ISLAND PEOPLE: TRANSNATIONAL IDENTIFICATION, MINORITY POLITICS, AND ESTONIA‟S SWEDISH POPULATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Glenn Eric Kranking, M.A. * * * * * Dissertation Committee: Nicholas Breyfogle, Adviser Approved By: David Hoffmann Robin Judd ________________________________ Adviser, Birgitte Søland History Graduate Program Copyright by Glenn Eric Kranking 2009 ABSTRACT Changes in borders and political jurisdictions in the Baltic region over the centuries have transformed the national and communal identities of the many different communities who call the region home. Nowhere was national identity more influenced by these geopolitical shifts than in the case of a small group of Swedes who lived in relative isolation for roughly 700 years along the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea in what is now Estonia. They were on the periphery of society in almost every aspect – geographically, economically, politically, linguistically, and culturally. Through tsarist Russian, independent Estonian, Soviet, and Nazi German rule, the Estonian-Swedes sought to define their community identification amidst each successive government‟s minority policies. The arrival of missionaries from Sweden in the 1870s reconnected these scattered Swedish-speaking communities with their ancient homeland and established new links between the various towns and islands. While religion provided a foundation for the communities, the missionaries also brought the promise of education and further contacts with Sweden. In the following 60 years, the Estonian-Swedes developed increased connections with Sweden, established cultural and political organizations, founded schools, and regularly published newspapers and calendars until the arrival of the Second ii World War and the occupations by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. By 1944, the majority of the Swedish population relocated to Sweden. This dissertation focuses on the identification of the Swedes in Estonia from the arrival of the missionaries until the departure of the Estonian-Swedes in 1944. A central question to be explored is the relationship between continental Swedish nationalist and religious movements and their outreach to Swedes abroad. Did the Estonian-Swedes develop a distinct identity, or were they a branch of a larger, international Swedish identity? This dissertation will explore four aspects of the history of Estonia‟s Swedish minority: 1) the role of cultural development, 2) the relationship between minorities and those in power, 3) the relationship of a minority to a distant homeland, and 4) the geopolitical international relations between states. Intertwined in all four areas for the Swedes were the changing conceptions of “Swedishness” and their identification as “Swedes.” The domestic policies and local development of a regional identification will be compared to the transnational influences prevalent on the border region. Domestic and international politics have a significant impact on identification, particularly among minority populations. The Estonian-Swedes are an important case study for minority policies in border regions, as they highlight the dual notions of nationality and citizenship as they saw themselves as Swedish by nationality and Estonian by citizenship. As a minority group living on the periphery of society the controlling government rarely singled out the Estonian-Swedes in the development of minority policies of the region, although such policies greatly impacted their development. iii To “Morfar” from his “sprattlagubbe” For laying the foundation in the search of my own Swedishness. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research project has taken numerous turns, and multiple directions since I stumbled across some Swedish-language Soviet propaganda while studying in Estonia back in 2001. The excitement over those newspapers sparked a greater interest in the Swedish population of Estonia. Each new discovery was like peeling off another layer of an onion, revealing yet another aspect and new directions to take. I cherished those rare moments as a scholar when coming across a line in a letter that makes me completely rethink my earlier research, or sole copies of a book, long forgotten in a library, whose pages as still sealed shut from the printing press. As with life itself, though, it is not the destination that matters the most and provides the greatest joy, but rather the journey. And the journey has been wonderful – living and traveling all around the Baltic Sea region and following an incredible intellectual journey. All journeys must come to an eventual end, and the completion of this dissertation is one of those ends. But I also realize that there are many more exciting journeys just around the corner. I crossed paths with many people and institutions along this journey, certainly too many to name individually. My deepest gratitude to all those I met along the journey. This project would not have been possible without the generous financial support that enabled me to research abroad. In particular, the Malmberg Fellowship from the v American-Swedish Institute and the Thord-Gray Memorial Fund from American Scandinavian Foundation funded my research to Sweden in 2006-2007. I also graciously acknowledge the funding I received from the Ohio State University College of Humanities, the Ohio State University History Department who provided funds for research in Estonia and Moscow in 2007, and Foreign Language and Area Studies grants through the University of Washington, which enabled me to study in Estonia (2001-2002), and through the Ohio State University to study in Russia (2005). Special thanks to the following institutions and individuals: The librarians and archivists in Sweden: Stockholm University Library, Södertörn University College Library, the Royal Library (Stockholm). The National Archives, the Nordic Museum‟s Archive, and the Stockholm City Archive. The staffs at various libraries and archives in Estonia: the Estonian National Archives (Tallinn), the National Library (Tallinn), the Literature Museum (Tartu), the Tartu University Library, the Estonian Historical Archive (Tartu), the Estonian National Museum (Tartu), and the Aiboland Museum (Haapsalu). The librarians at the Slavic Library in the Helsinki University Library, Finland. The archivists in Moscow at the State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF) and the Russian State Archive of Social and Political History (RGASPI). Special thanks to the Center for Baltic and East European Studies at Södertörn University College in Sweden who hosted me 2006-2007, and in particular, Director vi Anu-Mai Kõll, Helene Carlbäck, Torbjörn Eng, and Tomas Lundén, who provided excellent advice and feedback through the research and conceptualization process. Also, thank you to Maija Runcis for organizing the Baltic Seminar, the wonderful administrative staff, and the welcoming graduate students in the Baltic and East European Graduate School. Everyone at CBEES extended a heartfelt hand to me. And a gracious thank you to Svenska Odlingens Vänner for opening up their archives and warmly welcoming me into their community. In particular, Lars Rönnberg (chairman) and the members of the weekly Archive Group: Sven, Bertil, Ingeborg, Elvine, Åke, Mats, and Lennart. Tusen tack! I would like to thank my fellow graduate students at the Ohio State University History Department – those with whom I studied Russian history, shared courses and seminars, or socialized outside the classroom. These interactions not only created great friendships, but often also gave me new insights, whether I realized it at the time or not. There are also a number of individuals I need to single out for their support and encouragement throughout my studies and research: Johanna Söderholm, my host in Reval, my fellow Estonian-Swedish scholar, and one of my dearest friends. Thank you for the numerous edits, assistance with Swedish and Estonian translations, suggestions for further reading, and for sharing moments of laughter along the way. Byron Nordstrom, Gustavus Adolphus College, a continual supporter, mentor, and friend, who has left some big shoes for me to try and fill. vii Guntis Šmidchens, University of Washington, who opened my eyes to the Baltic region, first encouraged me to study in Estonia, and gave me a 30-second summary of all he knew about the Estonian-Swedes before I first left for Estonia. Olaf Mertelsmann, University of Tartu, whose comments, suggestions, and encouragement at the early stages of this project kept me focused. Mark Soderstrom, for his friendship, intellectual conversations, and for his keen editing skills. My parents, Larry and Lily-Ann Kranking, who supported my ambitions and studies no matter where they took me. Members of my dissertation committee at Ohio State University for their valuable insights and guidance: David Hoffmann, Robin Judd, and Birgitta Søland. And certainly not least, my adviser, Nicholas Breyfogle. Thank you for seeing something in my project that sparked your intrigue, for continually trying to keep me focused on the big picture, and constantly pushing me to answer, “Why should we care?” Hopefully some of my passion for the Baltic region and Scandinavia has rubbed off on him. Through his constant questioning, I hope I have sufficiently justified why we should care about a small group of people on the periphery. Every state has minority populations. How a state defines and divides