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IT/HAD-I Tslam OR OTTOMAN PAN-ISLAMISM, 1839-1908 Elrashid

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IT/HAD-I Tslam OR OTTOMAN PAN-ISLAMISM, 1839-1908 Elrashid c /IT/HAD-I tSLAM OR OTTOMAN PAN-ISLAMISM, 1839-1908 Elrashid H. Kheir Institute of Islamic Studies McGill University, Montreal, August, 1995 11 A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Arts 11 © E.H. Kheir, 1995 0 ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to trace back the idea of Pan-Islamism within the Ottoman empire, as it developed in reaction to the gradual introduction of Western reforms, and later Western threats to its own integrity. The study discusses the development of the ideology of Pan-Islamism within the Ottoman context. Emphasis is made on the influence of international diplomacy, economic forces, and social change on the development of the ideology in the empire. Expression of the ideology, as well as its agents and proponents in the Ottoman empire is also discussed in the thesis. 0 c RESUME L' objectife de cette these est de retracer le developement de 1' idee du Pan­ Islamisme a 1 I interieur 1I empire Ottoman, en reaction a 1I introduction progressive des reformes puis des traites de l'Ouest dans sa propre integrite. Cette etude tente de debattre de l'ideologie du Pan-Islamisme dans le contexte Ottoman 1' accent est porte sur 1' influence de la diplomatie internationale, des forces economiques et des changements sociaux sur le development de l'idee du Pan-islamisme dans !'empire. L'expression de l'ideologie comme celle de ses partisans dans l'empire Ottoman est aussi discutee dans cette these. c 0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped in any way and contributed towards the final production of this thesis. Special thanks are due to my academic supervisor Dr. A. U. Turgay, for his kind support, academic and otherwise that he continued to exhibit throughout the period that I have taken to bring this thesis to its fmal form. Despite all the difficulties, his kind support and patience provided the incentive for me to complete this thesis. Thanks are also due to the Institute of Islamic Studies for the assistant it has given me that greatly helped in the completion of this thesis. My many thanks to the staff of the Institute of Islamic Studies, as well as to the helpful staff of the Library of the Institute of Islamic Studies, Salwa Ferahian, Steve Milliere, and Wayne Thomas for their ever-ready help and assistance. I would also like to express deep gratitude to my wife for all the support and encouragement, my family, and to the many friends, and colleagues who always extended their support and encouragement. c TABLE OF CQNTENTS INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 2 I. THE POLITICAL FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTED TO THE RISE OTTOMAN PAN-ISLAMISM A. European Policies Toward the Ottoman Empire ........................................ 7 B. European Influence and the Ottoman Reforms ......................................... 20 11. SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS A. Economic Problems 1. European Economic Penetration ........................................................ 34 2. Financial Indebtedness and the Loss of Ottoman Monopolies ..................................................................... 39 B. Social Upheavals and New Social Realities. 1. Reorganization of the Millets ........................................................... .44 2. Population Changes ........................................................................ 52 Ill. EXPRESSION OF THE IDEOLOGY OF PAN-ISLAMISM IN THE EMPIRE ................................................................................ 59 IV. AGENTS OF PAN-ISLAMIC IDEAS A. Early Political Groups ....................................................................... 72 B. Hamidian Pan-Islamism ..................................................................... 84 CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 96 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................... 98 c 0 INTRODUCTION Pan-Islamism, as a common Muslim front, was an ideological reaction of the Muslims to the impact and influence of the Christian West. It emerged in the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the nineteenth century and assumed a religious as well as a political character, affecting and mobilizing both the conservative and the liberal elements of the Ottoman society. The ideology of Pan-Islamism, and the call for the unity of all Muslims within the Ottoman Empire, could be traced to the Tanzimat period. It appeared as an early expression of reaction to the encroachment of Western powers that had severely undermined the traditional institutions, and indeed the sovereignty of the Ottoman state. The economic plight of the people and the growing bankruptcy of the state, partly resulting from Western economic penetration and financial control, and the policies of the European governments, particularly that of the czars', led the Ottoman Muslims to question the whole issue of Westernization. They gradually came to reckon to their Islamic heritage as the only basis for the unity that was deemed necessary to prevent the decline of the Empire. During this time, the growing concern within the Ottoman Empire, represented in the reaction and resentment to European interference in the affairs of the state and at the weakness of the empire itself, was expressed by liberals and some westernizers, as well as by Islamists. Though differed in emphasis, they all agreed, however, in the context of 2 Ittihad-i fslam or the importance and the need for the unity of all Muslims. The new c emphasis on the Caliphal aspect of the Ottoman Sultan, on the other hand, provided a focus for those who were opposed to Westernization and to the introduction of reforms. Moreover, European successes which resulted in the loss of Ottoman European lands and the influx of the Muslims of these regions into the Ottoman heartland in Anatolia, changed considerably the composition of the Ottoman population, culminating in the predominance of the Muslims in the empire. It was during this period that Ottoman Pan-Islamism found a general expression and later intensified under Sultan Abdiilhamid 11 who was able to perceive the importance of religious unity in a country dominated by Muslims. He came to lay an increasing emphasis on the significance· of his position as the caliph. The aim of this thesis is to examine and analyse the factors that had contributed to the development of the idea of Pan-Islamism within the Ottoman Empire, and to present the channels through which the ideology was expressed. Although Ottoman Pan-Islamism failed to elicit evidence of any considerable organization with a practical scheme of operation, it nevertheless appears to have important programs to keep the Ottoman Empire together prior to the First World War, and to drive some loyal attitudes from a large portion of the Arab population and other Ottoman subjects. In the thesis, emphasis will be laid on the influence of economic forces, social changes, and international diplomacy on the nurturing of the idea of Pan-Islamism. In addition, the conflicting economic interests, the differences in Eastern and Western social 3 structure and values, as well as political rivalries will be examined in order to identify the 0 significance in the contribution of these factors to the emergence of Pan-Islamic principles and aspirations in the Ottoman Empire. These will be analysed and discussed in the light of the main themes of the nineteenth century Ottoman history, including the Empire's foreign relations, and the social and economic developments within the Empire. The first chapter will trace and examine the political factors and causes that led to the evolution of the idea in the Ottoman context. This could be explained in terms of the continuous European encroachment at Ottoman internal affairs, and the undermining of Ottoman sovereignty, either by war or through appealing to the sentiments of the Christian minorities. The second chapter will examine the social and economic factors that contributed to the rise of Pan-Islamic ideology in the Empire in the light of the political and economic pressures and penetration that appeared in various forms; and the subsequent social changes that created new ideologies and political forces in the Ottoman society. In the third chapter, the manner in which the ideology of Pan-Islamism was viewed and presented in response to the new developments will be discussed. The intellectual and institutional channels through which this ideology was expressed will also be taken into account and analysed. The fourth chapter will examine the different responses of the major groups, and the reasons for these responses, as well as those individual agents who advocated cultural Pan-Islamism and those who supported the political aspect of Ottoman Pan-Islamism, particularly the use of the idea by Sultan Abdiilhamid. The limits set on this thesis 0 4 c necessitated that this last point is to be treated only within the scope of events that set the momentum for the idea of Pan-Islamism during Abdiilhamid's time, for the study of Abdiilhamid' s use of Pan-Islam deserves an entire thesis on this subject. The conclusion will present a general assessment of the factors which contributed to Ottoman Pan-lslamism and the different channels through which this ideology found expression in the Empire. Although there are a number of works dealing with Pan-Islamism in general, discussion of
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