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United Nations University Press Is the Publishing Arm of the United ­Nations University United Nations University Press is the publishing arm of the United Nations University. UNU Press publishes scholarly and policy-oriented books and periodicals on the issues facing the United Nations and its peoples and member states, with particular emphasis upon international, regional and transboundary policies. The United Nations University was established as a subsidiary organ of the United Nations by General Assembly resolution 2951 (XXVII) of 11 December 1972. The United Nations University undertakes a wide range of activities focused on knowledge generation (basic and applied research, and foresight and policy studies), education and capacity devel- opment (developing human and organizational capabilities), and know- ledge transfer and sharing (communications, dissemination and outreach). The University operates through its institutes and programmes located throughout the world, and its planning and coordinating centre in Tokyo. Gender-based explosions Gender-based explosions: The nexus between Muslim masculinities, jihadist Islamism and terrorism Maleeha Aslam © United Nations University, 2012 The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not neces- sarily reflect the views of the United Nations University. United Nations University Press United Nations University, 53-70, Jingumae 5-chome, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan Tel: +81-3-5467-1212 Fax: +81-3-3406-7345 E-mail: [email protected] general enquiries: [email protected] http://www.unu.edu United Nations University Office at the United Nations, New York 2 United Nations Plaza, Room DC2-2062, New York, NY 10017, USA Tel: +1-212-963-6387 Fax: +1-212-371-9454 E-mail: [email protected] United Nations University Press is the publishing division of the United Nations University. Cover design by Maria Sese-Paul Printed in the United States of America for the Americas and Asia Printed in the United Kingdom for Europe, Africa and the Middle East ISBN 978-92-808-1208-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aslam, Maleeha. Gender-based explosions : the nexus between Muslim masculinities, jihadist Islamism and terrorism / Maleeha Aslam. pages ; cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-9280812084 (paperback) 1. Masculinity—Islamic countries. 2. Masculinity—Religious aspects—Islam. 3. Masculinity—Pakistan. 4. Muslim men—Pakistan—Islamabad. 5. Terrorism—Religious aspects—Islam. 6. Islam and politics. 7. Jihad. I. Title. HQ1090.7.I74A87 2010 305.38’697—dc22 2011047938 Endorsements “Maleeha Aslam shines a clear and steady light on the murky, post-9/11 world of violent extremism. She helps us to penetrate the troubled and unsure existence of young Muslim men, who, at a loss for guidance, too often take refuge in the message of radical clerics. Without understanding their context it will be virtually impossible to check the acts of terror that stem from their desperation and indoctrination. Aslam’s book is essential reading for all who seek to comprehend the morass from which terrorists emerge and the very nature of our world.” Akbar Ahmed, Ibn Khaldun Chair of Islamic Studies, School of Inter- national Service, American University, Washington D.C. “This well-researched and morally engaged book is an important contri- bution to gender studies and to understanding the contemporary Muslim world. Maleeha Aslam has conducted careful and imaginative research, and has a powerful argument on the relevance of masculinity dynamics to Islamist militancy. Some of the findings are troubling; but by moving beyond the clichés of both Western ‘security’ thinking and conventional militancy, to a concern with the making of masculinities and the possibili- ties of change, this book offers a message of hope.” Raewyn Connell, author of Masculinities and Gender: In World Perspective “This is a powerful and disturbing study of global jihadism that maintains that the roots of violence lie not in religious ideologies but in gender- based codes of honour that pre-date Islam. Focusing on Pakistan, it argues that ordinary Pakistanis are predisposed to terrorism by political and economic oppression that lead to expressions of outraged masculin- ity. In depicting men as victims of patriarchy, it suggests that only by pro- viding Muslim men with alternative cultures of self-actualisation will we combat Islamist violence.” John Hutchinson, Reader in Nationalism, Department of Government, London School of Economics and Political Science “This ground-breaking book presents new research which will undoubt- edly stimulate much controversy. It opens up issues regarding men, gen- der and sexuality in Islamic societies and draws connections between how young men are raised and their recruitment into terrorist organiza- tions. Focusing on Pakistan, the book is of relevance to Middle East stud- ies, gender studies and issues of war and peace. A work of courage approached with integrity and solid research.” Amira A. Sonbol, Professor of Islamic History, Law and Society, George- town University, Doha, Qatar campus “From the vantage point of policy, it seems rare in these times that a fem- inist scholar can take on a subject as daunting and diverse as ‘Muslim Masculinities’ and treat that subject in such a thorough, generous and sympathetic manner. Maleeha Aslam’s Gender-based Explosions com- bines a detailed understanding of the motivations that lead men to join terrorist movements, the Islamic texts that are so often used to justify ter- rorist violence, and the feminist theory that has yet to find an appropriate foothold in much of the Muslim world. But it is her sensitive and probing interviews with Muslim men in Pakistan that separates this book from others. Aslam investigates the diverse ‘performativities’ of Muslim men, the ‘honor’ codes that drive some to commit grave violence, and the means – more and less legitimate – by which men seek to justify violent response based on external threats to their cultures, families and commu- nities. But it is her trusting engagement with Pakistani men that both complicates stereotypes about who these men are and what actually mo- tivates their action in the world, and portraits humane and nuanced faces to those who see ‘counter-terrorism’ as merely a strategy to pacify and/or nullify ‘the other’. While interrogating her own theoretical categories, Aslam reminds readers that a focus on how masculinities are constructed in the Muslim world can give us important clues on how to reach poten- tial terrorists with new models for the Muslim man; but she also reminds us of the ways in which the policies of the non-Muslim world must dra- matically shift to reduce incentives to violence among the men whose families and neighborhoods seem forever under siege.” Robert Zuber, Director, Global Action to Prevent War and Armed Con- flict (UN Plaza), New York For Muhammad Aslam My father And as a single leaf turns not yellow but with the silent knowledge of the whole tree, So the wrong doer cannot do wrong without the hidden will of you all. Like a procession you walk together towards your god-self You are the way and the wayfarers. And when one of you falls down he falls for those behind him, a caution against the stumbling stone. Ay, and he falls for those ahead of him, who though faster and surer of foot, yet removed not the stumbling stone. The righteous is not innocent of the deeds of the wicked Kahlil Gibran in The Prophet Contents Tables and figures . xi Abbreviations . xiii Foreword . xiv Vesselin Popovski Acknowledgements . xvi Introduction . 1 Part I: Framing the global chaos: An overview . 7 1 The global jihadist movement . 9 2 Terrorism and counterterrorism: An overview of current strategies . 39 Part II: Islam, masculinities and performance . 71 3 Gender theory . 73 4 Islamic masculinities . 90 5 Muslim masculinities . 113 x Contents Part III: Pakistani masculinities and vulnerable social groups in the age of terror: A pilot study of Muslim men in Islamabad, aged 18– 40 . 145 6 Research setting: Contextualizing the pilot study on Pakistani masculinities . 147 7 Self-image, social expectations and pressures . 177 8 Muslim masculinities in the age of terror . 202 9 Muslim masculinities, militant-jihadist Islamism and suicide terrorism . 222 10 Islamism, terrorism and “the vulnerable” in society . 253 11 Analysis of the pilot study . 268 Conclusion . 274 Appendix: Statistical profile of the research sample (Islamabad, Pakistan) . 278 References and further reading . 280 Index . 305 Tables and figures Tables 9.1 Model A: Determinants of militant-jihadist Islamism . 225 9.2 Model B: Determinants of suicide bombings . 228 9.3 Affiliation with religious bodies and trends in militant Islamism (sample: combined) . 230 9.4 Attendance at daily prayer (sample: SSD) . 231 9.5 Most appealing religious duty, obligation or ritual (sample: combined) . 232 9.6 Expectations from jihad (sample: SSD) . 233 9.7 Three primary characteristics of being a “man” (sample: combined) . 235 9.8 Gender expectations and trends in militant Islamism (sample: combined) . 236 9.9 Masculine constructions, violence and trends in militant Islamism (sample: combined) . 238 9.10 Domestic and public violence and trends in militant Islamism (sample: combined) . 239 9.11 Interest in houris and trends in militant Islamism (sample: combined) . 241 9.12 Attendance at daily prayer and trends in militant Islamism (sample: combined) . 243 9.13 Approval of suicide terrorism . 243 9.14 Opinion about Osama Bin Laden and Al Qaeda (sample: LSE) . 244 xi xii Tables and figures 9.15 Opinion
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