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Let's Make Rome Great Again! LET’S MAKE ROME GREAT AGAIN! The Emperor Julian and His Ill-Fated Persian Campaign Matthew Williams History 409 | Professor DeForest | 5/10/17 The emperor Julian is a legendary figure. A popular topic of historians throughout the ages due to his extensive firsthand accounts and his calculating demeanor, his undertaking and actions throughout the Persian campaign remain an enigma. This paper aims to dissect Julian’s actions in an attempt to understand why he undertook the Persian campaign. While there are many factors that played into the initiation of the campaign, including military and political goals, Julian’s desire to be great and leave a legacy upon Rome are paramount in understanding the Persian invasion and why it soured so quickly. Background Christian to Pagan, Scholar to Soldier Julian “the apostate” was born in 331 (or 332 according to some sources) in Constantinople.1 His parents, Julius Constantius and Basilina were both Christians and therefore they raised Julian to be a Christian as well. Unfortunately, his mother died in 333 of unknown causes and his father, caught up in a power grab, was killed in 337.2 Julian’ life was spared due to his age and the interjection of Eusebia.3 After the death of his parents, Julian was sent to live with his maternal grandmother in Bythnia until the age of seven, when he was taken in by Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was the Bishop of Nicomedia. During this time, he was taught by Mardonius, a gothic eunuch, who educated him. After Eusebius died in 342, Julian was exiled to Macellum in Cappadocia.4 He remained there until he was eighteen, when, in 349, his exile was repealed and he began his adult life. 1 Robert Browning, The Emperor Julian (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 32. 2 Flavius Julianus, "Misopogon." (Antioch, 363), 352. 3 Constance Head, The Emperor Julian (Boston: Twayne, 1976), 15. 4 Head, 20. 1 It was at this point that Julian decided to study Neoplatonism. At first, he studied philosophy under Aedesius but then began studying theurgy under Maximus, who would become a close friend to Julian. In 354, he was recalled to the court of Constantius in Mediolanum, where he spent a year. In 355, he was granted permission to study in Athens, which he did joyfully. Julian’s time in Athens was crucial, as it formed him into the Pagan he was known to be. While he was there, he dabbled in Pagan circles and was even initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, a cult based on the Greek goddesses, Demeter and Persephone. Later in 355, Julian was again called to Mediolanum, this time to be appointed Caesar of the Western empire by Constantius. Typical of the customs of the time, Julian married Constantius’ sister, Helena to solidify the arrangement. Constantius fully intended Julian to be figurehead, rather than wielding any real power of his own. Initially, Julian wanted nothing to do with government life. Soon, however, he found himself going to great lengths to be involved in Gaul’s government. This is when he learned not only how to be a soldier, but a leader as well.5 As he began to successfully lead skirmishes against Germanic tribes who were living in the area surrounding the Rhine river. The success of these attacks solidified Julian’s reputation as a good commander. In 360, Shapur II, King of the Sasanian Empire, decided to invade Mesopotamia. After seventy-three days of heavy siege, he took the city of Amida. Constantius, still intent on seeing Julian as a figurehead, bypassed his authority and ordered half of the Gallic army to his Eastern field army. This very well may have been a tactic to try and keep Julian from becoming more popular than Constantius. Nevertheless, in Paris, Julian’s troops declared him to be Augustus and an unofficial campaign was undertaken to secure allegiance to the new emperor. While initially, 5 David S. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180-395 (New York: Routledge, 2004), 499. 2 Julian was reluctant to refer to himself as Augustus so as to not compete with or offend his cousin, however by November of 360 he was using the term openly6. In the Spring of 361, Julian took this a step further, leading his army into Allamanni territory and capturing King Vadomarius after Julian had come to believe that Vadomarius was in cahoots with Constantius.7 A civil war between cousins was imminent, but only prevented by Constantius’ death on November 3, 361, leaving Julian as the sole emperor of Rome. Antioch The Straw that Broke the Camel’s Back Julian arrived in Antioch in July of 362, having spent the previous five months in Constantinople.8 Upon his arrival, Julian became aware that merchants were stockpiling food and selling it for much more than it was worth, causing widespread food shortages in the city.9 Julian, placing his faith in the local government, assumed the curia would address the issue, yet no action was taken to solve the problem.10 As a solution to the problem, Julian fixed the grain prices and ordered grain to be sold, despite the landholders’ argument that they were not receiving fair prices in a time of bad harvest. In addition, he ordered grain to be imported from Africa to supplement the local grain. The other issue in Antioch was that of Julian’s ascetic nature. Many Antiochenes wanted an Emperor who placed himself above all others. They were not not accustomed to a down-to- earth emperor such as Julian, as David S. Potter explains: 6 Ibid., 506. 7 Averil Cameron and Peter Garnsey. The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337-425 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 58. 8 Glenn Warren Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), 95. 9 Ibid., 96. 10 Ibid. 3 [The Antiochenes] expected a man who was both removed from them by the awesome spectacle of imperial power, and would validate their interests and desires by sharing them from his Olympian height…. He was supposed to be interested in what interested his people, and he was supposed to be dignified. He was not supposed to leap up and show his appreciation for a panegyric that it was delivered, as Julian had done on January 3, when Libanius was speaking, and ignore the chariot races.11 Julian addressed these criticisms in the Misopogon shortly before he departed Antioch. Disillusioned and unhappy with his experience in Antioch, Julian departed on March 5, 363 for Persia against the advice of his advisors. He was determined to make Rome great again by doing the impossible: conquering the Persian Empire. “The Best Laid Plans of Mice and Men Often Go Awry” The Ill-Fated Persian Campaign Antioch left a bad taste in Julian’s mouth and he wanted nothing more to do with the city. Julian had spent much of his time in Antioch planning the Persian campaign and he was eager to take action.12 Setting out on the Aleppo road for Hierapolis to rendezvous with his army, Julian was accompanied by his bodyguard as well as the city council and leading citizens of Antioch, in addition to a group of citizens wishing to see the emperor off.13 They marched thirty-five miles to Litarbae, where they spent the first night.14 From there on, Julian was accompanied only by his bodyguard as well as Maximus, Priscus, and Oreibasios, Julian’s personal physician.15 They reached Hierapolis on March 9, 363. As the procession entered Hierapolis, tragedy struck. A colonnade collapsed with roughly fifty soldiers beneath it, killing all of them. This was an ominous start to the campaign.16 Julian seems to have been undeterred, however, underscoring 11 Potter, 515-516. 12 Browning, 191. 13 Ibid., 195. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 Head, 161. 4 his confidence in a letter to Libanius written a few days later.17 Once in Hierapolis, Julian’s plan was to send eleven-hundred river boats south-east down the Euphrates, while he and his army marched northeast in an attempt to confuse Shapur II and his forces.18 Key to Julian’s strategy was “secrecy of planning, surprise, and swiftness”19 By this point, Julian was regularly having nightmares, as he was fully aware he may not survive the campaign.20 Julian met with his cousin Procopius in Carrae and reportedly gave him one of his purple cloaks to solidify his intention to have Procopius succeed him were he to be killed in the campaign. He also gave Procopius command of twenty to thirty thousand auxiliary troops.21 Julian requested that they patrol east of Carrae, as there had been reports of enemy skirmishes.22 Yet another ominous event took place just as Julian was about to leave Carrae. Constance Head recounts: Julian’s favorite horse was named “Babylonius” for one of Persia’s great cities. That morning just as the Emperor was preparing to mount, one of the Roman archers shot Babylonius and the horse fell to the ground in terrible pain, shaking off its gold and jeweled ornaments. “Babylon has fallen, stripped of all its adornments,” Julian cried out.”23 Julian, being optimistic, interpreted this as a positive sign that he would defeat Persia, and continued on with the campaign. On March 27, 363, Julian’s army reached Callinicum, where they were to rendezvous with the Roman navy coming the next day. The next stop on the campaign was Circusium, a “frontier fortress” which was several days from Callinicum.24 From 17 Browning, 195.
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