sign in sign up
<<
Home , Black and red ware, Eastern Chalukyas, Jorwe culture, Kanva dynasty, Mahajanapadas, Malwa culture

History of Topic-wise Strategy Contents

History of India 1-304

Part A: Ancient India 7. Later Vedic Phase: Period and Spread 18 1. Pre-Historic Period 1 8. Later Vedic Polity and Economy 18 9. Later Vedic Society 19 1. Introduction 1 10. Religion in Later 20 2. Palaeolithic Age Self–Evaluation Test 20 (5,00,000–10,000 BC) 1 3. Mesolithic Age (10,000–6,000 BC) 2 4. Emergence of 21 4. Neolithic Age (6,000 BC) 2 1. Mahajanapadas 21 5. Age 3 2. Prominent 22 6. The Copper Phase 4 3. Rise of 22 7. 5 4. The Persian Invasion 22 Self–Evaluation Test 5 5. Alexander’s Invasion 22 2. Indus Valley Civilization 6. Socio-Economic Conditions (2500–1700 BC) 6 During Mahajanapadas 23 Self–Evaluation Test 24 1. Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization 6 2. Geographical Extent 6 5. The Mauryas (321 BC–185 BC) 25 3. Town Planning 8 1. Source Materials 25 4. Economic Life 9 2. 5. Social and Religious Life 11 (321–293 BC) 25 6. Political life 13 3. Bindusara (293–273 BC) 26 7. Relation with Other Civilizations 13 4. (273–232 BC) 26 8. Decline and Disappearance 13 5. Later Imperial Mauryas 26 Self–Evaluation Test 14 6. Causes of the Decline of the Mauryans 27 3. Vedic Age 15 7. Mauryan Administration 27 1. Early Vedic Age (1500–1000 BC) 15 7.1 Central Administration 27 2. Origin of the 15 7.2 Provincial Administration 27 3. Aryans’ Arrival in India 15 7.3 District Administration 27 4. Rig Vedic Polity 16 7.4 Judicial Administration 29 5. Socio-Economic Life in Rig 7.5 Army 29 Vedic Period 16 7.6 Revenue Administration 29 6. Rig Vedic Gods 17 8. Socio-Economic and Religious 6. Skandagupta Conditions 29 (455–467 AD) 39 Self–Evaluation Test 30 7. Decline of the Gupta 39 8. Gupta Administration 39 6. India After the Mauryas 9. Economic and Social Developments 40 (200 BC–100 AD) 31 10. Development of Science 1. Local Powers 31 and Technology 40 2. Sunga Dynasty (184–75 BC) 31 11. Was it a ‘Golden Age’? 41 3. Dynasty (75–30 BC) 31 Self–Evaluation Test 41 4. Cheta (Chetis) Dynasty of 31 9. The Post-Gupta Era (up to 750 AD) 42 5. Age of Satavahanas (235–100 BC) 31 5.1 Administration 32 1. North India 42 5.2 Trade and Commerce 32 1.1 Harshavardhana (606–647AD) 42 5.3 Art and Architecture 32 2. Deccan 43 6. Invasions from the 33 2.1 The Vakatakas (225–510 AD) 43 6.1 The Indo- (190 BC) 33 2.2 The Chalukyas (543–753 AD) 43 6.2 The Indo- or Shakas 2.3 The Ikshavakus 44 (90–100 AD) 33 3. 44 6.3 The Indo-Parthians (19–45 AD) 33 3.1 The Pallavas (600–757 AD) 44 6.4 The Kushanas (45–73 AD) 33 Self–Evaluation Test 45 7. Crafts, Trade and Towns in 10. Transformation from the Ancient the Post-Maurya Age 34 Self–Evaluation Test 34 Phase to Medieval Phase 46 1. Social and Economic Changes 46 7. The Sangam Age 2. Trade and Commerce 46 (1st to 3rd Century AD) 35 3. Education, Science and Learning 47 1. Introduction 35 Self–Evaluation Test 48 2. The Cholas 35 Practice Set- 49 3. The Pandyas 35 4. The Cheras 35 Important Historical Facts 57 5. Sangam Polity 36 Part B: 6. Law and Justice 37 7. Economy 37 1. Early Medieval India (750–1200 AD) 59 8. Religion 37 Self–Evaluation Test 37 1. North India and the Deccan 59 1.1 Gurjara-Pratiharas 59 8. The Age of the Guptas (320–550 AD) 38 1.2 Palas 59 1. Classical Age 38 1.3 Rashtrakutas 60 2. Chandragupta I (320–335 AD) 38 1.4 60 3. (335–375 AD) 38 1.5 60 4. Chandragupta II (380–412 AD) 38 2. South India 60 5. Kumaragupta I, Mahendraditya 2.1 The Cholas 60 (415–455 AD) 39 2.2 The Pandyas 62 3. Other Dynasties of the Deccan 7. Lodi or Afghan Sultans and the South 62 (1451–1526 AD) 70 3.1 of 62 7.1 Bahlol Lodi (1451–1489 AD) 70 3.2 Western Chalukyas of Kalyani 62 7.2 Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 AD) 70 3.3 The Cheras 62 7.3 Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526 AD) 71 3.4 The Hoyasalas 62 8. General Administration of 3.5 The 62 the Sultanate 71 3.6 The Kakatiyas 62 8.1 Politcal Theory of State 71 3.7 The Kadambas 62 8.2 Central Government 71 4. Emergence of the 62 9. Provincial Administration 72 5. Arab Conquest of 63 9.1 Provincial Government 72 6. Attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni 63 9.2 Judicial System 72 10. Army 72 7. Attacks of Muhammad Ghori 64 11. Revenue Administration and Self–Evaluation Test 64 Classification of Land 73 2. The Sultanate 65 11.1 Revenue Administration 73 11.2 Types of Land 73 1. Introduction 65 12. Socio-Economic Life During 1.1 Sultanate 65 Sultanate Administration 73 2. Sources of Medieval History 65 12.1 Social Life 73 3. The Slave Dynasty 12.2 Economic Life 73 (1206–1290 AD) 66 Self–Evaluation Test 75 3.1 Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (1206–1210 AD) 3. Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms 76 Lakh Baksh – Siraaj 66 3.2 Iltutmish (1210–1236 AD) Real 1. Introduction 76 founder of 66 2. Jaunpur 76 3.3 Raziya Sultan (1236–1240 AD) 67 3. Kashmir 76 3.4 Balban (1265–1287 AD) 67 4. and 76 4. The Khiljis Revolution 5. 76 (1290–1320 AD) 67 6. Orissa 77 4.1 Jalal-ud-Din Khilji (1290–1296 AD) 67 7. and 77 4.2 Ala-ud-Din Khilji (1296–1316 AD) 67 8. 78 4.3 Kafur (1315) 68 9. Bahmani Kingdom 78 4.4 Mubarak Khan (1316–1320) 68 9.1 Deccan Sultanate 78 4.5 Khusrau Khan (1320) 68 10. Vijayanagar Kingdom 79 5. The 10.1 The Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485) 79 (1320–1414 AD) 68 10.2 First Usurpation: The Saluva Dynasty 5.1 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325 AD) 68 (1485–1505) 79 10.3 Second Usurpation: The Tuluvu Dynasty 79 5.2 Muhammad-bin Tughlaq 10.4 Third Usurpation: The Aravidu Dynasty 80 (1325–1351 AD) 69 10.5 Vijayanagar Administration 80 5.3 Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 AD) 70 10.6 Land Tenures 80 5.4 Successors of Firoz Shah 70 10.7 Vijayanagar Society and Economy 81 6. Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 AD) 70 Self–Evaluation Test 82 4. The Mughals 83 6. The Marathas (1649–1748) 98 1. Introduction 83 1. Introduction 98 2. (1526–1530) 83 2. Shahji Bhonsle (1594AD–1664AD) 98 2.1 Babur’s Five Expeditions 83 3. Shivaji (1627–1680AD) 98 3. Humayun (1530–1556) 84 3.1 Shivaji’s Coronation 98 3.1 Humayun’s Expeditions 84 3.2 Shivaji’s Administration 99 4. Afghan Interruption: Rise of 4. Shambhaji (1680–1689) 100 Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) 85 5. Rise of the Peshwas 100 4.1 Sher Shah’s Administration 85 5.1 Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720) 100 4.2 Restoration of Humayun (1556–1556) 86 5.2 Baji Rao I (1720–1740) 100 5. Akbar (1560–1605) 86 5.3 Balaji Baji Rao (1740–61) 100 5.1 Military Conquests of Akbar 6. Maratha Confederacy 101 (1556–1560) 86 7. Causes Leading to Downfall of 6. Jahangir (1605–1627) 87 Marathas 101 7. Shah Jahan (1627–1658) 87 Self–Evaluation Test 101 8. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) 87 8.1 Revolts during Aurangzeb 88 Practice Set-Medieval History 102 9. Later Mughals 88 Important Historical Facts 109 10. Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali 90 10.1 Nadir Shah 90 Part C: Modern India 10.2 Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasion and the Third Battle of Panipat 90 1. Advent of European Companies 114 11. Mughal Administrative Structure 90 11.1 Mansabdari System 91 1. The Portuguese 114 11.2 Land Revenue System 91 2. The Dutch 115 12. Policy of the Mughals 92 3. The French 115 13 Deccan Policy of the Mughals 93 4. The English 115 14. Foreign Policy of the Mughals 93 5. The Company and 15. Religious Policy of the Mughals 93 the Bengal Nawabs 116 16. Socio-economic Conditions 5.1 Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756–57) 116 under Mughals 94 5.2 Mir Jafar (1757–60) 116 Self–Evaluation Test 95 5.3 Mir Qasim (1760–64) 116 5. Rise of Independent Autonomous 5.4 Nizam-ud-Daulah (1765–72) 116 States 96 6. Other Europeans 116 Self–Evaluation Test 117 1. Bengal 96 2. 96 2. British Expansion in India 118 3. Rajput States 96 1. Annexation Policies of the Company 118 4. Hyderabad 96 2. Anglo-French Rivalry 118 5. Mysore 96 6. Rohilkhand 97 2.1 First Carnatic War (1746–1748) 118 7. 97 2.2 Second Carnatic War (1749–1754) 118 Self–Evaluation Test 97 2.3 Third Carnatic War (1756–1763) 119 3. The British Conquest of Bengal 119 3. Agrarian Policy 127 3.1 The (1757) 119 3.1 Land Revenue Policy 127 3.2 The Battle of Buxar (1764) 119 3.2 Impact of Colonial Land 3.3 The Treaty of (1765) 120 Revenue Systems 128 3.4 Dual System of Administration 4. Impact of Colonialism on Indian in Bengal (1765–1772) 120 Economy 128 4. The Anglo-Maratha Rivalry 120 5. Development of Transport 130 4.1 The First Anglo-Maratha War 6. Development of Modern (1775–1782) 120 Industries Up To 1947 130 4.2 The Second Anglo-Maratha War 7. Famines During Colonial Rule 131 (1803–1805) 120 Self–Evaluation Test 132 4.3 The Third Anglo-Maratha War 5. Social and Cultural Awakening (1817–1818) 120 5. Conquest of Mysore 121 in the 19th Century 133 6. Annexation of Punjab 121 1. Social and Cultural Policy of 7. The Anglo- Relations 122 the British 133 8. The Anglo-Burma Relations 122 2. Reform Movements Among 9. The Anglo-Pindaris War 122 the 134 10. The Suppression of Pathans 122 2.1 The Brahmo Samaj 134 10.1 Doctrine of Lapse 122 2.2 Veda Samaj and Prarthana Samaj 134 11. The Annexation of Awadh 122 2.3 Ramakrishna Mission and Vivekananda 135 11.1 Anglo-Afghan Wars 123 2.4 Arya Samaj 135 Self–Evaluation Test 123 2.5 Social Reforms in Western India 135 3. Reform Movements Among 3. The British Administrative the Muslims 136 Structure in India 124 3.1 The Wahabi Movement 136 1. Acts For ’ 3.2 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Administration In India 124 the Aligarh Movement 136 2. Civil Services Setup 125 3.3 The Deoband School 136 3.4 The Ahmadia Movement 136 2.1 The Act, 1935 125 3. Army Structure 125 3.5 Ta’ayuuni Movement 136 4. Sikh Reform Movements 137 4. Police Structure 125 4.1 Sabha Movement 137 5. Judicial Structure 125 4.2 The Akali Movement 137 6. Local Self-Government 126 5. Parsi Reform Movement 137 Self–Evaluation Test 126 5.1 Rehnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha 137 4. Economic Policy of British in India 127 6. Independent Reform Movements 137 6.1 Derozio and Young Bengal 137 1. Introduction 127 6.2 Theosophical Society 137 2. Phases of Economic Policy in India 127 7. Lower Movements 138 2.1 The Mercantilist Phase (1757–1813) 127 8. Effects of Socio-Religious 2.2 The Industrial Phase (1813–1858) 127 Reform Movements 138 2.3 Finance Colonialism (1860–1947) 127 Self–Evaluation Test 141 6. Education and Press Under Part D: Art and Culture the British Rule 142 1. Introduction 142 1. Introduction to Indian Culture 159 2. Early British Efforts 142 1. Introduction 159 2.1 Education and the Charter Act of 1813 142 2. Sources of Ancient Indian History 160 2.2 The Orientalist and Anglicist 3. The History Writing 160 Controversy 142 4. The Accounts of Foreign Writers 160 2.3 Lord Macaulay’s Emphasis on English 5. Culture—An Introduction 160 Education 143 6. Culture and Civilization 161 7. Indian Culture—An Introduction 161 2.4 Charles Wood’s Despatch, 1854 143 Self–Evaluation Test 161 3. The Education Commissions under the rule of Crown 143 2. Indian 162 3.1 Hunter Education Commission, 1. Vedic Literature 162 1882–83 143 2. Sangam Literature 165 3.2 The Indian Universities Act, 1904 143 3. Vedantic Doctrine 165 3.3 Saddler University Commission, 4. Development of Literature 1917–19 143 during Gupta period 166 3.4 Salient Feature of Education Policy 5. Indo-Islamic Impact on Literature 168 of British India 144 6. Literature during Provincial 3.5 Hartog Committee, 1929 144 Kingdoms 168 3.6 Wardha Scheme, 1937 144 7. Literature during the Mughals 168 3.7 Sargeant Plan of Education, 1944 144 Self–Evaluation Test 169 4. The Origins of the Newspapers in India 144 3. Religions in India 170 4.1 The Censorship Act, 1799 144 1. Introduction 170 4.2 The Licensing Regulations, 1823 144 2. Pre-Vedic Harappan Religion 170 4.3 The Liberation under Metcalfe, 1835 144 3. The Vedic Religion 170 4.4 The Licensing Act, 1857 144 4. Various Religions in India 171 5. Causes of Rise of Religious 4.5 The Press and Registration of Books Movements in 6th Century 172 Act, 1867 144 6. 172 4.6 The Vernacular Press Act, 1878 144 6.1 Vardhamana 173 4.7 The News paper Act, 1908 145 6.2 Teachings of Jainism 4.8 The Indian Press Act, 1910 145 (Panch Mahavratas) 173 4.9 The Indian Press 6.3 Jain Sects 173 (Emergency Powers) Act 145 6.4 Sacred Literature 174 4.10 Newspapers and Journals 145 6.5 Jaina 174 Self–Evaluation Test 146 6.6 Jaina Councils 174 Practice Set-Modern History 147 7. 175 Important Historical Facts 155 7.1 175 7.2 Teachings of Buddha 175 7.3 Schism in Buddhism 176 6. Indian Paintings 198 7.4 Buddhist Scriptures 176 8. Ajivikas “Human Effort is 1. Introduction 198 Ineffective” 178 2. Genres of Indian Painting 198 9. Hindu Movements 178 3. Painting during Guptan Period 199 10. Materialistic Sects 178 4. Paintings during the Mughals 200 11. Religion: The Revival of 179 5. Famous Painters of India 200 12. Religious Movements and Self–Evaluation Test 201 th Beliefs during 6-7 Century AD 179 7. Indian Music 202 Self–Evaluation Test 180 1. Introduction 202 4. Philosophy 181 2. Hindustani Classical Music 202 1. Introduction 181 3. Carnatic Music 203 2. Six Schools of 181 4. Modern India Music 203 3. Charvaka School of Philosophy 182 5. Folk Music 203 4. Jain Philosophy 182 6. Indo-Islamic Music 203 5. Philosophy of the Buddha 182 6.1 Music during the Mughals 203 6. Philosophy in Medieval India 182 6.2 Manganiyars 203 7. Sufism or the Sufi Movement 183 7. Regional Music 204 7.1 Sufi Orders 183 8. Musical Instruments in India 205 8. Bhakti Movement 184 9. Names Associated with Indian Music 205 8.1 Prominent Exponents of Nirguna Bhakti 185 Self–Evaluation Test 206 8.2 Prominent Exponents of Saguna Bhakti 185 9. Lingayat or Vir Shaiva Movement 185 8. Indian Dances 207 10. Nayanars and Alvars 185 Self–Evaluation Test 186 1. Introduction 207 2. Classical Period 207 5. Art and Architecture 187 3. Medieval Period 207 1. Indian Sculpture 187 4. Modern Period 208 2. Temple Architecture 190 5. Classical Dances 208 3. Mauryan Art 191 6. Folk Dances 209 3.1 Language of Inscriptions 193 7. Traditional Forms of India 213 4. Art and Architecture in the 8. Puppet Forms of India 214 Post-Maurya Age 193 9. Personalities Associated 5. Gupta Art 193 with Indian Dance 215 6. Indo-Islamic Architecture 195 Self–Evaluation Test 217 7. Art and Architecture Under Provincial Kingdoms 195 9. Miscellaneous 218 8. Art and Architecture under 1. Government Institutions 218 the Mughals 196 2. Indian Cinema 218 8.1 Architecture 196 2.1 Evolution of Indian Cinema 218 8.2 Gardens 197 9. Modern Architecture 197 2.2 Film Institutions of India 218 Self–Evaluation Test 197 3. Classical Languages 219 4. UNESCO World Heritage Sites 219 3. The First Congress Session 241 5. UNESCO World Heritage 4. Aims and Objectives of Congress 241 Site In India 220 5. The Moderate Phase (1885–1905) 241 6. UNESCO Intangible Cultural 5.1 Programmes of Action 242 Heritage of India 223 6. Analysis of Moderates 243 Self–Evaluation Test 223 Self–Evaluation Test 244 Practice Set-Art & Culture 224 4. Growth of Extremism or Militant Part E: National Movement Nationalism 245 1. Introduction 245 1. Early Uprisings Against 2. Causes For the Rise of Colonial Rule 232 Extremism or Militant Nationalism 245 3. Objectives and Methods of 1. Introduction 232 Extremists 246 2. The Revolt of 1857 232 4. Partition of Bengal in 1905 246 2.1 The Causes of the Revolt 232 5. The Swadeshi Movement 247 2.2 The Course of the Revolt 233 2.3 Causes for the Failure of the Revolt 233 6. Surat Split (1907) 249 2.4 Impacts of the Revolt 233 7. Assessment of Extremists 249 2.5 Nature of the Revolt 234 8. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) 250 3. Civil and Tribal Uprisings 234 Self–Evaluation Test 250 3.1 Eastern India 234 5. Advent of Communalism 251 3.2 Western India 235 3.3 South India 235 1. Introduction 251 3.4 North India 236 2. Factors Responsible for the 4. Peasant Struggle in India 236 Growth of Communalism 251 Self–Evaluation Test 237 3. Formation of the Muslim League 252 2. Growth of Nationalism, Political 4. Beginning of Hindu Communalism 252 Ideas and Associations 238 Self–Evaluation Test 253 1. Introduction 238 6. WW-I : Revolutionary Terrorism 2. Factors Responsible for Growth and Home Rule Movement 254 of Nationalism in India 238 3. Growth of Political Ideas and 1. World War-I: A Boost to Indian Political Associations (upto 1885) 239 Nationalism 254 3.1 Political Associations in Bengal 239 2. The Revolutionary Terrorist 3.2 Political Associations in Bombay 239 Movements 254 3.3 Political Associations in Madras 239 2.1 Revolutionary Activities in 254 Self–Evaluation Test 240 2.2 Revolutionary Activities in Bengal 255 2.3 Revolutionary Activities in Punjab 3. Foundation of Indian National and Delhi 255 Congress: Moderate Phase 241 2.4 Revolutionary Activities in 255 1. Introduction 241 3. The Ghadar Movement 255 2. Theories Behind the Origin of the 4. Home Rule Movement 257 Congress 241 4.1 Tilak’s Home Rule League 257 4.2 Besant’s Home Rule League 257 3. Constructive Activities of the 4.3 Montagu Declaration, 1917 258 ‘No-changers’ 267 5. The Lucknow Session of 4. Assessment of the Swarajists 267 Congress (1916) 258 5. Upsurge of Communalism 267 Self–Evaluation Test 258 Self–Evaluation Test 267 7. Beginning of the Gandhian Era and 9. Resurgence of Revolutionary the Non-Cooperation Movement 259 Terrorism (1924–1934) 268 1. Post-War Situation 259 1. Factors Responsible for Resurgence 2. Gandhi’s Early Life and Ideas 259 of Terrorism 268 3. Gandhiji in Champaran, 2. Revolutionary Activities in Northern Ahmedabad and Kheda 260 India: Hindustan Socialist 3.1 Champaran Satyagraha 260 Republican Army (HSRA) 268 3.2 Ahmedabad Mill Strike 260 2.1 Kakori Conspiracy 268 3.3 Kheda Satyagraha 260 2.2 Lahore Conspiracy 269 4. Montagu-Chelmsford Reform and 2.3 Delhi Central Assembly Bomb Government of India Act, 1919 261 Blast Case 269 5. The Rowlatt Satyagraha and 3. Revolutionary Activities in Bengal Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy 261 and Other Northeastern Regions 269 4. Assessment of the Revolutionary 5.1 Rowlatt Satyagraha 261 Movement 270 5.2 Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy 262 Self–Evaluation Test 270 6. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement 262 10. Trade Union Movement 271 6.1 Khilafat Movement 262 6.2 Non-Cooperation Movement 263 1. Formation of Associations 271 6.3 Nagpur Session of the Congress 263 2. Industrial Unrests 271 6.4 Government Response 264 3. Labour Legislations and 6.5 Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal Commissions 272 of Non-Cooperation Movement 264 4. Limitations of Trade Union 6.6 Assessment of the Khilafat and Movements During Colonial Rule 272 Non-Cooperation Movements 264 Self–Evaluation Test 272 7. The Akali Movement for Gurudwara Reform and Temple 11. Civil Disobedience Movement 273 Entry Movement 264 1. The Run-up to the Civil 7.1 The Akali Movement in Punjab 264 Disobedience Movement 273 7.2 The Temple Entry Movement or 1.1 Simon Commission 273 Vaikom Satyagraha in Kerala 265 1.2 All Parties Convention: Nehru Report 274 Self–Evaluation Test 265 1.3 Irwin’s Declaration 274 8. The Period of Stagnation–Swarajists, 1.4 Fourteen Points of Jinnah 275 No Changers and Gandhiji 266 1.5 Lahore Congress Session: Poorna Swaraj 275 2. The Civil Disobedience Movement 275 1. Swaraj Party 266 3. First Round Table Conference 277 2. Swarajists’ Actions and 4. Gandhi-Irwin Pact 277 Achievements 266 5. Session of the Congress 277 6. Second Round Table Conference 277 3. Individual Satyagraha, 1940 285 7. Civil Disobedience Movement: 4. The Cripps Mission, 1942 285 Second Phase 278 5. Quit India Movement, 1942 285 8. Communal Award 278 5.1 Quit India Resolution 285 9. Poona Pact 5.2 Spread and Suppression 285 (24th September 1932) 278 5.3 Underground Movement 286 10. Third Round Table Conference 6. Subhash Bose and the (17th November 1932) 279 Indian National Army 286 Self–Evaluation Test 279 Self–Evaluation Test 287 12. Nationalist Politics (1935–1939) 280 14. The Final Phase: Independence and Partition 288 1. The Government of India Act, 1935 280 1. INA Trial, 1945 288 2. The Provincial of 2. Rin Mutiny, 1946 288 1936–1937 and Congress 3. Rajaji Formula and Gandhi-Jinnah Ministries 280 Talks (1944) 289 3. Rise of Socialistic Ideas 281 4. Desai-Liaquat Pact (1945) 289 5. Tej Bahadur Sapru’s 4. Peasant and Worker Movements 282 Conciliation Committee 289 5. Congress Interest in World Affairs 282 6. Wavell Plan and Shimla 6. Congress and State People’s Conference (1945) 289 Struggle 282 7. Provincial Elections (1946) 290 7. Growth of Communalism 283 8. Cabinet Mission (1946) 290 Self–Evaluation Test 283 9. Direct Action Campaign, Interim Government and 13. Second World War and the Constituent Assembly 290 National Movement 284 10. Independence and Partition 291 1. Reaction of Indian Political 11. Integration of the Princely States 292 Parties to the World War II 284 Self–Evaluation Test 293 2. August Offer, 1940 284 Practice Set 297 Part (A) Ancient India

Chapter 1 Pre-Historic Period

Prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing and the historic period to the time following it. The prehistoric period is divided into three ages, namely the stone, bronze and iron ages. This chapter describes salient features of pre-historic period. Through this chapter student will be able to understand: yy Palaeolithic Age yy Chalcolithic Age yy Mesolithic Age yy Copper Phase yy Neolithic Age yy Iron Age

1. Introduction the newer ones are found on top of them. Therefore, the oldest are named as ‘Lower’ Paleolithic and later ones as ‘Upper’ Paleolithic. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 1. Early or Lower Palaeolithic (5,00,000–1,00,000 BC): It 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had covers the greater part of the Ice Age and its characteristic feature a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years is the use of hand-axe, cleavers and choppers. about 50,000 years ago. Unfortunately, except for the solitary find 2. Middle Palaeolithic (100,000–40,000 BC): The Middle of a hominid fossil from Hathnora in the Narmada Valley dating Palaeolithic culture is characterised by flakes. The principal tools back to 1.4 million years ago, no early human fossils have been are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes. found in India. Since their appearance, the humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into 3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000–10,000 BC): It marks the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic ages. appearance of Homo sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including Evolution of Man needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools. • First Fossil — Male - Ramapithecus Palaeolithic People: Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on Female - Shivapithecus hunting and food-gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern (10–14 million years ago) was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow their • These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt range food, they ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were Homoerectus: Found in Hathnora (Lower Palaeolithic) 10 • wanderers and moved from place to place. They took refuge under lakh BC the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks. The basic social structure • Homo sapiens: Found in Upper Palaeolithic Regions corresponded to a band society.

2. Palaeolithic Age (5,00,000–10,000 BC) Facts to Remember It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture • Robert Bruce Foote was the first to discover a Palaeolithic ‘Palaeo means ‘old’ and ‘lithic’ means ‘stone’. Palaeolithic age in stone tool in India in 1863. divided into three phases: The three phases are named on the basis of vertical excavation. Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously found in The earliest remains are found deeper in the excavation whereas Bhimbetka from different periods. The oldest painting of Bhimbetka 2 Ancient India belongs to the upper Palaeolithic period. The paintings belonging period. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and to this period are linear representation in green and dark red, of human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently figures of animals such as bisons, elephants, tiger, rhinocerous etc. depicted subject either alone or in large and small groups and The most important feature of these paintings is that the shown in various poses. animals are generally depicted much larger in size. It indicates that Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. still man was more threatened by other animals, a situation which Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were reversed in later period. commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, green, white and yellow were used in making these drawings. 3. Mesolithic Age (10,000–6,000 BC) By this time, paintings have started depicting humans as It was the transitional period between Palaeolithic and Neolithic central figure, that too in groups which indicates the beginning of ages. Its characteristic tools are microliths, all made of stone. The community life. microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This Age is also known by various names like Late 4. Neolithic Age (6,000 BC) Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, The word ‘neolithic’ was first coined bySir John Lubbock in 1865. fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has Miles Burkit enumerated four characteristics of neolithic culture: also been witnessed from and Rajasthan. (i) animal domestication, (ii) agricultural practices, (iii) grinded and Mesolithic Tools: Tools are characterised by parallel-sided polished stone tools and (iv) manufacture. blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, The people of this age used tools and implements of polished crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally stone. one to five centimetres long. The earliest Neolithic settlement found so far in Indian Paintings: At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock subcontinent is in Mehargarh (Baluchistan). and cave paintings have been discovered which belong to this Beginning of the Neolithic age (i.e. appearance of the first site). Pre-Historic Period 3

Neolithic Tools: The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear World wide — 9000 BC unmistakeable signs of polish either all over the tools or at the North west India — 7000 BC butt-end and the working-end, or only at the working end. They Central India — 5000 BC fashioned their tools out of fine-grained dark-green trap, though South India — 3000 BC there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite, Neolithic People: The civilization and culture of the Neolithic schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite. age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic men had a Their tools included stone , adzes, chisels, picks, settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. fabricators, ring stones, hammer stones, pounders, mortars, discs, Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The slick stones and sling stones. art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones Occupation: Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat, barley, rice, masoor, animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting. They also stage. Elephant, rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in learnt the art of pottery, at first by hand and then with the potter’s plenty. But there is no specification of these being domesticated. wheel. They painted and decorated their pots. They lived in caves, The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that the walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes of hunting and dancing. They also learnt the art of spinning and much polished. weaving clothes. They used to bury the dead bodies and construct Red, Grey, Black, , Black Burnished Ware tombs over them which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc. and Mat-impressed Ware are associated with this culture.

Pre-Historic Phases Stone Age Primary Culture Major Sites Importance Lower Flakes, Chopper Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except –– Hand axe and pebble tools, Fossil of Homo Erectus from Palaeolithic Chopping Culture Sind and Kerala. Hathnora (Narmada basin) Main: Sohan (Punjab), Singrauli basin –– Represented by Soanian Culture (now in Pakistan) (U.P.), Chota Nagpur (), Assam, Narmada, , . Middle Scraper/Borer Nevasa (Maharashtra), Didwana –– Varieties of Blades, Points, Borer and Scraper made of Flakes. Palaeolithic Culture (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (M.P.), Bankura –– 200 rock shelters and caves are located on Bhimbetka hills and Purulia (), Narmada having thousands of paintings Valley etc. –– The age of Neanderthal Man Upper Blade and Burin A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka, –– Earlier “Homo Sapiens” Palaeolithic Culture Central M.P., Jharkhand Plateau, U.P., –– Harpoon, blade tools from Renugunta (AP) Rajasthan, Gujarat –– Bone tools from Kurnool Mesolithic Microliths Culture Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara), –– Microlith (a great technological development, Introduction of Age or Gujarat (Langhnaj), M.P, T.N., W. compound tools) Fluting & Bengal (Birbhanpur), U.P. (Sarai Nahar –– Man still a savage but pottery making (Tilwara) and permanent Geometrical tools Rai) habitation found, still a hunter, fisher Neolithic Polished-tool Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam –– Earliest farming community Age Culture (Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya, –– Kinship became the basis of social organisation (), Peninsular India, –– Pit-dwelling houses (Burzahom) Amri, Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc. –– Food began to be cooked by fire –– Evidence of dogs, circular huts made of bamboo, bone-tools, hand made pottery etc –– Also called “Neolithic Revolution” –– Boat making, spinning cotton and wool

Tool making was another important occupation which upper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed needles, bodkins and Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada. pierced batons. The transition from the use of stones to the use of metals is slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that there was an 5. Chalcolithic Age overlapping period when both stone and metals were used. This is proved by the close resemblance of metallic tools and Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. implements with those made of stone. The Chalcolithic i.e. copper First metal to be used was copper and the culture of that time is or stone-copper age of India produced a splendid called Chalcolithic culture. The earliest settlements belonging civilization in the Indus Valley which spread in the neighbouring to this phase are extended from the Chota Nagpur plateau to the regions. 4 Ancient India

Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern • Inner Funeral system • North-south direction of burials • Largest - East-West direction of burials were prevalent in South • Town features at Daimabad and • • Town Planning - Inamgaon India • Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Daimabad, Balathal • Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund Pottery Type • Stone Dwellings - Ahar Ahar Red Ware • Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found Kayatha Deep Red Ware • Microliths have been found from Ahar Malwa Deep Brown & Black Flat, Rectangular Copper Axe have been found from • Saalda Pictographic (Red & Black) Jorwey and Chandoli Pictographic (Red & Black) • Chief Crop-Barley • Evidence of Rice has been found in Inamgaon Prabhas Pictographic (Red & Black) • Fire Altars and were prevalent Rangpur Polished Red

Important Chalcolithic Cultures and Their Features Chalcolithic Period Features Sites Culture Ahar Culture 2800–1500 BC The people made distinctive black and red ware decorated Ahar, Balathal, Gilund were the important with white designs. They grew rice, jowar, bajra, kulthi, ragi, cities of this culture. green peas, lentil and green and black gram. People lived in stone-built houses. Kayatha Culture 2450–1700 BC The people made a sturdy red slipped ware painted with Chambal and its tributaries were spread in designs in chocolate colour, a red painted buff ware and a an area of not more than 2 hectares. combed ware bearing incised patterns. 1900–1400 BC The Malwa ware is rather coarse in fabric, but has a thick Narmada and its tributaries: Navdatoli, Eran buff surface over which designs are made either in red or and Nagada were well-known settlements. black. Wheat and barley were grown. It is the largest Chalcolithic settlement. Savalda Culture 2300–2000 BC — Dhulia district in Maharashtra is an important site. 1500–900 BC Jorwe ware is painted black on red but has a matt surface More than 200 settlements from treated with a wash. Some of the most well-known pottery Maharashtra. Prakash, Daimabad and forms are dishes on-stand, sprouted vases, stemmed cups, Inamgaon are well-known sites. bowls big storage jars, sprouted basins etc; same crops as Ahar were grown at Inamgaon. Prabhas Culture 2000–1400 BC Both are derived from Harappan, but have a glossy surface Unfortunately, not more than half a dozen due to which they are also called Lustrous Red Ware. settlements are known till today. Rangpur Culture 1700–1400 BC Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat.

Occupation: Their economy was based on subsistence found in a wide area ranging from West Bengal and Orissa in the agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Their tools consisted East to Gujarat and in the West, and from Andhra Pradesh of a specialised blade and flake of silicious material like chalcedony in the South to in the North. The largest hoard and chert. Copper and bronze tools were also present in a limited comes from Gungeria in Madhya Pradesh; it contains 424 copper number. The culture shares the common characteristic of painted tools and weapons and 102 thin sheets of silver objects. But nearly pottery. half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the Ganga- Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial . Some of these objects have been discovered in association practice of the dead. The dead were buried in north-south position with ochre-coloured pots and some mud structures. Stone tools in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern have also been found in excavations. All these implements of the India, only a fraction of population buried their dead. copper hoards supplemented by stone tools led a settled life, and 6. The Copper Phase were one of the earliest Chalcolithic agriculturists and artisans to More than forty copper hoards consisting of rings, celts, hatchets, settle in a good portion of the doab. swords, harpoons, spearheads and human-like figures have been Pre-Historic Period 5

bronze and iron. Our only evidence of the transition from copper- Copper Hoard bronze age to the iron age is the monuments like dolmens, cairns, • Stretched from northwest to east and upto etc. These have been found in wide areas all over India such as • Black copper has been found at these sites Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Central India, Gujarat and Kashmir. But by far • It continued upto 1500 BC the largest number has been found in south India, in Karnataka and • Chief Area - Gangetic Valley the Deccan. These iron monuments appear to have belonged to • Chief Sites - Gungeria (MP), Saibai (UP), Bithur (UP), both pre-historic and historic periods. Visauli (UP), Rajpur Parsu (UP) The iron age helped humans to fully dominate the landscape. It helped them to clear the forests, practise agriculture even in hard Pottery: This period was marked by two types of pottery: soils and to produce the surplus which not only helped to feed the Ochre-Coloured Pottery which can be roughly placed between increasing population but also helped them to establish a complex 2000 BC–1500 BC on the basis of scientific datings and Black and and ambitious state system. Red pottery from about 1000 BC. Monuments discovered in Hyderabad, Mysore, Tinnevelly Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP): A new pottery type was district, Coimbatore, Malabar, Penumbur etc. also show varied discovered during excavations at Badaun and Bijnor in Uttar stages of development. Neolithic, Microlithic tools along with Pradesh in 1950. It was called Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) as it copper, bronze and iron implements have been discovered, making contained a wash of ochre. The colour of the pottery ranges from it difficult to identify the actual period of transition from copper- orange to red. The Chalcolithic sites with such type of ware are bronze age to iron age. At this stage of our limited knowledge, ascribed to OCP culture. The period covered by the OCP culture is no definite conclusion in this regard can be arrived at. Iron Age is roughly placed between 2000 BC and 1500 BC. The Black and Red usually associated with the Painted Grey Ware. Ware (BRW) followed the OCP. Painted Grey Ware (PGW): It refers to the ceramics which have Black and Red Ware (BRW): Excavations of Atranjikheda in Uttar been fired grey and then painted with black designs. The name Pradesh in the 1960s brought to light a distinct pottery. The pottery, chosen is highly misleading and can lead many beginners to called the BRW, is sandwiched between the OCP and the Painted Grey think this, as a type, which is painted with grey colour. The grey Ware (PGW) of Iron Age or the Early Vedic Age. Black colour inside and colour, it is believed, is obtained by firing thin clay pots to as high a near the rim on the outside, and red colour over the rest of the body temperature as 800°C. are the main characteristic features of the BRW. BRW pottery has also been found in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Pre-Historic Findings The main reason behind the decline of Chalcolithic culture was the climate changes resulting in less rainfall since 1200 BC. • Bhimbetka - Homo Sapien’s Cave, The digging of hard soil was no longer easier by wood and copper 500 Painted Rock Shelters tools as it was used earlier when rainfall was abundant. Many of the • Nevasa - Evidence of cotton chalcolithic sites were abandoned after their decline, however, in • Atranjikheda - Textile printing east and south India majority of them were transformed into Iron • Hastinapur - Wild sugarcane using settlements. In south, they were recongnised by historians as • Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddess Megalithis (due to their burial practices). • Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture • Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice 7. Iron Age • Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal In Southern India, use of iron came after the use of stone. In any • Chirand - Serpent cult case, there were periods of overlapping in the use of stone, copper, • Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling  Self–Evaluation Test 1. The main occupation of the earliest Mesolithic people was (c) Middle Paleolithic period (i) Agriculture (d) Lower Paleolithic period (ii) Hunting & food gathering 3. Which of following is not a characteristic feature of (iii) Fishing Paleolithic age ? (iv) Domestication of animals (a) Food was cooked before eating (a) ii and iii (b) i and ii (b) Bodies were covered with skins of animals or tree barks (c) ii and iv (d) iii and iv and leaves 2. Men of the modern type Homo sapiens appeared in the (c) People did not know use of wheel (a) Pleistocene period (b) Upper Paleolithic period (d) People wandered from place to place in search of food

ANSWERS 1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a)