Trauma in Human Remains from Bronze Age and Iron Age Archaeological Sites in Armenia
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Bioarchaeology of the Near East, 8:29–52 (2014) Trauma in human remains from Bronze Age and Iron Age archaeological sites in Armenia Anahit Khudaverdyan Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, National Academy of Science, Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, 0025, Charents st.15, Armenia email: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract: is paper reports on the prevalence of traumatic bone lesions among Bronze and Iron Age populations in Armenia. A total of 51 traumatic injuries were observed in a sample of 147 individuals from 8 sites. Injuries were present in 37 males (46.3%, n=80), 13 females (28.9%, n=45), and 1 child (5%, n=20). In four sites (N. Getashen, Noraduz, Shirakavan and Lori Berd) the most affected age class was 20–29 years, in two other sites (Sarukhan and Arszvakar), the most affected age class was 40–65 years. Some kinds of trauma may be attributed to inter-personal violence, although it was not possi- ble to distinguish between intra-community (e.g. domestic) and inter-community violence. Key words: skeletal trauma; warfare; fractures Introduction e Armenian Highland was in early history a crossroads, linking the East and West. Overland trade routes existed between the Near East through the Armenian Highlands and the Caucasus and on to the Balkans, and through Caucasus and the Balkans to the north Black Sea coast and back. Since the Early Bronze Age the ethnic history of the region developed under the interaction of various groups, among which the Indo-European tribes played an important role (Khudaverdyan 2011a, b). At the end of the fourth millennium and beginning of the third millennium, there was an important farming culture in the Armenian plateau called the Kura- Araxes culture. Wheat and a variety of vegetables and fruits were grown and sheep, goats, donkeys, and horses were bred, so that the food supply was ample for the entire region. Metal goods and pottery were produced and widely distributed, having been found in the Dagestan, Chechnya, Volga, Dnieper and Don-Donets drainages in the north, in Syria and Palestine in the south, and in Anatolia to the west (Badalyan & Avetisyan 2007; Gadzhiev 1966; Krupnov 1966; Nechitailo 1991; Pystovalov 2002; Trifonov 1991; Sagona & Abramishvili 2008). Received 25 February 2013; accepted 17 December 2013; published online 7 January 2014 on www.anthropology.uw.edu.pl 30 Anahit Khudaverdyan Odontological and craniological data identified close affinities between the Ar- menian Plateau samples (Kura-Araxes culture) and contemporary samples from the Ukraine and Moldova (Tripolye culture) (Alekseeva & Krus 1999; Khudaverdyan 2009, 2011a, b). For later periods, there is also evidence of phenetic affinity between the populations of Armenia (c. 11–8 c. BCE) and Eastern Europe (Timber Grave culture and Srubnaya culture) (Debets 1954; Dubova 2010; Khokhlov 2000; Khu- daverdyan 2011a, b, c; Konduktorova 1956, 1969; Kruts 1984; Shevchenko 1984, 1986). Hence, it is possible to outline cultural and ethnic interactions in antiquity and the known role of the Armenian Plateau as an intermediary between ancient areas of distribution of Tripolye cultures and the Orient (Lang 2005; Martirosyan & Mnacakanyan 1973; Passek 1949). e Armenian Plateau and Georgian sam- ples (Kura-Araxes culture) and the Catacomb culture samples from Kalmykia and Ukraine, exhibit very close affinities to each other. Such contacts continued until the Late Bronze Age (Khudaverdyan 2011a). At the Late Bronze Age Armenian necrop- olises among the usual graves with human skeletons there were burials of horses and a chariot (Devejyan 1981; Kuftin 1941; Simonyan 2006). According to the archaeological record (Kyshnareva 1990), the Bronze Age was a time of population growth. Trade networks expanded and social systems grew in complexity. Increasing migration and trade between state-level societies in Eurasia led to a higher incidence of infectious disease (Khudaverdyan 2011c). Many papers have been published about skeletal samples from Armenia. Most of these, however, focus on osteometrics and especially on cranial studies (Alekseev 1974; Khudaverdyan 2011a, b; Palikyan 1990), as well as on epidemiology (Khudav- erdyan 2011c). Very little is known about traumatic lesions in human skeletal remains of ancient Armenia in the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (Khudaverdyan 2012). e present paper provides a contribution that aims to reduce this gap. e analysis of skeletal trauma may provide a more thorough understanding of the quality of life in ancient Armenia. Although many skeletons under study were fragmented or disartic- ulated, their analysis can still contribute to knowledge of interpersonal violence and accidental traumatic injuries in prehistory. Material and methods e present paper discusses human remains from 8 archaeological sites in Armenia (Figure 1). e Early Bronze Age sample is represented exclusively by burials from Kaps, while the samples from later periods were excavated at several different sites. Kaps is an Early Bronze Age site located on the Shirak plateau that was occupied from c. 4000 to 3000 BCE (Kura-Araxes culture) (Figure 2). A multiple burial was excavated there containing the remains of three individuals, together with rich grave goods (Petrosyan et al. 2009; Eganyan 2010). Trauma in human remains from Armenia 31 Figure 1. Map of Armenia showing the location of the sites discussed in the paper. e Black Fortress site is remarkable, owing to its archaeological features span- ning two periods of ancient Armenian history (Late Bronze Age and Late Antiquity, i.e. 1 c. BCE – 3 c. CE) (Avagyan 2003; Ter-Markaryan & Avagyan 2000). Sev- eral settlements have been found at the site in association with a very large cemetery. e cemetery is located near the Aleksandrapol tower in the city of Gyumri. All of the burials appear to have been primary interments, typical of the Late Bronze Age (c. 14–12 c. BCE), and oriented in an east-west direction. Intentionally interred remains of small animals were also common (Figure 3). In total, the remains of 13 individuals have been recovered at the site. Nerkin Getashen is a Late Bronze Age site occupied from the 15–11 c. BCE, located in the Sevan region. e skeletal remains of 32 individuals were recovered, of which several of the graves of male individuals contained spear and javelin points, arrowheads, knives, and swords (Martirosyan 1964). From these burial deposits only the skulls and some postcranial elements were available for study. Human occupation at Shirakavan began in the 3 millennium BCE and con- tinued until the 7/6 c. BCE. Altogether, remains of 21 individuals were found 32 Anahit Khudaverdyan Figure 2. Burial 1 from Kaps (photograph by L. Eganyan). Figure 3. Burial 37 from Black Fortress (photograph by S. Markaryan). Trauma in human remains from Armenia 33 in several cemeteries at Shirakavan. All of the burials appear to have been typical Iron Age interments (c. 9–6 c. BCE), oriented on an east-west axis. e recov- ered skeletal remains account for only a small proportion of the inhabitants of the site. e cemetery comprise mostly single burials, but double and triple burials are also present. Skeletal remains were recovered as isolated bones and skulls, largely in disarticulated positions. One of the most interesting and unique discoveries made at Shirakavan was that of detached human crania buried together with complete bodies. Among these crania, 2 are female (burial 1, 20-25 years old, see Figure 4; burial 4, 16-20 years old) and one is male (burial 1, 50-55 years old). e teeth of these indi- viduals were missing, which suggests that they had been transported from elsewhere after complete skeletonisation. However, skeletons without crania were not discov- ered in the cemetery. e material excavated sheds light on various aspects of ancient life in the region, testifying convincingly that a complex culture existed all over the Shirakavan area (Torosyan et al. 2002). Figure 4. Burial 1 from Shirakavan (photograph by L. Eganyan). 34 Anahit Khudaverdyan Excavations at Lori Berd began in 1969 by S. Devejyan and are still in progress. e site consists of an immense cemetery near the town of Stepanavan in the village of Lori Berd. e site is surrounded on both sides by the valleys of the Dzoraget and Miskhana rivers. An Iron Age (c. 6–5 c. BCE) settlement area has been identi- fied on a high highland on the left bank of the Miskana River. e settlement’s inner rooms had earthen or stonewalls and stone roofs. Despite plundering, the great tombs of Lori Berd still contain archaeological materials of great importance including a large number of rich ornamented ritual vessels, beads of stone and of precious metals, and other items (Devejyan 1981). Devejyan (1981) reported the discovery of weapons in graves of males; especially spear points, arrowheads, bronze and iron knives, and axes, all of which were probably used in warfare. Such finds suggest that warlike activities were important to this Armenian population. e Lori Berd skeletal sample is frag- mentary, often with only a few skeletal elements per individual, and the preservation of bone is generally poor. A total of 16 skeletons were excavated at this site. Table 1. Number of individuals from Armenian sites studied in this paper. Site Sex Age categories Total Chronology 0-10 11-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+ Kaps M 2 2 Early Bronze Age F 1 1 Black Fortress M 1 1 2 Late Bronze Age F 2 3 1 1 1 8 14–12 c. BCE ? 2 1 3 Nerkin Getashen M 7 3 6 1 2 19 Late Bronze Age F 2 2 1 2 7 15–11 c. BCE ? 6 6 Shirakavan M 2 1 3 4 2 12 Iron Age, 9–6 c. BCE F 1 2 1 3 2 9 Sarukhan M 1 2 1 3 1 8 Middle/Late Transitional F 2 1 1 4 Arszvakar M 1 6 1 2 10 Middle/Late Transitional F 1 2 1 4 11–8 c.