Ind. in. ofAgri. Econ. Vol. 58, No. 3, July-Sept. 2003 Rice Processing Industry in Punjab: Problems and their Remedies

M.K. Sekhon, P.S. Rangi and Manjeet Kaur*

The agro-industry provides the crucial farm-industry linkages which helps accelerate agricultural development by creating backward linkages (supply of credit, inputs and other production enhancement services) and forward linkages (processing and marketing) adding value to the farmer's produce, generating employment opportunities and increasing the farmer's net income. This in turn motivates the farmer for better productivity and further opens up possibilities of industrial development. The agro-industry generates new demand on the farm sector for more and different agricultural output which are more suitable for processing (Srivastava, 1989). The agro-processing industries in account for 19 per cent of the total industrial output and provide employment to the extent of 19 per cent of the total industrial workers and account for 18 per cent of gross national product (GNP). Among agro-industries, rice-processing industry is the biggest industry in India because India is the second largest rice producer of the world. It has to convert huge quantum of paddy into rice before consumption. Thus, rice processing industry in the country has been the largest ago-based industry with about 1,38,000 units consisting of about 91.28 thousand hullers, 4.54 thousand shellers, 8.38 thousand hullers-cum- shellers and 35.08 thousand modern rice mills. Recognising the importance of agro- industry in general and rice processing in particular in the national economy, the present study was undertaken to examine the following issues in detail: (i) Growth of rice processing industry in India and the State of Punjab, (ii) Economics of commercial rice processing units in the State and (iii) Problems of rice milling industry and suggest solutions for the same.

Growth ofRice Processing Industries in India

India produces about 128 million tonnes of paddy annually and the milling industry not only mills rice but it also carries out many other essential functions such as procurement, drying, storage and utilisation of by-products. The major concern of milling paddy is to get maximum out-turn of better quality rice, with minimum broken and without damaging usable by-products.

* Department of Economics, Punjab Agricultural University, -141 004 (Punjab). RICE PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN PUNJAB:PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDIES 545

In the initial years, after independence hand pounding method of rice shelling was encouraged because of large employment potential in this method of converting paddy into rice. But during sixties when India faced food shortage, the need of modern rice mills was realised. The modernisation includes scientific dripping, storage, parboiling and milling of paddy with rubber-roll-shellers. Consequently, the rice milling industry took a new turn and the Government of India decided to import seven modern rice mills. Modernisation is much more capital-intensive procedure, the government decided to provide credit and other facilities to the private millers as well, so as to encourage them to modernise their rice mills. There has been tremendous growth in the number of rice mills with increasing production of paddy in the country. The number of modern rice mills increased from 6 during the 1970s to about 35,000 in the country during 2001 (Table 1). There has been about 136 per cent increase in total rice mills during 1970 to 2001. The highest increase was in the case of modern rice mills. The seventies was the decade when the maximum growth in all types of mills was observed. Out of these, hullers are still constituting 67.5 per cent of the total rice mills. The state-wise number of rice mills shown in Table 2, indicates that maximum modern rice mills were installed in Andhra Pradesh followed by Karnataka and Kerala at 12,995, 3,674 and 2,533 respectively upto 2001. The number of shellers were less as compared to all others but their number is also highest in Andhra Pradesh. In relation to the production of paddy, it was observed that in the states where total production of paddy is higher, the number of rice mills was also higher. The number of modern rice mills has increased consistently in different states of India over time.

TABLE 1. RICE MILLS IN INDIA OVER TIME

Year Hullers Shellers Huller-cum- Modern mills Total shellers (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1970 51,880 2,302 4,832 6 59,028 1975 80,007 3,676 7,210 346 91,239 1980 73,306 4,283 8,065 5,071 90,725 1985 79,197 4,484 6,654 17,826 1,08,161 1990 86,007 4,447 7,859 29,614 1,27,927 1995 90,091 4,237 8,362 33,557 1,36,247 2001 91,287 4,538 8,385 35,088 1,39,298 Source: Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India. 546 INDIAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

TABLE 2. STATEWISE NUMBER OF RICE MILLS IN INDIA UPTO 2001

Hullers Shellers Hullers- Modern/ Product- Total Product- Sr. State cum- modern- ion/rice mills ion (lakh No. shellers ised rice mills tonnes) mills (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) 1. Andhra Pradesh 4,609 1,776 2,364 12,995 414.44 21,744 90.14 2. Assam 431 14 2,133 242 1,202.12 2,820 33.90 3. Bihar 4,749 63 9 51 1,362.88 4,872 66.40 4. Gujarat 1,890 159 67 1,045 261.62 3,161 8.27 5. Haryana 807 - 990 1,027.82 1,797 18.47 6. Himachal Pradesh 890 1 3 222 99.46 1,116 1.11 7. Karnataka 9,131 462 1,103 3,674 210.44 14,370 30.24 8. Kerala 13,664 - 13 2,533 58.79 16,210 9.53 9. Madhya Pradesh 3,918 201 262 1,761 -966.40 6,142 58.39 10. Maharashtra 8,199 273 541 1,759 237.43 10,772 25.63 11. Orissa 6,398 125 289 552 845.46 7,364 62.26 12. Rajasthan 152 2 6 193 334.27 353 1.18 13. Tripura 1,030 6 8 1 445.93 1,045 4.66 14. Uttar Pradesh 5,707 562 150 1,215 1,357.47 7,634 103.63 15. West Bengal 9,554 3 72 926 88.72 10,555 118.97 Source: Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Government of India.

Rice Processing Industry ill Punjab

The quantity and quality of processed rice, its conversion cost and the use of by- products are of vital importance for the economy. With increased production and consequently higher market arrivals of paddy in Punjab, the techniques used have changed from hand pounding - the simplest indigenous method of removing husk by means of a wooden pestle worked by hand to the integrated rice mills having the facility for most economical use of all the by-products like straw for paper, bran for edible oil and cattle feed, husk for furfural and briquettes and rice for human consumption. It was observed that the number of rice shellers was 399 in 1975-76 of which 78 were modem rice mills and the remaining were shellers and shellers-cum-hullers (Table 3). The total installed capacity was 475 tonnes/hour. The number of mills increased to 887 in 1978-79 and further to 1,204 in 1982-83. It may be added that the additional number of mills after 1970 comprised mostly the modem ones as the government allowed the establishment of only such mills in the State. During the year 1999-2000, the number of mills stood at 1,585 which was less than during 1989- 90 (counted only working mills). The reason might be that these units are not economically viable. Obviously the installed capacity increased from 475 tonnes/hour during 1975-76 to 2,898 tonnes/hour during 1999-2000, representing six-fold increase during this period. RICE PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN PUNJAB:PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDIES 547

TABLE 3. NUMBER OF WORKING RICE MILLS AND THEIR INSTALLED CAPACITY IN PUNJAB, 1975-2000

Year Number of working Installed capacity Number of rice mills (tonnes/hr) hullers (1) (2) (3) (4) 1975-76 399 475 2,800 1978-79 887 1,235 4,000 1982-83 1,204 1,793 4,333 1983-84 1,469 2,215 4,435 1985-86 1,531 2,362 4,171 1989-90 1,655 2,843 3,300 1999-2000 1,585 2,898 2,815 Source: Department of Food and Civil Supply, Punjab.

The number of hullers also increased from 2,800 during1975-76 to 3,300 (maximum) during 1989-90 and after that decreased to 2,815 during 1999-2000. It is important to point out that these hullers were of little commercial use except modern hullers and are operated locally to meet the local demand which is not high. So during the last two decades, the rice milling industry flourished at much high rate in the state so as to meet the increasing demand for rice processing in the wake of higher production of rice. The increase in the number of mills was 397 per cent while the installed capacity rose by 610 per cent during the period mentioned. The average installed capacity per mill also witnessed an increase from 1.19 tonnes per hour in 1975-76 to 1.54 tonnes per hour in 1985-86 and further to 1.83 tonnes per hour in 1999-2000 indicating an increase in the size of mills. After that its growth slowed down. The effective capacity of rice mills, derived as the maximum working period that could be maintained in a year keeping in view the technological, social, physical and environmental constraints was estimated. It was assumed that the mills shall run in two shifts (16 hours/day) with 150 working days in the season with 80 per cent efficiency in installed capacity. Based .on this, the effective capacity of a mill with one to nine tonnes per hour installed capacity was worked out to be 2,880 tonnes of paddy in a year (Sekhon and Rangi, 2002). Districtwise Milling Capacity in the Punjab State Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Kapurthala, Ropar and Patiala districts had higher milling capacity than the availability of paddy in these districts. had the excessive capacity to the tune of 55 per cent. The average size of plants was also the highest (3.74 tonnes/hour) in this district compared with the average size (1.83 tonnes/hour) for the state. Similarly, the districts of Gurdaspur and Amritsar had higher shelling capacity to the extent of 35 and 16 per cent respectively. On the other hand, the districts of Bathinda, Faridkot, Jalandhar, Mansa and Ludhiana which had adopted rice cultivation on a large scale later on were found to be deficient in rice milling capacity. The deficiency for these districts ranged from 27 per cent in 548 INDIAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

Bathinda district to as high as 75 per cent in Mansa district. Sangrur, Fatehgarh Sahib and Ferozepur too had lower milling capacity (14, 4.5 and 50 per cent) than their requirements. The additional milling requirements for deficient districts were found to be 576.42 tonnes per hour on the basis of market arrivals for the year 1999- 2000. The additional milling capacity required was 133.0, 129.0, 105.0 and 84.0 tonnes/hour for the most deficient districts of Ludhiana, Ferozepur, Faridkot and Jalandhar respectively (Table 4).

TABLE 4. DISTRICTWISE MILLING CAPACITY AND MARKET ARRIVALS OF PADDY IN PUNJAB

District Number Installed Season's Market Difference Additional of rice capacity effective arrivals between capacity mills (tonnes/hr) capacity ('000 capacity and required in ('000 tonnes) market arrivals deficient tonnes) (per cent) districts (tonnes/hr) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Amritsar 215 349.50 1,006.56 842.00 +16.35 - Bathinda 26 50.50 145.44 184.10 -26.58 13.42 Faridkot 138 176.00 506.88 810.00 -59.80 105.00 Fatehgarh Sahib 57 94.50 272.16 284.40 -4.50 4.00 Ferozepur 169 256.50 738.72 1,111.00 -50.39 129.00 Gurdaspur 139 232.00 668.16 437.00 +34.60 - Hoshiarpur 25 46.75 134.64 161.20 -19.73 9.00 Jalandhar 58 144.00 414.72 657.00 -58.42 84.00 Kapurthala 75 280.75 808.56 361.00 +55.35 Ludhiana 109 292.00 840.96 1,223.00 -45.43 133.00 Mansa 23 37.00 106.56. 186.10 -74.64 28.00 Patiala 251 379.50 1,092.96 997.00 +8.78 Ropar 35 63.50 82.88 159.70 +12.67 Sangrur 265 498.75 1,436.40 1,640.00 -14.17 71.00 Source: Department of Food and Civil Supply, Punjab.

It can be inferred from the above discussion that the milling capacity in the state was not geographically properly distributed. There is a need to promote higher milling capacity in the southern districts of Bathinda and Faridkot and the central districts of Sangrur, Ludhiana and Jalandhar which have adopted paddy cultivation on a large scale during the last 13 years (Singh, 1996). It was observed that these districts need more rice mills with an estimated installed capacity varying from 9 tonnes per hour for Hoshiarpur to 133 tonnes per hour for Ludhiana. So new rice mills must be installed in the agricultural backward districts of the state. Given the competitive framework and full capacity utilisation, efficiency is determined by the technology used for conversion of paddy into rice. Technology through its impact on cost of conversion, quality and quantity of rice and utility and value of its by-products, would determine the efficiency of various types of rice processing mills. It is due to the out-turn of raw rice in the modern rice mills was higher by 3 and 6 per cent (Rangi, 1986) and high quality of grains, all the mills working in Punjab, are modern rice mills. Another advantage of modern rice mills is RICE PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN PUNJAB:PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDIES 549

that about 5 per cent rice bran is obtained which contains 10-15 per cent of quality edible oil which is otherwise generally used for soap, paints and other industries. Economics ofPaddy Processing A study of costs and returns is important in determining the production efficiency. Since only modern rice mills are commercially used in the State, the economics of processing 400 quintals of paddy per day in a two tonne capacity rubber roller mills have been worked out. It was observed that the variable expenses were the main costs and formed about 99 per cent of the total costs. Among variable expenses, the cost of paddy, market taxes and interest on working capital were the major items. The total variable expenses for converting one quintal of paddy into rice was worked out to be Rs. 550.18 per quintal. The total cost (fixed cost + variable costs) were Rs. 2,27,500.16 for processing the same quantity of paddy. The total returns from processing of paddy, i.e., rice bran, rice husk, etc. were Rs. 2,38,932.00. Thus, the net profit was Rs. 11,431.84 and Rs 29.58 per quintal of paddy processed (Table 5), which is quite high.

TABLE 5. ECONOMICS OF MILLING PADDY IN RUBBER ROLLER MILLS CAPACITY 400 QTLS./DAY, 1998-99 Items Total amount(Rs.) (1) (2) 1 Fixed cost (i) Rent of land 5,000.00 (ii) Depreciation on building 208.33 (iii) Depreciation on machinery and equipment 303.22 (iv) Permanent labour employed 1,280.50 (v) Depreciation on furniture and fixture 129.18 (vi) Taxes and insurance 117.00 (vii) Interest on capital investment 386.75 - Total fixed cost 7,424.98 II. Variable cost (i) Cost of paddy 1,78,000.00 (ii) Market charges at the rate of: Commission 2 per cent Market fees 2 per cent Rural development fund 2 per cent Purchase tax 4 per cent Total • 17,800.00 (iii) Market labour and transportation to mill 2,800.00 (iv) Machinery labour for shelling of paddy 1,900.00 (v) Rubber rolls and rice polisher expenses 2,396.16 (vi) Electricity charges 1,536.00 (vii) Oil and lubricants 250.00 (viii) Palledari labour for filling, weighing and stitching of rice bags 756.00 (ix) Transport and stacking at godown, railway station or oil mills 2,800.00 (x) Depreciation of gunny bags 4,920.00 (xi) Repair and maintenance 1,173.12 (xii) Interest on working capital (45 days) 1,435.20 (xiii) Miscellaneous expenses 4,307.90 Total variable cost 2,20,075.18 Total cost (variable + fixed) 2,27,500.16 (Contd.) 550 INDIAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

TABLE 5.(Concld)

Items Total amount(Rs.) (1) (2) Returns (a) Sale of rice (b) Levy rice (75 per cent) 1,68,032.00 (c) Free sale rice (25 per cent) 53,100.00 (d) Broken rice 9,600.00 (e) Sale of rice bran 5,000.00 (f) Sale of rice husk 3,200.00 (g)Total sale 2,38,932.00 Profit margin for 400 qtls. of paddy 11,431.84 Per qtl. margin 29.58 Rice Bran Unexploited Byproduct About 130 million tonnes of paddy were procured in our country during 2000-01 (Gupta etal., 2002). Rice bran is about 7 per cent of the paddy milled in India (Singh et al., 2003). If paddy is milled properly, it would release about a million tonnes of rice bran. Rice bran is a cheap source of edible oil. About 15-18 per cent of oil can be extracted from the rice bran produced from milling of raw paddy and 22-25 per cent oil can be extracted from rice bran made available by milling of parboiled paddy. Oil extraction from rice bran can yield about 1.5 million tonnes of crude bran oil. After proper refining, it would produce 1.4 million tonnes of edible bran oil that is ready for human consumption. The current production of total rice bran oil is 0.41 million tonnes out of which, edible oil is only 0.23 million tonnes indicating a wide gap between potential and production of oil (Tikkoo et al., 1998). After extraction of oil, highly nutritious deoiled rice bran is presently used as animal and poultry feed. If rice bran is properly processed, after extraction of oil, it can yield about seven million tonnes of deoiled rice bran. Deoiled rice bran is a rich source of fibre and protein. Because of the increasing population of our country, sources of protein for both animal and plant origin are falling short of requirement. Deoiled rice bran is a suitable raw material for exploitation as a protein source. Proper economic use of these by-products will render the rice milling industry more profitable.

PROBLEMS OF RICE PROCESSING INDUSTRY

Paddy is the most important crop in India as it is a staple food for two-thirds of our population. In the state of Punjab, almost the entire quantity is produced for the market as it is not a staple food in the state. During the year 2001, the market arrivals of paddy were above 111 lakh tonnes. The private traders and public agencies were the major buyers. The problems faced by the rice millers/traders and the public agencies are discussed below: 1. Problemsfaced by the rice mills Rice millers get paddy either through direct purchase or custom milling by the government agencies. Peak arrival period of the paddy in the market is limited to 5 to RICE PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN PUNJAB:PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDIES 551

6 weeks. This short duration of availability of raw material poses certain problems such as higher prices due to competition amongst the buyers in the major markets, high moisture content, shortage of transportation facilities and the difficulty in unloading, stacking, etc. Early arrived paddy with higher moisture content and paddy harvested by harvest-combines poses problems in converting good quality rice. For custom milling, paddy is taken from FCI and other agencies. Rice millers have to ensure delivery of good quality rice as per the prescribed standards. Many times, the rice millers get damaged paddy from FCI due to improper storage and it becomes difficult to supply. rice of specified quality. Due to high capacity of the plant it is not possible to meet all the paddy demand from nearby FCI depots. For this purpose, the paddy is lifted from distant areas thus increasing the extra cost for transportation, sometimes the bags are not properly weighed. Covered area plinth (CAP) storage method, which is usually used, creates difficulties in storage and quality of grains. Paddy is dried to 13.5 to 14.5 per cent moisture content before milling. Milling problems include cleaning and hulling section. Paddy contains foreign matter, i.e., chaff, dust, mud balls, etc. This foreign matter in large mills not only affect milling by choking screens and pipes but also cause air pollution. Rubber roll is a major consumable item of hulling section. The size and shape of the rolls used in large rice mills is different from the conventional rolls used by the common rice mills. It is necessary to make special arrangements with rubber roll manufacturers for the supply of required number of rolls in time. Rice bagging and weighing is done by automatic weighing and bagging machines but bag lifting and shifting is done manually which requires lot of labour and is a time consuming process. Plant repair and maintenance also causes many difficulties because most of the mills have imported machines. The normal used parts such as emerystone, rubber rolls and screens are got manufactured by special orders at high prices. Rice millers also complained that they have to pay an illegal gratification up to Rs. 2,500/wagon (250 bags) of milled rice for the delivery of levy rice and custom milled rice to the procurement agencies, otherwise lots are not accepted on the pretext of low grade specifications as prescribed for different varieties of rice. The policy of State Government is also discriminatory to the rice millers, they alleged. The rice millers demanded that the report of the CFTRI Committee may be implemented and the milling specification should be according to the expert committee. Problems Faced by the Procurement Agencies The problems are not only faced by the millers, but the public agencies also face problems in relation to procurement; milling and distribution of finished products. Although a large portion of the total market surplus of paddy is procured by both the central (FCI) and the State Government agencies (Food Department, Markfed, Punsup, Pb-Agro. etc.) but they do not have adequate milling capacity of their own. They have to depend upon private millers for custom milling. The FCI has only three 552 INDIAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

rice mills in Punjab, i.e., at Patiala, Batala and Ludhiana with total installed capacity of eight tonnes per hour. As far as the state agencies are concerned only Markfed has sufficient installed capacity but it is also not sufficient to mill their purchased paddy. So the public procurement agencies entirely depend upon private rice millers for milling of paddy and many a times face problems in getting their rice milled at proper time and in good quality. The public agencies alleged that the private rice millers purchased some quantity of paddy on their own account and undertook custom milling of public agencies only after processing of their own paddy. Some quantity of paddy remained unprocessed for years together and ultimately was rendered unfit for human consumption. This type of situation was created partly due to low processing capacity and partly due to faulty procedure adopted by FCI. Through tender system, by quoting a little less milling charges, a miller even with low milling capacity could get a large quantity which he was never able to shell in time. This resulted into delay in milling of rice and accumulation of unprocessed paddy with the millers. The millers delivered poor quality of rice to the FCI in connivance with some dishonest officials of the agency, this brought a bad name to the Punjab rice and the consuming states complained of low quality, damaged, discoloured and broken rice procured in the State. It is very difficult to have a good quality control over a large number of rice mills scattered throughout the State. The collision and malpractices adopted by the traders, millers and the officials of procurement agencies often result in delivery of poor quality of rice.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

It is concluded from the preceding discussion that there is a tremendous growth in the number of rice mills both at the national and state levels. The highest increase was observed during early period. During the seventies and eighties, rice milling industry flourished at much higher rate in the state, but it slowed down during nineties due to stagnation in the production of rice. The milling capacity in the state was not geographically properly distributed. There is a need to promote higher milling capacity in southern districts at Bathinda and Faridkot and in the central districts of Sangrur, Ludhiana and Jalandhar which have adopted paddy cultivation later on a large scale. It was observed that various techniques were used for paddy milling in the State. The net returns were worked out to be Rs. 29.58, Rs. 20.82 and Rs. 8.56 per quintal by rubber roll mills, hullers and mini rice mills. The major problems faced by rice mills were poor quality of raw materials due to higher moisture content especially in the early arrival of paddy and harvesting of paddy through harvest combines, delay in announcing levy prices by the Central Government, demand for gratification while accepting rice by procurement agencies etc. Public agency on the other hand faced difficulties in getting their paddy milled at proper time. RICE PROCESSING INDUSTRY IN PUNJAB:PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDIES 553

There is a need to set up integrated rice processing units of higher capacity in the state like Oswal Ago, Dhuri and Ago-Tech, Budhewal. The establishment of such units would ensure good quality rice due to better quality control, efficiency and low cost of operation. In such complex, the by-products would also be used properly and economically. It is worthwhile to consider the Thailand experience of projecting a rice mill as a complex where white ash production and cement plant installation, particle board manufacturing, energy generation plant, animal feed mill, briquette making plant are all established together with fish pond, poultry farm and pig farm. These rice mill complexes can be developed gradually in selected rural areas. The farmers should be encouraged to undertake processing of paddy at their farms with the help of mini rice mills. The farmers would supply brown rice to the market and the agencies would further polish it and undertake other related activities. This would ensure high quality rice and economic use of by-products like converting rice bran into edible quality oil. If the public investment is not possible, indirect investment may be encouraged by providing subsidies. Parboiled rice milling capacity in the State need to be increased. High moisture content available in the early arrival of paddy could be advantageously used for parboiled rice technique where the rice is to be soaked in the water to gain moisture up to 35-40 per cent. While fixing the rate of levy rice not only the increase in the rate of paddy but also the increase in the milling cost, labour wages marketing, handling, storage, packaging, transport, electricity charges, etc., should also be taken into account so that the rice processing remains remunerative to the millers.

REFERENCES

Gupta, R.R.; R. Gupta and I. Gupta (2002), "Solvent Process: A Useful Food for Rice Bran Oil Extraction", Indian Fuel Industry, Vol. 21, pp. 43-46. Rangi, P.S. (1986), An Economic Analysis of Marketing and Processing of Rice in the Punjab State, Unpublished Dissertation, Punjabi University, Patiala. Sekhon, M.K. and P.S. Rangi, (2002), Rice Economy of India, Research Report, Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, p. 109. Singh, Kulbir (1996), Spatial Distribution and Economics ofPaddy Processing Industry in the State of Punjab, M:Sc. Thesis, Department of Economics and Sociology, Ludhiana (unpublished). Singh, Baljit, K.S. Sekhon and F.C. Shukla (2003), Rice Bran: An Under Utilised Raw Materialfor Use in Food Products, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Value Addition in Paddy Processing: A Solution to the Surplus Production, Organised by Sant Lonogowal Institute of Engineering and Technology Lonogowal, January 23-24, 2003. Srivastava, U.K. (1989), "Agro-processing Industries: Potential, Constraints and Task Ahead", Indian Journal ofAgricultural Economics, Vol. 44, No. 3, July-September, pp. 242-256. Tikkoo, A.K., Y.C. Aggarwal and D.K. Gupta (1998), Status of Rice Bran Oil in India, Indian Food Industry, Vol. 17, pp. 207-214.