tmg l'hm", ""KI: DllrI.nc" pcr"'lllli.:d (SI.." ..\\) WII' ,,'1\1dUlIC\ 1l1\1I1cd 8S the Enllyc~' fUlher (Soph 0 C 40) • • 21 can ensure fertility and fruitfulness. The Erinyes • demonstrate their close connections with the earth when they pray to ensure Athens' bounty (El/m. 941-47): Let no barren deadly sickness creep and kil!. Flocks fatten. Earth be kind to them, with double fold of fruit in time appointed for i ts yielding. Secret child of earth, her hidden wealth, bestow blessing and surprise of gods. As transformed by Aeschylus as Eumenides, the dei ties are gracious (€ücppoJlac 992) and right-rninded (€vOûCPpoJ!€c 1040) but they are still great and implacable powers (lLeyÎ1ÀCtc Kat S ucap €CTO uC 928) who can make life dim in tears for sorne (8aKpvwI' 1 (3iolJ àlL(3ÀW1TOJl 954-55). When revered ",nd properly honoured, they can be beneficent and kind; but when neglected or violated, they can becorne vindictive and vengeful. • We have exarnined the language and the contents of (J.c. 84-110 at sorne length, in order to establish the crucial question of the identi ty of the goddesses to whom Oed ipus prays. Enough has perhaps been said to suggest that Winnington - Ingram and Bowra are right in equating the Eumenides, whom Oedipus invokes, with the transformed Erinyes of Aeschylus' play as both share a common title as Semnai, common description as fearful beings, a shared progenitor and the same dual nature. But there is a second prayer invol ving an elaborate piece of ri tuaI further on in the OedipuJ al C%nu.\· which may serve to clench the argument • 22 ------ that these scholars are indeed correct in this view. Let us • turn now to O.c. 466-90 to review that evidence. Because oedipus has encroached upon the sacred precinct of the Eumenides, the chorus urge him to make atonement for his transgression. The ri tuaI ri tes of appeasement which they prescribe are abstentious oblations or nephalia; they advise oedipus to perform the sacraments of choai, the pouring of liquids into the ground. Sophocles carefully details each step of this sacral act (466-90): Chorus Make expiation to these divini ties Whose ground you violated when you came. Oedipus In what way shall 1 do so'? Tell me, friends . Chorus First you must bring libations from the spring • That runs forever; and bring them with clean hands. oedipus And when 1 have that holy water, then? Chorus There are some bowls there, by a skillful potter; Put chaplets round the brims, over the handles. Oedipus Of myrtle sprigs, or woolen stuff, or what? Chorus Take the fleeces cropped from a young lamb. Oedipus Just SOi then how must I perform the rite? Chorus Facing the quarter of the morning light, Pour your 1 ibations out. Oedipus Am 1 to pour them from the bowls you speak of'? • 23 Chorus In three streams, yes; the last one, empty i t . • Oedipus wi th what should it be filled? Tell me this, too. Chorus Wi th water and honey; but wi th no wine added. oedipus And when the leaf-dark edrth receives it? Chorus Lay three times nine young shoots of olive on it wi th both your hands; meanwhile repeat this prayer: Oedipus This l am eager to hear: it has great power. Chorus That as we calI them Eumenides, Which means the gentle of heart, May they accept with gentleness The suppl iant and his wish. 50 you, or he who prays for you, address therni But do not speak aloud or raise or cry; • Then corne away, and do not turn again. 2M The act of pouring a libation is obviously a very important and holy rite. Sophocles' description has aIl the obligatory steps necessary for a lustration or purificative offering. Cleanliness and sacrosanctity are emphasized throughout the procedure. For exarnple, the water is to be undefiledi the ritual is to be performed while facing east, the source of light and puritYi the kr&ters are to be 28Sce J C Kumcrocck, The Plays ofSof'Jwclt!s Commenta""1 Pari VII, Th,' (h'd'pul C%nul (I..cHlcn 1(84) 85 Altcr pounng libation, to chtholllC dCltlc" It WI1~ ohllglltory to tum I1Wlly wilh Ilvcrted cye, A<..<..ordlIIg tu C SCI(III, TrtlJ<,'dy /Inti Cl vi/lW/IOn An InterpretatIOn of Sophocles (Carnondgc \98\) 395 bllcllCC wa.. 1\ hlgll of rcvcrcll<..c It Wllh unlllwl ul tn hpCllk ln the Eumcntdc&' grovc (168-69), nnly au~plclou~ MIUllci (tilq"i/AflV 132) wu, pcrmlued ln thc dOhlIIg of ACI><..hylu'" Eu",,'n;",·\ thc goddc~hes wcrc Icd away 10 !>olcllln 'llcncc (til<,,(Y!,.~Tt 1035, 1039) • 24 brimmed with pOllution-absorbing wool; and sprigs of olive, • a pollution purifier, are to be strewn upon the ground. In the hopes of winning the sympathy and good-will of the Eumenides, the chorus instruct Oedipus to follow the libation with a prayer of supplication (486-90). He is to invoke them as the Eumenides (Eb~€vi6ac 486); divinities with gracious hearts (€U~€VWv / CT€PVWV 486-87), thus appealing to the gent le and kind aspect of their nature. But however soleron and placatory the ritual may appear to be, it 1s also marked with apprehension and fear. After the chorus repeat the prayer, they add a foreboding note of caution and warning (490-92): If you will do all this( l shall take heart And stand up for youi otherwise, 0 stranger, l should be seriously afraid for you . • Altogether the inst't'uctions given by the chorus emphasize the ambivalent nature of these goddesses: when treated with reverence and veneration, they are kindly and benevolenti slighted or offended, they can become implacable and terrifying. To win the favour of such fickle pow8rs, wineless libations are poured. Like other chthonic deities, the Sophoclean Eumenides are the recipients 0f sober propitiations. N In order to supplicate them, Oedipus is 29(11 ~ellernl. wlllde\\ Iihllllllll .. were approprallie ln underwnrld dcillCs AccordUlg to B C Dlclrach, Dea/h. Fa/e and the (;"d\ (Llllldnll 1(65) 114 willer, 1I111k IInd hnlley wcrc commonly offcrcd to IIppCH'C undcrworld divIIIllIc&. Pcrhaps wmc was IIHlII~hl ln hc 1111 1I11"lIll1hle drlllJ.. h'r dell le, whn werc clI,ily III1~crcd alld provokcd • 25 advised to pour choai (xoàc xÉacOat 477) of water and honey • (v8aroc ~€Àicc~c 481). He is to bring no wine into their grove (~~8€ npoc~€p€tV ~ÉOv 481). The Euroenides are to be worshipped without oblations of wine (QOLVOLC 10D). In his eagerness to conform to the ritual sobriety required of their cult, Oedipus declared himself then to be abstinent (V~~WII 100) as weIl. By dojng so, he acknowledged his piety and he attempted to establish ties of kinship with these goddesses based upon ritual reciprocity.~ Having declared himself to be their suppliant and having placed himself under their protection, Oedipus was eager to approach the Eumenides as a pious and devout adherent prepared to pay them their due honour . Like the Sophoclean Eumenides, the Aeschylean Erinyes • are also the recipients of abstentious propitiations. Clytemnestra's ghost recounts the wineless service she has given to the Erinyes (Eum. 106-9): Yet l have given you much to lap up, outpourings without wine, sober propitiations, sacrificed in secrecy of night and on a hearth of fire for you, at an hour given to no other gode She reminds the Erinyes that she has made offerings, sober oblations (v~~&~La ~€L~[~~ara 107) in the form of wineless 30A. HCllflCh .. , "Thc Sulmcly .)f OcdlpU" Sophoclc .. () C 100 Ml,undcr .. ll)"d" fiSC/' (1981) 87-100 cxplnlll~ Ihnl OCdlpUH I~ Il tcetotaller, not becau~e he Jack!> wcnJth or hC<.au~e of homc nollon of \cJf-dcllluJ hut hu..llu\C he Ih MgnlllllOg "11Ih InlcnlJon 10 mect thc~e godde" .. e\ on their own riluaJ term .. , VII 8\ thcir potentinJ wor"hlpper cllrrying V'l(",~>-..Ut (90) " • 26 3 choa; (xoâc r âOLVOUC 107) to thern in the past. ! Her • offerings are solemnized at night (PUKTic€~va 108), an appropriate tirne for divinities who claim to be sprung from Night (Nv~ 321, 416, 745, 792 = 822, 844 = 878, 1033).32 Also appropriate to the se goddesses, sorne forrn of solid food (afi7TP' 108) was offered on an eschara (f.cXcfpCl.L 108), a hollowed-out pit or ground level hearth. 31 Even when these goddesses have been rnollified as the SernnaijEumenides, Athena has them led away by attendants carryjng ritual offerings, blood sacrifice (cCPet.'Yiwv 1006) ,34 a show of veneration with which ta win their favour (Eurn. 1003-9): Goddesses, farewell. Mine to lead, as these attend us, ta where by the sacred light new chambers are given. Go then. Sped by majestic sacrifice from these, plunge beneath the ground. There hold off what might hurt the land; pour in • the city's advantage, success in the end. To appease their ambivalent nature and to gain their profit (KfpOet.À€OV 1008), these goddesses are worshipped according to certai,n ritual, prescriptions which keep their awful .11/1 J Rn,c. A (',,/IIII/t·n/a,...· "" rh.' .\'11"'11'1118 Playl of At"Lhylllf (AIIl'tcrdlim 1958) 235 notc, Ihal ClytemncMrll u&cd to nmke nllcrmg.. "prc"lllllllhly prllylll~ 1\1 Ihe Ermyc .. ln IIvcnge hcr on Agamemnon" .l2Whcll 1Il·.!rUlllIIg Oedlpll" III Ihe munI rilc" of Ilppen .. emenl. Ihe choru .. order hlm 10 Mnnd 7f'1'('C 1fPWTI/P (W (477). Jebb (nI' '·It Il 18) 8.l " very wrcful lu l'0lllt out thlll 1111& dnc .. Ilot mcun "Ihllt Ihe t"ne mll&1 he dawn On the conlrary Il ~& an anclcnl ,u .. lnlll Ihnl .. n.rtli,e& 1,1 Ihe \O""lIIllIlId ln Ihe dcnd I>hllulJ l)(ll he offcrcd 1111 ufter mld-dny " Burkerl (op. Cil n 20 '00 noIe:. lhat Chlholll\ d~lh,,' r"u'\ved Ih<'lr "1'rllÏce ln th" evelllllg nr lII!!hl whlle 1111 Olympilln re,llvul hcgall at ~unr"e 3,'/ t\ll'Ilrdlll)! h' D.clr" h ("1' l.1 Il 29) 114-15 th" ElIIllCIIIÔ'" wcrc knnwll to rc 34 _ AlIlIllnl '.tterll1j!. ... 111 pnrllLlIlar nlack ,hccp, were .. acnllecd 10 Ihe Eumcl\\dc"lII certam ~uliloef\hllc~ PI\U'i (2.114) Ille III III Il .. n tC~lIvlIl 111 SIC) '111 durlllg wlm'h prcgllnnt c\\e~ were ol'I'crcd IIIlhe Eumel1lde~' honllUr. The I>"hol. on thc O. C. 421\1:'0 1I111.'!> Ihe !>ll"rtf· • .: of hindI. 1>11<'''1' hllhe Eumellldc' III Ccrynciu • 27 anger and wrath at bay . • Our examination of Oedipus' prayer of suppl ication (84- 110) and the ritual rites of appeasement (466-90) in the O.c. reveals clearly that the transformed Er inyes of Aeschylus and the Eumenides of Sophocles share traits and characteristics which are inherent and intr insic: the ti tle Semnai, ambivalent natures, chthonic origins; both groups are fr ightful to behold, and both share a common pedigree and common cult prescriptions. Thus we may conf idently conclude that the Eumenides worshipped at Colonus are the Erinyes or Furies of Aeschylus transformed. Sophocles, it is now clear, has not invented a fictitious cult of goddesses to suit his dramatic purpose . Instead he is echoing Aeschylus, who in his Oresteian • trilogy, followed Greek literary tradition and conflated or confused the Er inyes, implacable avengers, w i th the Semna i, chthonic powers of the Areopagus to crea te the Eumenides, 1 ambivalent and euphemistically-named creatures. \ As R. P. winnington-lngram states, i t is natura l that Sophoc les should follow Aeschylus: When we turn to Sophocles, we f ind what perhaps we should expect to find. Both Greeks, both Athenians, both tragic poets, bath confronting the same world of good and evil - and Sophocles wi th the example of Aeschylus constantly before 35 Accordmg tu E Rhode, P~y(he 81h cd tran~ oy W B HIIIl\ (London 1925) 159 dllhnllll. dC111C\ wcre. ohcnlUltlre.",ed wilh pr()pIIIOU~ lltlcb "The gnUb of lhe unucrworld wcre generally refcrrcd to hy IIf fcd IIJ/lIlle or LIIJ' ,1 III!! IlIdO)llml.b Ihlll l/lld Hln.HH on thc lofty or benc,ic('nt charucter of lhclr rule IInd threw Il vell over the dmkcbt bide. of thclr 11111 ure wllh L''"Lllllllory cllphe.l/1lh1n • • 28 hirn - i t is not surpr1s1ng if the tragic thought of both shared rnuch in cornmon. The Furies are "Eurnenides" at Colonus, and they show their good • will towards Oedipus. Their tranHformation is, in sorne degree, assumed ... 36 Having identified these divinities, it is now necessary for us to examine Oedipus' relationship with the goddesses of the grave and the r~asons for their beneficence towards hirn . • .16 W 1II11111)!hlll-llIgrnrn (op cil n :!) 27:! . • 29 • 2 THE SINFULNESS OF OEDIPUS As we saw in Chapter One, the O. C opens on a hopeful note. When Oedipus discovers that he has unknowingly stumbled upon the sacred precinct of the Eumenides, he immediately recognizes ~he location; it is the place where he is ta end his bitter life (K6~~€LV Tbv TaXainwpop ~iov 91) as prophesied by Apollo. It is with optimism and anticipation that Oedipus prays (84-110) ta the local deities, petitioning them as a suppliant fur their assistance in fulfilling Apollo's oracle (KaT' op~àc ràc 'An6~Àwvoc 102). However, Oedipus' hopefulness is quickly • shattered by the chorus. His presence unsettles and dis tresses them because he has intruded upon a sacred precinct. He has stepped upon holy ground where men are forbidden to tread (36-39). Having persuaded him to wlthdraw, the chorus promises oedipus refuge and protection (176-77): Never, never will anyane drive you away From rest in this land, old man! But their distress gives way to utter horror when they learn of Oedipus' identity. As soon as he reveals his name, the chorus recoils in terrar and revulsion. They abruptly rescind their promise and arder his departure (233-36): • 30 Leave this grove at once! Our country is not for you! Wind no further • Your clinging evil upon us! They fear that his presence may impose an obligation (XP€oC 1 ... ffpoca~vc 235-36) on the city, an obligation to expiate a pollution.' Oedipus' name is synonymous with pollution; he is known to aIl as an incestuous parricide. The mere mention of his name conjures up the unspeakable horrors of his pasto Let us try to understand the reaction of the chorus by turning to the Oedipus Tyrannus. At the end of the O. T. we witness Oedipus' suffering. Realizing to his horror that he has unwittingly murdered his father and married his mother, he becomes overwhelmed and consumed by his sense of guilt • To externalize his feelings of self-hatred and self- • loathing, he blinds himself and condemns himself to a wretched life of exile. When Oedipus arrives at the grove of the Eumenides, sorne twenty years have passed. Oedipus is older and wiser. Having reflected upon his fate for so rnany years, he has become convinced that he is innocent of his crimes. But before we can examine the circumstances surrounding his innocence, it is necessary first to understand the charges of parricide and incest which hav~ been laid against hirn and the pollution which such actions 1 D A HClotcr, "To Hclp OIlC \ Fncnd, IIIlJ to Harm OIlC 'b Encmlch" Anl/ch/hon 1\ (1977) 21-41 Although the choru\ makcs Ill' IIIcllllOIl of Oc,hpu~' 1'0IlUIIOII, \1 I~ IInl'hcltly hu~'~c~tcd hy thclr aCllon~ HChler \tatcl> that "thc chorus \crvcs as an cmollonaJ hllfUmctcr 10 IIU,l!cllcc rCllctlll1l Wc IIrc IIIIClldcd 10 fccl thlll OedlpUb lb Il pollulcd hClllg" (25) • 31 incur. We must understand how others saw Oedipus as a • polluted person, how Oedipus came to see himself as an innocent man, how Sophocles reconciled these different views, and how the Eumenides fit ln. As the concept of pollution or miasma is a complex phenomenon in itself, let us first examine the origins and workings of incest and murder prohibitions. In the eyes of the Greeks, no deeds were more atrocious or unnatural than incest and kin murder. 2 Both were regarded as twisted inversions which shattered the most basic element in society - the blood tie. 1 Anthropolog ists tell us that the act of incest is universally considered to be a taboo. 4 Such interdictions outline the status of the family as a hum(J~l co-operative and help ta define the raIe • of each family member. The raIe and status of parent, child and sibling obtain defini tion and social significance. Incest prohibitions help to establish a familial hierarchy within which aIl members are bound by a tie of kinship and blood. without sexual restrictions, the family ceases to be a social unit and i t regresses to an "anima l procre>ati ve 2M VI~~cr, " Vcngea ...c und PollutIOn III Cltl~\ICul Athcn\" Journal of tilt' lin/ory tif /Jell\ 4S (19&4) 19.\-20(, hlllich \hlll "km murder jOlOed IIlceM, at the OPP(\~ltc extrcme of thc rllllgc of pcr"'1l1l1 crunc~, IIllt~ mlolcrnhlc eJlorlnlly" (201) 3According tu T P Huwc, "Tuhoo III the Oedlpu~ Themc" TAPA 93 (1962) 124-41 tlllnllllll hlooll"" "uLred, Il/HI II/le rnuhl nenher procrcatc wlth It nor dehtroy It" (127) 48 Z Sellgman, "The Prohh:m of Irl~e~t and Exogllrny. A Re~tatemcJlt" Alllt'r"an Anthr"{l%1{111 52 (1950) .105-16 n/lleh Ihllt "The ~urvlval value of ince~t prohlhltl()n~ hll~ hcen ~o Importantthnt I~ ha... h~orr.e a unlvcr\1I1 hlW "(107) • 32 group. ,,5 Incest is a ta boa because it threatens ta • undermine the very foundations of social structure and arder. It creates confusion because it mixes ~onsanguinity and aff ini ty. To prote ct and strengthen the family unit as an Institution, incest prohibitions are necessary. The abhorrence associated with such an act serves as preventati ve reinforcement. fl As Pl?':!') attests, the Greeks observed an almost universal prohibition against incest (Law.\' 838): ... these acts (of incest) are absolutely unholy, an abomination in the sight of the gods, and that nothing is more revolting. We refrain from them because we never hear them spoken of ln any other way. From the day of our birth each of us encounters a complete unanimity of opinion wherever we gOi we find it not only in comedies but often in the high seriousness of tragedy too, when • we see a Thyestes on the stage, or an Oedipus or a Mauareus, the clandestine lover of his sister. We watch these characters dying promptly by their own hand as a penalty for their crimes. 7 The act of incest, as a breech of natural law, is unthinkable and unacceptable on any terms. 51h1d ,.107 6M DII Il): 1"" , l'u,,,\, /111.1 DI/llg.." "" AIII//I'III of C"n«'I'/.1 of P"l/lIIltm ""d TII/Ioo (London 1966) 13 notcb Ihul "thc Idcul linier 01 ""l-Icty l' !!ullrded hy dllnger, wlilch Ihrcntcn trtln'grcbMlr' Thcbc dnngcr - IIchef, IIrc Il.. much thrcutb whlch onc mnn u,c, 10 cncrec nnolhcr n, tl!lIl):er, wlilch he hllll,clf fenrlo 10 IIlcur hy hl, own Inp .. c .. from rlghlcoubncb' Thcy nrc u .. trong IlInguuge 11III1UIUIII c'thllrllllilln At tlll' Icvcl the IHWlo of nnturc IIrc dru!!!!cd 111 to 'IInctlon Ihc mllral code th lb kllld of dl'CllbC 110 caubcd lIy ndullcry, thut h} IIlcc,1 • 7 Plllto, l1,t' Lt/w\ lrun~. hy T J. SlIundcrlo (Middlcloc, 1970) 336 Thib I~ Ihc Engh,h lran!>llIlion of Plalo wlilch 1 5hull ctlC thrllugh,'ui • 33 Generally kin murder is regarded with the same aversion • as inceste Just as an incestuous relationship can confound and confuse familial ties, so can the murder of a blood relation. It is an act of violence which threatens to extinguish and sever the blood tie. When kin murders kin, it is an act of ferocity which strikes against natural harmony and social structure. Because of the complex dynamics involved, parricide becomes a fouI violation against the sacred bonds of familial blood. As life givers and sustainers, parents are considered to be inviolable. Any act of violence committed against them is looked upon with utmost horror. It is unthinkable under any circumstances and is a grievous sin; kin murder is sacrilegious and impious. In this respect, Plato likens • parricide to temple looting (La~~ 869): He has plundered the shrine that is his parent's body, and deprived it of life. consequently if one man could die many times, the murderer of his father or mother who has acted in anger would deserve to die the death over and over again. To this one killer no law will allow the plea of self defence; no law will permit him to kill his father or mother, who brought him into the wor Id. x Both parricide and incest are acts to be loathed and abhorred because they represent unnatural disorder. When one tampers with the ties of familial blood, disruption and • 34 chaos is the result. If, through the occurrence of such • acts, normal life was disrupted, how did the Greeks deal with the situation and the perpetrators of such heinous deeds? And how did they attempt to rectify the situation? The answer lies within the complex phenomenon of pollution or m;wma, The concept of pollution arose as a measure of prevent ion. It is a device which serves to awaken awareness and condemnation of certain acts within society.Q Pollution can be defined as " ... a kind of institution, the metaphysical justification for a set of conventional responses to the disruption of normal life ... "10 It is the vehicle through which social disruption is expressed . certain deeds such as murder are unnatural and abnormal. lI • And pollution singles out and marks a wrongdoeri he is a person to be avoided and his crime cannot be simply forgotten. Because society looks upon such deeds as murder as an aberration and as an abnormality, the perpetrator is made to feel the samei he is an unacceptable anomaly and 9VI "cr (op Cil n 2) 200 exphlln~ thut pollutIOn "WII~ chlcny Il prevcntllhlc mea,urc tll muke u,e lIf 10 dt'tnon (thc Iotrange und tcmhlc) III the \erv .... c of the Illw • IOR Pnrl..cr, Mlt"1IItI (O\llIrd 198.1) 110 Onuglu\ (op cil n 6) hnldlo a \Imllllr VICW regllrdmg pollutIOn al. "millier ouI of ,,11I 1',\ W Il o\d~III', M..,,, tlTlt! Rt'\f,(lTll/nlluy A SllIdv ln ("t't'k Valllt's (Oxford 1960) 88 ln fifth-ccntury Grcccc many n:llurnl Illl urrclII.c' 'Illh Il' dClllh. dllldhlrlh ulld dl'cu,e were trellled Il' IIhnormaland were clIll'ldercd 10 he pollutanl~ But Ihe 1\\,. 11111111 "'ur In fifth-century Greece, pollution was characterized by its dangerous potential for spreading. It was envisioned as an invisible or metaphysical stain which clung to a culprit. It affected not only the wrongdoer but aIl those who came into contact with him. Pollution was a transparent smirch which operated with the same mechanical indifference as an infectious germ.13 In the case of murder, actual blood was shed; it stained the hands of the murderer. Although this defilement could easily be removed by washing, an indelible taint remained which was symbolic of the violent act which had occurred. It was this transparent smirch which posed a • threat to society. The murdered victim has suffered a grievous wrong and an in jury. until that wrong has been avenged and the perpetrator made to suffer for his actions, the dead man's soul was thought to wander full of rage and resentment, unable to f ind peace (Lmv.\' 865) : Having lived in the full spirit of freedom, the man murdered by violence, freshly dead, turns his fury on the person responsible. The dead man is full of fear 1200uglas (op Cil n 6) 15 wnlc' lhul 'ldclI~ IIhnul COIIIII)!"," <-un LcrlllJJlly hc IrnLcd III rCIILlllllIl1l ulIll/llllly Thc 111111111 rccogllliion of anomaly Icnd, 10 unxlcly IIlId from thcrc tll ,uprC"11l1I or aVllIdllllLC • 13 ln Homer, pollUlllJJl WII' VICWLd "' Il phY'ILIII 'Uh,tIlIlLC Il W/I' 11I1/KtUIII '111111 ,"dlll' dlrt Wllldi LlllJld hc c/"lly rCJJlllvcd by wa\hlllg If Il murdcrer WII' pollutcd_ It " hCLIlU'C hc hlld aLlUIII hlolld ddillll)! h" 111111<1, Fllr cXlllllplc Ody"clI~ dCllllhc<1 hlN blood-~tamcd palace Wllh wulcr and ,ulphur (Od XXII 480-88) ALLordlllg \0 E R Dodd,_ Th .. (,,.-/-h tint/II... l,rtlIlImtll (Bcrkcley and Lo~ Angclc, 1973) 48 thc ArdlUl<- agc WII' mudl morc rcprc~,cd IInd gUIII-f1ddcn Ihllll t"<-lIgc of ""lIIcr Til LUpe • wllh feelings of gUllI, olle could rallonlllllC h" fccllng' hy IhlllkJn)! Ih/ll hc hlld a '1/11/1 of pollulllln on hllll and loathing at his own violent sufferings; he abominates the sight of his own murderer going about localities once familiar to himselfi to the full limit • of his powers he visits his own anguish on the perpetrator of the crime, the man and his deedsi and his allies are the memories that haunt the murderer. 14 In fear that the victim's anguish and rage may be dangerous to others, the culprit was treated as a polluted being. A murderer was not to be touched or addressed for fear that he might pass on the wrath of his victim. If an act of murder went unpunished, the threat of pollution became a real threat to aIl. The responsibility of seeking retrjbution on behalf of a victim fell upon his nearest relations .IS If they failed, pollution be~ame a danger to the entire community. If a murderer went undetected, his pollution would silently spread throughout the community with disastrous • consequences. Failure to prosecute the culprit brouqht the enmity of the gods. In the O. ~ Thebes suffered devastation because the crimes of Oedipus, an incestuous parricide, have gone unpunished (25-30): A blight is on the fruitful plants of the earth, A blight is on the cattle in the fields, a blight is on our women that no children are born to therni a God that carries fire, a deadly pestilence, is on our town, 14 l'lulll (Ill' cil n 7) 378 15E Rlllulc. PH'I Il.. 81h cl! Imn, hy W B HIIII' (London 1925) 176-77 argues Ihal homlcldc pollution i~ conneclcd wilh lhe cull of !olllll!o Rohdc Mulclo Ihul Il hc1lcf c,u\lcd" Ihllt the "oulnf one vlolcnlly donc 10 dClith. untll the wrong donc to him was n\'cn~cd uponthc docr of Il. wuuld wllndcr ahuut tindlIIg no rc,t. full of ragc at thc violcnt Ilct, and wra\hful. too, ngamst Ihe relntlvc!o who "holiid huvc nvcngcd hllII. if thcy dld not fullil thclr dUly He hlmsclf would bccomc Iln "avcnglllg ,plnt"; and the hm:c ut hl' Ilngcr nllghl he Icll Ihrnughout whnlc gcncratlOn, " • 37 strikes us and spares not, and the house of Cadmus is emptied of its people while black Death • grows rich in groaning and in lamentation. 16 To prevent such catastrophe ~nd disaster, the mÙ!S11W had to be removed or expunged. In the case of murder, the dangerous smirch of pollution had to be purged from the city through the physical removal of the culprit (O. ~ 96-101): King Phoebus in plain words commanded us to drive out a pollution from our land, pollution grown ingrained within the land; drive it out, said the God, not cherish it, till it's past cure. Oedipus What is the ri te of purification? How shall it be done? Creon By banishing a man, or expiation of blood by blood, since it is murder guilt which ho Ids our city in this destroying storm . • A rite of purification (KœOœp~~ 99) was required to rid the land of the pollution (~iœc~a 97); the culprit had to be exiled (~p6p,~œTo~vTœc 100) or done away with (A6oPTac 101). As any bloodshed at a Il produced a miasma upon the perpetrator, the death penalty and exile served to free the state from the threat of pollution. 17 In both cases, it seemed that the indignant spirit of the victim was avenged. 160 Grene, "Oe 17The fir!>t codIfication of homIcIde law~ m Altlcu I~ atlrahutcd 10 Drukon an Ihe IocvLnllHcntury (/(; l' 115) Thc IIomlLlde Law of Draco d"tangul~hcd the pcnllity for VllrlOU" type., of horn u" Id.: - wllful, !\(.(.Idcnlnlllnd jU\llfillhlc For cxnrnplc, mtcntlllnni homicide wa~ penal&7cd hy dcuth or c1 native soil, it ceased when t~e offender was forced into exile. 19 In the case of incest, the penalty was mu ch different from that of murder. Although incest is an unthinkable crime, it seems that it was not an illegal act. w The laws governing incest were unwritten as they were thought to be too terrible to be written down. Again let us turn to Plato. When discussing the prohibition against incest, he states (Laws 838): •.• the law, unwritten though it is, is extremely effective in stopping a man sleeping secretly or otherwise - with his son or daughter, or making any kind of amorous approach to them. Most people feel not • the faintest desire for such intercourse. 21 The universal revulsion and abhorrence associated with incest made it a socially unacceptable act. Thus the perpetrator of incest was not tried at a court of law for a 18 Altlmugh thc dClIlh pClllllty ll\Volvcd thc hpllhng of hlood. Il IICW !>lain of pollution wa~ Ilot crcntcd Accordmg 10 Visser (01' Clt Il 2) 199 the threul 0' pollution could hc eXl'cllcd hy anyonc who wu, wlllm),! to klll the offendcr The pUIlI!>hmcat of a gUilty pnrty hCCllIllC~ • u kllld of Impcr~llnnl CIVIC rc~pon'Ihlltty Bccnuse M1CICty ~upportcd Ihe champIOn who &avcd Ihcm from the tlllnger. he wu, not hllll,ell infccted hy Ihe ~Iulll • 19 Rohde (oP l Il Il 15) 177 CIll11l'urc!> Ihl' !>phere of 1Il0uencc Nllh that of local deltlc!> who&e powcr • Il> confincd 10 the pluce where tlu:y urc wllT,h Ipped • 20Pllrl..er (op elt n 10) 97 lIoles thut' incel>1 1& tlowhere spokcn of al> a lIuasma. and Il do cs nol secm Ihat Il wns even lurlllully "lc~1I1 lit AthclI'. mueh le" thlll thc offcnder. W8~ puhhcJy expclled to pUTlfy Ihe lolHlC.· When Plalo dlloCUS&CS Ihe prtllllhltlllllll~IIIIIl>1 IIIlC,t (L1w, 838). he dlles 1101 menllOn IIny formai Inws whleh mllkc the nct iIIegal 21 Plutu (op cil u 7) .'.16 • 39 criminal offence. Instead the wrongdoer was stigmatized by • society; he was socially isolated and ostracized. An incestuous person was to be treated as a pariah. Having examined the circumstances surrounding parricide and incest, let us turn our attention to Oedipus who was guilty of both crimes. His offences have a dramatic importance because they produce a highly ironic situation. On account of his crimes, one would expect Oedipus to be the rnuch sought-after prey of the Erinyes. We anticipate that his story will unravel much like that of Orestes, who was hounded by the Erinyes for the murder of his mother. First and foremost, the Erinyes are the pursuers of murderers ({3po1oKTOl'oÎJvTac ÊK cSop.wv ÊÀauJio/-J.f.I' Elim. 421), especially those who spill kindred blood, such as matricides • (/J.t/1paÀoiac Ellm. 210). As the punishers of kin murder, they are the protectors of the family as it is based on the blood tie. And it is the pOllution of a murderer which attracts their attention (Eum. 316-20) : But one like this man before us, with stained hidden hands, and the guilt upon him, shall find us beside him, as witnesses of the truth, and we show clear in the end to avenge the blood of the murdered. Pollution materializes upon the murderer in the form of symbolic blood dripping from his hands and the trail of blood he leaves behind him. The Erinyes describe their pursuit of a polluted offender thus (Eum. 245-48) : • 40 So. Here the man has left a clear trail behindi keep on, Keep on, as the unspeaking accuser tells us, by • whose sense, like hounds after a bleeding fawn, we trail our quarry by the splash and drip of blood. Is Oedipus not polluted? In the O. T. Oedipus discovers that he has unknowingly murdered his 1ather and married his mother, crimes that are referred to as miasma (IJ.tOCJ..I.O 1012). Teiresias calls him a pollutant (l-'tétCTOpt 353) and the blight upon Theban land, created by his tainted presence, is called a mwsma (J..J.iOCJ..I.Cl:) as weIl. 22 The discovery of his fouI crimes overwhelm him and he is overcome with a sense of guil t and shame (1357-66): Then l would not have come to kill my father and marry my mother infamously Now l am godless and child of impurity, begetter in the same seed that created my wretched self. • If there is any ill worse than ill, that is the lot of Oedipus. He feels so defiled and polluted that he begs Creon for banishment or even death (1410-12): J beg of you in God's name hide me somewhere outside your country, yes, or kill me, or throw me into the sea, to be forever out of your sight. As a defiled perpetrator of vile acts, Oedipus would seem to be the Ierfect victim for the Erinyes. However, there is a complete lack of action on their part. In fact, when Oedipus stumbles into their sacred grove in the 22 Soph. () T 97.241.313 • 41 beginning of the O. C. he does not flee in fear as one would • expect; instead he prays to them as their humble suppliant. Such an ironie situation suggests that things may not be as they appear. Obviously Oedipus does not believe he deserves persecution at the hands of the Erinyes. Why? Oedipus himself provides the answer; he is unsoiled in the eyes of the law (vo~~ o€ KaOapoc 548). His line of defence against the charges of incest and parricide rest upon a plea of ignorance (OUo€V €iowc 273). He is exempt from guilt because his actions were carried out unknowingly and involuntarily (àKOV 977). However, such an enlightened view of his innocence was not universally accepted. The initial reaction of the chorus towards Oedipus perfectIy illustrates this point. They look at him as a pollutpd criminal. To • fend off their faise accusations, Oedipus is forced to vigorously de fend himself. He is guiltless and he has always been 50. Let us examine the evidence supporting Oedipus' plea of innocence. At the end of the O. T. we see Oedipus' initial reaction to the discovery of his crimes. Having realized that he has murdered his father and married his mother, he is naturally overwhelmed by the sheer enormity of his discovery. His first response is one of horror and outrage. He is overcome by the raw emotions of guilt and self-abhorrence. In the heat of the moment, no thought is given to objectivity or • 42 rationality . In a desperate moment of passion he mutilates • hirnself and begs for the harshest punishrnent possible. When we next see Oedipus in the O. C. many years have intervened. The passage of tirne has given hirn ample opportunity for reflection; through the long process of retrospection, Oedipus has gained hindsight. As a noble man, years of suffering have brought hirn great insight into his ill fated predicarnent (7-8): Suffering and time, Vast time, have been instructors in contentment, Which kingliness teaches too. TI Time has allowed him to distance himself from the initial horror of his discovery. Reviewing his situation from a new vantage point, Oedipus realizes that his rationality and clear thinking were clouded by an overwhelming wave of • passion and ernotion (433-39): My mind was a boiling caldron; nothing so sweet As death, death by stoning, could have been given me; Yet no one there would grant me that desire. It was only later, when my rnadness cooled, And l had begun to think my rage excessive, My punishment too great for what l had done. with a new perspective and a fresh outlook, oedipus has corne to understand his guiltlessness in legal terrns. He is free from guilt because he acted unintentionally and unknowingly. 23C H WI"lnulII. S"I'""dt',1 A Slud~' of Herme HIII'UInISm (Camhndge. Mahh 1951) 203. Prolonged years of buffering ~"uld IIIMe 1111 1):Il11hle Ill/III hiller BUI f,'r Oedlpuh. ft 1118/1 of nohlhly. years of eXile have glvcn him ,lrenglh and he has learned lhe vlrtuCI> (lI' plltlcllCC • 43 He rests his defence upon a plea of ignorance and • provocation. 24 On three separate occasions Oedipus is forced to relive the horrors of his past and staunchly defends his proclamation of innocence (258-74, 521-48, 960-99). He admits to having been involved in an incestuous relationship and in an act of parricide, but his deeds were done without malicious intent. He acted in ignorance. For solving the riddle of the Sphinx, his rewar.d was the throne of Thebesi with this throne came the hand of Jocasta (539-41). Neither he nor she knew the truth (OhK ei6oT' UbK ei6uia 983). He did not wiIlingly seek to marry his own mother. Nor did he intend to slay his father. The murder was based on provocation. Oedipus was acting in self-defence. He • recounts the chance meeting between father and son at a crossroads (O. T. 805-13): and the old man himself wanted to thrust me out of the road by force. l became angry and struck the coachman who was pushing me. When the old man saw this he watched his moment, and as l passed he struck me from his carriage, full on the head with his two pointed goad. But he was paid in full and presently my stick had strucY him backwards from the car and he rolled out of it. And th en l killed them aIl. He was retaliating against a wrong. He did not know that this man whom he murdered in self-defence was his fathee 24Accordmg to Plato'& LcJws 869 (op cil n 7) 384 when one hall murdercd 10 lIClf-defencc, thllt perM'" will he held gUlftlcHH (KaI/apOc) as if he had &Iam an cncmy durmg hattlc • 44 (547). Using this logical argument, Oedipus is morally free • from guilt. He is innocent before the law (vo~~ S€ Ka8apoc 548) and he is not to be judged an evil man (KaK~c 988).~ This argument is actually extended to imply that it would have been permissible for a son to kill even his own father in self-defence (271-2): l had been wronged, l retaliatedi even had l known what l was doing, was that evil? Oedipus rounds off his argument with sorne rhetorical, but nevertheless sound, questions which he poses to Creon (992- 96) : If someone tried to kill you here and now, You righteous gentleman, what would you do, Inquire first if the stranger was your father? Or would you not first try to defend yourself? l think that since you like to ~e alive You'd treat him as the threat requiredi not Look around for assurance that you were right. • He even goes as far to say that his father, if he were alive, would forgive him and not demand retribution (99S- 99) . Because he is not responsible for his acts, Oedipus attributes thern to the gods (8€oîc ~àp hv OÜ1W ~iÀov 964). He has ~uffered under a god-given curse against the Labdacids (naÀaLàv ~v~~opàv ~€vOVC 596). His wretched fate was preordained long before his birth (969-73). Thus oedipus attaches sorne blame to his parents. They ignored an 25Knllnl'IIc, free frolll uffclKe, "the lollllle tCrll1 u~cd by Plutu (up. cit n. 7) 384 HIIVll1g committed murdcr in sclf-dcfcncc, th,' nflen,lcr ,If the Il.:t " dcellled tn be gUlltleh' or pure III the eyes of the IIIW (l(od1('(1l11C Laws 869D) • 45 oracle which warned that Laius would be slain by his son . • with careless disregard they bore a child and knowingly sought to destroy him (ei66rwv &rrw~~6~~v 274).~ He believes that his parents condemned him to a life of wretched misery. Although Oedipus has logically convinted himself of his innocence, he is still emotionally disturbed and scarred. Having exonerated himself from aIl guilt, he cannat free himself from his haunting memories. Naturally, he is still traumatized by the horrors of his pasto It brings him great pain ta speak of su ch things and he is very reluctant ta do so. It is for this very reason that Oedipus dreads ta reveal his identity ta the chorus (210) : No, no, no! Do not ga on Questioning me! Do not ask my name! • And later when the Chorus ask him ta recount the story of his life, Oedipus begs them for compassion. He cannat bear to relive the horrors of his wretched past (515-16): For kindness' sake, do not open My old waund, and my shame. Such matters are better left unspoken and should not be made public. Unable ta escape the horrors of his past, Oedipus' feelings of self-abhorrence and personal p0l1ution persist as weIl. His sense of both have been reduced through the 26R P Wmnington-Ingram, Sophoc/es An IfllerprelmlOn (Camhrull(c 1980) 262 Thul OcdlpU~ \hould unkllf,wln~ly hllrm thosc who once &ct out to purpo\cly dc~troy hlm Ih "lin Imnlcul kmd nf UllconM.. IOUh rcluil/llllln." • 46 passage of time but not completely destroyed. He has been • left with a lingering feeling of impurity and uncleanliness caused by the hideous mernories of his deeds. In the eyes of religious law, Oedipus feels ~rnpure or unholy (avalvoc) .n It is for this reason that he refuses to touch Theseus (1132-35): How can a wretch like me Desire to touch a man who has no stain Of evil in hirn? No, no; l will not do it; And neither shall you touch me. oedipus fears physical contact, not because he carries a m;aSl1IlI but because he feels dirty or stained (K?J~ l c 1134).28 He is not tainted with pollution but with the feelings of shame, mortification and impurity. His mis fortunes make him feel stained or soiled. He is not tainted with contagion but wretched (a8ÀLoc 109, 222, 246, 576, 923) and accursed • (aÀacToc 537, 1482, 1672). Oedipus is a man who has suffered disastrous misfortune (cv~~opaL ... 1 navwÀ€LC 1014- Although oedipus carries no threat of the contagion of a m;m'f11a, the thought of pollution is never far from our '}7 Creun rcfcrh 10 OC 211e P Gllnhncr, ni,' .'1"1'/1"< ft'atl ('/10"1\ A Sltll/v (!{ CharI/Ua and Fune/lOn (I0WIl City 1987) 113 no(e~ IIUlI K'l/NC ·~ccms III hllw Ihe !.IlIIplc ,cn,,: 01 "dlrly", "hlcnmhcd", ",llIInOO", cOlllmonly 1I,cd mCluphnrtcully of onc'~ appcarance u~ ~ccn hy the wnrld Becllu'c of Ihe ennrmlly ni hl, 1I11\lnrlUllc" OCdlplllo, Ihough hlumcle,~. conllllue, 10 appcur "dlrl} , 111 human ~oelcly, but wllhllUI reh~lol" 1'"lIuII"1I " ln Ihe () (' nOlllln~.lo cvcr hllld of pollullOn und Ihe word p.Îacp.a ncvcr appearlo w.lllln the text 29R C khh, S"l"hlc/t" 71 .... P/dYÇ ..,h/ Fm8mt'nls, PlIrI Il. 71.t' O ... d'p.is Colon ... us (Cllmhfldgc 1900) 180 noies lhat IIl1hlnrlllnc (c"I,.p(lP(~) cun he u,cd lllo Il cuphcnmm for 8 dctilcrncnl On many o~c8hlOn~, Ocd,pu'i' fille IS rcferrcd 10 8S 8 IImforlllne (CVII.p(lI'(~ 46. 255,596,962, 1014) • 47 thoughts . The first thing Oedipus does is commit an act of sacrilege against the Eumenides. He unknowingly stumbles • ru upon their sacred ground and defiles it by his presence. He commits a grave transgression by treading upon forbidden ground (37). When his presence is discovered by the Colonean stranger and the chorus, they cry out in horror at his act of impiety (140). But aIl is set right when they advise hirn to perform rites of expiation (466-67). Their instinctive fear of pollution occurs when they learn of Oedipus' true identity. Their initial reaction is of sheer terror and horror because they believe hirn to be a contagious carrier of pollution. Although pollution is never openly mentioned, it is strongly irnplied through the chorus' actions. They are literally sent into a panic and • order Oedipus to depart at once (226). They are again thrown into a state of confusion and panic when they hear the peal of Zeus' thunder. Their first response is to pray to the gods. They ask forgiveness because they have tolerated the presence of an accursed man (aÀQCTOP apop' 1482). For a fearful second, they believe that they are being punished for thcir transgression and they think that the peal of Zeus' thunder is a warning sign of their doom (1477-85) : Hear the wild thunder fall! 30Whllman (op CI! n 23) 200 MlIlc~ Iha! by mnklIIg Ocdlpu~ !.Iumblc mIn dclilclIICIII, Snplllldc~ I~ hymhnlillllg (}e « Towering Nature is transfixed! Be merciful, great spirit, if you run This sword of darkness through our mother land; • Come not for our confusion, And deal no blows to me, Though your tireless Furies stand By him whom l have looked upon. Creat Zeus, l make my prayer to thee! Like the chorus, Creon and the Thebans fear Oedipus' presence and they treat him as a pariah who is a dangerous per il to the communi ty. 11 The Thebans have refused him burial in his native soil. The blood-guilt of a kinsman forbids it (10Ü~~VÀov Qi~& 407). As a par.ricide (rraTpoKToV~ 601), he was exiled from Thebes (599-601): l was expelled From my own land by my own sons; and now, As a parricide, my return is not allowed. To perform burial rites on Theban soil for Oedipus would be a grave act of impiety and insult to Laius, the victim. • Later on Creon echoes this sentiment as weIl. He is surprised that Athens would harbour a criminal like Oedipus, a man guilty of vile and fouI acts (944-49): And surely, l thought, no one would give welcome To an unholy man, a parricide, A man with whom his mother had been found! Such at least was my estimate of the wisdom Native to the Areopagus; l thought Athens was not a home for such exiles. TI 31 1 M LlIIfurlh, 'Reh~IOI1 /II1l1 Drlllnll III Ot'liIPIIS III Coll/nus' lICPCP 14 no 4 (1951) 75-192 conje cl ures that Ihe Thcbans w.. rc pcrhlll'h Uhlll~ Ihe ,hllr~c of ""Hullnn as a l'relC'l1 for pohlleal rca\ons As a dCpOhcd king, Ihe prchenee of Oedipus could hllvc lUI IIl1hellhll~ cffeel IIpnl1 Ihe ru le of h" loon~ (108) 32 Jehh (op Cil Il 29) 153 Tite COllllellnf Iltc Areopllgulo WUlo cnpahlc of cxpclhllg pCr&Olllo WhOloC prcbcncc was thought to he Il Ihr~1I hl Ihe CUlllllllllllly • 49 But for Theseus, King of Athens, pollution is not an issue . • He is an enlightened man who can distinguish between pollution and misfortune, unlike Creon and the Thebans (562- 68). He willingly and openly accepts Oedipus wit.hout any reserve or condition. He proves himself to be a gracious host and he treats his new guest as an equal. Theseus' role is one of great importance and will be fully explcred in the next chapter. In conclusion, we can now understand why the Erinyes did not hound oedipus. He was morally innocent of his crimes; he was absolved of guilt because he had acted without knowledge and without mal ice aforethought. The Erinyes had no just claim to punish him. They could not rightfully pur sue an innocent man. And in the O. c., the • goddesses of the grove do not appear as the Erinyes, the implacable avengers of wrongdoings; instead they appear in thei t" beneficent role as the Eumenides, Gracious Ones. Their task is not to hound Oedipus for crimes committed in his ill-fated past but to assist him in finding an end to his wretched life. Let us now return to the prayer of Oedipus and its fulfilment . • 50 • 3 THE FATE OF OEDIPUS As we have already seen in Chapter 1, Oedipus, in his opening address to the Eurnenides, prays for an end to his wretched life (BLou ••• / 11Êpac," ~611 KaL KaTacTpocJ>~" T'lia 102-3). The play ends with the fulfilrnent of this prayer. But Oedipus does not die a natural death. Instead his is a rnysterious and rniraculous passing and in death he wields the power to aid his friends and to harm his foes. Thus he is elevated to the s ~atus of heros. 1 Up to this point we ha-re seen Oedipus as a man of misfortune who has been burdened with an ill-fated pasto He • has unwittingly corernitted heinous crimes and the passion of despair drove him to blind hirnself in an impulsive rage. But now his impetuous passion has abated through the growing consciousness of his innocence. 50 why do the gods summon hirn to join them? 5urely undeserved suffering do es not warrant heroization. Are the gods exalting Oedipus in death to rnake restitution and reparation for the life of suffering and rnisery which they have heaped upon him? Or does the key to understanding oedipus' apotheosis lie within his own 1Allh\l\l~h OCdll'"~ " ncvcr IIcIIIIIlly rcfcrrcd 10 as Il ~/lWC IR Ihe play, his &tatu~ n~ heros 15 implied by dcfimtion. W. Burkcrt, Grc'c'k Rd/GU", trull~ hy J R8ffnlllCall\hrJd~c, Mali~ 1985) 203 dcfillCh ft hero IIh ' •• a dccCII&cd person who exerts from lm ~nl\'e Il pnwcr for ~" the Eumenides (Eùj.L€" i oac 42). As soon as Oedipus hears the • 52 name of these goddesses, his demeanor changes; his humility • and timidness give way to emphatic auth0rity. Oedipus surprises the Colonean stranger with his determined declaration (45): "For l shall never leave this resting place." When the stranger questions his proclamation, Oedipus responds with another cryptic declaration (46): It was ordained; l recognize it now. Realizing that he has come to a sacred temenos of the Eumenides, oedipus recollects the divine prophecy given to him in his youth. The twofold oracle began first with the dire pronouncement of evils that would plague him throughout his life (86-87); but it ended with the promise of rest ("aûÀav 88), a seat (€6pav 90) and a hospitable home • (~€VOC1aCLV 90) arnong the august goddesses (O€wv/C€~VWV 89- 90). The oracle stated further that on his death he would be a bringer of blessings (K€PÔ~ 92) to those who had received hirn and a bringer of destruction (a1~v 93) to those who had spurned hirn. 2 Oedipus is now certain that this is the place where he belongs. He is certain that the Eurnenides rnentioned by the Colonean stranger are one and the sarne with the Semnaiof lThc () T mcntlon!. llnly the tir!.t hnlf of this ornele Il wal. predlctcd lhat hc was fnted 10 !>Iay hl!> father and marry hls IIIlltlter (789-9.1) HI!. pwphc"ed uplltheol.l!. 18 never menlloned For tlte sake of drumatle eonllnulty we mu!>t belleve Ihal Ocdipus hll!! elliter fllrglltten the !.eelllld hulf of the llrucle or he had fallcd 10 rccogllIze Ils mcunmg al the lime And how could he rculize Il'/ The truth (If the lin,t part of the omc\e had hl be revcaled I\nd fullillcd heforc he could eomprehend lhe mcunmg of the second pllrl AC\.Ilf(hng 10 B M W Knox, Th .. H.. ,me 7... ".p .. ' (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1964) 144 the orueular prophccles of the gods ure 'crypllc, pllrllul revelutlonl. of divine knowledge whleh the hUI'lan mtellcct cannol I\ccept or undersland unlll they are fullilled • • 53 Apollo's oracle and that they have divinely led him to their • grove (rrLc1ov f~ ù~wv rr1€pov/f~~lal' €C 100' àXcoc 96-7).' In his enlightened state, Oedipus declares himself to be the Eumenides' suppliant (iK€1~V 44) and he prdys that they may grant him his final consummation in accordance with Apollo's oracle (Ka1' o~~àc Tàc 'ArroXXwvoc 102). Instead of working against divine will as he had done in the past, Oedipus must now strive to follow it. Just as the gods had prophesied his life of woe, they had prophesied his final rest and his potential for power beyond the grave. In death oedipus is to be elevated to the status of lIl'ros: his cold corpse (v € K uc 621) will possess the power to drink (rri€1aL 622) the blood of his enemies. His posthumous power to benefit and injure will mark him as a hero. • But at the moment Oedipus does not know how the oracle will be accomplished. He is confident that it will unfold in accordance with divine will. Emphatically demanding an audience with Theseus, Oedipus hints at the potential service (K€POaVU 72) he may render. Wh en the stranger questions him, Oedipus speaks with assurance and confidence (74): " AlI l shall say will be clear-sighted indeed," While awaiting the arrivaI of Theseus, Oedipus again hints at the benefit which he holds (287-90): For l come here as one endowed with grace By those who are over Nature; and l bring 3As we saw earher 10 Chapter 1, Eumenidc& and Scmnai Theai arc eupheml&mh for the Drcnd GuddellheH - the ErmyeK • 54 Advantage to this race, as you may learn More fully when sorne lord of yours is here. • He declares himself to be "endowed with grace" (i€pbc €ÙC€~~c 287) and one who brings a kindly advantage (OV~CLV 288) to the citizens if they will receive him. But for now the boon he is to bring is shrouded in mystery. But unexpectedly Oedipus' other daughter Ismene arrives from Thebes bringing important news. Oedipus learns that his two sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, are battling over possession of the Theban throne. Eteocles has usurped the throne and banished Polyneices. In retaliation POlyneices has turned to Argos for assistance (374-81); civil strife looms dangerously near. Moreover, a prophecy has been delivered at Delphi concerning Oedipus. The newest oracle has declared that Oedipus will be sought after (r~1~1bv 389) • by the Thebans. Possession of his tomb will safeguard the city and guarantee future success in battle. If the Thebans fail to win Oedipus over, they will feel the wrath of his heavy curse (apa ... ~apoc 409) when one day they stand at his grave. Thus Creon, acting on behalf of Eteocles, will soon arrive hoping to persuade Oedipus to re~urn to his native land. However, Ismene warns that Creon's appeal will be an empty one; the Thebans have no intentions of restoring their exiled king. They fear the contagion of blood-guilt (10Ü~~VÀOV ai~a 407) which stains him. And so they propose to lure Oedipus home with false petitions and hold him under their control just beyond cheir borders . • 55 If Creon is successful with his overtures, the latest • oracle will seemingly contradict the earlier one which predicted Oedipus' death at the grove of the Eumenides. It now seems possible that Oedipus may be persuaded to return home. But Oedipus puts forward another interpretation of the latest prophetie utterance. He views it as a supplement to the earlier onei both the old and the new oracle form a complete prophecy (452-54): 1 have heard the prophecies Brought by this girli 1 think they fit those others Spoken so long ago, now fulfilled. He cornes to the realization that the fulfilment of the original oracle rests within himself. His prophesied ability to bless his friends and to harm his foes is dependent upon his choice of final resting place. The • latest oracle supplements this 1urther by offering Oedipus such a choicei he may remain where he is or he may return home. 4 And through this choice oedipue is given power (KpaT~ 392) over the destiny of Thebes, as stated by divine prophecy (392): "The oracles declare their strength's in you-" The former king begins to realize the potential power which he holds. He must dec ide where i t i s he i s to rema in and to whom he will bequeath the benefits of his heroic passing. AlI of this has been ordained by the gods. Just 4Ahhough Apollo's earhcr oracle had promlloCd OcdlpU!o linal rCht at thc Eumcntdc,"' ~rnvc, hl" pahhtng at ColonuH IH nllt a glven. R Seodel, Sophocies (&.ton 1984) 112 argues thal • APO\lO'h oraclc Wllh a prcdll.llon, nnt a (.olllmllnd, 811d mnrtlilH have no obligation to assiht 8 god III fulfilling hlh predIctIOn.· n':dlpUh could hllve I~n()red the orncle und rcturned hornc to dlc at Thebe!. Now OcdlpUh mu\t decldc If he WI\hc\ tn work III !I~wrdllm.e wlth dlvmc WIll or Ilot Tite dWI(.c IH hlh • 56 as they had predicted his woeful life, they had predicted • his powerful end (394): Il For the gods who threw you down sustain you now." But this support (opOOÛCt 394) is not to he taken as sorne form of divine recornpense. Although the gods have tormented Oedipus in the past, they are not restoring favour to him because they have been moved by a sense of mercy or pity. Their purpose has been fixed from the beginning. The oracle delivered to him in his youth predicted the crimes which he wou1d unwitting1y commit, the misery which he would suffer and the peaceful end which he would receive. This was the course which they had predicted for Oedipus. with divine endorsement, Oedipus has control over the future. In arder to reach a responsib1e decision, he must • calI upon his heroic nature and temperament. Now he is no longer a humble wanderer but a man with whom to be reckoned. He must regain the kingly stature which he once possessed and it is necessary for him to reassert his superior station which is still apparent. ~ His emotions stirred by the news brought by Isrnene, Oedipus now knows what he must do and he knows what choices he must make; he chooses to rernain in Attica, in the grove where he is destined to find rest among the Eurnenides. He emphatically vows that Thebes will never hold hirn under its power (~~ Kpaf~cwc[P 408) and thereby he ~Whcn the Clllllnclln btrHn~Cr fin.t encountcrb sit idle indoors. ~oth of his daughters have made great sacrifices and have endured rnany hardships as a tribute to their affection and IOyalty to their father. Antigone has shared Oedipus' harsh exile in a manner unbefitting a young woman (348-53): Often in the wild Forest going without shoes, and hungry, • 58 Beaten by many rains, tired by the sun; Yet she rejected the sweet life of home • So that her father should have sustenance. Ismene has also made concessions for her father. She has remained in Thebes to keep abreast of any news regarding her father and she has ta ken great risk by searching for Oedipus to bring hirn the latest word (361-64). Both girls have done more than fulfil their familial duties. Oedipus is acutely aware of the sacrifices made by each girl and he cherishes and loves them deeply for it. His gratitude for their unfailing devotion is touching (1367-68): But they have saved me, they are my support, And they are not girls, but men, in faithfulness. Without his daughters, his exile would be unbearable. They are the only ray of light in his dark and dismal world • In total contrast, his two sons are ingrates who have • done nothing to aid their troubled father (427-28): These were the two Who saw me in disgrace and banishment And never lifted a hand for me. They hav~ callously neglected their father, having bartered him for p~/er over the Theban throne. Because of such heinous behaviour and unfilial conduct, Oedipus harbours a deep resentment against them and against Thebes itself. He blames them for his unwanted expulsion (440-45): Then it was that the city-in its good time! Decided to be harsh, and drove me out. They could have helped me then; they could have helped him who begot them! Would they do it? For lack of a better word from that fine pair Oat l went, like a beggar, to wander forever! • 59 It is the circumstances surrounding his banishment that is • the cause of his bitter animosity and rage. As a punishment, exile was unwanted and undeserved. As we have already seen in Chapter 2, in the O. C Oedipus holds that he was morally innocent of his crimes and that his expulsion from Thebes was unjust. His innocence makes the unfilial behavior of his sons aIl the more outrageous. Earlier, they failed to protect their father from an undeservea exile and now, even in the light of the new oracle, they fail to make any sort of reparation towards him. Even with a potential benefit to be won, no effort in made on their part to repair the grave injustices wrongly inflicted upon their aged father (418-19). Oedipus will not be restored to the throne, he will not be permitted to return alive to his • native land, and he will not be given burial there. No longer a beggar who has grown content with his lowly lot in life, Oedipus begins to realize his own sense of self-worth. It is he, not t~3 gods, who demands that justice be done. Oedipus feels that his sons must suffer for the offenses which they have committed against him. His heroic nature begins to emerge. 6 And because of his nature, Oedipus cannot forgive his sons. By vowing to fulfil Apollo's oracles, Oedipus realizes that this is the fu~ans 610 his thorough study of Sophoclcan heroe~, Knox (op ~It n 2) 29 hlalc~ Ihlll hcroe~ 'ure drlvCII hy pllh"l"n, (JUI!(;Ç, /1 rage of the soul .. Thelr pasMonale nalure Iii exa'pcralcd by Ihc r.:ehng whu;h 1111 of Ihcm have (IInd Wllh Home groundh) Ihlll Ihey are treated "disrespeclfully, "fliTi/lwç. Thelr scn~c of thelr own wnrth, of whllt II> duc Ihem from olherH, 110 oUlrllgcd • • 60 through which he can satisfy his need to wreaK vengeance against his sons; by staying in Colonus, Oedipus can aid his • -, friends and harm his foes. Thus, ln his anger and wrath, Oedipus cuts himself off from Thebes an1 prays that the gods allow him to decide the outcome of his sons' fratricidal strife (421-27): Gods! Put not their fires of ambition out! Let the last word be mine upon this battle They are about to join, with the spears lifting! l'd see that the one who holds the sceptre now Would not have power long, nor would the other, The banished one, return! He prays that they should kill each other in the quarrel over their inheritance. One day they will feel their father's wrath when they stand in battle at his grave. As his sons and Thebes have proven themselves to be unworthy of • Oedipus' benefits, he off ers himself to Colonus. Knowing that Creon is en route, he realizes that he is physically weak and helpless. He cannot prevent his brother-in-law from forcibly taking him back to Thebes. In return for protection of the Coloniates and for the championship of the Eumenides, Oedipus offers himself as saviour (457-60): If you men here consent - as do those powers Holy and awful, the spirits of this place To give me refuge, then shall this city have A great saviour; and a woe to my enemies. As saviour (CWT~p- 460) Oedipus offers to reciprocate their p!edge of support with a gift (ôwpov 577) and a benefit (K€PÔ'I] 578). Before he has opportunity to present his promise to • 61 reciprocate to Theseus, the King immediately welcomes him • without hesitation. Knowing not of the benefit oedipus carries, Theseus readily accepts t~e wretched stranger, recognizing his ill-fated identitYi the son of Laius is easily recognizable by his tattered garments (CKEU~ 555) and wretched face (ÔVCT~VOV Kapa 555). Instead of outright rejecting him as the chorus had done (226), Theseus offers him a cordial reception on the basis of his own experience with the hardships of exile (562-66). As a man of compassion and humility, Theseus recognizes dnd fully understands the ever fluctuating state of man's fortunes. steadfast continuity belongs to the immortal gods alone. Everything else is thrown into confusion by almighty time. Human happiness, hope and fortune are built on an illusion • created by the gods (607-13): The immortal Gods alone have neither age nor death! AlI other things almighty Time disquiets. Earth wastes awaYi the body wastes awaYi Faith dies; distrust is born. And imperceptibly the spirit changes Between a man and his friend, or between two cities. With great courtesy, Theseus reveals his essential nobility (~€vvaîov 569). He warmly receives Oedipus (565-68): Therefore no wanderer shall corne as you do, And be denied rny audience or aide l know l am only a man; l have no more Ta hope for in the end than you have. Theseus is a fair and just man who can distingujsh between guilt and misfortune. He views Oedipus as an unfortunate and an accursed man, not as a polluted murderer who is to be • 62 feared. As an enlightened man, Theseus accepts Oedipus for • what he truly is - a man plagued by ill-fortune (ovc~op' 557) .7 His open acceptance of the beggar serves as effective drarnatic contra st to that of the chorus' reaction which is one of horror and utmost dread. By his unconditional acceptance of Oedipus, Theseus shows hirnself to be a true aristocrat and a gracious host. He upholds the laws of xenia and he shows reverent courtesy to the blind suppliant. He offers the stranger asylurn knowing that the clairns of a suppliant cannot be rightfully denied in the eyes of the gods. When Theseus questions Oedipus as to what he wants, he is misled into thinking that the suppliant is only searching for a burial place . Regarding this as a srnall favour (XâptP 586) to be granted, • Theseus questions him further. He discovers that war will one day break out between Athens and Thebes and that the site of Oedipus' grave will deterrnine the place of victory. with certainty, Oedipus predicts the future strife and its outcome (616-23): And 50 with you and Thebes: the sweet season Holds between you now; but time goes on, Unmeasured Time, fathering numberless Nights, unnurnbered days: and on one day They'll break apart with spears this harrnony AlI for a trivial word. And then rny sleeping and long-hidden corpse, Cold in the earth, will drink hot blood of theirs If Zeus endures; if his son/s word is true ••• 7By I~n"rlll~ Hny thrent \lf pollutIOn fWIIl the newcomer. Thc\cu\ I~ est"hh~hlllg the vllhdlty of Ocdipus' vehement "\\ertH11I \lf IIhlrnl IllIhlO:~'ll'': • 63 Recognizing that Oedipus cornes with divine sanction and • authority, Theseus prornptly accepts the suppliant's favour (€vJ.L€P€t(lP 631). The king realizes that the presence of Oedipus is of great value to Athens and he declares that he will not refuse the gift (XâpL P 636) which he offers. K Theseus pledges his support and bestows citizenship (iJ.L"oALP 637) upon the once homeless wanderer. still ill at ease, Oedipus nervously seeks further assurance from the king who reinforces his promise of aid with his word, the greatest pledge he can give (651). When Oedipus expresses fear that the Thebans may corne to uproot him by force, Theseus attempts to soothe his doubts and suspicions (664-67): Therefore l should advise you to take heart . Even aside from me and my intentions, Did not Apollo send and guide you here? • However i t rnay be, l can assure you, While l'm away, my name will be your shield. In these strong words of support, we recognize the importance of Theseus' promise. Even though Oedipus has been divinely led to the grove and he has publicly affirmed Apollo's latest oracle, it cannot be brought to realization without the fulfilment of Theseus' promise. In order to die in Attica as predicted by the prophecy, Oedipus needs more sa. Kirkwood, "From Melos 10 Colonu:.: TINAl: X{lPOYl: A 9Ettrher Oedlpu, hnd nppeuled hl Alhell!.· repUlnlton for plely toward, lhe wretchcd and oppresscd (258-62) It IS a land willd. " fllllled fur Il, plely lowurd, "lppIIlUIl~ B} III~ open acceplance of Ocd.pus. The,eu\ now valtdates Athens' rcnowncd IlIlme R P WlIllllnglnn - In!!rnm. SOl'hod"l An 1"''''I'''''llI/on (Cnmhndge 1980) 273 compares the role of The&eus 10 that of Alhenll III the O'''I/.'/t1 Be ,lllle" thut "hOlh repre,ent an Idenl ~y&lem of CIVllllcd law· JUM ft~ Athena c\tablishcd the tin,t court ,'l Illw dUlrtlclert/cd hy Ihc ru le of 1111110nulund CIVllllCd Ju,llce. '" Thc,"cu," l' rcprc!ocnlcd u~ ft ru 1er who al>ldel> by such laws and ""hu cndellvnr' hl IIl'hold Ihem wllh f/llflle,," 10 In the 111"08(11)' (225-35) HeMod &llItc!> thlll whell a clly IS fair to forcigners and citizen!> IIltkc thcn thllt elly will bloom wilh pfll\penl} und il!. lund WIll ,upport Il IlIvi~h hounlY and harvcsl. • 65 and sympathy, he claims that he has corne in the narue of • Thebes (733-41). With crafty and deceitful words, he atternpts to win Oedipus over. Lamenting Oedipus' tragic situation, Creon tries to manipulate his sense of patriotism; appealing to Oedipus in the name of family honour, Creon invites him to return to the city and the house of his father (755-59): But you, if you will listen to me, Oedipus And in the name of your father's gods, listen! Bury the whole thing now; agree with me To go back to your city and your home! Reminding him that long ago Thebes was his nurse (1po~OC 760), Creon requests that he show due reverence to his native land and return home where he rightfully belongs. Knowing that Cre~n's show of sympathy is insincere and hypocritical, Oedipus turns on his brother-in-law with a • vindictive fury. Contrasting Creon's newfound solicitude with his past indifference, Oedipus exposes his selfish nature; when Oedipus had desired exile, Creon refused to grant it, only later to impose it on an unconsenting Oedipus. 11 He aiso charges that CL'eon has a complete disregard for kinship (TO au))€v€S 771). Unmasking his latest display of amiability as full of hollow kindness (~Q1aiou ..• ~8ov~c 780), Oedipus taunts Creon with the truth Ile Segal, Tragedy and Cm/lZal/On An Inierprel.JI/On of Sophodt's (CamhmJge 1981) 380 rernllrkh Ihul jUhI lU. Ihe relationship betwccn OcdlpU~ and The~cu, I~ dciincd hy a mutulll rcclprnclly rcplc"clllcd hy the clldl/U1gc of th(lf/I, hO the rclahonshlp betwccn OcdlpUb and Creon 1& delincd hy a lack of chI/ris When OcdlpUh hcgg\.d for eXile, CrC<1II relu~ 10 Kmnl hlm Ihal gil\ (XÔ Zeus and Apollo are his infermants (ca~€CT€pWV KÀVW/ ~oi~ov Tf KaVTOÛ Z~v6c 792-93). Provoked to anger, Oedipus curtly dismisses Creon. He has made his decision te benefit Athens • 67 and to condemn Thebes. His mind cannot be changed by false • petitions; they only serve to reinforce his position. Oedipus knows that his destiny is to remain where he is. When persuasive words and guile fail to move Oedipus, Creon proceeds to justify Oedipus' damning prophecy by turning to violence. In a ruthless pressure tactic, Creon boldly announces that he has seized Ismene while she was off performing purificatory ceremonies to the Eumenides on her father's behalf; and he declares his intention to lay hold of Antigone as weIl (818-19). In an agitated scene, Antigone is carried off and Creon proceeds to threaten Oedipus with seizure (860). Having lost his means of support, Oedipus is reduced to a demeaning state of helplessness. When Creon attempts to impose silence (cLw"âv • 864) over Oedipus' cries of protestation, he is rebuked with a curse (apâc 865)12 (864-70): No! May the powers here Not make me silent until 1 say this curse: You scoundrel, who have cruelly ta ken her Who served my naked eyepits as their eyes! On you and yours forever may the sun god, Watcher of aIl the world, confer such days As 1 have had, and such an age as mine! ~ , , In a vulnerable position, Oedipus has only words (p~~acLv 873) to use as a weapon against Creon's show of bravado. striking a personal blow against his antagonist, Oedipus 120cdipus' cur&e doc" not dlmlnlbh hlb moral authonty HI& wrath and rctahation oglllnM Cre.,n 08 wcll Ill> hlh MIIiK IH JU!>lifiablc Thelr outragcou!> behaviour towardb hlm warrantb hll> eUr\Cb upon them ln hllo dl\W\MIIII of LurhCh, R Pllrkcr, MW\ffUl (Oxford 1983) 197 Ilote" that It IS "to right~ rather than row power thot they relate Even the blrong Lan pcrhllph not curM: effectlve1y unies!> wrongcd, whl1e the weak acqulre the power to do Ml ln I.n far ab thclr rlX-llgnllcd nghth orc mfrlllgcd " OcdlpUH has becn wrongcd and provokcd and he retail/ile, wlth a vmdll.tlve Ju,tltC lib It " hlh nght tn dll Ml • 68 curses him with an old age ('Yl1pér"aL 870) like his own . • In hast y response to the aged chorus' cries for help, Theseus arrives with his own force of armed men. He immediately dispatches a contingent to rescue the kidnapped girls and he reprimands Creon sternly for his insolent behavior. Conducting himself as the tyrant (fllpa"IIoc 851) as he caUs himself, Creon's actions are marked by hubris (v{JptC 883) and violence ({3ia 883).13 with his barbarie encroachment on Attic soil, Creon has violated the basic structures of civilized order for which Theseus stands (913- 18) : You come to a city-state that practices justice, Astate that rules by law, and by law only; And yet you cast aside her authority, Take what you please, and worse, by violence, As if you thought there were no men among us, Or only slaves; and as if l were nobody. • with wanton disregard, Creon has violated the justice system (6iKCXt' 913) and the laws CIIOJjOV 914) to which Athens adheres; he has breached the rights of a suppliant (922-23) and he has transgressed against guest-host relations (928). By resorting to violence ({3 Lçr 9" 6), he has created havoc in a land f amed for i ts law abiding reverence and p iety . Deftly employing political manipulation, Creon attempts to respond to Theseus' arraignment by challenging the authority of Athenian institutions. He is sure that no other city would openly welcome such a tainted man as IlThe WU rd {jinl I~ proll1l1lCllllhroughoul Iim confroll1811onni scene wlth Crcon (cf. vv. 815, 845, 854, 867,874, 903, 916.922.935.943) • 69 Oedipusi he is a parricide (nQrpOKrOpop 945) who had been • married to his mother (-yâJ,l.OL ••• apOCLWrQrOL 945-46). According to Creon, the Areopagus would never a llow i t. 14 Trying to alienate the city from its newest citizen, Creon drudges up Oedipus' pollution and impiety. But this strategy fails miserably when it evokes an impassioned plea of self-defence from Oedipus. As if he was in a court of law, he sets forth his case point by point. He emphatically states that he cannot be justly blamed for his past misdeeds because they were carried out involuntarily as decreed by the gods (lJÉccparop 969); he unknowingly (Cx.KOJl 977) killed his father in an unmeditated act of self-defence and he married his mother in total ignorance (aKWJI 987). with great confidence, Oedipus can articulate his innocence (988- • 90) : No: l shall not be judged an evil man, Neither in that marriage nor in that death Which you forever charge me with 50 bitterly. He is no longer hesi tant (0 ÎJ. •• Ct -y1)coJ,l.a t 980) to recount the calamities he has suffered. Previously when pleading his case to the chorus, Oedipus could scarcely bear to speak of his past (515-16). To them he could only present his plea in a broken and stammering fashion because he himself lacked full understanding of his own situation. But now, Oedipus can assert his innocence wi th assurance and he can 14R. Garner, Law and Society in elass/cal Alhem (London 1987) 3S &latc~ thll1thc Arcopllguh, fth 1\ hl)ml\.ldc court, bWlIshed murdererlt from the city to diminilth the dangerour. thrcat of pollution • 70 plead his case with a rational and lucid argument. strongly • and clearly, he knows that he is guiltless; he knows that he is working with the gods and he knows that he has residence in a gOd-fearing land. As a final rejoinder to Creon's violent assault, he prays to his tutelary deities, the Eumenides (1010-13): Now for that profanation l make my prayer, Calling on the divinities of Lhe grove That they shall give me aid and fight for me; So you may know what men defend this town. Fully aware that Creon's hubristic conduct violates Apollo's designs, oedipus forges his link to Athens and he places himself under the championship of the local goddesses (1âc8€ 1hc O€àc 1010). standing in special relation to the gods, Oedipus is confident that his prayers will be granted • As Oedipus is deserving of Colonean assistance (a~LaL • 8' a~uvaO€îv 1015), Theseus undertakes to save him even at the risk of war. He orders Creon to be led away perforee while he mutters threats of war (arr€iÀ€L 1038). And true to his word, Theseus has Antigone and Ismene rescued from their captors. with their restoration, Oedipus experiences a fleeting moment of happiness and joy (1€P~LV 1122). However this reprieve is to be short-lived. From Theseus Oedipus learns that polyneices, his hated son (c1u~v6c 1173) has arrived from Argos seeking a ward with his father. Begging Theseus not to force him to yield to his son's petitions, he is tactually reminded that it is his dut Y to hear out a suppliant's plea; he owes the favour • 71 (XapLV 1183) to Theseus and it is part of his religious • obligation. When Antigone supports this request, Oedipus reluctantly agrees to give his son an audience though he knows it will be a most painful (aÀ1Lcr· 1174) and grievous (~ap€iav 1204) encounter. He is aware that polyneices has corne to beg for aid against his younger brother, Eteocles, the usurper. He will attempt to weaken his father's resolve to remain in Attica and he will appeal to him to return to Thebes. Before Oedipus can anticipate his promised rest, he must face a final confrontation, one which is assured to be a bitter and emotional one. While waiting for Polyneices to arrive, the chorus laments about the pain and grief (Àvrrac 1217) which accompany a long life (ai ~aKpal / â~€paL J215-16). In a • lyric song, they expound the woes which plague men in their old age. Once youth has passed, man is burdened with troubles such as strife and envy. Man is released from life's toilsome afflictions through death (Oavaroc €C TEÀ€UTaV 1223). It is man's saviour (€rriKOUpoC 1220) from the sorrows of old age. The chorus compare Oedipus to a rock upon which endless waves crash (1239-44): Think of sorne shora in the north the Concussive waves make stream This way and that in the gales of winteri It is like that with him: The wild wrack breaking over him From head to foot, and coming on forever: Before Oedipus can be released from life's heavy burdens, he must con front one more: his son . • 72 Polyneices enters humbly as a suppliant weeping for his • father's misfortunes. seeing oedipus' squalid plight, he professes real remorse for having neglected his filial duty, calling himself most villainous (KâKLCfOC 1265) for that neglect. Eagerly seeking an audience with his father, Polyneices is met with implacable silence which forces him to reveal his present intentions. Like his father, POlyneices is an exile (~v~âc 1292), having been driven from his homeland by force (1291-99): l am a fugitive, driven from my country, Because l thought fit, as the eldest born, To take my seat upon your sovereign throne. For that, Eteocles, the younger of us, Banished me - but not by a decision In argument or ability in armsi Merely because he won the city over. Of this l believe the Furies that pur sue you Were indeed the cause, • Stripped of his privilege to rule, POlyneices blames his brother's usurpation on his father's Erinys (f~V c~v 'EPLVÙV 1299) .1\ Making prayer (1Tpocfpo1Taiovc ••• ÀLfàc 1309), he begs his father to abandon the heavy wrath (~~VLV ~ap€iav 1328) which he bears against him. Ready to attack Thebes with a strong force of Argive allies, Polyneices is eager to oust his brother. But before he embarks on his coup, he has come to win the favour of Oedipus. Interpreting Apollo's 1\The hlnfe oelwcclI the orulhcrb lb Ihc worklIIg out of Ihe Laodacld curbC. Polynciccb cali" il hl& falher'" "Ermys" It IS 11111 a rcfercllcc III thc ElIlIlcllllleb out to the IllcIllclnhle curbe whlch hangs over Ihe Labdacld~ (n,/I 1I'aÀmw ~vwlJOpà/l 'Yi/lovc 596) Acconhllg III WlIIllIlIgIlI1I - Ingrnlll (op cil n 9) 266 Il lb a refcrcnce 10 the "lIlahgn power which has purslled OedlpUS and hls fIIl'C' Ah POlyIlCICC' t..nowb 1I1111l1ng of Ihe 111 wllrd~ airclidy ultcred agam&1 him hy hll, fnlher (421-27, 789-90), hls remark aboui OcdlpUh' Ermy," IIlllbl ullude 10 Ihe funllly cur&e T. G Ro,"enmcyer, "The Wrulh of OcdlpUb" Phoenix 6 (1952) 92-112 slaies Ihal /1 flllllily curhe " UIIChCllpllhlc. whclhcr Il f/llhcr cur&c& h" SOlib or 1101 (108) Ac,ch Eum 934 bUggCblb Ihal the Ermyes have the l'"wcr 10 hOUlld c1l1ldren f,lr Ihe III1,dccds of Ihclr fnlhcr • 73 • latest oracle to his own adv,ntage, Polyneices believes that the son to whorn oedipus joins himself will be victorious (1331-32) : If we can put any trust in oracles, They say that those you bless shall corne to power. th Wishing to obtain this power (KpaToc 1332) for himself, he implores his father to join his cause. If Eteocles is defeated, POlyneices promises to re-establish his father in his homeland (1340-45): If you will stand by me in my resolve, l'Il waste no time or trouble whipping him; And then l'Il re-establish you at home, And settle there myself, and throw him out. If your will is the same as mine, it's possible To promise this. If not, l can't be saved. Although this offer seems sincere, POlyneices' petitions are • marked with nypocrisy; his overture of reinstatement is motivated by self-interest and not by affection or sense of duty. Like Creon, POlyneices interprets Apollo's oracle to shed a favourable light on himself and his cause. He takes it to mean that, by helping his friends and harming his enemies, Oedipus will bring victory to whatever son he aids in the coming war and he will bring defeat to the other; thus he attempts to gain his father's predicted blessing for J6Perhaps FI17gerald's 'blcss' ('II'poc9Q 1332) lb 100 blrong sance 7rpncriBYJ/l1 mercly meHnh "In side wllh, ln lI1ke l1li nne'fI friend or slly • • 74 himself. J7 • When Polyneices has said aIl that he can say, Oedipus explodes in a heated diatribe. Brimming with hatred and overcome with fierce passion, Oedipus is beside himself as he casts blame on his son for his wretched condition (1361- 64) : But l regard you as a murderer! For you reduced me to this misery, You made me an alien. Because of you l have begged my daily bread from other men. Stating that it was polyneices who drove him from Thebes and made him citiless (anohLv 1357), oedipus places the burden of responsibility upon his son. putting the onus on Polyneices, Oedipus points him out as the only cause for his exi le and general misery. IK Turning his wrath against both his sons, Oedipus boldly declares that Polyneices, along • with Eteocles, will die stained with blood (ai~art / necÜ ~LavO€lc 117 3-74) because they have utterly dishonoured (' ~ar L~éx!:1110" 1378) him (1373-79): You' Il go down AlI bloody, and your brother, too. 17 A pnrelll'~ nhl1l1y III h1c~~ ur cur~e I~ ~ul'Porled hy "Ihe blructurc of 8Ulhorlly·, 8ccording to Parkcr (op. cil Il 12) 197 A~ Il purenl ~hould he )!IVell honllur e4uIII to lhul (lf lhe god~ (Plllto Lows 869, 931), hi~ or her power to blcbb or cursc ft chlld is very eflecllve lM An.onllll)! 10 D A Ue~ler, "Tu Hclp OIlC', Fncnd, 81\d Hurm one', Encmlc, A Study 111 the Oedlplls Cli Co[onus" AlIll Obviously Oedipus' resentment against his sons has developed into loathsome animosity. At f irst, i t seems that he merely bears a grudge against them for their indolence (337-41) and their neglect of filial duty. Throughout the course of the play, Oedipus has harboured this grudge which has swelled with bitterness and anger and it culminates in a final devastating curse which he pronounces upon his sons (1384-89) : You utter scoundrel! Go with the malediction l here pronounce for you: that you shall never Master your native land by force of arms, Nor ever see your home again in Argos, The land below the hills; but you shall die • By your own brother's hand, and you shall kill The brother who banished you. For this l pray.2U His curse will prevail if Dike sits with Zeus according to primeval law (4iKq E~v€6poc Zqvbc hpxaiotC v6~OtC 1382). His devastating denunciation is justifiable according to the ancient laws of retribution. He has suffered at the hands 19Lme 1375 ha~ crcalcd grcllt controvcr~y a\ to thc mCllIlIlIg of 7r/JOldit R C Jchh, Soplwd,'\ 7h,' fJ/l/y.\ I/llt1 Fragments, Par/II, The Oed/puf Cololleus (Camhndgc 19(0) 212·13 notc\ that 1rfJlK-fll rcfcr~ 10 OCdl(lIlh' "formcr IInprcultlllll, uttercd on hcarmg hmcnc'\ tldmg, Impltcd thc ~amc doom whu.. h " morc pllltnly dcnounLcd hcrc (421 427 451 1)' But '!OIIIC seholars such a~ Knox (op Clt n 2) 194, n 14 hc!lefthut 7rpôlJOr 1\ u rcfcrclILc to u LurhC Illrclldy uttcred hy OCdlpUH lit "OInc pomt in lime hcfore he had Icft Thehclo 20Accordtng to Pluto (Laws XI 931) the godlo II~tcn to the cur\clo nf Il purent hl.LIIU\C Il pllrcnt Illylo Il (,.ur\c upon t'I" or hcr km wlth more Ju\tlce thlln anyolle cl\e And Ocdlpu\ 1\ wcll Ju\tlfil.d III (,.ur\lng hl\ 10 Il Il \ III pruylll)! for lhc lulfilrnC/l1 of hlN LurloC (O!p~c œpwp.rtI 1384·89), he doc\ not dlmulI\h hllo mornl \tllturc C M BIlWru, .\(Jphod"tIIl Tm/{t'tly (Oxford 1944) 121! NtnlcH that 'on ground~ of ordtnllry moraltty Ocdlpu~ hll~ thc rtght lu (,.olldl.rnll Polylll.ILch" Hc hll~ h("("11 hl.lllolJ\ly IIIl1ltrl.utcd hy hl/th hlh !>onh And becaUhC of the dl~rc~pcct and mglutltudc wlllch he hll\ hct.n \hown hy hlh \Onh, l!tcy IIrl. dc\crvlIl)! of !tl\ l.lIrloC • 76 of his sons; 21 thus the precepts of Dike calI for • retal iation. In his rage, oedipus cannot f0rget the wrongs which have been inflicted upon him as Antigone implores him to do. In an atternpt to rnitigate her father's anger, she begs him not to requite Polyneices' wrongs with further wrongs (1189- 91) : ... even had he wronged you, father, And wronged you irnpiously, still you could not Rightfully wrong him in return! But oedipus cannot accept this. u In his eyes the curse which he has pronounced against his sons is not a wrongi instead it is a form of justice, the kind that is based on blind retribution and net on forgiveness. This retribution is dernanded by Oedipus and not the gods. His power to • curse, although divinely erdained, cornes from the sheer force of his character. He is a man who has been wronged and he is full of awful wralh. And this wrath has been directed against his sons whom he considers to be his enemies. Oedipus' very nature and character dernands that retributlon be sought. 11 111 hl'> III1Ie 01 Ilccd, Oe,lIl'uo, WU" uhundollcd hy lm o,OIl~ and he regardl. them to he largely re~pol\\lblc for his suffering An'ordlIIg III Wllllllnglllll-llI)!rnm (01' Lit n 9) 312-13 "thul u mail ,hnuld ~cek tn IIvenge Il wrong l' IHllural and, hy the stnndard ,'f IWIlllur, IUlldllhle" Uc IlIrlhcr .,Ialco, Ihlll when a man of hcrolc nalure sufferl. a Wroll)!' he ~eek~ 10 retncve 1115 pOSItion, to re,llIfe 1111. IHlllllur " III on\cr 10 re,lllle the hOlJlllir wlllch hl'> 'Ol!o, had II\kell from hun, Oedlpuo, ~eeko, Justice by rurbing them lleum,e Ih.: 11I,lllC "f Ihe )!Ild, "1., u l'clIlIl JU,lll e, Il millier of rclnhulilln ", WlIIllIngloli-lngrum noteo, Ihat men muo,t re~ent and ao,CII)!l' IhL "nlll)!' .toile Illlhcm und Ihe )!mh IIIU.,lllrdllln Ihul "wrongl. ~hllil he l'ulll'hcd " (324-25) "T"" IIHCpt AIiIlglllle', 1I111'1I\\lllIle the Erinyes (TQCO€ oaiJ.l.ovo:c 1391) and Ares (W ApTi 1391). Oedipus summons these dark chthonic powers (1389-92): And l cry out to the hated underworld That it may take you home; cry out to those Powers indwelling here, and to that power Of furious War that filled your hearts with hate! Wishing to sever Polyneices from the civilized world, Oedipus calls to Tartarus because his sons are to dwell there, Ares because he is the deification of warlike strife, and the Erinyes because they are the upholders of primeval Dike. By calling ta "these goddesses here" Oedipus is appealing to the Eumenides but he is appealing to their dark, sinister nature. He is calling to them as the • Erinyes, the implacable deities who are the fearful (€J.l.~OffOL 39) agents of vengeance. As a father who has been grievously wronged by his sons, Oedipus summons the Erinyes ta wreak vengeance upon them. POlyneices makes no attempt to argue with his father, nor does he try to block the doom which now hangs over his future. Almost compliantly he asks his sisters ta attend his burial if his father's curses (bpal 1407) should be realized. polyneices cannot turn back and he refuses ta abandan his cause. His father has pronounced a dire future for him but he must confrant it nonetheless (1432-34): The dark road is befare me; l must take it, • 78 Doomed by my father and his avenging Furies . • He knows that his fate is sealed and there is no way of escaping it, His father has invoked the Erinyes ('Eptpvwv 1434) in his curse and POlyneices knows that they cannat be thwarted. He realizes that his father has prophesied (€OÉCffLC€P 1428) his death. His curse is to be understood as an oracle (~QP1€U~QO' 1425). Because he has doomed his sons ta die by mutual fratricide, Oedipus has imposed their future on them. 21 His prayer to control the outcome of his strife (421-24) has been granted. The power of his curse can determine the future, He no longer needs ta rely upon the gods.~ He has found his own voice. He has retrieved his position and restored his honour. He has demonstrated his daemonic wrath to harm his enemies. Now he must fulfil • his promise to help his friends. Having cursed his sons, Oedipu5 falls silent. He has nothing more to say until he hears a great peal of thunder. Oedipus knows that it is the sign (c~~€iQ 94) from he aven for which he has been patiently waiting (1472-73): My children, the appointed end has corne; l can no longer turn away of it, At long last, his destined departure from life (O€C~Q10C / ~iov 1€~€V1~ 1472-73) is about to be realized. The consummation for which Oedipus had 50 long ago prayed (102- H R W Bu,hndl, P"'f'""f\'lfIg Tragt'tlv Slgn /Inti VOU't' /TI Soph(,c1t's' 7hehan Playf (lthaca 198&) 98 note~ that "the cun.~·, ""e t(le pn>nmc, 1\ Il rorlll uf 'pcllkll\)! the luturc Il' prnphccy duc& the cur\c 1\ meant to 11l1po .. e u future" !-ll'rev1l\I1,I} \\hcnc\cr Ocd1l'u, '1'1l"C III thc future, he IIlwuy& deferrcd to OlympuIII uuthor11y (623, 791-93) • 79 3) awaits for him. But before he can meet with his destiny, • oedipus calls for a final audience with Theseus. He must bestow his promised benefit (1€À€CCPOPOJl Xap L JI 1489) upon his kindly bene factor (1489-90): To give him now, in return for his great kindness, The blessing that l promised l would give. Theseus alone is to know the place of oedipus' passing and he is to reveal the secret location to his sucees sor on his deathbed (1530-32). Unguided by human hands, Oedipus instinctively leads Theseus, a messenger, anu his daughters to a crossroads. Here he looses his tattered garments while Antigone and Ismene bathe him and make libation in a ritual closing. When thunder from below the earth rumbles, a god calls to Oedipus and ehides him for delaying his passing . In haste, he petitions Theseus to care for his daughters and • he bids them farewell. As the messenger leads the tearful girls away, Oedipus mysteriously disappears before Theseus' eyes (1656-65): But in what manner oedipus perished, no one of mortal men could tell but Theseus. It was not lightning Bearing i ts f ire from God that took him off; But sorne attendant from the train of Heaven Came for him; or else the underworld Opened in love the unlit door of earth .l~ For he was ta ken without lamentation, Illness or suffering; indeed his end Was wonderful if mortal's ever was. Having received this wondrous (Oau~acTôc 1665) passing, 2SPcrhapb Fltlgcrnld\ trun.,latlOll of "Iovc" for (VVIIVV (l662) II> tlln ~trong ln 111\ wmrncntury J C Kltrncrhcck, 7ht' Plays of Sophoc/es Commentllrlel Par' VII, The Odlpus C%nu.! (Lcldcn 1984) 224 notcb thul "( VV/lUV gue" dObdy wllh 5,acT&v, IoUggcMlvc of thc dlll~m wclcomlllg hlm " • 80 Oedipus died as he had wished according to Antigone • (1705-9): In this land among strangers He died where he chose to die. He has his eternal bed weIl shaded, And in his death is not unmourned. The manner of his mysterious death is known to Theseus alone. As long as he and his heirs religiously guard the secrets surrounding Oedipus' passing, his grave will protect Attica from its enemies (1760-67). At long last oedipus has received an ending to his wretched life. But he has found much more than an ordinary passing. In his death, he has found honour and acceptance. He is no longer a polluted exile but a force to be respected and reveredi he is no longer a powerless old man • but a capable provider who can ensure the welfare of his friends and who can take vengeance on his foes. Although the gods had predicted such a fate for oedipus, it is he who strove to accomplish the divine oracles. Instead of working to circumvent divine will as he had done in the past, Oedipus has learned to co-operate with the gods. By fulfilling Apollo's predictions, he is given the means by which he can avenge the wrongs and reward the kindness which were given to him. By choosing to remain in Colonus, in the Eumenides' grove, Oedipus is to become a chthonic power, mighty to his friends and harmful to his foes. Having predicted such a fate for him, the gods are affirming his • 81 right to seek justice. A man of heroic nature, he demands • that justice be done. The justice he demands is not divine compensation but the power to wreak vengeance upon those who failed to support him in his time of need. M In order to carry out this justice, Oedipus requires the charnpionship of the local deities. He appeùls to thern as the Eurnenides to be benevolent towards hirn and he calls to them as the Erinyes to witness and ratify his execrations. As their suppliant, Oedipus joins them as a chthonic power and shares their dual power for vengeance and blessingo However grand Oedipus' death may seern to be, it does not close the play. Instead Sophocles closes with Antigone and her foreshadowed demise. Having accepted the passing of her father, Antigone turns her attention to her feuding • brothers. She requests that Theseus allow her to return to Thebes in the hope of sornehow preventing the mutual slaughter (~6poP 1771) of her brothers (1769-72): Send us back, then, ta ancient Thebes, And we rnay stop the bloody war From corning between our brothers! She realizes that she had failed to persuade Oedipus from abandoning his awful wrath. Try as she did, she could not 26 Some &eholar~ argue thntthc god~ he~t()w ft pen~elul end upon Ocdll'U~ II~ ft fonn 01 rCl'lIrulloll or rChtllUllclll lor Ihe 8uffermg& wlth whleh they have tormcnteo' Illm They.,cc hl~ hcrollJlllon II' ft relh,l.IlolI 01 dlVlIIe jlJ~IILe ror cXllrnple, Bowrfl (op Clt n. 20) 314 helleve~ Ihal "Ihc herolJ'allon of Ocdll'u~ " lIlI IImu)(h for 1" .. pll~1 ~lJffCflll)!~" IlL fUrlhLr hlllich Ihlll °lhou)!h the gods have mfllLted mftny ~orrow~ on OCdIPU", Ihey will now CXIlIt IlIIn heUlu~e IIILy lire ju.,t" Bul Ofl Ihc flthLr Mdc ollhe argument, Kluo (op Cil n 18) 394-95 ~llIlc~ Ihlll Ocdlpu,' end .... nola rLLIllIlI'LlI~e )!IVLlI hlln hy thL ~[J(h" Kilt .. IIf/WC" Ih"l although the god!, have InlllLlcd advcr~lllch Illt OedlPu" Ihey hllvc /101 Lru.,hcd h" ~ptrll 'In IlIklll)! Ocdlpu" '" IhLrn.,Llveh IIH ft Hero the god& an: but rccogutltug fnd& By lm &Inturc ah ft tltlUI OcdIPU& tlnpo~c& hlmhLIt 011 the god&' Klllo pcrhua&lvcly arguch Ihat OcdIPU& 18 huOIC hy nllture Il I~ nol an hOllour dlVlllcly IIcLorded 10 hlln • 82 prevent the pronouncement of his curse. But now she will • attempt to thwart its fulfilment and she continues to hope that she may still save her brothers from their most certain end. Unfortunately we know that her hopes will be futile and will end in disaster; regardless of her efforts, it is certain, as we know, that polyneices will die and that Antigone will lose her own life by burying him. This is part of the tragedy of the O. C. Having earned his place as a chthonic power with his curse, not only has Oedipus doomed his hated sons but he has ensured the demise of the daughter he 50 loved . • • 83 CONCLUSION • Having reviewed the O. c., we must now turn our attention to a question which was raised in the Introduction - what is Sophocles' intention as a dramatist? When he has Oedipus taken by the gods in a mysterious evanescence, our last thoughts are not meant to be of divine equitableness or of the profoundness of personality but of divine affirmation. By accepting oedipus, the gods are not bestowing compensation upon him for his long years of suffer ing to prove that they are just i nor are they remote bystanders who are subordinate to Oedipus' strength of character. 1 Instead the gods are aff irming Oedipus' r ight to seek justice . • Oedipus has suffered aIl his life. He was barn into an accursed family and he has lived under and carried on the burden of that curse. But in his old age, Oedipus feels that his pain and suffering has been aggravated and enhanced by the actions or lack of action taken by his sons. To seek justice and to retaliate against their filial neglect and abandonment, Oedipus utters a curse upon them. And for this, the championship of the Eumenides is required. " must dibngrce wlth the conc1UblOn\ drnwn hy buth Bowrllund LlIIforth C M Bllwrn, .\"phod"tln Traf<,'tlv (Oxford 1944) 308 &tntCl> that OcdIPU\' hcrOlllltlon provcb thut the god\ 'who huvc bccm',:d \..ruellllld rdclltlc\~ Lun )(illnf n.ward, uild rnlll they have not ceased from being implacable avengers. with • the pronouncement of his curse Oedipus has set the Erinyes upon his sons. Having demonstrated his daemonic wrath to harm his enemies and having fulfilled his promise to aid his friends, Oedipus is received by the gods as one of their own. He has earned his place as a chthonic power; he can harm his foes and aid his allies. But the justice which Oedipus issues, the same justice which is affirmed by the gods, is harsh. By condernning his hated sons, Oedipus has unknowingly doomed his beloved daughter. We know that Antigone will carry on in failure against the workings of her father's curse, regardless of her efforts to thwart the continuinq doom of her family. As • Winnington - Ingram so weIl concludes: It is justice not mercy that prevails; the violence of Oedipus, not the persuasions of Antigone. At every point Antigone seeks to persuade, and at every point she fails. Her ultimate failure is outside the play, but foreshadowed at the end of the play, and relevant to the play. For the justice of Oedipus destroys the innocent with the guilty. 2 2R P WlIllIlllghln-llIgrnm. "Trugcdy und Grcck Archulc Thought" in elas.nclil Drmna and fis Inflllence. Esstl)'s Presenled 10 /1 D F Km" Ed Il) M J Andcr'iln (London 1965) 4.1-44 • 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY • critical Texts cited J Hermann, G. 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