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An Eco-Theory of Genre in Middle English Literature Barbara L University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Theses and Dissertations 2015 Of Wilderness, Forest, and Garden: An Eco-Theory of Genre in Middle English Literature Barbara L. Bolt University of South Carolina - Columbia Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd Part of the English Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Bolt, B. L.(2015). Of Wilderness, Forest, and Garden: An Eco-Theory of Genre in Middle English Literature. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/3124 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you by Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. OF WILDERNESS, FOREST, AND GARDEN: AN ECO-THEORY OF GENRE IN MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE by Barbara Lee Bolt Bachelor of Arts Maryville College, 1989 Master of Arts University of Houston – Clear Lake, 2003 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina 2015 Accepted by: Holly Crocker, Major Professor Esther Richey, Committee Member Ed Gieskes, Committee Member Myra Seaman, Committee Member Lacy Ford, Senior Vice Provost and Dean of Graduate Studies © Copyright by Barbara Lee Bolt, 2015 All Rights Reserved. ii DEDICATION In loving memory of Mary Williamson Bolt 1926 – 2013 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation is the natural result of the combination of my two great interests: nature and literature. My best memories growing up are of being out in the woods with my mother and sisters. It is not surprising that the love of nature weaves its way through many aspects of my life and that I feel most at home in the natural world. I am both blessed and lucky to be part of several supportive and loving ecosystems. This project has been nurtured by a gracious and encouraging committee—Holly Crocker, Esther Richey, Ed Gieskes, and Myra Seaman—who have liberally shared their time and expertise. I cannot thank them enough for all of their guidance and assistance. I am especially appreciative of my director, Holly Crocker, who demonstrated the patience of Grissel throughout this process, and Esther Richey, who always had good advice and wine on hand. My ecosystem of friends sustains me with their encouragement, and I suffer from an embarrassment of riches in this arena. I especially appreciate Lew Oliver, Jenn Martinsen, Jamie Boyle, Emily Rendek, and Bethany and Errol Tisdale for their friendship and always being there for me. Katherine Upton, Lindsay McManus, and Graham Stowe provided much-needed writing assistance. Finally, I am grateful for the love and support of my family ecosystem: my sisters and their families. Thanks for always taking me in, letting me influence your children, and cracking the whip when needed. You have been with me every step of the way, and I and this dissertation are better for it. iv ABSTRACT “Of Wilderness, Forest, and Garden: An Eco-Theory of Genre in Middle English Literature” proposes a new theory of genre that considers the material elements of the natural environment in Middle English literature composed between 1300-1450 CE. Instead of treating the setting as just a backdrop for human activity, I posit that the components of the environment play a role in the deployment of the narrative by shaping the characters and influencing the action. More than an acknowledgement of the particular natural features, this study explores the role that these components play and how they give us a deeper understanding of the text. This project presents a view of the text that both engages and augments the traditional genre classification, offering a way to study a lesser considered subject in medieval literature—the material world of the setting—by reassessing the genre classification of the texts. By teasing out the material details of the setting, an eco-theory of genre cuts across conventional genres and offers another way to connect medieval texts. I argue that, instead of romance, Breton Lai, ballad, and fabliau, the texts examined in this dissertation are wilderness, forest, or garden poems. The eco-theory of the genre wilderness sees the adversarial elements in an untamed environment. The forest genre is a space of rules and regulations that circumscribe the environment and, in turn, manage the resources found there. The genre of the garden focuses on the conflict between what is manmade and what is natural and considers which of these is more real. By thoroughly investigating the representations of material nature within certain Middle English texts, such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, The Geste of Robyn Hode, and “The Franklin’s Tale” from The Canterbury Tales, it is the aim of this dissertation to demonstrate that medieval people negotiated the divide between the philosophy of nature and the lived experience of nature through literature. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: THE CASE FOR AN ECO-THEORY OF GENRE…………...…….1 CHAPTER 2: BRIARS AND THORNS: THE HERO IN THE WILDERNESS ...................................18 CHAPTER 3: LIFE IN THE GREENWOOD: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN THE FOREST ............62 CHAPTER 4: THE NATURAL ART OF DISOBEDIENCE: GAMES IN THE GARDEN ..................106 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION: ONTO THE PAGE AND BACK INTO THE WILDERNESS ..............149 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................173 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 5.1 Cotton Nero A.x f. 129v .................................................................................152 Figure 5.2 Luttrell Psalter f. 196r.....................................................................................156 Figure 5.3 Luttrell Psalter f. 155v ....................................................................................157 Figure 5.4 Luttrell Psalter f. 194v ....................................................................................158 Figure 5.5 Luttrell Psalter f. 170r.....................................................................................160 Figure 5.6 Luttrell Psalter f. 170v ....................................................................................161 Figure 5.7 Luttrell Psalter f. 171r.....................................................................................162 Figure 5.8 Luttrell Psalter f. 171v ....................................................................................163 Figure 5.9 Luttrell Psalter f. 172r.....................................................................................164 Figure 5.10 Luttrell Psalter f. 172v ..................................................................................165 Figure 5.11 Luttrell Psalter f. 173r...................................................................................166 Figure 5.12 Luttrell Psalter f. 173v ..................................................................................167 Figure 5.13 Gorleston Psalter f. 193v ..............................................................................179 Figure 5.14 Gorleston Psalter f. 149v ..............................................................................170 Figure 5.15 Gorleston Psalter f. 161v ..............................................................................171 vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION THE CASE FOR AN ECO-THEORY OF GENRE In the Middle English Yvain and Gawain, the knight Colgrevance of King Arthur’s Round Table seeks a magic spring. When he finds it, he triggers a storm that rivals any he has ever seen: The weder wex than wonder-blak, And the thoner fast gan crak. Thare come slike stormes of hayl and rayn, Unnethes I might stand thare ogayn; The store windes blew ful lowd, So kene come never are of clowd. I was drevyn with snaw and slete, Unnethes I might stand on my fete. In my face the levening smate, I wend have brent, so was it hate, That weder made me so will of rede, I hopid sone to have my dede; And sertes, if it lang had last, I hope I had never thethin past. (369-82) All of the phenomena that Colgrevance lists are naturally occurring: rain, sleet, snow, thunder, and lightning, and anyone who has been caught out in the open during a severe thunderstorm recognizes the drama Colgrevance describes. A conventional critique of this episode as part of a medieval romance poem considers how Colgrevance exposes his vulnerability to the elements of very foul weather to see if he can survive and therefore affirm his identity as a knight in that survival. 1 This dissertation project proposes a new theory of genre that considers the material elements of the natural environment in Middle English literature composed from 1300-1450 CE. Instead of treating the setting as just a backdrop for human activity, I posit that the components of the environment play a role in the deployment of the narrative by shaping the characters and influencing
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