Bronze and Iron Ages, Armenian Upland)

THE NEW ARMENIAN MEDICAL JOURNAL Vol.8 (2014), Nо 1, p. 4-15

TRAUMA ANALYSIS IN PALEOPATHOLOGY: DISTRIBUTION, STRUCTURE, INTERPRETATION (BRONZE AND IRON AGES, ARMENIAN UPLAND)

Khudaverdyan A.Yu.1*, Yengibaryan A.A.2, Vardanyan Sh.A. 3, Matevosyan H.Sh.2, Karalyan Z.A.2, 4 1 Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, National Academy of Science of the Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia 2 Department of Medical Biology, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia 3 Department of Forensic Medicine, Yerevan State Medical University, Yerevan, Armenia 4 Institute of Molecular Biology, National Academy of Science of the Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia Received 8/15/2013; accepted in final form 1/20/2014 Abstract The purpose of this paper was to report on the incidence of traumatic bone lesions among the Bronze and Iron Ages population of the Armenian Upland. A total of 51 traumatic injuries were observed in 147 human skeletal remains. Injuries were observed on the cranium, humerus, ulna, rib, tibia, fibula, etc. The injuries were distributed among 37 male (46.3%, n=80), 13 female (28.9%, n=45) and 1 child (5%, n=20) skeletons. Injuries observed in skeletal samples from Nerkin Getashen, Noraduz, Shirakavan and Lori Berd sites were identified in remains of subjects “aged” up to 29 years; in Sarukhan and Artsva- kar injuries belonged to those at the “age” of 50-65 years. At this moment we cannot determine with certainty, whether the intentional violence occurred within a community (e.g., domestic violence) or the fights occurred between communities due to disputes over sources of potable water, plots of fertile land or places for grazing livestock. The analyzed skeletal samples are characterized by the presence of pathological changes, which are frequently associated with stressful episodes such as anaemia, inadequate nutrition, infectious diseases and the occurrence of parasites. In ancient inhabitants of the Armenian Upland different paleopathological changes were identified. The increased frequency of such signs as porotic hyperstosis (anaemia, cribra orbitalia), enamel hypoplasias, osteomyelitis, etc. signify to internal and extermnal stressful impacts, though different in strength and duration. Keywords: Armenian Upland, Bronze and Iron Ages, bioarchaeology, skeletal trauma, warfare, violence.

Introduction Bioarchaeological Trauma Studies: The evi- to and the ways in which they interacted with their dence of traumatic injury to the skeleton is often physical and social environments [Aufderhide A., cited as one of the most prevalent paleopathological Rodriguez-Martin C., 1998; Ortner D., 2003; Brick- lesions encountered in archaeological samples ley M., 2006; Brickley M., Smith M., 2006]. Through [Lovell N., 1997; Ortner D., 2003]. These lesions the investigation of injuries and their associated have the potential to reveal much information re- morbidity and mortality bioarchaeologists can eval- garding conditions of life in the past, including the uate behavior in past populations and the environ- types of risks that people might have been exposed mental and sociocultural factors that may have in- fluenced it [Larsen C., 1999]. Beginning with C. Address for Correspondence: Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography Lovejoy and K. Heiple (1981), most researchers National Academy of Science of the Republic of Armenia shifted to the use of a paleoepidemiological ap- 15 Charents Street, Yerevan, 0025, Armenia proach with the focus on quantitative analysis and Tel.: (+374 77) 13 32 54; (+374 10) 56 58 84 E-mail: [email protected] patterns of trauma within an archaeological sample.

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Within anthropology, bioarchaeological research Material and Methods has especially highlighted the importance of eco- Skeletal material from 8 archaeological sites geographical factors on trauma frequencies in an- (Kaps, Black Fortress, Shirakavan, Lori Berd, Ner- cient populations. Anthropologists have long sought kin Getashen, Sarukhan, Artsvakar, Noraduz) in to understand the origins of conflict, violence, and Armenia was examined for the presence of trau- physical injury. Variables include the effect of local matic bone lesions. The material of the present economy [Walker P., 1989], resource competition study consisted of 147 skulls of the Armenian Up- [Milner G. et al., 1991; Standen V., Arriaza B., land ancient inhabitants (80 males, 45 females, and 2000], and uneven geophysical terrain [Alvrus A., 20 children; 2 subjects were of undetermined sex). 1999] on skeletal trauma. Unfortunately, written The Early Bronze Age sample is represented sources are frequently scarce for the recent histori- exclusively by burials from Kaps, a location on the cal past and unavailable for more distant eras. Shirak plateau, inhabited since the Early Bronze A bone fracture can be defined as a break in the Age: from the fourth to the third millennium B.C. continuity of a bone, either complete or incomplete (Kura-Araxes culture). A multiple burial was exca- [Lovell N., 1997; Ortner D., 2003]. The type of vated there and contained the remains of 3 indi- fracture produced in any situation will depend on viduals together with rich grave goods [Petrosyan the type of force applied to the bone, which interacts L. et al., 2009; Eganyan L., 2010]. with the biomechanical properties of bone and the The site of the Black Fortress is remarkable morphological properties of the element affected owing to its archaeological features spanning two [Lynn K., Fairgrieve S., 2009]. Forces causing frac- periods of ancient Armenian history (Late Bronze ture can be either direct or indirect, and the severity Age and Late Antiquity, i.e. from the 1st century of the break produced will differ based on the type B.C. to the 3rd century A.D.) [Ter-Markaryan S., of force, as well as its magnitude and direction. Avagyan I., 2000; Avagyan I., 2003]. Several set- Direct trauma tends to produce fracture types tlements were found here in association with a such as transverse, penetrating, and comminuted, very large cemetery. All the burials were typical of whereas indirect trauma caused by blunt or acute the Late Bronze Age (the 14th–12th centuries tool tends to produce spiral, oblique, and impacted B.C.), they were oriented in the east-west direc- fracture types. tion. In total, the remains of 13 individuals were Chronic lesions can also result from more subtle recovered at this site. forces, such as the lower-impact repetitive forces that The material excavated sheds light on various cause stress or fatigue fractures, or can occur second- aspects of ancient life in this region convincingly arily to a pathological condition that weakens the testifying to the complex culture all over the Shira- bone and turns to a pathological fracture [Ortner D., kavan area [Torosyan R. et al., 2002]. Altogether, 2003]. Fractures may be accompanied by complica- 21 individuals were found from Shirakavan site. tions such as hemorrhage, extensive soft tissue dam- All the burials appeared typical of the Iron Age in- age, nerve disruption or damage, excessive inflam- terments (the 9th–6th centuries B.C.), being ori- mation, and infection [Ortner D., 2003]. ented with the east-west axis. The cemeteries com- Blunt force trauma is the result of impact on the prised mostly single burials, but double and triple skeleton with a blunt object; this injury tends to burials were also present. Skeletal remains were cause fractures that differ depending on the skele- recovered as isolated bones and skulls, largely in tal element. In long bones, blunt force trauma often disarticulated positions. results in direct force injuries, whereas in the cra- Excavations at Lori Berd have begun in 1969 nial vault depressed fractures might be produced. by S. Devejyan and are still in progress. This orig- Sharp force trauma results from attack with a inal and interesting site consists of an immense bladed weapon, such as a knife, hatchet, sword, or cemetery near the town of Stepanavan in the vil- bayonet; the resultant lesion is typically a straight lage of Lori Berd. The materials discovered in incision with very sharp edges. these tombs included a large number of richly or- namented ritual vessels, beads made of stone and

5 Khudaverdy an A.Yu. et al. The New Armenian Medical Journal, Vol.8 (2014), No 1, p. 4-15

precious metals, and other items [Devejyan S., gathered by Anna Palikyan (1990). 1981]. As reported by S. Devejyan the discovery Traumatic lesions were observed both in cranial involved weapons in graves of males, especially and postcranial skeletal remains. Antemortem spear points and arrowheads, as well as bronze and trauma was distinguished from perimortem trauma iron knives and axes that were probably used in by the appearance of new bone deposits, resulting warfare. This suggests that warlike activities were in callus formation or beveled edges [Aufderheide also important in this population. The Lori Berd А., Rodriguez-Martin С., 1998]. skeletal sample is fragmentary, often with only a few skeletal elements per individual, and the pres- Results and Discussion ervation of bone tissue is generally poor. A total of Cranial traumas: Materials from 7 archaeologi- 16 skeletons were excavated at this site. cal sites in Armenia were examined for the pres- The examined human remains from the Sevan ence of traumatic bone lesions on skull (in Kaps region (Nerkin Getashen, Sarukhan, Artsvakar, site traumatic bone lesions on skull were not Noraduz) consisted mainly of skulls and, to a lesser found). The frequency of bone fractures at sites is degree, of postcranial elements. The preservation summarized in Table 1. The highest number of in- of crania is satisfactory. Nerkin Getashen is a Late dividuals with this type of lesions was observed at Bronze Age site inhabited from the 15th–11th cen- Lori Berd (9 of 16 subjects), followed by Shiraka- turies B.C. The skeletal remains of 32 individuals van (7 of 21 subjects) and Sarukhan (5 of 12 sub- were identified at this site. From these burial de- jects) sites. The highest frequency of cranial le- posits only the skulls and some postcranial ele- sions was observed at Black Fortress and Artsva- ments were studied. Late Bronze/Early Iron Age kar, and they mainly involved male skeletal re- (the 11th–8th centuries B.C.) burials were located mains. Of all the identified children, only one had within settlements in well-defined burial areas. In- an osteological trauma. dividual interments were accompanied by metal- One middle-aged male skeleton was found to work grave goods, such as jewelry, weaponry, and have undergone two surgical procedures. The skull pottery. The Noraduz site is a burial location that defect (approximately 34 mm in diameter) appears includes at least 35 adult individuals of both sexes round in the upper part and then has straight sides and all ages, accompanied by many stone and bone more inferiorly. The hole is in the left parietal bone tools, as well as ornamental objects. Various settle- (Figure 1). The differential diagnosis for this de- ment sites were found surrounding this large cem- fect includes weapon injury (depressed fracture etery, which was excavated in 1960 by H. Martiro- with the section of bone removed surgically). syan. Skeletons from Noraduz, Nerkin Getashen, The scalp had been resected; several fine inci- Sarukhan, and Artsvakar are a part of collection sion marks were observed around the line of the

Table 1. The distribution of skull trauma location frequencies (%) by site area on the Armenian Upland Trauma location Total Sites parietal frontal occipital nasal n % n % n % n % n % Kaps Black Fortress 4/13 30.8 1/13 7.7 5/13 38.5 Nerkin Getashen 5/32 15.7 - 1/32 3.2 6/32 18.8 Sarukhan 2/12 16.7 3/12 25 5/12 41.7 Artsvakar 1/15 6.7 1/15 6.7 2/15 13.4 Noraduz 4/35 11.5 1/35 2.9 5/35 14.3 Lori Berd 8/16 50 1/16 6.3 9/16 56.3 Shirakavan 6/21 28.6 1/21 4.8 7/21 33.4

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a b

Figure 1. Injury on the left parietal bone (Shirakavan, burial 11, male, 45-50 years old): a) general view, b) frag- ment of a (× 2). craniotomy cut, some parallel to each other, around The subject from Sarukhan (burial 10, female, the sides of the head. Probably, the scalp from the 40-45 years old)(Figure 2) exhibits a circular blunt top of the head was removed by cutting across the trauma (3.5 × 3 cm and 1.7 cm of depth) in the left front and along the sides (roughly following the parietal bone with signs of healing; the inner table hairline in front but cutting through it posteriorly) of skull is intact. The skull of a mature male (Ner- and then lifting the scalp back, making subdermal kin Getashen, 25-29 years old)(Figure 3) also incisions to the back of the head to further the re- showed a large and shallow depressive fracture on flection of the scalp to allow the craniotomy. Signs of the Iron Age related interaction of different ethno-cultural units ‒ Iranian-speaking no- madic groups (Scythians, Sarmatians, Sauroma- tians, Saka) ‒ and local population are traced on the Armenian Upland [Khudaverdyan A., 2012 a]. Finds of tumuli in the Caucasus show the perma- nent presence of Scythians in these parts. The Scythians were notoriously barbaric and aggressive warriors. They “fought to live and lived to fight” and “drank the blood of their enemies and used the scalps as napkins” [Herodotus, 1972]. Figure 2. Subject from Sarukhan (burial 10, female, 40-45 years old); depression fracture involving left parietal. Scalping is a form of trophy taking that can be found in the earliest written records, including the fourth book of Herodotus dating to 484-425 B.C. Scalping was documented and widespread among Sarmatians and Scythians [Murphy E. et al., 2002]. There was ample evidence of severed human heads removal as a form of trophy taking [Lambert P., 2007], and it was suggested that scalping represents a derivation of this earlier practice [Hamperl H., Laughlin W., 1959]. Perhaps, scalping was con- nected with the Scythians, as this is the first dis- Figure 3. The linear fracture with shallow depression in the covery in Armenia. parietal bone (Nerkin Getashen, male, 25-29 years old).

7 Khudaverdy an A.Yu. et al. The New Armenian Medical Journal, Vol.8 (2014), No 1, p. 4-15

the parietal bone. The wound was well healed with a layer of dense new bone. The trauma (Shirakavan, burial 1, female, 35-40 years old)(Figure 4) shows a large angular blade wound, 7 cm long and 2.5 mm deep, which occrred above the right parietal bone. This antemortem wound does not perforate the endocranium. This wound was produced by a blow from an anterior position; most likely the blade was used. A perfo- rated fracture is present with traces of healing in

the parietal bone on a child skull (4-6 years old) Figure 4. Angular blade wound (SShirakavan, from burial 63-I (Lori Berd) (Figure 5). It is note- burial 1, female, 35-40 years old). worthy that bone fracture fragments in the left parietal bone are marked by a healed perforating fracture, with impression of fragments into the cranial cavity: there is merger of separate fragments with those lying next to the bone. The integrity of cranial bones was disrupted by blunt injury and the trauma site had the form and size of the crime in- strument surface. The dent has a roundish form with a diameter of 4.2-3.5 cm. The trauma could not be an immediate cause of the subject’s death. The integrity of the cranial vault was broken by Figure 5. A case of traumatic blow hole in the skull (Lori trauma from a blunt object, and the shape of the Berd, burial 63-I, child, 4-6 years old). wound reflects the form of this object. On the surface of the skull minor defect obliteration is observed. At the same time, from the central part of the defect the overgrown fault lines start. Traces of inflammatory processes are evident. The partial cranium of a young female pre- sented evidence of perimortem damage, with a sharply depressed circular fracture representing a small impact site on the left parietal bone (Figure 6) that measures 13.7 × 12 mm. The slightly im- pressed and sharp margin of the wound on the ec- tocranium and the spalling of the lamina interna Figure 6. Injury on the left parietal bone (Sarukhan, surrounding the wound are typical of stabs with a burial 5, female, 25-30 years old). sharp, tapered weapon. The traumatic injury of the nasal bones was observed in one female subject remains from Nora- duz (burial 19, 40-45 years old)(Figure 7). The nose was considerably deformed and the displace- ment of bone fragments apparent. Postcranial skeleton: No complete skeletons were available from Nerkin Getashen, Noraduz, Artsvakar, Shirakavan, Sarukhan and Lori Berd sites, the postcranial fragments were disintegrated and poorly preserved. Therefore, we will only deal Figure 7. Fracture of the nasal bones (Noraduz, burial with the available skeletal segments. 19, female, 40-45 years old).

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The collection from Nerkin Getashen (burial Among the most frequently observed skeletal 1, male, 20-25 years old) (Figure 8) contains the lesions in ancient populations were those result- example of trauma to the pelvis (passage of the ing from injuries that sustained lifelong. The ac- arrow through the iliac bone) [Khudaverdyan А., cidents or violent episodes of someone’s life often 2012с]. The arrowhead cut through the external leave unmistakable traces on the skeleton in the skin and probably entered into the abdominal form of broken bones. Such might be the case cavity. While trauma of the pelvis represents an with an ulna (“nightstick”) fracture that occurred individual, who survived the injuries temporar- (perhaps as a result of an attack) on segment about ily, death was the almost inevitable outcome of 7.6 cm from the distal end of the left ulna (burial injury to the pelvis. 37: woman, 35-40 years old) (Figure 9). The left- Penetrating wounds of the abdomen were as- sided predominance suggests that the injury to the sociated with high mortality, given the danger woman was most likely produced during combat of damaging major arteries and nerves within by direct blows to the protective shield (the force the abdominal region, as well as the high risk transmitted from the edge of the shield to the of infection associated with potential injury of ulna), or by direct blows when the forearm was the intestines and possible leaking of the ab- used to ward off a blow [Pretty G., Kricun M., dominal contents [Connor M., Mowat L., 1915]. 1989; Kricun M., 1994]. Unusual conditions, The injuries to the pelvis were observed also in movements, or loads led to a premature deforma- the Smith’s Knoll sample [Kaufman M., 2003]. tion ‒ a deformed arthrosis in an elbow joint. In a Sepulchral barrows related to the Bronze Age new joint the surfaces show signs of osteophyto- of the Armenian Upland (near Lchashen, on the sis. Spondylolysis of the 1st cervical vertebra in Lake Sevan coast, etc.) contained spear and the area of the tuberculum post are observed. It is javelin points, arrowheads, knives, swords of unclear, whether the conditions were caused by war chariots and confirmed that there were reg- microtraumas, a congenital defect, or a combina- ular military collisions in that location [Mar- tion of both [Aufderheide A., Rodríguez-Martín tirosyan A., 1964]. C., 1998; Ortner D., 2003].

Figure 8. A 20-25-year-old male from Nerkin Getashen with the projectile point (arrowhead) wound of the iliac bone: a) frontal view, b) reverse side.

Figure 9. Fracture of the ulna (Black Fortress, burial 37, woman, 35-40 years old).

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A blow cut off part of the right humerus of the subject from Kaps (male, aged between 45 and 50 years old)(Figure 10) [Khudaverdyan A., 2012 b]. The hammer was most probably the weapon that caused this lesion. Taking into account the tools and weapons used by the populations of the Armenian Upland during that time, the only metal objects that show an approximately round profile were special kind lancet peaks and a hammerhead similar to those used today by masons and brick workers. Figure 10. Healed trauma on a humeral bone (Kaps, Considerable muscle trauma, which might have remains of subject No.3, male, 45-50 years old). caused discomfort, was observed on the right fibula (Figure 11). Constant stress can cause enthesopathies (bone processes) or cortical bone defects at the site of muscle or ligament attachments when they lose the capacity to properly absorb the stress imposed [Hawkey D., Merbs C., 1995]. Enthesopathies are commonly caused by constant microtraumas, but may also be the result of inflammatory diseases, en- Figure 11. Healed fracture of the fibula (Black For- tress, burial 14, male, 45-50 years old). docrine or degenerative diseases, as well as severe sudden trauma [Resnick D., Niwayama G., 1983]. Considerable muscle trauma, which might have caused discomfort, was observed also in the right femur of the male skeleton (remains of subject No.1) from Kaps (Figure 12). The collection from Artsvakar (burial 4, male, 45-50 years old) contains the example of trauma to Figure 12. Muscle trauma of the femur (Kaps, remains the lower limb. In this subject two leg bones, the tibia of subject No.1, male, 45-50 years old). and fibula, had fused together (Figure 13). This defect must have considerably diminished the normal falls and other accidents. Beside these, one of the biomechanical function of the leg bones. A severe de- main causes of humerus fractures is direct blow generative process occurred on the two leg bones. from a peak or another weapon, especially when the In subject 63-I from Lori Berd antemortem paleo- aggressor, who seeks to weapon an opponent’s pathology is evident, such as healed fractures on the skull, misses the head and instead hits the shoulder. ribs (Nos. 5, 7, 9, 12)(Figure 14). Among 12 adults It cannot be determined with certainty which hu- buried in the Black Fortress, Kaps, Lori Berd and merus fractures occurred as a result of interpersonal Shirakavan, six individuals suffered rib fractures. violence and which were the result of accidents, but A total of 51 traumatic injuries were observed in at least some part of these traumas occurred as a re- 147 skeletal remains from the Armenian Upland sult of deliberate interpersonal violence. Fractures sites of Bronze and Iron Ages. Injuries were ob- of the ulna, femur, etc. are found on various indi- served on the cranium, humerus, ulna, rib, tibia and viduals and are suggestive of accidental trauma in fibula. The injuries were distributed among 37 populations of the Armenian Upland. males, 13 females, and 1 child. The parietal lesions Environmental factors in formation of noso- (Table 1) tended to be left-sided, which may indi- complex in the ancient population of Armenian cate that the injuries resulted from face to face as- Upland: The comparative study was performed in sault by right-handed attackers [Atta H., 1999]. As 3 eco-geographical societies in an effort to deter- reported by N. Lovell (1997), fractures of the cra- mine what factors (such as systemic stress, diet, nium are more related to interpersonal violence than infection, etc.) were involved in aggressive be- fractures of long bones, which are associated with havior in those societies. According to the arche-

10 The New Armenian Medical Journal, Vol.8 (2014), No 1, p. 4-15 Khudaverdyan A.Yu. et al. ological records [Kushnareva K., 1990], it was a Berd, Shirakavan, Sarukhan and Artsvakar show time of high population density. Pathological a significantly higher incidence of non-specific changes in bones and teeth associated with stress- indicators of infection (Table 2). In burials of the ful episodes such as anaemia, inadequate nutri- Armenian Upland mild cases of orbital roof in- tion, infectious diseases, and the occurrence of volvement were found suggesting iron deficiency parasites, were recorded in almost half of the ana- related to infectious diseases and parasitism, lyzed sample; this latter represents a relatively which can also affect the occurrence of anaemia. high prevalence especially taking into account The overall frequency of cribra orbitalia in the the poor preservation of some skeletons [Angel J., combined sample from Sevan region was 44.8%, 1966; Goodman A., Rose J., 1990; 1991; Stuart- in samples from Shirak plateau the prevalence of Macadam 1992a;b; Hillson S., 1996; 2000; Rob- this lesion was 45.95%, and in the set from Tash- erts C., Manchester K., 2005]. The sites of Lori ratap plateau ‒ 42.9%. Many cases of osteomyelitis were revealed in the Sevan region (12.8% or 12 of 94 subjects). However, the skeletal remains of samples from Shirak and Tashratap plateaus were not affected by osteomyelitis. The combined sample of 16 adult individuals (27.6%) from Sevan region showed evidence of dental abscesses that was higher than in the Tashratap plateau population (where only one individual was affected: 5.9%) and Shirak plateau (10% or 3 of 10 subjects). Antemortem teeth loss was a frequent finding in the dentitions at Sevan region (44.7% or 21 of 47 subjects). In Tashratap plateau sample, antemortem teeth loss was observed in three adult subjects (16.7%), while in that of Shirak plateau it was detected in 22.6% subjects. Dental caries is an infectious disease that de- stroys the tooth structure, the root and the crown [Aufderheide A., Rodriguez-Martin C., 1998]. The caries was observed in 12 subjects from the Black Fortress (3 of 10), Nerkin Getashen (2 of 17), Arts- vakar (2 of 5), Lori Berd (4 of 14) and Shirakavan (1 of 17). Likewise the porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia, enamel hypoplasia also belongs Figure 13. Fracture of tibia and fibula resulting in fu- sion at both ends (Artsvakar, burial 4, male, 45-50 to stress markers indicative of a childhood condi- years old; two projections). tion, as tooth formation is complete before adult- hood. The etiological factors implicated in the occurrence of growth disruption and resulting in a hypoplastic defect include diseases, malnutrition, traumas and hereditary conditions [Goodman A., Rose J., 1990; 1991; Hillson S., 1996; 2000; Rob- erts C., Manchester K., 2005]. However, malnutrition and disease appear to be a far more common cause of these defects, because hereditary defects and localized traumas are relatively rare occur- Figure 14. Different antemortem healed rib fractures of rences [Goodman A., Rose J., 1990; 1991]. The subject 63-I from Lori Berd (male, 40-45 years old). higher prevalence of enamel hypoplasias in groups

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Table 2. Paleopathological disturbances in groups of Bronze and Iron Ages from the Armenian Upland Sites Paleopathological disturbances cribra porotic enamel osteomyelitis dental dental antemortem orbitalia hyperostosis hypoplasia caries abscess teeth loss Kaps 1/3 0/3 0/3 0/3 0/3 1/3 0/3 Black 7/ 13 1/13 9/13 0/13 3/10 1/10 4/10 Fortress Nerkin 8/17 1/17 20/29 2/32 2/17 9/29 13/18 Getashen Sarukhan 7/11 0/11 6/12 5/12 0/3 2/3 3/3 Artsvakar 3/7 5/15 5/7 2/15 2/5 3/7 3/7 Noraduz 12/32 3/35 4/19 3/35 0/19 2/19 2/19 Lori Berd 4/9 2/16 9/12 5/14 4/14 1/11 4/14 Shirakavan 9/21 5/21 6/17 0/21 1/17 1/17 3/18

from the Armenian Upland (Table 2) might be due mon in skeletons belonging to the middle-aged to a number of factors, including greater exposure adults in comparison with the skeletons belonging to pathogens (other than parasites) or poorer nutri- to the younger adults. This situation is logical con- tion [Goodman A., Rose J., 1990; 1991; Hillson S., sidering that the bone traumas likewise some other 2000]. Poor nutrition in combination with expo- pathological bone changes (e.g., dental diseases) are sure to infectious pathogens would have only age-dependent, i.e. their frequency increases with heightened this problem, creating periodic epi- advanced age. The age distribution of cranial inju- sodes of growth arrest and, subsequently, higher ries in the population sets reflects a very interesting rates of enamel hypoplasias. The prevalence of hy- situation: injuries in subjects at the age up to 29 poplasia in Sevan region sample is 52.3%, fol- years were more frequently recorded in Nerkin lowed by 42.5% in sample from Shirak plateau and Getashen, Noraduz, Shirakavan and Lori Berd sites, 35.3% in the set from Tashratap plateau. The total while in Sarukhan and Artsvakar groups injuries in frequency of infection lesions was significantly subjects aged 40-65 years prevailed (Table 3). higher in the combined sample from Sevan region. This indicates that subjects of sample from Sevan Table 3. region were exposed to very unfavourable condi- The age distribution of subjects with injuries in tions. The possible cause of death could have been groups of Bronze and Iron Ages from the Arme- disease, poor epidemiological conditions, includ- nian Upland (in %) ing malnutrition, and migrations. Traumas were Age groups also present in the combined sample from Sevan Sites <19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60> region; however, the frequency of injuries in Sevan Kaps 33.4 region was less than that observed in samples of Black - - - - - Shirak and Tashratap plateaus. Fortress 38.5

Conclusion Nerkin - - - Getashen 12.5 3.2 3.2 A total of 51 traumatic injuries were observed in Sarukhan - - - - 25.0 8.4 147 individuals from the Armenian Upland sites of Artsvakar - - - 6.7 6.7 6.7 Bronze and Iron Ages. The injuries were distributed Noraduz - 5.7 2.9 2.9 - 2.9 among 37 (46.3%, N=80) males, 13 (28.9%, N=45) Lori Berd 12.5 6.3 12.5 25.0 females and 1 child (5%, N=20) (Table 1). In 8 analyzed samples bone fractures were more com- Shirakavan - 19.1 9.6 4.8 - -

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Approximately 32.5% of the combined sample This study was focused on the traumatic lesions from Shirak plateau (12 of 37 subjects) showed in- of skeletons related to the Bronze and Iron Ages juries to the cranium. The majority of these cases population of the Armenian Upland. The bioar- from both cemeteries were consistent with injuries chaeological study of burial remains showed that inflicted by blunt force objects; the point of im- the subjects were local inhabitants of Armenia pact, radiating fractures, and concentric fractures [Palikyan А., 1990; Khudaverdyan A., 2011]. Un- could be identified. Evidence of trauma was pres- fortunately, at this moment we cannot determine ent in the combined sample from Sevan region with certainty, whether the intentional violence oc- (19.2%; 18 of 94 subjects); however, the frequency curred within a community (e.g., domestic vio- of injuries in Sevan region was less than that of lence) or the fights occurred between communities Shirak plateau. Evidence of trauma was present in due to disputes over sources of potable water, plots the site from Tashratap plateau (Tashir-Dzoraget: of fertile land or places for grazing livestock. 56.3%; 9 of 16). The highest frequencies of cranial Considering that the anthropological studies of lesions were observed at Black Fortress, Lori Berd the Bronze and Iron Ages human skeletal remains and Arszvakar, and they mainly involved males. from the territory of Armenia have been rarely The total frequency of infection lesions was published, this research along with previously significantly higher in the combined sample from published analysis represents only the initial step Sevan region. Traumas were present in the com- in creating a much larger database of paleopatho- bined sample from Sevan region, however, the fre- logical characteristics of the Bronze and Iron Ages quency of injuries in Sevan region was less than inhabitants of the Armenian Upland. that in samples of Shirak and Tashratap plateaus. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Seda Devejyan and Levon Petrosyan (Yerevan), Larissa Eganyan, Stepan Ter- Markaryan and Hamazasp Khachatryan (Gyumri) and team members of the expeditions for the opportu- nity to study materials of their skeletal samples collections.

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