ANTROPOMOTORYKA Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES)

A T I O C I N

Vol. 25, no. 2 (70), 2015 O O S F S

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UNIVERSITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KRAKOW, POLAND

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25), 2015

COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK UNIVERSITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN KRAKOW, POLAND UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

CHAIRMAN Edward Mleczko

VICE-CHAIRMAN Zofia Ignasiak

ASSOCIATE EDITORS-IN-CHIEF Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki, Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta

ADVISORY BOARD

Michal Belej (Slovakia), Józef Bergier (Poland), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober (Poland), Janusz Czerwiński (Poland), Józef Drabik (Poland), Stefan Grössing (Austria), Peter Hirtz (Germany), Vladimir Issurin (Israel), Jan Junger (Slovakia), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Andrzej Jopkiewicz (Poland), Grzegorz Juras (Poland), Han C.G. Kemper (The Netherlands), Krzysztof Klukowski (Poland), Vladimir Lyakh (Russia), Robert M. Malina (USA), Ryszard Przewęda (Poland), Igor Ryguła (Poland), Albertas Skurvydas (Lithuania), Michał Spieszny (Poland), Peter Weinberg (Germany), Stanisław Żak (Poland)

EDITOR’S OFFICE Executive Editor: Joanna Gradek Editorial Assistant: Renata Nieroda al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, Poland www.antropomotoryka.pl http://e-antropomotoryka.pl/

Original version of the journal ANTROPOMOTORYKA is the electronic version

Linguistic editors: AmE Native Statistical editor: Stanisław Matusik

e-ISSN 2353-3986; ISSN 1731-0652

Indexed in: Ministry of Science and Higer Education 2015: 9 pts; IC Journal Master List – ICV 2014: 81.38 (7,7) pts

Design and DTP: Zdzisław Przybyło

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Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 3-6, 2015

REGULATIONS FOR ARTICLE PUBLICATION

Description and profile of the journal provided that the author obtains written consent to reprint the article from the foreign journal in which the text has been or Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise will be published. Sciences (JKES) is the official, reviewed, quarterly academic publication of the International Association of Sport Kinesiol- Requirements for submission ogy (IASK), issued by the University of Physical Education in Krakow since 1989, and from 2010, in cooperation with the Submitting the paper should be done via the Index Coperni- University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw. The jour- cus Publishers Panel – the electronic system for management of nal has received academic patronage from the Rehabilitation, the editing process. For this purpose, it is necessary to register Physical Education and Social Integration Committee of the on the following website: http://970.indexcopernicus.com/. Polish Academy of Sciences and can be found in the IC Jour- Manuscript registration takes place in accordance with nal Master List international indexing database. Since 2014, the the instructions for authors: http://970.index-copernicus.com/i journal is published in the original electronic version in English. c_publishers_panel_instrukcja_obslugi_dla_autorow.pdf On subscribers’ request, the journal may be issued in English and Polish in book format. • Once registered on the IC Publishers Panel platform, au- Editorial office: Antropomotoryka thors should contact the editorial office via the IC Publish- Al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków. Poland. ers Panel e-mail or the editorial office directly via e-mail: E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] . • The author responsible for correspondence with the publisher concerning the article receives notification confirm- Aim ing submission of the article, and information about stages of its publication. In Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exer- • Editors will not accept an article in which the phenomena cise Sciences (JKES) the results of innovative experiments of “ghostwriting” and “guest authorship” is present or and observations on human locomotive activities conducted showing signs of any aberrancies. under natural and laboratory conditions by researchers of hu- • All publications are copyrighted on the basis of the Berne man motor skills (anthropomotorics) or related fields and dis- Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention, ex- ciplines, such as: physiology, psychology, physical anthropol- ceptions being only cases allowed by national law. ogy, biomechanics, medicine, computer sciences, economics, • The author submits a statement (in the case of collaborative genetics, pedagogy, sports education are presented. This al- papers, the lead author submits the statement on behalf of lows to acquaint oneself with the essence of human physical all co-authors) asserting that materials submitted for publi- activities, their structure, skills, motor functions and aptitudes, cation become the sole property of the publisher and cannot learning of these motor functions, their monitoring and control, be published in whole or in part by other journals or digital and the health and sports effects of the broadly understood media without the permission of the publisher. human notion of physical activity. • Submission for publication is tantamount to the author(s) In accordance with the aim of the journal, the subject of relinquishing ownership rights to the publisher, which is the article should fall under one of the four thematic categories: claimed by the lead author in a statement posted on the I. Theoretical and applied aspects of kinesiology (Funda- website: http://970.indexcopernicus.com/ • The lead author is required to determine the contribution of mental and Applied Kinesiology). the co-authors in creation of the article in accordance with II. Scientific basis of motor function training in sports and the requirements of the IC Publishers Panel – electronic recreation (Sport Sciences). system for managing the editorial process. III. Teaching, controlling and monitoring motor functions. Article preparation for publication in Antropomotoryka. Scientific basis, formation and evaluation of activity and Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES) physical fitness (Exercise Sciences). IV. Reviews, debates and discussions, historical elaborations, conference announcements, reports from conferences Texts submitted for publication should be and congresses of the IASK and brief summaries of papers written in English or Polish in accordance printed in foreign journals, book reviews on the theory of with the following editorial requirements: human motor skills and also, assessment of the current state and prospects for the development in anthropomo- • The volume of empirical work including the summary, fig- toric research achievements (Varia). ures and tables should not exceed 22 pages, and the re- Papers of high scientific value previously qualified for views – 30 pages standard A4 size (up to 1,800 characters publication in another foreign journal may also be submitted, including spaces per page);

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 3 Regulations for article publication

• Texts should be prepared using only Microsoft Office Word determined whether they are properly suited for the purpose text editor, pages should be numbered, font: Times New of research. The author of the review or meta-analysis should Roman; size: 12 points; spacing: 1.5; justified text; title provide methods of searching for materials, methods of selec- written in bold typeface; centred. tion, etc. • Tables and figures labelled using Arabic numerals and head- Results. Presentation of the results should be logical and ers, explanations and descriptions of illustrations below the cohesive, and closely linked to the data in the tables and fig- figures and the results above the tables should be placed on ures. Referencing results presented in the tables or figures, separate pages in the English and Polish versions. Head- the abbreviated name of the table and figures (Table 1, Fig. ers, explanations and descriptions below the figures and 2) should be placed in parentheses and on the margins of the above the tables should be in English and Polish. work, suggesting their location in the comments. In the main Example: body of the paper, the same results in tables and figures cannot Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy be repeated. Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys Discussion. The author should relate the results to data • Figures and tables should be placed on separate pages from literature (other than described in the introduction), high- (See: Illustrative material); lighting the innovative and significant aspects of his/her work. The adopted hypotheses should be verified or falsified. Title page (English and Polish versions on separate pages Conclusions. Presenting cognitive and applicative find- – if article is meant for publication in both English and Polish) ings, the posed hypotheses should be considered and vague containing the full title of the paper and its short title (up to 40 statements not supported by the results of the research should characters including spaces) to be placed in the running head, be avoided. names of author(s), affiliation of the author(s) presented ac- Acknowledgements. A list of persons or institution(s) con- cording to the following scheme: faculty, university, country, tributing to the preparation of the article, financially or tech- contribution of the co-authors in the creation of the article us- nically supporting the research process or article publication ing symbols in the case of collective works (pattern of symbols may be given. It is particularly desirable to provide the study according to the instructions in IC Publishers Panel); mailing grant number. address of the lead author (author’s full name, address, e-mail References. The bibliographic list contains only items address and phone number). which are referenced in the body of the text. Bibliographic descriptions, enumerated using Arabic numerals and listed Abstract and key words (English and Polish versions on in the order of citation (not in alphabetical order) should be separate pages – if article is meant for publication in both Eng- printed on a separate page. Each referenced item should start lish and Polish), taking the following structure into account: with a new line. The sequenced number of the bibliographical Full title of the work, summary about 250 words with division item, given in square brackets, must correspond to the order into parts: (in English) Purpose. Basic procedures. Main find- of reference to the publication in the body of the text. ings. Conclusions (in Polish: Cel pracy. Materiały i metody. Bibliographic description of the article should include: Wyniki. Wnioski), keywords containing from 3 to 15 words the name of the author(s), initial(s), surname(s), title of the (preferably using the MeSH dictionary); article, name of the journal in functioning abbreviated form, year of publication, issue, volume number, pages, DOI number The main body of the text (in English and Polish) (if the publication has one). Bibliographic description should end with a full stop. The main body of the text should include the following The Vancouver Referencing Style, also known as the au- parts: thor-number system of citation, recommended for medical sci- Introduction. Introduction acquaints the reader with the ences should be used in the publication (https://www.library. subject of the article and places it against the background of uq.edu.au/training/citation/vancouv.pdf). Enumeration of the existing research (literature review). referenced texts and principles of citation are defined by the At the end of the Introduction, the aim, research problems so called Vancouver Convention drawn up by the ICMJE (Inter- and hypotheses should be clearly stated. national Committee of Medical Journal Editors). According to Material and methods. An accurate description of the it, referencing material from the source in the body of the text research subject (material) should be presented in the meth- should end in the bibliographic item number in square brack- odological part. The number of subjects, their age, sex and ets, e.g. [1]. In the case that reference is made to the authors, other characteristics of the participants should be indicated. the reference is placed immediately after the author’s surname Additionally, information regarding the conditions of testing, (without first name initial) (e.g.: “According to Aronson et al. time and methods, techniques and research instruments, with [23] this study is ...”). particular emphasis on the description of the used apparatus Repetition of the reference to the same publication is done should be given. The name and address of its producer should by its earlier established number. References of attachments be given. If an original method or technique of research was are organized according to the order of their citation in the body used, it should be described precisely by presenting its va- of the text. Citing two or more publications should be included lidity and reliability (reproducibility). In the case of modifying in square brackets in chronological order of their publication. already recognized methods, the applied changes must be Explanatory notes or supplementary text should be num- described and the need for these changes must be justified. bered using the Oxford Referencing System, maintaining con- Statistical methods should be explained so that it can be easily sistency throughout the article.

4 Antropomotoryka Regulations for article publication i

Examples Articles published in journal supplements [12] Geraud G, Spierings EL, Keywood C: Tolerability and by no more than six authors: Monograph safety of frovatriptan with short- and long-term use for [1] Butler SW: Secrets from the Black Bag. London: The Royal treatment of migraine and in comparison with sumatrip- College of General Practitioners; 2005. tan. Headache. 2002;42 Suppl 2: S93-9. [2] Cheers B, Darracott R, Lonne B: Social care practice in [13] Glauser TA: Integrating clinical trial data into clinical rural communities. Sydney: The Federation Press; 2007. practice. Neurology. 2002;58 (12 Suppl 7): S6-12. (Is- sue with supplement) Monograph by more than six authors After the sixth author, the following abbreviation is placed: et al. Articles in journals published in electronic version without DOI (digital object identifier). Enter the URL (Uniform Re- [3] Hofmeyr GJ, Neilson JP, Alfirevic Z, Crowther CA, Gul- source Locator) – journal website) mezoglu AM, Hodnett ED, et al: A Cochrane pocketbook: Pregnancy and childbirth. Chichester, West Sussex, Eng- [14] Lemanek K: Adherence issues in the medical manage- land: John Wiley & Sons Ltd; 2008. ment of asthma. J Pediatr Psychol [Internet]. 1990 [cited 2010 Apr 22];15(4):437-58. Available at: http://jpepsy. Subsequent editions of the monograph (Edition number oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/15/4/437 is placed after the title) Articles in journals published in electronic version, with th [4] Murtagh J: John Murtagh’s General Practice. 4 ed. Syd- digital DOI ney: McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd; 2007. [15] Fletcher D, Wagstaff CRD: Organisational psychology in Monograph publisher (collaborative work) elite sport: its emergence, application and future. Psy- chol Sport Exerc. 2009;10(4):427-34. DOI: 10.1016/j. [5] Breedlove GK, Schorfheide AM: Adolescent pregnancy. psychsport.2009.03.009. nd 2 ed. Wieczorek RR, editor. White Plains (NY): March of [16] Darling E.S. et al .: The role of Twitter in the life cycle Dimes Education Services; 2001. of a scientific publication. “PeerJ Preprints”, 2013; 1: e16v1. http://dx.doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.16v1. Chapter in the monograph (collaborative work) 2013.09.22. [6] Meltzer PS, Kallioniemi A, Trent JM: Chromosome altera- [17] Donsmark M, Langfort J, Ploug T, Holm C, Enevoldsen tions in human solid tumors. In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW, LH, Stallknech B. et al.: Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) editors. The genetic basis of human cancer. New York: expression and regulation by epinephrine and exercise in McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 93-113. skeletal muscle. Eur J Sports Sci, 2 (6), 2002. Available at: URL: http://www.humankinetics.com/ejss/bissues. Conference reports (papers) cfm; DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2002.10142575. [7] Christensen S, Oppacher F: An analysis of Koza’s compu- Articles in journals published in electronic version, tational effort statistic for genetic programming. In: Foster found in the PubMed database. JA, Lutton E, Miller J, Ryan C, Tettamanzi AG, editors. Ge- netic programming. EuroGP 2002: Proceedings of the 5th [18] Von Itzstein M, Wu WY, Kok GB, Pegg MS, Dyason JC, European Conference on Genetic Programming; 2002 Apr Jin B, et al.: Rational design of potent sialidase-based 3-5; Kinsdale, Ireland. Berlin: Springer; 2002. p. 182-91. inhibitors of influenza virus replication. Nature. 1993 Jun 3; 363(6428): 418-23. Cited in PubMed; PMID 8502295. Monographs published in electronic version [8] Bartlett A. Breastwork: Rethinking breastfeeding [online Important information for authors of articles submitted monograph]. Sydney, NSW: University of New South for publication Wales Press; 2005 [cited 2009 Nov 10]. Available from: In view of the fact that since 2014 onwards, the quarterly NetLibrary. journal will be published in the original electronic version in English, please translate into English: titles of articles in the Articles in journals. Standard, list only six authors, bibliographic listing published in a language other than English, above six – abbreviated: et al. providing the language of the original in square brackets after [9] Snowdon J: Severe depression in old age. Medicine To- the English title. The title of the journal must remain in full day. 2002 Dec; 3(12):40-47. version or in functioning abbreviated form. Example: [10] Skalsky K, Yahav D, Bishara J, Pitlik S, Leibovici L, Paul [19] Jaskólska A, Bogucka, Świstak R, Jaskólski A: Mecha- M: Treatment of human Brucellosis: systematic review nisms, symptoms and after-effects of delayed muscle and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ. soreness (DOMS) [in Polish]. Med Sportiva, 2002, 4, 2008 Mar 29; 336(7646): 701-4. 189-201. [11] Rose ME, Huerbin MB, Melick J, Marion DW, Palmer AM, Schiding JK, et al.: Regulation of interstitial excitatory The National Library of Medicine recommends placing amino acid concentrations after cortical contusion in- the English translation of the title in square brackets, and injury. Brain Res. 2002; 935 (1-2): 40-6. formation regarding the language of the article after the page

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 5 Regulations for article publication numbers (cf. International Committee of Medical Journal Edi- Appropriate Procedures of Reviewing in the Sciences: tors (ICMJE) Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, http://bbn.uksw.edu.pl/sites/default/files/dobre_praktyki.pdf Editing and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals: Sample References. Available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/bsd/ Veracity in Scientific Research and Respect for Intellectual uniform_requirements.html Property: Example: http://bbn.uksw.edu.pl/node/76 [20] Ellingsen AE, Wilhelmsen I. [Disease anxiety among medical students and law students]. Tidsskr Nor Laege- Ethical Principles of a Scientific Researcher: foren. 2002 Mar 20; 122(8): 785-7. Norwegian. http://www.instytucja.pan.pl/images/stories/pliki/Komisja_ ds_Etyki_Nauce/dokumenty/Kodeks_etyki_ pracownika_nau- Illustrative material kowego_31.12._2012.pdf • Technical requirements Figures – should follow a consistent background colour Regulations regarding eligibility scheme; do not use grid lines or shading. for printing: Tables – standardized format, reducing grid lines to a minimum. • Articles not prepared in accordance with the requirements Example: of the “Article publication requirements” will be returned to the author for improvement. The publisher reserves the right to remove linguistic defects or apply abbreviations. Table 1. Differences (d) in body height and mass as well as BMI between student group A and B • The publisher reserves the right to adjust or condense the text, make improvements related to terminology standard- Group A B Significance ization. d Variable Me SD Me SD level p • The publisher decides whether the article will be released for Age [years] 21.5 3.2 22.0 1.5 –0.5 publication based on the reviewers’ opinions and the responses of the authors or lead author to the reviewers’ comments. Body height 176.2 3.3 178.0 4.1 –1.8 0.567 NS [cm] • After translated, proofread and edited, the article is sent to the author(s) for approval. The publisher sets a one-week dead- Body mass 68.3 2.7 79.4 3.5 –11.1 0.005 * [kg] line for submission of further modifications by the author. • Before publication, the author responsible for correspon- 2 * BMI [kg/m ] 22.3 2.2 25.7 2.8 –3.4 0.006 dence with the publishing office will receive the article by NS – statistically non-significant difference e-mail (in PDF format), edited in accordance with the jour- * – p<0.05; ** p<0.05; ***p<0.001 nal’s style template, to obtain consent for its publication. At this stage of publishing, only minor, final modifications Scanning. The resolution of scanned illustrations must may be made. Delay in re-submission/consent may cause be at least 300 dpi. Black and white illustrations (lines of the article to be moved to the next issue. the art.) should be in TIFF format, or colour and images (grey) in TIFF or JPEG format (low degree of compression, Concluding remarks up to 10%). All files can be compressed using RAR or ZIP; Symbols, for example: arrows, asterisks or the abbreviations • Publication of articles in Antropomotoryka. Journal of used in tables or figures should be clearly explained in the legend. Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences (JKES) is free of Equations must be written legibly, especially indices and charge. exponents in powers. • The author responsible for correspondence concerning the article receives a free PDF file with the issue of the quar- Regulations for reviewing: terly journal, in which his/her paper is published. • Abstracts and full texts in English and Polish are posted • Articles submitted for publication by the IC Publishers on the following websites: http://www.antropomotoryka. Panel are reviewed by at least two independent reviewers. pl/ and http://970.indexcopernicus.com/ The names of the reviewers are not revealed. Authors and • Subscription to issues of the journal published in book reviewers do not know each other’s identity (double-blind format can be ordered for a fee at: joanna.stepien@awf. review process). krakow.pl. • The publisher reveals a list of reviewers to the public once • Distribution and sales of current and archival issues of a year, in the last issue of the quarterly journal. “Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise • Reviews are performed using the IC Publisher Panel review Science” can be found at: worksheet. Reviewers are required to formulate a clear – Department of Academic Research and International Re- conclusion regarding approval or rejection of an article lations at the University School of Physical Education in for publication. Cracow. Address: al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, • Reviewing procedures should be in accordance with the Tel./Fax: 48 12 683 1224; Tel.: +48 12 683 1278. guidelines of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education – Krakow Physical Culture Bookshop. Address: al. Jana of Poland, which may be found on the following websites: Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków, Tel./Fax: 48 12 681 36 22.

6 Antropomotoryka Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 7, 2015

CONTENTS

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF’S FOREWORD Edward Mleczko Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences, issue No. 70: Identification of talent and conditions for its development in competitive sports...... 9

SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES Issurin Vladimir Early precursors of athletic talent: evidence from a study among Olympic Champions ...... 11

Marcin Starzak, Hubert Makaruk, Jerzy Sadowski Step length adjustment in the long jump with and without take-off board in non-long jumpers...... 17

Krzysztof Kusy, Ewa Zarębska, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Michał Janowski, Jacek Zieliński Cardiorespiratory response and energy system contribution during speed endurance workout in a highly trained sprinter: a preliminary report ...... 25

SECTION – FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED KINESIOLOGY Krzysztof Krawczyk Selected parameters of anaerobic capacity and body tissue components in handball players from the premier league team ...... 35

Barbara Koperska, Bartosz Trybulec The influence of two-person officiating on the range of movement of the cervical spine in basketball referees ...... 41

Natalia Radlińska, Arkadiusz Berwecki The assessment of range of motion in selected joints in competitive swimmers ...... 51

Bartłomiej Ptaszek, Aneta Teległów, Jacek Głodzik, Jakub Marchewka Impact of systemic cryotherapy on selected enzymes, glutathione and serum total protein levels in healthy young males. 61

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 7

Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 9-12, 2015

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF’S FOREWORD

ANTROPOMOTORYKA. JOURNAL OF KINESIOLOGY AND EXERCISE SCIENCES, ISSUE NO. 70: IDENTIFICATION OF TALENT AND CONDITIONS FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT IN COMPETITIVE SPORTS

In each of its seven articles, this issue of Antropo- was needed to achieve first international successes for motoryka Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences a talented candidate as a sports master – an average of (JKES) – the seventy one already – a joint effort of Kra- 3,084 hours of training, with a fairly large range of differ- kow’s and Wroclaw’s academics, has both Polish and ences: 1,840 hours minimum – 4,495 hours maximum. foreign authors approach the problem of identifying tal- Undoubtedly, these findings must lead to reflection on ent and developing it in competitive sports. What draws the quality and intensity of the training that the younger attention to them is not only the originality of the subject candidates for Olympic champions are already doing. of research – that is, top class athletes – but, above all, The information contained in the article “Step length the quality and innovativeness of applied tools and meth- adjustment in the long jump with and without take-off ods. board in non-long jumpers” is definitely of great impor- The above-mentioned merits may be seen in the re- tance for trainers of athletics. With the use of high-end sults of research published in one of the articles, au- measuring equipment, it was proved based on results thored by a well-known Israeli scientist from the famous of 14 men and 6 women practicing the long jump at the Orde Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport, master level that in order to achieve maximum accelera- located south of the city of Netanya, Israel. In the article tion, and particularly the highest power at the bounce “Earlier Precursors of athletic talent: evidence from a spot, starting blocks should be put aside during training. study on Olympic champions”, the professor managed In terms of cognitive approach, the results of the case to obtain information using original techniques of diag- study “Cardiorespiratory response to speed endurance nostic survey from eleven Olympic medallists of various workout in a highly trained sprinter” are very important. disciplines, as well as their coaches and managers, on The study contained the results of a continuous study of the psychic and training determinants of their initial suc- Polish sprinters reaching the level of international mas- cesses in competitive sports. The former assumption tery. So far, special attention was paid to research on the of psychologists [Ericson et al., 1993], suggesting the physiologyof long distance runners. The conducted ob- need for 10,000 hours of training over a time span of 10 servations show that it is possible to include the volatility years for achieving international success was verified. control of physiological indicators of aerobic and an- The study conducted shows that when still ama- aerobic capacity in the training programme of sprinters. teurs, Olympic champions had practised sports different Other studies show that the existing methods of from those in which they won Olympic trophies. Based shaping endurance capacity of Polish handball players on the analysis of the collected material, it was noted playing in the super league ought to be changed. The that in swimming, it was children undergoing intensive authors of the article “Selected parameters of anaerobic biological maturation who became Olympic champions. capacity and body tissue components of super league In addition, it was found that regardless of their speciali- handball players” believe that in training handball at a sation, Olympic medallists are distinguished by a similar high level, attention should be focused on shaping train- psychological profile, the most important traits of which ing according to endurance intervals based on anaerobic include: self-motivation, high responsibility, fatigue tol- processes. erance, body build, learnability, fatigue tolerance, emo- There is little research dealing with both positive and tional stability, competitiveness, mental toughness, high adverse effects on physical fitness of the load applied by responsibility, competitiveness. A shorter period of time referees during matches. On the basis of the research than previously suggested was also established as what results presented in the article “The influence of two-per-

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 9 Editor-in-Chief’s Foreword son officiating on the range of movement of the cervical scribed by the father of medicine, Hippocrates at the turn spine in basketball referees”, it can be surmised that the of the 4th/3rd century B.C. – it is only since the 1980s that range of motion of their cervical spine is changing dra- the stimulating properties of extremely low temperatures matically. When examining 31 basketball referees, it was have been included in the scope of scientific consider- concluded that before the match, the average range of ation. Experiments and observations are continuously the passive bend was 5.70 cm for the left bend and 5.13 carried out to establish contraindications to use cryo- cm for the right bend (p < 0.05). The average range of therapy and to improve the methods of physiotherapy. the active bend was also significantly greater in the case The authors of the recommended work have been deal- of the right bend and equalled 5.16 cm (as opposed to ing with the problem for a number of years. The results the left bend, Which equalled 4.66 cm at p < 0.05). The of their research partially confirmed the effectiveness of average active range of body extension before the match a series of ten daily cryotherapy treatments, in which equalled 7.33 cm and 6.89 cm Decreased it after the short-lasting, stimulus-like use of cryogenic tempera- match (p < 0.05). The average range of the left head tures (below –100°C) was used to improve the rheologi- turn before and after the match was 8.74 cm and 8.20 cal blood indicators. cm, respectively (p < 0.05). Noteworthy is the inversely proportional relationship between the seniority of a refer- I hope that this brief overview of the contents of this ee and the reported joint mobility of their cervical spine. issue of Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and In the article “Impact of Systemic Cryotherapy on Exercise Sciences (JKES) encourages the reader to pe- selected enzymes, glutathione and serum total protein ruse the valuable research results published here. It is levels in healthy young males”, the team of research- worth noting that competent, critical and objective re- ers from Krakow referred to the very popular method viewers had the same opinion about the professional- of physiotherapeutic treatment of various diseases and ism of the texts and the possibilities of transferring the sports injuries, that is cryotherapy (WBC – Whole Body research results to competitive sports practice. I would Cryotherapy). It is a known fact that cryotherapy, whose like to express my gratitude for their selfless help with name comes from the Greek word kryos (frost), began the editing of the journal. I believe that the next, similarly to be distinguished and regarded as a scientific method professional issue of our journal will reach the readers only in the 1970s thanks to a Japanese professor Toshi- swiftly. ro Yamauchi, the promoter of the use of low-temperature chambers and portable cryo-applicators. Although the Edward Mleczko healing properties of the cold have been already known Editor-in-chief 2500 years before Christ – its advantages were de-

10 Antropomotoryka Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 11-15, 2015

SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES

ICID: 1194796 (1.1) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194796

EARLY PRECURSORS OF ATHLETIC TALENT: EVIDENCE FROM A STUDY AMONG OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS

Authors’ contribution: Issurin Vladimir A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport, Netanya, Israel E. Preparation of manuscript F. Literature analysis/search G. Funds collection Key words: athletic talent, retrospection analysis, long-term preparation, talent precursors

Abstract

The aim. To define sport mastery psychic determinants and its training conditions at the early stage of the sport training Hypothesis. The duration of time that was assumed by psychologists to bring first sport results: 10 years 10 000 hours of the training volume [1] was verified. Subject of the study. 11 Olympic champions (various sports disciplines), coaches and sport managers. Methods. The diagnostic poll method using interview techniques, polls and documents analysis. Results. The Olympic champions: – before committing to their sport profession they used to anticipate in various sport disciplines. Only professional swimmers tended to start their career at childhood, others tended to commit to their professions when at puberty. – they required less time to achieve their first international results than it was presented in the theoretical assumptions at the time. – they owned the typical psychic features for their professional sport discipline. The most common mentioned were: Self- motivation, high responsibility, fatigue tolerance, physique, emotional stability, fast learning skills, competitiveness, mental toughness, Conclusions. 1. The beginning of the swimming career was confirmed to be at childhood and youngsters at puberty. 2. Contrary to the theoretical assumptions the Olympic champions required less time to achieve first international sport successful results 3. All gathered evidence provided the foundation to undermine psychologists’ assumptions [1] regarding the time required to bring young athlete first successful results in sport 4. The work volume required to achieve first international successes by the Olympic champions on avarage took = 3084 hrs (min 1840 hrs– max 4495 hrs).

Introduction tionally in the focus of sport media and training analysts [2–7]. Despite the fact that a large number of papers Identification and promotion of athletic talent is one have already been published, a relatively small quantity of the most disputable and important problems of con- of serious studies have been devoted to the discovery of temporary sports science. Sports history of great Olym- the earliest precursors of athletic talent. Specifically, it is pic athletes can give valuable input into investigation of not known how preliminary preparation of outstanding the nature and discovery of athletic talent. The interest athletes differs from the preparation of their peers and to personalities, athletic biographies and particularities generally accepted standards. It can be hypothesized of long-term preparation of great champions was tradi- that outstanding athletes possess special personality

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 11 Issurin Vladimir traits and some psychological skills, which predeter- penses each year prior to the first big success; personality mine their successful athletic careers. Apparently, such traits and psychological characteristics identified during an appropriate, in-depth study of outstanding athletes initial stages of long-term preparation; availability of early can give relevant information related to the availability of indications of extraordinary athletic abilities. All subjects early precursors of their athletic talent. were informed of the study purpose and expressed their readiness for cooperation. Purpose Results The study purpose is to investigate and deal with the investigation of long-term preparation of outstanding athletes aiming to find early precursors of their athletic Training specifics of outstanding athletes talent. at the initial stage of long-term preparation The available data give objective information con- Material and methods. cerning content, workout frequencies, time expenses for training per week and over the season during the stage The study design presupposed in-depth interview- of preliminary preparation of the surveyed outstanding ing of eleven Olympic champions, representing different athletes (Table 1). countries. In addition, several personal coaches and sport As it is shown in Table 1, all subject sexecuted much managers were questioned as well. Retrospective data of higher training volumes during the initial stage of their the subjects were collected with regard to their sport his- care ersthan the generally recommended norms and tory, namely: premature athletic activity before preparation standards. Moreover, their training volumes largely ex- in their favorite sport, age at which systematic training of ceed the workloads performed by their peers. According this favorite sport started and age at which they achieved to self-reports of the survey ed athletes, they executed heir first big success; total accumulated training time ex- increased workloads following their self-motivation with-

Table 1. Characteristics of training designat the stage of preliminary preparation of studied outstanding athletes

Training time ex- Age of preliminary No. of workouts Total training time Athlete’s name penses per week, preparation per week per year, Hrs Hrs Viatcheslav Ivanov (VI) –rowing; 14–15 5–9 9–16 580–620 USSR Yuri Stetsenko (YS) – kayaking; USSR 14–15 3–4 6–8 200–450 Sergey Chukhray (SC)– kayaking; 13–14 8–10 10–14 480–560 USSR Vladimir Parfenovich (VP) – kayaking; 14–15 5–7 8–12 350–410 USSR Ivan Klementiev (IK) – 15–16 6–8 10–16 380–540 canoeing; USSR, Latvia Maxim Opalev (MO) – canoeing; 12–13 8–11 10–15 230–310 Russia Gal Fridman (GF) – windsurfing; 12–13 6–8 9–12 600–650 Israel Massimiliano Rosolino (MR) – swim- 9–10 4–6 7–10 180–290 ming; Italy Sergey Fedorovtsev(SF) – rowing; 13–14 4–6 6–12 350–560 Russia Ruta Meilutyte (RM) – swimming; 7–8 4–5 4–6 280–420 Lithuania Daria Domracheva (DD) – biathlon; 12–13 6 14–16 460–520 Belorussia Average internationally accepted Duration – 2–3 3–4 3–5 120–170 standard years

12 Antropomotoryka Early precursors of athletic talent: evidence from a study among Olympic Champions i out external pressure or any additional demands. These Total accumulated training time expenses additional extra work load sconsisted of voluminous low before 1st big success intensity exercises with accentuated technical control. Im- The total training time duration since the beginning portantly, the coaches of the studied athletes always sup- of purposeful preparation until the 1st big success var- ported their initiative in execution of additional tasks and ied between 4 and 7 years. The 1st big success as an sessions and were attentive to technical details of perfor- indicator of expert performance has been specified as mance but gave sufficient freedom in execution of addition- earning a medal at World/Continental Junior Champi- al tasks and sessions. In addition, all subjects remarked onships or National Senior Championships [3, 4]. The that they felt satisfaction from their training activities. average accumulated training time expenses until the Premature sport activities and choice first big success was equal to 3,084 hours that varied of the favorite sport between 1,840 and 4,495. Although the studied athletes executed much larger volumes of training compared to The findings evidenced that a majority of studied their peers and the workload standards, their total accu- athletes practiced some other sport activities before mulated training time was much less than proposed by they started systematic preparation in their favorite Ericsson et al. [1], who postulatedthe10-year rule and sport. Some of them have had preparation in organized 10,000 hours of deliberate practice until attainment of groups, namely: VI became qualified boxer before he a superior level of expert performance. started training in rowing, VP had 5 years training practice in wrestling, DD trained cross-country skiing for 6 Early signs of sport-specific giftedness years. The other subjects (YS, SC, IK and SF) practiced Information on early indicators of extraordinary athlet- different sports such as football, running, skiing, etc. ic abilities was received immediately from the subjects as in informal activities. Several athletes who began their well as from their coaches and sport managers. The ques- dedicated preparation at an early age started it in favorite tioned persons marked various signs of giftedness em- sport, namely, RM and MR in swimming, MO in canoe- phasizing psychological attributes, physical features such ing/kayaking and GF in windsurfing. as learn ability, fatigue tolerance and body build (Table 2).

Table 2. Early indicators (EI) of extraordinary athletic abilities of the subjects

Age starting Age when EI Athlete’s name training in Indicators of extraordinary athletic abilities* were marked favorite sport Viatcheslav Ivanov (VI) 14 15–16 Self-motivation, consciousness, fatigue tolerance, body build, learn ability, competitiveness Yuri Stetsenko (YS) 14 15–16 Self-motivation, high responsibility, competitiveness, learn ability, self-esteem, fatigue tolerance Sergey Chukhray (SC) 13 14–15 Self-motivation, mental toughness, fatigue tolerance, learn ability, body build Vladimir Parfenovich 14 15–16 Self-esteem, self-motivation, competitiveness, , body build, (VP) fatigue tolerance, emotional stability, Ivan Klementiev (IK) 15 18 Self-motivation, dedication, learn ability, fatigue tolerance, emotional stability, competitiveness. Maxim Opalev (MO) 12 13 Self-motivation, competitiveness, high responsibility, dedication, learn ability, fatigue tolerance Gal Fridman (GF) 12 12–14 Self-motivation, high responsibility, fatigue tolerance, learn ability, emotional stability, competitiveness Massimiliano Rosolino 6 9 Self-motivation, learn ability, awareness , body build, competi- (MR) tiveness Sergey Fedorovtsev (SF) 13 15 Self-motivation, high responsibility, fatigue tolerance, body build, learn ability RutaMeilutyte (RM) 7 9 Self-motivation, high responsibility, consciousness, dedication, learn ability, body build Daria Domracheva (DD) 12 13–14 Self-motivation, high responsibility, fatigue tolerance, competitiveness, mental toughness, learn ability * Indicators are ordered according their importance as declared by athletes and/or their coaches

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 13 Issurin Vladimir

As it can be deduced from the data in Table 2, self- Sergey Chukhray and Vladimir Parfenovich noticed that motivation was highest ranked by the subjects. Among they experienced satisfaction from training from the first the other personality traits indicated by the questioned steps in their athletic careers. Apart from that, Ericsson’s athletes were competitiveness, high responsibility, con- theory [1] is refuted with regard to the amount of delib- sciousness and dedication. Several athletes mentioned erate practice. In all cases, the total amount of training psychological skills such as mental toughness and emo- time expenses until achievement of a level of expert per- tional stability. The most influential physical attributes formance (1st big success) was much less than 10.000 mentioned by the subjects appeared to be high learn hours. Eventually, exceptionally talented athletes attain ability and fatigue tolerance. a level of excellence much faster than proposed in the theory by Ericsson, whereas the less talented individu- Discussion als do not achieve this level even after 10,000 hours of highly dedicated practice. One of the most salient outcomes of the present study is the fact that all the outstanding athletes who Conclusions were interviewed executed much larger volumes of training at the initial stages of their long-term prepara- Unlike the traditional approach mostly functioning tion. The athletes increased the level of the workload along with somatic and physiological prerequisites of following their own self-initiative without any external athletic talent, the findings of this study emphasize the demands. They also reported that they felt satisfaction importance of behavioural and personality traits, which from training routines and athletic progression. Impor- can serve as early predictors of athletic talent. The most tantly, each of them marked self-motivation as one of the important precursor of athletic talent in the great athletes decisive factors determining their successful prepara- studied was their willingness and readiness to perform tion. These findings are consistent with the data of Gould much larger workloads compared to their peers and et al [5] who interviewed 10 US Olympic champions and team mates. The introduced findings are evidence that revealed that motivation of achievement competence such personality traits as self-motivation, competitive- was indicated by each subject as an important reason ness, high responsibility, consciousness and dedication for sport activity during their early years. The summary have a high predictive potential for athletic talent. In ad- of many studies allowed to find that self-motivation is dition to these, the gifted performers have shown early definitely one of the most frequently mentioned features acquisition of psychological skills such as mental tough- of the potentially talented youth (see review by Anshel ness and emotional stability. The most influential physi- and Lidor [8]). However, in order to be intrinsically mo- cal attributes mentioned by the subjects appeared to be tivated, the athlete should feel that his/her efforts lead high learn ability and fatigue tolerance. to visible enhancement of skills and sport-specific abili- The available data contradict the theory of deliberate ties, and this positive feedback produces strong support practice by Ericsson et al. [1] that proposes the10-year for continued preparation. It is apparent that perceived rule and accumulation of 10,000 hours of highly dedicat- competence plays a crucial role in maintenance and rein ed practice for achieving a level of expert performance. for cement of an athlete’s self-motivation [9]. The greatly talented athletes studied obtained the level of Contrary to the theory by Ericsson et al. [1], all sub- excellence following 4-7 years of specialized preparation jects marked and emphasized that their initial training with the average accumulated training time expenses activities were always enjoyable. The excellent swimmer equalling 3,084 hours. The reported particularities of - Massimiliano Rosolino reported that he feels satisfac- superior athletes and their preparation during the initial tion from training and loves it very much. Similarly, the stage of their careers in sport can be used for the early following three Olympic champions – Viatcheslav Ivanov, identification of potentially talented young prospects.

References

[1] Ericsson K A, Krampe RTh, Tesch-Romer C: The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psy- chological Review, 1993; 100: 363–406. [2] Orlick TD, Partington J: Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist. 1988; 2: 105–130. [3] Gibbons T, Hill R, McConnell A, Forster T, Moore J: The path to excellence: A comprehensive view of development of U.S. Olympians who competed from 1984–1998. United States Olympic Committee; 2002. [4] Durand-Bush N: The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: Perceptions of Olympic and World champions, their parents and coaches: Thesis of PhD dissertation: Ontario University of Ottawa; 2000.

14 Antropomotoryka Early precursors of athletic talent: evidence from a study among Olympic Champions i

[5] Gould D, Dieffenbach K, Moffett A:The development of psychological talent in U.S. Olympic Champions. Final grant report: United States Olympic Committee; 2001. [6] Gulbin K, Oldenziel J, Weissensteiner J: A look through the rear view mirror: Developmental experiences and insights of high performance athletes. Talent Development & Excellence. 2010; 2 (2): 149–164. [7] Fletcher D, Sarkar M: A grounded theory of psychological resilience in Olympic champions. Psychology Sport Exercises. 2012; 13: 669–678. [8] Anshel M, Lidor R: Talent detection programs in sport: The questionable use of psychological measures. Journal of Sport Behavior. 2009; 35 (3): 239–266. [9] Elferink-Gemser MT, Visscher C: Who are the superstars of tomorrow? Talent development in Dutch Soccer. In: Baker J, Schorer J, Cobley S, editors. Talent identification and development in sport. International perspectives. London: Routledge; 2012, 95–105.

Address for correspondence: Vladimir Issurin [email protected]

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 15

Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 17-23, 2015

SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES

ICID: 1194797 (1.2) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194797

STEP LENGTH ADJUSTMENT IN THE LONG JUMP WITH AND WITHOUT TAKE-OFF BOARD IN NON-LONG JUMPERS

Authors’ contribution: Marcin Starzak ABCDEFG, Hubert Makaruk ABCEG, A. Study design/planning AG B. Data collection/entry Jerzy Sadowski C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation E. Preparation of manuscript F. Literature analysis/search Department of Athletics, The Josef Pilsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, G. Funds collection Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Biala Podlaska, Poland

Key words: athletics, step pattern, variability, task complexity

Summary

Introduction. Research has shown that step length adjustment determines long and triple jump performance. Aim. To identify differences in step length adjustment between long jump conditions with (TB) and without (NTB) take-off board. Material and methods. Fourteen male (mean age 22.4 years, ± 0.6, body height 182.6, ± 5.8 cm, and mass 77.5, ± 6.3 kg) and six female (mean age 22.1 years, ± 0.4, body height 164.6, ± 2.8 cm, and mass 58.4, ± 6.1 kg) non-long jumpers participated in this study. The subjects performed 6 long jump trials under each condition. The final 10 steps were used for analysis. The Optojump Next device was used to evaluate the kinematic parameters. The step length adjustment was determined by variability of footfall position during the approach run. Results. Significant (p < 0.05) differences of variability in footfall position during the approach run between two conditions were found. In addition, the percentage distribution of step length adjustment was different during the penultimate and last steps under all conditions. Conclusions. The results of the research indicated that to achieve better foot placement during the take-off, the long jump should be performed from the take-off board. The coaches should implement long jumps without the take-off board into training routines to improve step pattern consistency and lengthen an athlete’s particular steps during the approach phase.

Introduction of the approach run is the last step slightly shorter than the last-but-one step before the take-off [3]. These step One of the main determinants of successful perfor- adjustments lead to a small increase in horizontal veloc- mance in the long and triple jump is proper execution of ity and lowering of a jumper’s center of gravity. Plac- the approach run. The crucial requirements throughout ing the take-off foot precisely close to the edge of the this phase are foot accuracy during the take-off, near take-off board maximizes effective distance of the jump maximal horizontal velocity of the athlete’s center of and hence, body transition from run-up to the take-off. gravity and optimal body position that generates verti- Therefore, precise foot placement during the approach cal velocity from the board [1]. It was found that when run is required because athletes cannot reproduce an approaching the board, jumpers maintain sprinting ac- identical step pattern from the starting mark to the end tions until the last two to three steps before reaching the of the run-up [4]. Each change in step placement in the take-off board [2]. A typical action over this last stage final phase of the approach run may also lead to negative

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 17 Marcin Starzak, Hubert Makaruk, Jerzy Sadowski influence on crucial take-off kinematic parameters that the jumper tries to reach maximum horizontal speed with are significantly connected with the performance of the no limitations related to the take-off at the end of the ap- jump [2, 3]. proach run. It seems that performing the long jump under Lee et al. [5] showed that the approach phase con- this condition could result in specific regulation of the sists of two sub-phases. In the first phase (acceleration steps. These differences in step length adjustment and phase), an athlete produces a constant stride pattern, step characteristics between the long jump with and with- systematically increasing speed to achieve an appropri- out the take-off board have not been established so far. ate run rhythm while maintaining proper alignment of the The purpose of this study was to identify step length body. In the second phase (zeroing-in phase), athletes regulation during the approach run in the long jump with modify their step length parameters over the final steps and without the take-off board of non-long jumpers by [1]. This is revealed as an increasing trend in variability evaluating the step characteristics throughout the final of footfall placement followed by a decreasing trend for phase of the approach run. the final steps before reaching the take-off board [6]. It is considered that visual regulation of step length Material and methods plays a significant role in take-off accuracy [5]. Optic flow ‘tau’, which provides information on time-to-con- Subjects tact with the take-off board, is responsible for that regu- Fourteen male (mean age 22.4 years, ± 0.6, body lation [5, 7]. Montagne at al. [8] suggested that control height 1.83, ± 0.06 m, and mass 77.5, ± 6.3 kg) and mechanism is based on perception-action coupling in six female (mean age 22.1 years, ± 0.4, body height the run-up phase which operates continuously and is 1.64, ± 0.03 m, and mass 58.4, ± 6.1 kg) healthy and not connected with the particular step, so adjustments injury-free non-long jumpers participated in this study. are performed only when necessary. They were untrained physical education students who The step length adjustment was previously observed in completed the long jump course at the University of Biała both the long jump [1, 9] and triple jump [1, 10–11]. This Podlaska. The criteria for inclusion into this study were regulation usually begins during the final 4–5 steps before as follows: at least a ‘good’ grade (4) in the long jump take-off for expert jumpers [1, 5 ,6, 9]. However, a similar course and six valid jumps under both of the analyzed pattern of adjustment has been demonstrated at a differ- conditions. This experiment was approved by the Uni- ent skill level in non-expert and novice long jumpers [9, versity Ethics Committee and all participants read and 12–15] regardless of their gender [1, 6]. It was also shown signed informed consent. that an earlier onset as well as duration of visual control have a positive effect on long jump performance [12]. Procedure In relation to the above-mentioned findings, regula- The subjects performed 6 long jump trials under two tion of step length adjustment (decrease in footfall vari- different conditions, during two separate jumping ses- ability) occurs only when the jumper moves towards the sions with a one-week break between them. The first con- take-off board. In the situation that we move in an un- dition was a long jump with the take-off board (TB) placed obstructed straight line (sprinting), this regulation does at a standard 2 meter position from the sandpit. Under not occur and variability of step placement consistently the second condition, the subjects performed a long jump increases [4, 16]. These differences in variability of foot- without the take-off board (NTB) on the runway path. To fall placement suggest that a jumper’s step might also be avoid potential order effects, two performance sequences controlled in a different manner depending on the task. were used with randomized counterbalanced order: TB- In the long jump, the main aim is to jump as far as pos- NTB, NTB-TB. Each jumping session started at 11 am. sible. This forces a jumper to maximize precision of foot Before the beginning of both sessions, the subjects per- placement to hit the take-off board perfectly. Previous formed a 10-minute dynamic warm-up. The resting period researchers showed that the task nested at the end of between each jump was 6–8 minutes. All the participants the run-up phase has influence on step regulation [17]. were asked to jump as far as possible and were not penal- It was observed that when performing approach runs in ized for foul jumps. All jumps were measured from the toe different task conditions, jumpers use different strategies of the jumping foot to the nearest trace in the sandpit. The of step length adjustment [12, 18]. Athletes adjust the total length of the performed approach runs was individual step length later when performing the long jump in com- and consisted of 14 to 16 steps. parison to run-throughs, a special, commonly used technical exercise. The earlier initiation of step adjustments Data collection were also seen as an interaction between jumpers and The study was performed at the athletics hall with environmental conditions [19]. In the long jump without a tartan surface. All the trials for every subject totaling the take-off board, also widely applied in training routines, 240 were registered and analyzed. The final 10 steps

18 Antropomotoryka Step length adjustment in the long jump with and without take-off board in non-long jumpers i

(11 support phases) were used for analysis. The Opto- ()SDii− SD −1 jump Next (Microgate, Italy) measurement system was ADJ% =×100% ()SD− SD used in this study. This device consists of two pairs of max to 1-meter long measurement bars, placed parallel to each where, SD is the standard deviation of toe-to-board dis- other and connected to a computer via a USB port. The tance or toe-to-reference point, i is ith-last step (support measurement bars transmit a solid infrared light beam to phase), SD is maximal standard deviation of toe-to- each other at a height of 2 mm above the floor. For the max board distance, SD is standard deviation of toe-to-board purpose of this investigation, twenty-five bars (a 25-me- to distance during the take-off. ter path) were used, placed outside the lines along the This formula determines the percentage proportion approach in a distance of 4 m between them. This device of adjustment in each of the final steps to total adjust- provides accurate information on step length and foot ments made by the subject. placement during the approach run [20]. Data reduction Data analysis Unlike the previous studies [see e.g. 1, 5, 9], the Before statistical analysis was conducted, all data position of the foot during the approach run was calcu- were tested for normality and homogeneity of variance. lated by Optojump Next. The step length adjustment was A general linear model with repeated measures was used determined by variability of footfall position during the to examine the difference between the following factors: approach run. To determine variability of foot placement conditions x steps. Statistically significant results were for each subject, the standard deviation (SD) of mean further analyzed with Fisher’s post-hoc LSD test. The toe-to-reference point distance across trials was calcu- Student’s t-test was used for statistical comparison be- lated. The horizontal distance between the toes of every tween the distances jumped under both conditions. The analyzed support foot and the front edge of the take-off level of significance for all measurements was accepted board was taken for TB conditions. Under NTB condi- at p < 0.05. Statistica 10.0 PL and Microsoft Excel 2010 tions, the distance between each toe of the supporting software were used for all statistical calculations. foot and the reference point located at the front edge of the sandpit was used. The maximum mean SD of toe- Results to-board distance and toe-to-reference point distance in each condition was considered as a starting point for Step length adjustment step length adjustment. Figure 1 demonstrates variability of footfall place- The percentage distribution of step length adjustment ment during the last 10 steps (11 support phases) of (ADJ %) over the final steps was calculated using the the approach run in the long jump with and without the formula proposed by Hay [6]: take-off board. The analysis revealed significant effects

Fig. 1. Variability of footfall placement throughout the last 11 support phases of the approach run under two conditions. TB – long jump with take-off board, NTB – long jump without take-off board, TO – take-off. * – Significant difference (p < 0.05), # – Significant difference (p < 0.01)

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 19 Marcin Starzak, Hubert Makaruk, Jerzy Sadowski

of the step (F10,190 = 37.46; p < 0.01). The significant analysis revealed significant step x condition interaction step x condition interaction (F2,38 = 8.21; p < 0.01) was (F2,38 = 7.95; p < 0.01). There were no significant main found. The effect of the conditions was not significant effects for the step (F2,38 = 0.55; p > 0.05) and condi-

(F1,19 = 3.02; p > 0.05). It was observed that the vari- tions (F2,38 = 0.04; p > 0.05). Post-hoc analysis showed ability in footfall placement under NTB conditions was that percentage distribution was lower under TB condi- significantly (p < 0.05) lower than TB conditions during tions during the last step, and higher in TB conditions the first analyzed step until the second-to-penultimate during the penultimate step. step, except for step 10 and 1 from the take-off board. Step length characteristics Percentage distribution of step length Figure 3 presents the lengths of particular steps in Figure 2 shows percentage distribution of step length the long jump with and without the take-off board. The during the last 3 steps of the approach run in the long results of analysis showed a significant effect for the jump with and without the take-off board. The results of step (F9,171 = 29.61; p < 0.01) and conditions (F1,19 =

Fig. 2. Percentage distribution of step length adjustment over the last three steps of the approach run under two conditions. TB – long jump with take-off board, NTB – long jump without take-off board, L – last step. * – Significant difference (p < 0.05)

Fig. 3. Differences between step lengths in the approach run under two conditions. TB – long jump with take-off board, NTB – long jump without take-off board, L – last. * – Significant difference (p < 0.05), # – Significant difference (p < 0.01)

20 Antropomotoryka Step length adjustment in the long jump with and without take-off board in non-long jumpers i

12.28; p < 0.01). In addition, the step x condition inter- The early initiation of step length regulation and dif- action was also significant (F9,171 = 3.44; p < 0.01). Un- ferent consistency in step adjustments between condi- der NTB conditions, step lengths were longer compared tions could be due to a function of task complexity [22, to TB conditions. 12]. Task constraints nested in an approach run towards a target, changing the regulation of the step, depend on Distance jumped the task at the end of the run-up [17]. This seems to The mean distance of all jumps under the TB condi- suggest that a subject’s locomotion during long jump tion was 5.01 m (SD = 0.49) and under NTB conditions, performance under both conditions was controlled in it was 5.01 m (SD = 0.51). Analysis showed non-signif- terms of their goals. Under the NTB condition, there was icant (p > 0.05) differences between measured jumps no requirement to take off accurately at the board and under both conditions. the only goal was to jump as far as possible. Under such specific conditions, which involve a controlled approach Discussion run towards a spatial target area (i.e. long jump without the take-off board), the earlier step length adjustments The main objective of this study was to identify differ- could lead to better execution of the approach run [22]. ences in step length adjustment between the long jump This could also support the assumption regarding dif- with and without the take-off board. The results showed ferences in locomotor pattern over conditions and con- that the step length adjustment, identified by ascending- tinuous step control during the run-up in relation to the descending patterns of footfall placement, was different environment [13]. between conditions. The initial point of the step length The similar difference in step length adjustment in adjustment (5th and 7th step before reaching the take-off relation to the goal of the approach run was previously board for TB and NTB, respectively) was found to be seen between run-throughs and long jump performance different between conditions (Fig. 1). The onset of step [11, 12, 23, 24]. Different task requirements do not al- length adjustment under the TB condition was similar to low the jumper to provide any step adjustments until previous findings, in which the descending trend in vari- they are necessary. If the take-off from the board is not ability was found during the final five steps for non-long required, athletes may not be compelled to adopt a pre- jumpers [9] and at different levels of experience [1, 13, cise take-off foot position [12]. It is consistent with the 21]. The values of footfall variability between conditions present study, in which the subjects performing a long were significantly different for most of the approach runs jump without the take-off board, made a last minute step (Fig. 1). However, the values of footfall variability for both adjustment. The majority of the last step corrections, conditions, in relation to the previous findings, were sim- compared to early onset of step regulation, resulted in ilar to those observed for every level of experience [9] lower foot precision at the take-off phase (see Fig. 1). and higher than in elite athletes [1]. Consistent with the Comparison of the two conditions showed that they study of Scott at al. [9], this lower consistency of steps are not only different in terms of goals, but also in their could be due to the lack of task-specific training. The step kinematics. The close characteristic of step lengths subjects were not experienced in the long jump and had over the last part of the run-up were similar between not practiced any training with an approach run before conditions. The last step was shorter than the second- this investigation. to-last step and the competitors demonstrated typical The proportion of step adjustments showed that un- actions similar to those of professional jumpers during der TB conditions, the greatest correction was made for the final phase of the approach run [2, 3, 25]. This pro- the penultimate step and under NTB conditions, for the vides evidence that the conditions under which the sub- last step, before the take-off. The majority of the total jects performed the approach run did not change their step adjustments were spread over the final three steps. step patterns. However, we found that the length of the We observed that the percentage distribution of step particular steps under NTB conditions was significantly length adjustment (Fig. 2) over the last three steps was longer during the whole approach run (Fig. 3). It was similar under both conditions (overall value of 73.7% for previously observed that when task constraints within TB and 74.8% for NTB, respectively). The results also a nested task increase, the step length tends to decrease showed that the subjects demonstrated similar patterns [17, 23]. This could be an explanation for the present to those previously reported for different skill levels [6, findings, in which the subjects under TB conditions 13, 21]. This may suggest that the absence of the take- did not only reach optimal horizontal velocity but they off board changed the manner in which the subjects also had to be precise at the take-off board. In contrast, performed the last step. The significant modifications in the subjects who were not constrained by the board at footfall variability during the last step in NTB resulted in the end of the runway could focus only on maintaining a lower foot placement precision at the take-off phase. horizontal velocity during the approach run. We suppose

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 21 Marcin Starzak, Hubert Makaruk, Jerzy Sadowski that these could also result in lower variability in footfall Limitations placement and the subjects were able to produce length- There are limitations to the present study. Firstly, ened, consistent steps. the participants were not experienced in long jump Maraj [11], in contrast, showed that the absence training. Future studies should examine performances of the take-off board resulted in a constant increase in under both conditions (with and without take-off board) variability of footfall placement. This provided evidence in elite class jumpers to generalize findings from this that the last part of the approach run is under a sub- study, which would help to clearly identify a pattern for ject’s visual control in relation to the board. This could step length adjustment. A second limitation of this in- be questionable in light of the present findings. The ap- vestigation is that we showed differences in variability proach run towards the “virtual” target area requires ac- of footfall placement under each of the analyzed condi- curate foot placement, so it allows the jumper to regulate tions without exploring if there is a connection with the step length in order to be optimally positioned to that long jump distance. To achieve a better understanding area to maximize performance [22]. Despite the lack of of movement variability during the approach run in the constraint at the end of the runway and no requirement long jump, future research needs to examine the re- to place the foot precisely at the take-off, the subjects lationship between step length adjustment and perfor- were still constrained by a sandpit which could not be mance of the long jump. This would provide valuable overstepped. This fact may lead to increased visual per- solutions for training routines. ception because of the subject’s relation to the sandpit, which resulted in uniform adjustments over the following Conclusions steps during the approach run. Nevertheless, we believe The findings of the present study indicate that in that the absence of the take-off board does not exclude order to maintain better foot placement at the take-off the role of regulatory stimuli as an important part in guid- phase, the long jump should be performed from a pre- ing human locomotion [11, 12, 26]. cisely identified place (i.e. from the board). In order to Based on the present findings, we conclude that dif- develop consistent step patterns, coaches should imple- ferent task constraints under both observed conditions ment the long jump without the take-off board into train- lead to a different pattern of the step length adjustments. ing routines. This may also be beneficial for lengthening The lack of environmental constraints at the end of the particular steps in the approach phase. approach run (take-off board) could be helpful in pro- ducing constant steps. In addition, the simpler nested actions at the end of the approach phase, like in the long Acknowledgements jump without the take-off, might enhance the ability to This research is supported by the Ministry of Science control the step by subjects and lead to lengthening par- and Higher Education within the project “Rozwój Sportu ticular steps. But on the other hand, this could also result Akademickiego” [Development of Academic Sport] (No. in lower precision of footfall placement in the final phase RSA2 03452). of the approach run.

References

[1] Hay JG, Koh TJ: Evaluating the approach in horizontal jumps. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 1988; 4: 372– 392. [2] Hay JG, Nohara, H: Techniques used by elite long jumpers in preparation for takeoff. Journal of Biomechanics, 1990; 23: 229–239. [3] Lees A, Graham-Smith P, Fowler N: A biomechanical analysis of last stride, touchdown, and takeoff characteristics of men’s long jump. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 1994; 10: 61–61. [4] Glize D, Laurent M: Controlling locomotion during the acceleration phase in sprinting and long jumping. Journal of Sports Sciences, 1997; 15: 181–189. [5] Lee DN, Lishman JR, Thomson JA: Regulation of gait in long jumping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Percep- tion and Performance, 1982; 8: 448–459. [6] Hay JG: Approach strategies in the long jump. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 1988; 4: 114–129. [7] Warren WH, Young DS, Lee DN: Visual control of step length during running over irregular terrain. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1986; 12: 259–266. [8] Montagne G, Cornus S, Glize D, Quaine F, Laurent M: A perception – action coupling type of control in long jumping. Journal of Motor Behavior, 2000; 32: 37–43. [9] Scott MA, Li F, Davids K: Expertise and the regulation of gait in the approach phase of the long jump. Journal of Sports Sciences, 1997; 15: 597–605.

22 Antropomotoryka Step length adjustment in the long jump with and without take-off board in non-long jumpers i

[10] Maraj B, Allard F, Elliot D: The effect of nonregulatory stimuli on the triple jump approach run. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 1998; 69 (2): 129–135. [11] Maraj B: Evidence for programmed and visually controlled phases of the triple jump approach run. New Studies in Athletics, 1999; 14 (1): 51–56. [12] Bradshaw EJ, Aisbett B: Visual guidance during competition performance and run-through training in long jumping. Sports Biomechanics, 2006; 5 (1): 1–14. [13] Berg WP, Wade MG, Greer NL: Visual regulation of gait in bipedal locomotion: Revisiting Lee, Lishman, and Thomson (1982). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1994; 20: 854-863. [14] Omura I, Iiboshi A, Koyama H, Muraki Y, Ae M: Analysis of the approach run and the takeoff in the Japanese junior long jumpers. ISB XXth Congress – ASB 29th Annual Meeting, 2005; July 31–August 5, Cleveland, Ohio, Abstract 340. [15] Omura I, Iiboshi A, Koyama H, Muraki Y, Ae M: Influence of the visual control point on the approach run and the performance of the elite junior long jumper. ISB XXIth Congress, 2007; July 1–5, Taipei, Taiwan. [16] Moraes R: Determinants and strategies for the alternate foot placement. Doctor’s Thesis: University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2005. [17] Greenwood DA: Informational constraints on performance of dynamic interceptive actions. Doctor’s Thesis: Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia, 2014. [18] Lee DN, Lishman JR, Thomson JA: Regulation of gait in long jumping. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Percep- tion and Performance, 1977; 8: 448–459. [19] Theodorou A, Ioakimidou E, Kouris P, Panoutsakopoulos V, Smpokos E: Colour contrast and regulation of the long jump approach run. Journal of Human Sport & Exercise, 2013; 8 (3): 681–687. [20] Glazier P, Irwing G: Validity of stride length estimates obtained from OptoJump. Volume: Proceedings of Poster Sessions: XIXth International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, June 20–26 2001; XIXth International Symposium on Biomechan- ics in Sports, San Francisco; 2001 p. 98–101. [21] Panteli FN, Theodorou A, Pilianidis T, Smirniotou A: Locomotor control in the long jump approach run in young novice athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 2014; 32 (2): 149–156. [22] Renshaw I, Davids K: Nested task constraints shape continuous perception-action coupling control during human locomotor pointing. Neuroscience Letters, 2004; 369: 93–98. [23] Bradshaw EJ, Sparrow WA: Effects of approach velocity and foot-target characteristics on the visual regulation of step length. Human Movement Science, 2001; 20: 401–426. [24] Lee DN, Lishman JR, Thomson JA: Visual guidance in the long jump. Athletics Coach, 1977; 1 (2): 26–30. [25] Çetin E, Özdemir Ö, Özdöl Y: Kinematic analysis last four stride lengths of two different long jump performance. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014; 116 (2014): 2747–2751. [26] Warren WH, Young DS, Lee DN: Visual control of step length during running over irregular terrain. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1986; 12: 259–266.

Address for correspondence: Starzak Marcin Department of Athletics The Josef Pilsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Biala Podlaska, Poland ul. Akademicka 2, 21-500 Biała Podlaska e-mail: [email protected] mobile: 48-602-230-467

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 23

Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 25-34, 2015

SECTION – SPORT SCIENCES

ICID: 1194798 (1.3) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194798

CARDIORESPIRATORY RESPONSE AND ENERGY SYSTEM CONTRIBUTION DURING SPEED ENDURANCE WORKOUT IN A HIGHLY TRAINED SPRINTER: A PRELIMINARY REPORT

Authors’ contribution: Krzysztof KusyABCDEFG, Ewa ZarębskaBC, A. Study design/planning BC BC B. Data collection/entry Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak , Michał Janowski , C. Data analysis/statistics Jacek ZielińskiABDEG D. Data interpretation E. Preparation of manuscript F. Literature analysis/search G. Funds collection Department of Athletics, Poznan University of Physical Education, Poland

Keywords: speed endurance, aerobic energy contribution, ventilation, blood lactate, track session

Abstract

Purpose. Assessment of the physiological response to individually programmed speed endurance track session in a highly trained sprinter. Basic procedures. One male sprinter, aged 23 years, a member of the Polish national team, was examined. He underwent the ergospirometric graded exercise test (GXT) to assess aerobic capacity and maximum blood lactate (LA). In the competition period, the same variables were measured during repeated sprints (60 m, 60 m, 100 m and 120 m) on a standard athletic track using a mobile wireless ergospirometer. The energy contribution from aerobic and anaerobic metabolism was calculated from exercise oxygen uptake (VO2), fast component of post-exercise oxygen consumption and net post-exercise blood lactate concentration. Main findings. Peak values relative to those obtained during GXT were: 80% for minute ventilation (VE), 111% for breathing frequency (BF), 103% for tidal volume (VT), 79% for peak VO2, 90% for heart rate (HR) and 84% for oxygen pulse (VO2/HR). Post- effort peak values were attained at different times: VE 37–46 s, BF 23–34 s, VT 38–67 s, VO2 46–89 s, HR 36–48 s and VO2/ HR 45–77 s. Peak LA after the last sprint reached 147% of the GXT maximum. The proportions of aerobic, anaerobic alactic and anaerobic lactic acid energy sources were approximately 11.1%, 46.4% and 42.5%, respectively. Conclusions. The athlete showed typical contribution of aerobic and anaerobic energy delivery during the speed endurance workout. We support the notion that specific speed endurance exercise rely both on anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. Monitoring and control of the actual track sessions using high-tech equipment may help coaches and athletes to determine optimal workout parameters.

Introduction from 6 to 90 s [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The contribution of aerobic metabolism in 100-m and 200-m sprints has Physical efforts performed at maximal or near-maxi- been estimated to be about 3–7% and 14-29%, respec- mal speed are crucial for success in many sports. Sprint tively [8, 9, 10]. running is the most obvious example. Such exercise is However, it should be noted that almost all data ob- typically associated with anaerobic metabolism. In spite tained hitherto were based on cycling [1, 2, 5, 6, 7] and of this common opinion, previous studies demonstrated treadmill running [9], which do not strictly reflect the that the involvement of aerobic energy supply may vary specificity of track running, or on mathematical models from 3% to 64% during all-out exercise of a duration with their simplified assumptions [4, 6, 8, 10]. The study

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 25 Krzysztof Kusy, Ewa Zarębska, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Michał Janowski, Jacek Zieliński of Duffield et al. [11] is probably the only one in which 10.38 s (100 m), 20.89 s (200 m) and 38.60 s (4 × actual track running was used. According to their data, 100 m). The project, part of which is this study, has the relative aerobic energy contribution for the 100-m been approved by the Ethics Committee at the Karol event, as measured by accumulated oxygen deficit, was Marcinkowski Medical University in Poznan. 21% for males and 25% for females, or 9% and 11%, respectively, based on lactate and phosphate creatine Graded exercise test (PCr) measurements. Today, it is clear that virtually all Before the competition period, the athlete underwent physical activities derive some energy from each of the an incremental running treadmill test (Pulsar, h/p/cos- following three processes: (i) splitting the high-energy mos, Germany) until exhaustion in order to obtain physi- PCr, (ii) the nonaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates ological characteristics during maximal endurance exer- and (iii) the combustion of carbohydrates and fats in the cise. The test was completed at the “LaBthletics” Human presence of oxygen [12]. It was also revealed that the Kinetics Laboratory of the Poznan University of Physical time from the onset of a high-intensity exercise to the Education, in the morning, about 2 h after consuming onset of oxidative processes is shorter than previously a light breakfast (bread and butter, water, without cof- believed [12], and that oxygen consumption following fee or tea). Before the trial, the analyzers were calibrated a repeated sprint exercise may equal the peak values ob- with standard gases of known concentrations and volu- tained during a graded test until exhaustion [13]. metric calibration was done. Main cardiorespiratory vari- The assessment of cardiorespiratory response and ables were measured continuously (breath-by-breath) energy contribution from aerobic and anaerobic sources by means of the MetaMax 3B-R2 ergospirometer and in competitive speed-power athletes is of great practi- the MetaSoft Studio software (Cortex Biophysic, Ger- cal interest. Speed endurance is a crucial ability resulting many): breathing frequency (BF), tidal volume (VT), min- in maintaining a high running speed that tends to de- ute ventilation (VE), oxygen uptake (VO2), carbon dioxide crease in the second/final stage of the 100-m or 200- production (VCO2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), m distance. The common but unjustified assumption heart rate (HR) and oxygen pulse (VO2/HR). Baseline VO2 is that very short all-out sprints only activate anaerobic was established during the last 10 min of a 30-min pre- mechanisms of energy production. In fact, even a single exercise rest period. Then, the athlete started the test at sprint exercise triggers aerobic energy sources as well, a speed of 4 km/h and walked for 3 min. Subsequently, the contribution of which may increase with each subse- the speed was progressively increased by 2 km/h every quent repetition [13]. Thus, measuring indices of aerobic 3 min until volitional exhaustion. The athlete was verbally and anaerobic energy sources provides the coach and encouraged to give maximal effort throughout the test. athlete with information on the adequacy of the training Maximal heart rate (HRmax) was defined as the highest loads used and gives the opportunity for their optimiza- value recorded during the test. Maximal oxygen uptake tion (exercise and recovery time, number of repetitions). (VO2max) was considered to be achieved if the test met To our best knowledge, no data have been published at least three of the following criteria [14, 15, 16]: (a) about cardiorespiratory aerobic response to a speed en- a plateau in VO2 with increasing speed; (b) respiratory durance workout and aerobic energy contribution obtained exchange ratio > 1.15; (c) heart rate within 5 beats/min during an actual training session. Thus, the aim of this of the age-predicted HRmax [17], (d) blood lactate con- report is the assessment of the magnitude and time of centration after exercise greater than 7 mmol/L and (e) the response to individually programmed sprint intervals the rating of perceived exertion was 19 or 20 as indi- in a highly trained sprinter. We hypothesize that the aerobic cated by the athlete on the Borg Scale [18]. VO2max was response and aerobic energy contribution to speed endur- expressed in ml/min (absolute values) and in ml/kg/min ance session will be noticeable despite the assumption (relative to body mass). Maximal oxygen pulse was de- regarding the anaerobic character of the exercise. rived by dividing VO2max by HRmax. Venous blood samples were obtained from the antecubital vein at rest and im- Methods mediately after the maximal test. Lactate concentration was assayed using chip sensor technology (Biosen C- Subject line analyser, EKF Diagnostics, Germany/USA). The athlete was a male sprinter, aged 23 years, a member of the Polish national team, specializing in Track session sprints 100 m, 200 m and 4 × 100 m for eight years, The measurements were performed during the taper whose body height was 183 cm, body mass 80.4 kg phase before the main competition on a standard 400-m and relative fat content 9.5% as measured by dual X-ray running track during windless weather and the air tem- absorptiometry (Lunar Prodigy, GE Healthcare, USA). perature at 26ºC. The aim of the session was to develop His personal best performances were: 6.63 s (60 m), speed endurance. The session was designed by a coach

26 Antropomotoryka Cardiorespiratory response and energy system contribution during speed endurance workout... i and included the following main parts: (i) a 40-min warm- equivalent. The times of collecting EPOC data were the up (jogging, stretching, skipping drills and other technique same as recovery times after consecutive sprints (see drills, preliminary “run-throughs” at increasing speed), above). The time course of VO2 during recovery after (ii) four maximal sprints from a standing start 60 m + each sprint was fitted into a bi-exponential curve based 60 m + 100 m + 120 m followed by passive recovery on the following equation: and (iii) a 30-min cool-down (stretching, jogging). Ac- -t/τ –t/τ tual recovery times between the sprints slightly differed VO2(t) = Af e f + As e s + VO2base from the planned ones and were 5 min 5 sec. (vs. the planned 5 min) after the first 60 m, 7 min 40 sec. (vs. where VO2(t) is oxygen consumption at time t, Af and As are the planned 8 min) after the second 60 m, 8 min 6 sec. amplitudes of the fast and slow component, respectively,

(vs. the planned 8 min) after the 100-m sprint and 10 min τf and τs are corresponding time constants and VO2base is 27 s (end of recording data) after the 120-m sprint. The oxygen consumption at baseline. The fast component wireless mobile ergospirometry system was worn by the of EPOC was calculated as the product of Af τf. The bi- athlete during the main part (ii) of the session, consisting exponential model was constructed using OriginPro soft- of maximal sprints, that lasted for 35 minutes. During this ware, version b9.3.226 (OriginLab Corp., USA). Net en- time, cardiorespiratory variables were measured using the ergy produced from anaerobic lactic acid metabolism was same methods and apparatuses as in the laboratory (see determined from net lactate concentration (post-exercise above). Capillary blood for lactate concentration was ob- minus pre-exercise), body mass and O2-lactate equiva- tained from the finger tip immediately before the session, lent. The latter was assumed to be 3 ml O2/kg/mmol/l, i.e. after the warm-up and 3 min after the last sprint. Sprint 63 J/kg/mmol/l. Aerobic and anaerobic alactic energy pro- times were measured automatically to the nearest 0.01 s duction was estimated for each sprint separately, whereas using photocells (Brower Timing TC-System, USA). anaerobic lactic acid energy contribution was calculated as one total value (lactate concentration was measured Energy contribution calculations before the first and after the last sprint). The calculations were performed according to the al- gorithm suggested by Beneke et al. [19]. In brief, net aer- Results obic energy was calculated from the VO2 above baseline during each sprint. We assumed the O2 equivalent equal The comparison between peak cardiorespira- to 21.1 kJ/l. The energy produced from anaerobic alactic tory variables obtained at VO2max during the laboratory metabolism was estimated from the fast component of graded test versus the speed endurance track session post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) and the O2 are shown in Table 1. In Figures 1‒4, the detailed time

Table 1. Exercise characteristics at maximal oxygen consumption during a laboratory treadmill test until exhaustion (LAB) and peak values after consecutive sprints during track session (TRACK). Percentage of maximal laboratory values is shown in brackets.

TRACK LAB 60 m 60 m 100 m 120 m Time [s] 888 6.76 6.68 10.85 13.06 Av. speed [m/s] – 8.88 8.98 9.22 9.19 VE [l/min] 137.3 87.8 (64%) 107.1 (78%) 104.0 (76%) 109.9 (80%) VT [l] 2.08 2.15 (103%) 2.07 (99%) 2.14 (103%) 2.15 (103%) BF [/min] 66 44 (67%) 56 (85%) 63 (95%) 73 (111%)

VO2 [l/min] 3.72 2.77 (74%) 2.95 (79%) 2.91 (78%) 2.80 (75%)

VCO2 [l/min] 4.37 3.13 (71%) 3.19 (72%) 3.22 (73%) 3.10 (70%) RER 1.05 1.28 (122%) 1.47 (140%) 1.44 (137%) 1.32 (126%) EPOC [l/min] 3.49 2.54 (72%) 2.72 (77%) 2.68 (76%) 2.57 (73%) HR [/min] 194 162 (84%) 166 (86%) 172 (89%) 174 (90%)

VO2/HR [ml] 19.2 17.1 (89%) 17.8 (93%) 16.9 (88%) 16.1 (84%) LA [mmol/l]* 11.0 – – – 16.2 (147%) * venous blood in laboratory, capillary blood during track session Abbreviations: BF breathing frequency; EPOC excess post-exercise oxygen consumption; HR heart rate; LA blood lactate; RER respiratory exchange ratio;

VCO2 exhaled dioxide; VE minute ventilation; VO2 oxygen uptake; VO2/HR oxygen pulse; VT tidal volume

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 27 Krzysztof Kusy, Ewa Zarębska, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Michał Janowski, Jacek Zieliński

Figure 1. Time course of minute ventilation (VE, brown line), tidal volume (VT, orange line) and breathing frequency (BF, green line) during an actual speed endurance track session in a highly trained sprinter. Vertical yellow lines denote the start and completion times of consecutive sprints

Figure 2. Time course of oxygen consumption (VO2, blue line) and carbon dioxide production (VCO2, red line) during an actual speed endurance track session in a highly trained sprinter. Vertical yellow lines denote the start and completion times of consecutive sprints courses of main cardiorespiratory parameters are pre- ing the last (120 m) sprint. Similarly, BF increased from sented. A clear increase in all parameters was observed 67% to 111% of the value at VO2max. The increase in VT after each sprint. VE increased from 64% of the value was similar across the four sprints (up to 99–103% of at VO2max following the first (60 m) sprint to 80% follow- its value at VO2max). VO2 and VCO2 reached between 70%

28 Antropomotoryka Cardiorespiratory response and energy system contribution during speed endurance workout... i

Figure 3. Time course of heart rate (HR, purple line) and oxygen pulse (VO2/HR, green line) during an actual speed endurance track session in a highly trained sprinter. Vertical yellow lines denote the start and completion times of consecutive sprints

Figure 4. Time course of respiratory exchange ratio (RER) during an actual speed endurance track session in a highly trained sprinter. Vertical yellow lines denote the start and completion times of consecutive sprints

and 79% of their maximal values. HR and VO2/HR ap- tained within a narrow time range between 37 s and 46 s proached 84–90% of maximum value. Post-effort RER and 23 s and 34 s, respectively. The time to reach peak reached 122–140% of the value at VO2max. VT increased with each consecutive sprint from 38 s to

The times of reaching peak values following the 67 s. Similarly, the times to attain peak VO2, VCO2, RER, sprints were different depending on the parameter and HR and VO2/HR values increased with each sprint from successive sprints (Table 2). Peak VE and BF were at- 46 s to 89 s, 47 s to 76 s, 175 s to 196 s, 36 s to 48 s

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 29 Krzysztof Kusy, Ewa Zarębska, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Michał Janowski, Jacek Zieliński

Table 2. Times to reach the peak values* after consecutive sprints (seconds)

60 m 60 m 100 m 120 m VE 46 37 42 43 VT 38 40 52 67 BF 27 34 34 23

VO2 46 54 66 89

VCO2 47 56 76 74 RER 175 185 218 196 HR 36 43 53 48

VO2/HR 45 56 77 63 * time from the start of the sprint until obtaining post-exercise peak value

Abbreviations: BF breathing frequency; HR heart rate; RER respiratory exchange ratio; VCO2 exhaled dioxide; VE minute ventilation; VO2 oxygen uptake; VT tidal volume

Table 3. The contribution of aerobic and anaerobic energy sources to the energy expenditure during four consecutive sprints

Consecutive sprints Total 60 m 60 m 100 m 120 m

Exercise VO2 [l] 0.83 0.05 0.04 0.22 0.51

Energy from aerobic metabolism VO2 [kJ] 17.54 1.08 0.92 4.73 10.81

EPOC, fast component [l] 3.08 0.34 1.13 0.95 0.66

Energy from anaerobic alactic metabolism [kJ] 73.62 7.57 26.90 21.81 17.34

∆ LA [mmol/l] 13.32 Abbreviations: EPOC – excess post-exercise oxygen con-

sumption; LA – blood lactate; VO2 – oxygen uptake Energy from anaerobic lactic acid metabolism [kJ] 67.47

Total energy [kJ] 158.63

Energy contribution [%]: – aerobic 11.1 – anaerobic alactic 46.4 – anaerobic lactic acid 42.5 and 45 s to 77 s, respectively. During the recovery inter- Discussion vals, all cardiorespiratory variables returned to pre-exercise values but maintained significantly above baseline The main finding of this report is that, as expected, (resting) values (Fig. 1–3). Pre-exercise LA was 1.90 repeated sprints performed during an actual track ses- mmol/l and following the warm-up, 2.88 mmol/l. Peak sion in a highly trained sprinter elicited a strong cardio- LA, measured after the last sprint, reached 147% of the respiratory response and aerobic metabolism noticeably maximum value measured during the maximal graded contributed to the total energy production. Although test until exhaustion (Table 1). anaerobic energy sources were estimated to deliver as Total metabolic energy expended during four sprints much as ~89% of the total energy during the whole was estimated to be 158.63 kJ (Table 3). The propor- sprint workout, the remaining ~11% were provided by tions of aerobic, anaerobic alactic and anaerobic lactic aerobic metabolism. Our results are, in general, consis- acid energy sources were approximately 1.1 : 4.6 : 4.3, tent with studies in which the aerobic energy contribu- respectively, as calculated from exercise VO2, fast com- tion during sprint exercise (6–20 s cycling or 100-200 m ponent of EPOC and net post-exercise lactate concentra- running) was estimated to be 5–18% [1, 4, 5, 10]. How- tion. From the second 60-m sprint to the 120-m (last) ever, the reported results are affected by measurement sprint, the aerobic energy delivery increased by 9.89 kJ and calculation methods and, for a 100-m sprint, may and the anaerobic alactic energy decreased by 9.56 kJ. vary from 9% to 11%, based on lactate and phosphate

30 Antropomotoryka Cardiorespiratory response and energy system contribution during speed endurance workout... i

st creatine measures, or from 21% to 25% if calculated (national league). VO2 increased to 93% (1 bout) and nd from accumulated oxygen deficit [9, 11]. 102% (2 bout) VO2max after the last sprint. In our study,

The magnitude and delay of respiratory response was peak VO2 after each consecutive sprint was lower and dependent on the measured variable and sprint order. equal to 74–79% VO2max, even though the distance and The strongest respiratory response, reaching or exceed- exercise time increased. The differences may be attrib- ing the intensity at VO2max, was revealed for VT, BF and uted to recovery times between sprints, which were only RER. The remaining cardiorespiratory variables attained 24 s in the study by McGawley and Bishop, and 5–10 submaximal levels (70–90% of values at VO2max). Similar minutes in our track session. Incomplete recovery re- relative values were found in healthy young men (21 ± 2 sults in the start from an elevated baseline. This in turn years) performing a single sprint on a cycle ergometer causes the increase in peak VO2. The longer recovery

[20]. Time to reach peak VO2, VO2/HR, VCO2, RER, VT periods in our study brought about a return to VO2 lev- and BF increased with consecutive sprints, whereas it els from before the first sprint. Consequently, post-sprint was relatively constant for VE and HR. The respiratory peak VO2 values did not reach the VO2max level (Table 1). reaction was accompanied by a very high concentration However, pre-exercise values were attained later, after of blood LA immediately after the last sprint and changes each subsequent sprint. in proportion of aerobic and anaerobic alactic sources of energy. Blood lactate In this study, peak LA after the last sprint was high Ventilation (16.2 mmol/l) and comparable to the levels observed by Interestingly, VE (a product of VT and BF) increased Locatelli and Arsac [8] after single 100-m sprints per- to submaximal values after consecutive sprints despite formed by competitive athletes during an actual com- “supramaximal” increases in BF and VT. The explanation petition. Such a high blood LA concentration is charac- is the desynchronization of VT and BF. These two peak teristic of so called “anaerobic lactic training”, which is values, even if extremely high, did not overlap: peak BF a classic method in developing speed endurance. In fact, was attained sooner than peak VT. Peak magnitudes of a considerable contribution of aerobic metabolism must VT were constant but the times to reach peak VT be- be taken into account (see section below). The explana- came longer with each subsequent sprint. In contrast, tion of high blood LA levels during intense exercise is peak BF increased with subsequent sprints at constant that phosphate sources (mainly PCr) become depleted, peak times. As a result, VE reached values below those causing acidosis [22] and reduced glycogenolysis [23]. at VO2max (Table 1, Figure 1). In practical terms, the levels of LA after a sprint exercise depend on the time and number of repetitions, as Oxygen uptake well as recovery duration. In healthy young males, peak In recreationally trained subjects, it was found that values in LA were 4.4 mmol/l after a single sprint (cy- brief, all-out sprint interval exercise produced signifi- cling), 7 mmol/l after five 10-s sprints and 8.7 mmol/l af- cantly higher values of post-exercise VO2 in magnitude ter a 30-s sprint [24]. It was revealed that when multiple and duration than after moderate aerobic exercise [21]. sprints were performed, the first of the ten 6-s sprints re- The literature concerning the respiratory response to sulted in a small increase in blood LA to about 2 mmol/l, a single or repeated sprint exercise in highly trained ath- after the fifth sprint LA increased to 9.3 mmol/l, and after letes is very scarce and, to our best knowledge, virtually the ninth sprint LA reached 12.6 mmol/l and remained no attempts were made to assess the response during constant during the 10 min of post-exercise recovery actual track and field training sessions. In the study of [25]. In trained athletes, after a single 100-m actual track Duffield et al. [11] on club- and national-level sprinters, sprint, peak LA reached values from 8 to 16 mmol/l [8, peak VO2 and peak HR after a single 100-m sprint at- 11, 26], which is consistent with our data. Hirvonen et tained 33% VO2max and 91% HRmax. The observed VO2 was al. [26] revealed that post-exercise blood LA levels in- clearly lower than that attained by our athlete. The dis- creased with the distance and time of single sprints: 40- crepancy is connected with different criteria to determine m, 60-m and 80-m track sprints elicited lactate respons- peak values: the end of sprint distance in Duffield et al. es equal to 4.5, 5.9 and 7.8 mmol/l, respectively. Thus, [11], and delayed post-exercise maximum value in this blood LA levels are higher when the distance, time and study. However, peak HR was similar despite different repetition number of sprints are higher and the recovery measurement assumptions because HR increased faster time is shorter. It is also suggested that highly-trained than VO2, already at the very early stage of exercise. Mc- athletes can produce and tolerate higher lactate concen- Gawley and Bishop [13] measured oxygen uptake during trations [27]. Based on the previous reports mentioned two bouts consisting of five consecutive 6-s sprints on above, we may conclude that the LA levels in our sprinter a cycle ergometer in female European football players were typical for a highly trained athlete.

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 31 Krzysztof Kusy, Ewa Zarębska, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Michał Janowski, Jacek Zieliński

Aerobic energy contribution athlete. On the one hand, the contribution of aerobic Sprint interval training sessions are typically aimed metabolism increased and anaerobic (alactic) metabo- at stimulation of anaerobic energy sources using maxi- lism decreased with each repetition. On the other hand, mal or submaximal short-duration exercise separated the level of performance was maintained as measured by recovery periods. However, a substantial “admix- by average running speed. From this point of view, ture” of aerobic metabolism must always be taken into the analysed speed endurance workout was properly account, which seems to be unavoidable as demon- planned and performed. However, this and other stud- strated previously (see Introduction). The clearly no- ies impose some questions: Which is the most opti- ticeable contribution of aerobic metabolism as early as mal strategy for developing speed endurance ability? a few seconds from the beginning of a sprint exercise Should we strengthen the aerobic metabolic adaptation results from the fact that anaerobic energy sources in order to offset the rapidly declining anaerobic capac- get near their limits very quickly and need time to re- ity? Or vice versa: Should we mainly promote anaero- store after exercise. That is why the recovery time and bic capacity to extend the time during which anaerobic number of repetitions are crucial to the effects of such metabolism is efficient enough? Each of the approach- a specific session. Dawson et al. [28] found that in es require a different workout programme as regards trained subjects, PCr repletion after a 1 × 6 s sprint distance/time, number of repetition and recovery inter- was approximately 70% complete after 30 s of recov- vals. We speculate that each athlete has his/her own ery and almost complete (90%) after 3 min of recov- proportion of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in ery. After 5 × 6 s sprints, each separated by only 24 a particular exercise that results in best performance s, PCr repletion was less than 50% complete after 30 (highest running speed). Modern measurement meth- s of recovery and only approximately 80% complete ods and knowledge enable coaches and researchers to after 3 min. Full recovery from a multiple sprint exer- determine such parameters for individual athletes. This study shows one of such ways. Future research should cise usually requires about 30 min for VO2 and blood LA levels to decline to resting values [21]. Admittedly, focus on algorithms that would help to precisely tailor speed-endurance exercise parameters to the needs of in our athlete, recovery times (5–10 min) allowed VO2 and other cardiorespiratory parameters to return to pre- a highly-trained athlete. exercise values, but post-exercise times to reach peak Limitation and strengths VO2 lengthened with each sprint and the aerobic energy demand increased. Simultaneously, the contribution of The main limitation of this preliminary report is that alactic anaerobic energy metabolism decreased, which only one athlete was examined and the results cannot suggests that full recovery of PCr was not possible. be generalized. However, the training of highly competi- The contribution of aerobic metabolism may in- tive athletes is strictly tailored to individual needs, hence crease from ~10% to ~40% of the whole energy de- they usually perform different training drills as was the livery with each successive sprint separated by short case here. Also, some unexpected oscillations of re- recovery intervals [13]. It is related to a decrease in spiratory variables that could obscure the calculations anaerobic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) resynthesis by were observed, resulting from non-standard behaviour 65% after multiple sprints [25]. 88% to 100% of muscle of the athlete in contrast to laboratory conditions. More- PCr is expended during 5.5 s in a 11-s sprint, depend- over, the maximal test was performed much earlier than ing on an athlete’s performance level, and glycolysis is the track session, however, we revealed in our previous the main anaerobic energy source at the end of the run study that VO2max did not significantly change in sprinters [26]. However, these both sources are still insufficient. between the pre-competition and competition phase of Thus, it is suggested that, based on exercise protocols the annual training cycle [30]. The strength of our report with short recovery intervals up to 30 s, aerobic energy is that accurate and precise measuring methods were contribution serves to offset the decline in anaerobic en- used during the actual track session, which allowed for ergy production during a repeated sprint exercise [13, the collection of unique data. 25, 29]. In support of the above view, the decline in power Conclusions output is much smaller than the decrease in muscle PCr concentration and smaller than the decline in ATP pro- The athlete we studied showed typical contribution of duction rate from anaerobic sources [13, 25]. In other aerobic (~11%) and anaerobic (~89%) energy delivery words, sprint performance level is maintained in spite during the speed endurance workout. Our observations of the significant depletion of anaerobic sources. Such are consistent with evidence from other studies and sup- a phenomenon, although to a lesser extent because of port the notion that specific speed endurance exercise relatively long recovery periods, was observed in our relies on both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. The

32 Antropomotoryka Cardiorespiratory response and energy system contribution during speed endurance workout... i latter seems to be inseparable from the training routine Acknowledgements aimed at development of this ability in highly trained sprinters. The monitoring and control of actual track ses- This work was funded by the Polish Ministry of Sci- sions using high-tech equipment may help coaches and ence and Higher Education from financial resources within athletes to determine optimal workout parameters, i.e. “The Development of Academic Sports” programme, grant exercise and recovery time as well as repetition number, number RSA2 041 52. Special thanks to Tadeusz Osik, the to effectively achieve training goals. coach of the Polish national team, and his athletes.

References

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Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 33 Krzysztof Kusy, Ewa Zarębska, Monika Ciekot-Sołtysiak, Michał Janowski, Jacek Zieliński

[23] Philp A, Macdonald AL, Watt PW: Lactate – a signal coordinating cell and systemic function. J Exp Biol. 2005; 208(Pt 24), 4561–4575. DOI:10.1242/jeb.01961 [24] Yano T, Matsuura R, Arimistu T, Yamanaka R, Lian C, Afroundeh R, Kondou S, Yunoki T: Effects of blood lactate on oxygen uptake kinetics during recovery after sprint in humans. Biol Sport. 2012; 29, 171–176. DOI: 10.5604/20831862.1003273 [25] Gaitanos GC, Williams C, Boobis LH, Brooks S: Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1993; 75(2), 712–719. [26] Hirvonen J, Rehunen S, Rusko H, Härkönen M: Breakdown of high-energy phosphate compounds and lactate accumulation during short supramaximal exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1987; 56(3), 253–259. DOI: 10.1007/BF00690889 [27] Ferri A, Adamo S, La Torre A, Marzorati M, Bishop DJ, Miserocchi G: Determinants of performance in 1,500-m runners. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2012; 112(8), 3033–3043. DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-2251-2 [28] Dawson B, Goodman C, Lawrence S, Preen D, Polglaze T, Fitzsimons M, Fournier P: Muscle phosphocreatine repletion fol-lowing single and repeated short sprint efforts. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1997; 7(4), 206–213. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600- 0838.1997.tb00141.x [29] Bishop D, Edge J: Determinants of repeated-sprint ability in females matched for single-sprint performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006; 97(4), 373–379. DOI: 10.1007/s00421-006-0182-0 [30] Zieliński J, Kusy K: Training-induced adaptation in purine metabolism in high-level sprinters vs. triathletes. J Appl Physiol. 2012; 112(4), 542–551. DOI:10.1152/japplphysiol.01292.2011

Corresponding author: Krzysztof Kusy Department of Athletics, Poznan University of Physical Education e-mail: [email protected] phone: +48 83 55 270

34 Antropomotoryka Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 35-40, 2015

SECTION – FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED KINESIOLOGY

ICID: 1194799 (1.4) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194799

SELECTED PARAMETERS OF ANAEROBIC CAPACITY AND BODY TISSUE COMPONENTS IN HANDBALL PLAYERS FROM THE PREMIER LEAGUE TEAM

Authors’ contribution: Krzysztof Krawczyk A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation Physical Culture Centre Maria Curie Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland E. Preparation of manuscript F. Literature analysis/search G. Funds collection Key words: anaerobic capacity, body tissue components, handball

Abstract

Study aim. Review of literature related to handball reveals that modern handball performed at the highest level of competition is dominated by short-term, 5–20 second sequences of anaerobic efforts. Given the above data and lack of scientific reports describing the level of anaerobic capacity in handball players representing a high sports level, it was considered appropriate to investigate the efficiency of this field of capacity in the men’s premier league team. The aim of the study was to assess the relative mechanical work (J/kg) and maximal power (W/kg) obtained in the Wingate test, and to measure tissue components (BMI, FAT%, TBW%). Study design. Subjects: 16 handball players from the premier league team. The average age of subjects = 25.33 ± 7.05 years, mean body height = 192.40 ± 7.18 cm, mean body mass = 98.31 ± 12.82 kg. Anaerobic capacity assessment was carried out in accordance with the Wingate – 30 s testing procedure, using the Monark 824E bicycle ergometer, and the MCE v. 5.0 computer program. Measurement of body tissue components were made using the Tanita SC330 body composition analyzer. Results. The average maximum power was – 11.15 ± 0.80 W/kg, average work – 253.88 ± 16.93 J/kg, average time of attaining power – 4.83 ± 081s, time of maintaining power – 3.06 ± 1,08 s. The average BMI was 26.45 ± 1.91; FAT% – 12.92 ± 3.27; TBW% –59.02 ± 2.43. Conclusions. In the process of training handball at a high competitive level, more attention should be paid to the development of anaerobic endurance by increasing the share of interval-type loads.

Introduction During intense exercise, skeletal muscle work is based on anaerobic processes, which are the dominant Handball is a sports discipline in which the ability to source of energy [5, 6]. Scientific studies have shown perform repetitive, short-term sprints of maximal inten- that the ability to perform high intensity repetitive efforts sity is of decisive significance [1, 2]. In the course of the depends on the phosphorcreatine resources in the mus- game, the exercise load is characterized by the repetition cles and the speed of their re-synthesis [7]. The rate of of short-term high intensity efforts, such as runs, jumps, phosphocreatine re-synthesis is dependent on aerobic throws, which are separated by efforts of low intensity metabolism, suggesting that players characterized by

[3]. Success in hand ball is largely dependent on an in- a higher level of VO2max index values are more prone to crease in exercise capacity that can be obtained through effective re-synthesis of the compound [8]. The ability special preparation and adequate development of motor of muscles to perform another intense effort depends skill levels [4]. at least in part on the rate of re-synthesis of phosphor

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 35 Krzysztof Krawczyk creatine and the rate of elimination of hydrogen ions. of 7.5% of body mass [21, 22, 23]. The test was per- PCR resources are quickly restored (30–60 seconds), formed after a 5-minute warm-upon the ergo meter and while the elimination of H + takes much longer (5–10 after a 5-minute rest following the effort. min) [9]. The study used the Monark 824E Cyklo Ergometr In modern handball, an important component of (Sweden), connected to an IBM PC Pentium computer, the match load structure is an aerobic exercise capac- and the MCE_v_5.1 computer program [23]. Rotation ity [10]. Studies on the “match” load structure by Cz- sensors were fixed to a flywheel. During one revolution erwinski [11, 12] and Norkowski [13, 14] have proven of the pedals, the fly wheel performed 3.70 of a revo- that in the case of handball, 30–35% of the game time lution, which corresponded to a distance of 6m. After occurs in the area of anaerobic efforts. Therefore, the establishing proper seat and handle bar height, the par- share of efforts characterizing anaerobic metabolism, ticipant performed the effort seated, starting the effort their structure and proportions incline to carry out the from an immobile position. Their feet were fastened to content of training in accordance with the physiologi- the pedals. During the exercise, the participants were cal characteristics of handball. In the available domes- motivated to perform maximal speed of pedal rotation as tic and foreign literature, there is little data on anaerobic quickly as possible, and to maintain it until the end of the capacity of handball players representing a high level of effort. Using MCE_v_5.1., the following measurements competitive sports. Measurements of body composition and calculations were taken: are important in the assessment of nutritional status, as • number of flywheel revolutions, well as assessing the risk of developing illnesses related • the value of the performed effort (J/kg), to irregular body fat contents [15]. Increased content of • average power (W/kg), FAT is the main factor causing an increase in the level of • maximal power (W/kg), TC, LDL-C and TG concentration, while FFM value signifi- • time of attaining P max (s) , cantly affects HDL-C concentration and TG in the serum • time of attaining P border (s), [16,17]. Physically active individuals, e.g. athletes, gain • time of maintaining P border (s). benefits important for their health, such as normalization of body mass and maintenance of appropriate balance The Wingate test was chosen because it is a gen- between lean body mass and body fat [18,19].Water erally useful laboratory test used to assess muscular in the body is the single most important component of strength, muscular endurance, and its fatigue. Wingate body mass. All cells in the body can function properly has also found application as a test, which helps to ana- only when the it has an appropriate amount of water. lyze the physiological response of the organism to super Knowledge on fat and water contents in the body can maximal efforts [24]. The Wingate is a reliable test and provide some kind of guidance when adjusting a diet, fit- when performed on the same day, the correlation coef- ness program or fluid intake, and thus can contribute to ficient is 0.95–0.98, and within 1–2 weeks, 0.90–0.93 improving health status [20]. [24]. Also, high correlation coefficient scan be observed The aim of this study was to assess the level of between the Wan T. results and the results of other tests: selected anaerobic capacity indicators and body tissue anaerobic performance – sprint 40 m – 0.86; anaero- components in handball players at a high level of com- bic endurance-swimming 25 m – 0.87–0.90; anaerobic petitive sports. Based on analysis, observation of cham- power – the Margaria-Kalamen power test – 0.79 [25]. pionship competitions and the results obtained in them, Body composition was assessed by bioelectrical im- the following hypothesis was put forward: “The handball pedance (using the body composition analyzer – Tanita team is not properly prepared for competition in terms of SC330, Japan), fat-free mass (FFM%) was determined, anaerobic capacity”. as well as body fat (FAT%) and total body water (TBW%) [26]. The obtained results were statistic ally elaborated, Study design calculating arithmetic means (x), standard deviations (SD), as well as minimal (min.) and maximal (max.) Study participants: 16playersfrom the KS Azoty values All calculations were performedusing SPSS v. 20 Puławy team. The average age of subjects = 26.53 ± 3.36 [27]. years, mean body height = 192.40 ± 12,82 cm, mean body mass = 98.31 ± 7.18 kg. The research was Results conducted during the starting period, on 6 Oct. 2014 in the laboratory of the Physical Culture Centre at Maria As it may be assumed from the data provided dur- Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin. The Wingate Test ing Tab. 1 the stress test, relative mechanical work consisted of performing a 30-second, maximal effort on performed by the athletes reached the average level ac- a bicycle ergo meter with an individually selected load cording to the classification by Norkowski and Noszczak

36 Antropomotoryka Selected parameters of anaerobic capacity and body tissue components in handball players... i

Table 1. Average values of anaerobic capacity indicators in KS “Azoty” Puławy handball players

N 16 Effort Pmax. TA TM PDV X 253.88**** 11.15 **** 4.83 **** 3.06 *** 24.84 **** SD ± 16.93 ±0.80 ±0.81 ±1.08 ±3.62 Min. 228.42 9.73 3.73 1.45 17.88 Max. 278.61 12.65 6.36 5.97 31.50 Legend: TA – time of attainment TM – time of maintenance PDV – power decrease value **** average result *** good result

Table 2. Average values of anthropometric and body composition indicators in KS “Azoty” Puławy handball players

N = 16 Age Body mass Height BMI FAT % TBW%

X 26.53 98.31 192.40 26.45 12.92 59.02

SD ±3.36 ±12.82 ±7.18 ±1.91 ±3.27 ±2.43

Min. 20 83.50 178 24 7.50 55.60

Max. 34 120.50 202 30.10 17.30 62.90

Legend: BMI – body mass index FAT% – body fat TBW% – total body water

[28]. In contrast, the average value of maximal power in [30] in the case of aerobic capacity, and below 10.83 attained by the subjects was at a good level. The aver- (W/kg) [28] in the case of anaerobic capacity, poses age value of time of at training maximal capacity in the a significant limitation for specialized training of hand- Wingate test was classified as an average result, while ball players. The ability to adjust the structure of training the average value of maintaining borderline power was loads to starting loads is a key issue in the training pro- considered as a good result. Also, the average index of cess. Czerwinski [29] showed that the level of training power decrease, calculated as the percentage difference intensity in handball is much lower than that observed in between maximal power and minimal output recorded competitive conditions. after attaining the maximal power, reached an average The most frequently mentioned cause is organiza- level. tional failure in technical-tactical exercises, which are According to the data in Tab. 2, the average value of not sufficiently strong enough exercise stimulus from the the BMI of the subjects was super-standard. The average point of view of adaptation to the actual conditions of value of percentage of fat issue content sand water in the game. The results of the study by Norkowski [13, body mass of the athletes, fell within the range of values 14] suggest that the problem is related to the low ef- considered as normal. fectiveness of methods for developing anaerobic capacity implemented in the exercises; their structure and Discussion organization do not correspond to physiological criteria of maximal anaerobic efforts. The cited authors present In handball, maintaining a high intensity of playing is a consensus view that a direct consequence of inad- only possible in the case of having high anaerobic and equate training in anaerobic capacity is low tolerance of aerobic potential [29, 13]. High tolerance of the match the body to repeated lactate-type efforts. effort is always better in athlete shaving a high VO2max An indication of this state area cute manifestations index value and anaerobic endurance. It is recommended of fatigue during the game, which in turn have signifi- that the level of aerobic and anaerobic capacity should cant impact on lowering the effectiveness of offensive be under constant control. Reduction below 54ml/kg/m and defensive actions. The subjects from the KS “Azoty”

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 37 Krzysztof Krawczyk

Puławy team were subjected to diagnostic tests because exercise with elements of interval loads cause greater of poor sports results obtained in the first 7roundsof the changes in anaerobic and aerobic capacity, and also 2014/2015 season. The study results confirmed the hy- more beneficial modification of anthropometric and bio- pothesis that the team is not properly prepared for the chemical indicators, compared to endurance exercises season in terms of anaerobic capacity. The obtained re- of low or moderate-intensity [35, 36, 37, 38]. sults of the Wingate test, in which the maximal power Studying the content of fat tissue in the body is value was an average 11.15 (W/kg),and the minimal and greatly significant in evaluating nutritional status or the maximal values, respectively 9.73–12.65 (W/kg), clas- risk of development of illnesses such as:coronary heart sify the result as average in accordance with the previ- disease, type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia [39, 40]. The ously cited authors [28]. A similar situation exists in the results of measuring water content in the body depend case the results of time of attaining maximal power and on fat and muscle contents in body mass. If the fat con- then maintaining borderline power. tent is high or when the content of muscles is low, the The average values of time of maintaining borderline level of residual water content in the body can be low power were within the range of assessment considered [18, 19]. The participating handball players presented as good, probably as a result of achieving poor results normal percentage values of fat tissue and water in of maximal power and time of its attainment. Also de- the body mass. The average value of BMI, which was termined as average was theme an value of percentage at 26.45, may be suggestive of high content of muscle decrease in the power index, calculated as the percent- mass in body composition, which is confirmed by the age difference between maximal and minimal power results. The results presented in this study may serve registered after attaining maximal power [23]. Referring as complementary knowledge regarding diagnosis of the to the analysis of the preparatory period, it should be training process in handball for teams performing at high emphasized that the team’s preparation was on the basis competitive level of sports. of the stating method. This method was not favourable for the anticipated effects of training. Despite the high Conclusions intensity of training obtained during the control competitions, not all the athletes, and especially the “doubles”, Based on the analysis of the obtained results, the fol- participated in the practice for the same period of time. lowing conclusions were formulated: It is probable that during the earlier period of prepa- 1. Selected indicators of anaerobic capacity obtained ration, inadequate time was also devoted to anaerobic by the studied athletes using the Wingate test were capacity development training. The earlier cited results at good and average levels, which did not guaran- and examples of works on the development of anaerobic tee obtaining high sport performance results in the capacity, point to the importance of this sphere in the handball premier league competition. overall efficiency of an athlete’s energy potential. Ac- 2. The studied handball players presented normal per- cording to Jansen et al. [31], Karp [32] and Ryguły et al. centage values off at tissue and water in the body [33], the primary method of developing and maintaining mass. a high level of anaerobic capacity is interval training with 3. In the process of practicing handball at a high com- a maximal intensity load, and according to Linossier et petitive level, more attention should be paid to the al. [34], the most effective means of impact are repetitive development of anaerobic endurance by increasing efforts lasting up to 10s. Regular, high intensity physical the share of interval-type loads.

References

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[35] Billat LV: Interval training for performance: a scientific and empirical practice. Special recommendation for middle- and long-distance running. Part II: anaerobic interval training. Br. J Sports Med., 2001; 31 (2): 75–90. [36] Buśko K: Influence of two high-intensity intermittent training programmes on anaerobic capacity in humans. Biol Sport., 2011; 28 (1): 23–30. [37] Norkowski H: Struktura obciążeń wysiłkowych a efekty treningu przerywanego o maksymalnej intensywności. Studia i Monografie nr 89, AWF Warszawa, 2003; 105–121.

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[38] Tolfrey K, Jones AM, Campbell IG: The effect of aerobic exercise training on the lipid-lipoprotein profile of children and adolescents. Br J Sport Med., 2000; 29: 99–112. [39] Ford ES: Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome defined by the International Diabetes Federation among adults in the U.S. Diabetes Care, 2005; 28: 2745–2749. [40] Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Bautista L, Franzosi MG, Commerford P, et al: INTERHEART Study Investigators. Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study. Lancet, 2005; 366: 1640–1649.

Address for correspondence: Krzysztof Krawczyk 20-554 Lublin, ul. Ułanów 1/13, E-mail: [email protected]; Mobile: +48 607666686

40 Antropomotoryka Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 41-50, 2015

SECTION – FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED KINESIOLOGY

ICID: 1194800 (1.5) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194800

THE INFLUENCE OF TWO-PERSON OFFICIATING ON THE RANGE OF MOVEMENT OF THE CERVICAL SPINE IN BASKETBALL REFEREES

Authors’ contribution: Barbara Koperska 1 ABCDF, Bartosz Trybulec2 CE A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation 1 Orto-Sport Medical Office, Krakow, Poland E. Preparation of manuscript 2 Institute of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian F. Literature analysis/search University, Krakow, Poland G. Funds collection Keywords: range of movement of cervical spine, basketball, basketball referees, two‑person officiating

Summary

Introduction: Basketball is the third most popular sports discipline in Poland. Officiating matches requires from the referees not only concentration and resistance to stress, but also high level of physical fitness, dictated by the intensity of the games. Aim of study: To verify the extent and mode of the influence which two-person officiating, together with seniority have on the range of movement of the cervical spine in basketball referees. Study design: The study was conducted among a group of 31 basketball referees from the Krakow, Silesian and Podkarpacki districts; an original questionnaire and a measurement record were used. The examination of the range of movement of the cervical spine was carried out with a measuring tape. Results: Before the match, the average range of the passive bend was 5.70 cm for the left bend and 5.13 cm for the right bend (p < 0.05). The average range of the active bend was also significantly greater in the case of the right bend and equalled 5.16 cm (as opposed to the left bend, which equalled 4.66 cm at p < 0.05). The average range of active body extension before the match equalled 7.33 cm and decreased to 6.89 cm after the match (p < 0.05). The average range of the left head turn before and after the match was 8.74 cm and 8.20 cm, respectively (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Two-person officiating greatly affects the range of movement of the cervical spine in basketball referees: they present lower range of movement in terms of active extension and active left turn after the match. Seniority affects positively the range of passive flexion of cervical spine.

Introduction increasingly dynamic game basketball is. It is often the case that the players are half the age of the leading ref- Basketball is one of the most widely practised sports eree, nevertheless, the referee must match the players in the world and because of that, a continuous, dynamic in shape, and often needs to be able to outrun them. rise in demand for qualified referees can be observed. A player may ask for a substitution at any time, as op- Basketball referees must not only respond quickly and posed to referees, who leave the court last. Therefore it make decisions under tremendous stress, they must seems reasonable to say that the expectations put on the also stay in excellent shape throughout the season. referees may affect their musculoskeletal system [1, 2]. They work on their speed and strength, practicing sev- For the judges to effectively control the course of the eral times a week at the gym, at the pool or jogging, all game, the so-called mechanics of officiating were cre- year round. The vast amount of work the referees put ated. According to Dziudzik, “Mechanics of officiating in preparation for the season is necessary due to how is a developed system of practical methods of facilitat-

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 41 Barbara Koperska, Bartosz Trybulec

Fig. 1. Division of pitch zones according to referee’s responsibility [4] ing the work of the referees on the court. It helps the into six rectangles numbered from 1 to 6 [4]. During the referees to find the best possible position from which match, the referees, depending on their position in rela- they can observe the game and enables them to assess tion to players’ efforts, take the lead or the trail position. the violations and fouls correctly, and make decisions.” When the game moves towards the attacked basket, the Depending on the rank and degree of difficulty of the trail referee should take the position behind the effortwith competition, there can be one, two or three referees on the ball within 3 to 5 m from them, whereas the lead ref- the court; hence two-person and three-person officiating eree should always stay ahead of the game. They must mechanics can be distinguished [3]. be faster than the fastest defensive or offensive player, In two-person officiating mechanics, the lead ref- moving towards the end line as quickly as possible, eree (or official) and an auxiliary referee can be distin- thereby allowing the game to move in their direction. The guished. There is no difference between the referees as lead referee takes the spot facing the observed effort or to the authority to decide about violations and fouls. The a pair of players. Both the lead and trail referees must be distinction comes from the fact that the main referee is constantly moving. By dividing the pitch to 6 convention- responsible for matters related to the management of the al parts, each referee knows exactly which players on game: s/he approves the court, technical equipment, s/ the field they are responsible for (Fig. 1). And thus, the he also describes in the protocol all the negative events trail referee is responsible for observing the game with on the court and off it (fouls, equipment malfunctions the ball when it is in zones 1, 2, 3, and part of the zone etc.). Modern officiating requires close cooperation be- 6 (before the three-point line). The lead referee watches tween the two referees, one of them takes responsibility the game with the ball when it is in zone 4. Zone 5 and for observing the game with the ball, the other for the part of zone 6 (the two-point area) are parts for which game away from the ball (s/he controls, for example, the referees share responsibilities [3, 4]. the behaviour of the post players). In order to help the During the match, when the attacking team changes referees avoid observing the same players or efforts, (e.g. after scoring or a violation), also the referees take the so-called division of responsibility on the court was turns. This means that when the direction of the game introduced. To have the best outlook on the court and changes, the trail referee becomes the lead and vice ver- players, the referees must try to find the best possible sa. The referees change their functions in this way from position to evaluate the game, in which the mechanics of a dozen to several dozen times during the match [5]. If officiating prove very helpful. To facilitate the division of the movements of the referees are scrutinised, then we responsibility between referees, half the court is divided observe that every time the game changes direction the

42 Antropomotoryka The influence of two-person officiating on the range of movement... i

Fig. 2. Dominant position of cervical spine in the two-person officiating technique

“new” lead referee has to make a maximal left turn of while 3 referees work in the Silesian district and 2 work the head (Fig. 2) to watch the game behind him all the in the Podkarpacki district. 9 participants officiate at the time. This referee always runs heading forward on the central level, 11 of them are I class referees and 11 are right side of the court. There is no clear situation in the II class referees. The average age of the subjects was match when the referee runs with his/her head twisted to 31.7 years, the average height 180.39 cm and average the right. There are moments when they turn the head to body mass 83.05 kg. The average BMI for the referees the right, but it is rather in a static position, e.g. when in was 25.37. The shortest seniority was 3 seasons, and the first zone, they turn to the other referee to give them the longest lasted 24 seasons – which gave an aver- observations on their behaviour. It is clear from all of the age of 10.63 seasons. Full data on the study group are above that the cervical spine in a two-person officiat- presented in Table 1. ing referee is subjected to straining and asymmetrical, Tests were carried out in the second half of the repetitive motor schemes [3, 4]. 2013/2014 season – from 1st February to 14th June The aim of the study was to verify whether or not 2014. The study was carried out on both league match- two-person officiating has significant influence on the es (20) and amateur matches (11 matches in the KNBA active and passive range of movement of the cervical league). The matches included the league tournaments spine in basketball referees; if the relation exists, what in the Krakow basketball district as well as nationwide kind of relation is it?; and whether or not there exists tournaments (Polish Cadets Championship Semifinals, a significant relation between the range of movement of Voivodeship Teams Tournament, Polish Junior Champi- the cervical spine and seniority in officiating. onship Quarter-finals). Research tools included a questionnaire and an original range of movement measure- Study design ment record. A measuring tape, as a clinically accepted tool, was used to measure the range of movement in This study is preliminary in nature to a larger re- the cervical spine [6]. Before performing measure- search project related to refereeing, therefore the re- ments, all subjects were informed about the objectives search material was comprised of a group of 31 bas- of the project and the methods. Written consent from ketball referees (5 females and 26 males). 26 of the the referees was a necessary condition for the exami- subjects officiate in the Krakow basketball district, nation to begin.

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 43 Barbara Koperska, Bartosz Trybulec

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of studied group

X SD Min Me Max Age [years] 31.71 6.15 24 30 41 Height [cm] 180.39 9.25 156.00 180.00 198.00 Body mass [kg] 83.05 14.02 52.00 82.00 110.00 BMI 25.37 2.84 21.22 24.72 33.63 Referee experience (No. of seasons) 10.63 7.14 3.00 7.00 24.00

The original questionnaire covered general informa- in the record. In addition, the record included tables in tion about the subjects (age, height, weight) and includ- which ranges of active and passive movements before ed questions about officiating matches on the court. The and after the match were inscribed. aim of the questionnaire was to obtain information: what In the case of league matches (20 games) the refer- is the subject’s seniority, which officiating mechanics ees were examined 75 minutes before the game, while do they use most frequently and in which tournament in the case of amateur league matches (11 games) – 30 classes can they officiate, etc. minutes before the game. The second examination was Height, weight, the number of seasons (seniority) carried out immediately after the match (amateur match- and the date, place and time of the examination were put es) or approx. 10–15 minutes after the match (league

Fig. 3. Primary measurement of side bending Fig. 4. Actual side bending measurement

44 Antropomotoryka The influence of two-person officiating on the range of movement... i matches). The difference resulted from the amount of the chin and the top of acromion were referential points additional responsibilities the referees had during league for the turn of the head. Then the researcher measured matches. The referee is obliged, among other things, to the distance between the topographic points and put arrive an hour before the match, to verify personal data initial measurements for every kind of movement in the of the players participating in the game and to participate right blank (figure 4). The next step was for the subject in a group pre-match conversation. Additionally, after to perform a given movement (in the case of passive a league match, the referees, together with the qualifier movements the person performed a movement of the (a person who assesses the referees themselves), asse- head) and then, a re-measurement of distances between sed the course of the game just played. During the exam- referential points was taken (figures 5–7). ination, the referee would sit on a chair with a backrest, In order to reduce measurement error, each mea- upright, not leaning against the backrest. Their hands lay surement after movement was performed 3 times. Every freely on the knees bent at right angle. The head was in time the measurement was performed by the same per- a neutral position. Male subjects were shirtless, while son. The result was calculated by subtracting the value female subjects wore a sports bra. Both active and pas- of initial measurement from the average measurement sive movements in the cervical spine were measured. of a given movement. Each measurement was put in the Movements in the sagittal plane (bend-extension), in the study record. Then, the final measurement result was frontal plane (side bends to the left and to the right) and obtained by averaging the particular results. The move- in the transverse plane (turning the head to the right and ments were always examined in the following order: to the left) were all measured. The examiner began mea- bend, extension, bend and twist of the head, separately surements from marking the topographic points with an for each side of the body. In the aggregate tables, ab- “X” made using a coloured pencil. For the flexion move- breviations are used for particular movements and mea- ment they were: external tuberosity of the occipital bone surements (Tab. 2). and spinous process of C7 vertebra; for extension they For statistical analysis, Satistica 10.0 (StatSoft, Inc.) were: peak of the chinand the indented part of the manu- was used. Examination of the significance of differences brium; for side bend of the body: mastoid process of the of dependent variables were performed using Student’s temporal bone and the top of the acromion. The peak of t-test for two dependent tests, while in order to establish

Fig. 5. Measurement of flexion Fig. 6. Measurement of rotation

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 45 Barbara Koperska, Bartosz Trybulec

Table 2. Abbreviations standing for cervical ROM measurements

Abbreviation Meaning F Flexion E Extension LSB Left side bending RSB Right side bending LSR Left side rotation RSR Right side rotation PM Passive movement AM Active movement MBG Measurement before game MAG Measurement after game L–R Difference between measurement for left and right side the relation between seniority and mobility of the cervi- the areas of active extension and the active turn of the head cal spine, Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used. before the game (p = 0.040). The averagerange of active Results were considered significant at p < 0.05. extension before the game was 7.33 cm and 6.89 cm after the match. The average range of active turn of thehead to Results the left was 8.74 cm before the game and 8.20 cm after the match. For the remaining measurements, differences The Statistica 10.0 suite was used to calculate the av- proved to be statistically insignificant (Table. 3). erage range of motion of the cervical spine in referees be- Also subjected to statistical analysis were the aver- fore and after the match. Significant differences concerned age ranges of right and left bends and average ranges of

Table 3. Mean cervical ROM values in studied referees before and after game (N = 31)

Movement X SD MBG–MAG t p F_PM_MBG 4.73 1.23 0.31 1.974 0.058NS F_PM_MAG 4.42 1.37 E_PM_MBG 7.52 2.09 0.11 0.670 0.508NS E_PM_MAG 7.42 1.95 LSB_PM_MBG 5.70 1.34 0.04 0.261 0.796NS LSB_PM_MAG 5.67 1.37 RSB_PM_MBG 5.13 1.49 0.04 0.284 0.778NS RSB_PM_MAG 5.09 1.75 LSR_PM_MBG 9.79 1.35 0.18 0.991 0.330NS LSR_PM_MAG 9.61 1.20 RSR_PM_MBG 9.58 1.18 0.08 0.323 0.749NS RSR_PM_MAG 9.49 1.15 F_AM_MBG 4.01 1.49 0.32 1.886 0.069NS F_AM_MAG 3.69 1.35 E_AM_MBG 7.33 2.12 0.44 2.147 0.040* E_AM_MAG 6.89 2.05 LSB_AM_MBG 5.16 1.40 0.15 1.090 0.284NS LSB_AM_MAG 5.01 1.36 RSB_AM_MBG 4.66 1.64 –0.05 –0.315 0.755NS RSB_AM_MAG 4.72 1.63 LSR_AM_MBG 8.74 1.16 0.53 2.153 0.040* LSR_AM_MAG 8.20 1.50 RSR_AM_MBG 8.31 1.26 0.24 0.731 0.471NS RSR_AM_MAG 8.07 1.17 NS – statistically non-significant difference; * – p< 0.05

46 Antropomotoryka The influence of two-person officiating on the range of movement... i

Table 4. Mean range of rotations and side bending to both sides before game

Movement M SD L–P T p LSR_PM_MBG 9.79 1.35 0.21 0.827 0.415NS RSR_PM_MBG 9.58 1.18 LSR_AM_MBG 8.74 1.16 0.43 1.708 0.098NS RSR_AM_MBG 8.31 1.26 LSB_PM_MBG 5.70 1.34 0.58 2.947 0.006** RSB_PM_MBG 5.13 1.49 LSB_AM_MBG 5.16 1.40 0.49 2.625 0.014* RSB_AM_MBG 4.66 1.64 NS – non-significant difference; * – p < 0.05; ** – p < 0.01 right and left turns, all before the game (Tab. 4). There is is significant, a difference index was calculated for these no evidence of statistically significant differences between ranges. It was calculated for each subject by subtracting average range of left and right head turns (both active the value of the range of movement to the left from the and passive) in referees working in two-person officiat- rangeto the right. Significant differences between the left ing mechanics. It was demonstrated, however, that there and right side (before and after the game) concerned the were statistically significant differences between the range passive side bend. However, a statistically significant dif- of left and right side bends before the game: the average ference between the range of active side bend to the right range of passive left bend was 5.70 cm, and the average and to the left was noted only before the game (0.49; range of right bend was 5.13 cm (p = 0.006). The aver- p = 0.014) (Tab. 5). age range of movement for active left bend (5.16 cm) also It was checked whether there is a link between ref- proved to be significantly higher than the average range of eree’s seniority and the mobility of the cervical spine the active right bend – 4.66 cm (p = 0.014). (Tab. 6). A statistically significant correlation (R = 0.39; To test whether the difference between the range of p = 0.033) was found only between seniority and pas- movement to the left and right before and after the game sive flexion after the match.

Table 5. Mean range of rotations and side bending to both sides before and after game

Movement X SD L–P T p

LSR_PM_MBG 9.79 1.35 0.21 0.827 0.415NS RSR_PM_MBG 9.58 1.18 LSR_PM_MAG 9.61 1.20 0.12 0.55 0.587NS RSR_PM_MAG 9.49 1.15 LSR_AM_MBG 8.74 1.16 0.43 1.708 0.098NS RSR_AM_MBG 8.31 1.26 LSR_AM_MAG 8.20 1.5 0.13 0.747 0.461NS RSR_AM_MAG 8.07 1.17 LSB_PM_MBG 5.70 1.34 0.58 2.947 0.006** RSB_PM_MBG 5.13 1.49 LSB_PM_MAG 5.67 1.37 0.58 2.406 0.022* RSB_PM_MAG 5.09 1.75 LSB_AM_MBG 5.16 1.40 0.49 2.625 0.014* RSB_AM_MBG 4.66 1.64 LSB_AM_MAG 5.01 1.36 0.29 1.368 0.181NS RSB_AM_MAG 4.72 1.63

NS – non-significant difference; * – p < 0.05; ** – p < 0.01

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 47 Barbara Koperska, Bartosz Trybulec

Table 6. The R-Spearman correlation coefficient values between cervical ROM in particular planes and directions and refereeing period

Parameter R p Parameter R p F_PM_MBG 0.255 0.173NS F_PM_MAG 0.391 0.033* E_PM_MBG –0.063 0.740NS E_PM_MAG 0.018 0.924NS LSB_PM_MBG –0.009 0.961NS LSB_PM_MAG 0.159 0.403NS RSB_PM_MBG 0.001 0.996NS RSB_PM_MAG 0.044 0.819NS LSR_PM_MBG 0.137 0.471NS LSR_PM_MAG 0.191 0.311NS RSR_PM_MBG –0.080 0.673NS RSR_PM_MAG 0.033 0.863NS F_AM_MBG 0.290 0.120NS F_AM_MAG 0.337 0.068NS E_AM_MBG –0.022 0.907NS E_AM_MAG 0.011 0.955NS LSB_AM_MBG 0.119 0.532NS LSB_AM_MAG 0.219 0.245NS RSB_AM_MBG 0.070 0.712NS RSB_AM_MAG 0.089 0.642NS LSR_AM_MBG 0.003 0.988NS LSR_AM_MAG -0.082 0.667NS RSR_AM_MBG 0.078 0.684NS RSR_AM_MAG 0.142 0.456NS NS –statistically non-significant correlation; * – p < 0.05

Discussion there is a larger range of side bend (active and passive) to the left side than to the right before the game. This may So far, no articles have been published covering the be an outcome of the movement patterns that the referees examination of the range of movement of the cervical repeat during the whole match, i.e. “running to counterat- spine in basketball referees, nor has there been such an tack” (a situation in which a player from the attacking team article for any other sports discipline. The few studies on loses the ball to the defending team, the direction of play referees of various disciplines (including basketball) are changes and the referee must take position on the end concerned mainly with psychological aspects of referee- line as soon as possible, ahead of all the action) make ing, or the referees’ physical performance [7–9]. Lark them twist their head to the left. Additionally, it was found and McCarthy as well as Zietsman and McCarthy studied that the difference between the active range of movemen- rugby players from the point of view of the movement of tof left and right side bends is slightly larger before the the cervical spine, trying to determine how a single match match (0.49 cm) than after the match (0.29 cm). Interest- early in the season affects the movements of the cervical ingly, for the measurements taken before the match, it was spine. They found that the active range of movement after shown that the range of the side bend to the left (5.16 cm) the game is significantly reduced (p < 0.05). In offensive is significantly greater than of the side bend to the right players there is a drop in active flexion, whereas in play- (4.66 cm); the measurements made after the game did ers in “loose-head prop” and “tight-head prop” positions not show a similar relationship. The average range of the there is a noticeable decrease in active extension and side side bend to the left (5.01cm) did not differ significantly bend to the left [10, 11]. In this study, conducted among from the average range of the side bend to the right (4.72 basketball referees, it was demonstrated that significant cm). The relationship demonstrated might at first glance differences in the average range of movement before and suggest that if the difference between the movements to after the match exist for the active extension and the active the left and right sideswas reduced after the match (from left turn of the head. In both cases, the average range of 0.49 cm to 0.29 cm) then there should be an increase in active movementwas higher before than after the match. It the range of movement to the right (so that the subtracted should be noted when analysing the obtained results that number was greater). However, previous analyses show the values of the significance coefficient (p = 0.04) are that the range of movement of the active side bend to the close to being statistically insignificant. Bearing in mind right before and after the game do not differ significantly. the fact that the sample size is relatively small, the results By analysing all the data it can be seen that the drop in the obtained should be approached with caution. However, differenceto 0.29 occurred with simultaneous slight drop both studies on rugby players and basketball referees in the average range of side bend to the right (from 5.16 found that active movements in the cervical spine were cm before the game to 5.01 cm after it) and a slight in- reduced after matches. None of the tested range has increase in the average range of side bend to the left (from creased. Moreover, in the present study, examining refer- 4.66 cm before the game to 4.72 cm after the game). ees working in two-person mechanics, it was showed that The results should be treated with caution because the

48 Antropomotoryka The influence of two-person officiating on the range of movement... i differences, however statistically significant, are relatively might be “unfair” [14]. The stress of running a match is small. The question also arises whether the existence of different depending on the importance of the match and differences of this magnitude may have any significance referee’s experience. The higher the “stake”, the greater for the functioning of the referees. In a different study, Lark the stress and the responsibility for a match. An addi- and McCarthy compared the ranges of motion in the cer- tional reason for severe of anxiety may be that referees vical spine in rugby players matched for age with people are evaluated by a commissioner for their decisions and not actively playing. The results showed that the offensive attitude. A commissioner’s opinion can have impact on players have values of active movements of the cervical whether the referee will advance and will be able to offici- spine similar to people in the acute phase of whiplash. ate matches in higher leagues. Lundberg et al. examined The percentage change in ACROM (Active cervical range the effects of stress factors on the activity of the trape- of motion) was calculated, between the beginning ,the zius muscle using EMG. It turned out that solving tests middle and the end of the season, and between the begin- under time pressure increases trapezius muscle activity ning and the end of the season. It turned out that the big- [15]. A similar pattern was found by Bruno Garza et al., gest drop in the values of the ranges of movement in the who studied the effect of stressors on the tension of tra- spine were observed in the second half of the season. The pezius muscle in people working in front of a computer largest relative changes were observed in the side bend to [16]. It can therefore be expected that in basketball refer- the right, while there were no significant changes in rota- ees, the tension of the trapezius muscle during the game tion. To sum up, the active range of motion of the cervi- is also increasing due to stress, which may indirectly cal spine decreased during the whole rugby season [12]. affect the range of movement of the cervical spine after Research on the referees was carried out in the second the match. half of the season. Not having the test results before the An analysis of the collected material confirmed that referee season, it cannot be confirmed without doubt that two-person officiating mechanics affect the range of the changes observed in the subjects are larger or smaller movement of the cervical spine in basketball referees. It compared to the first half of the season. was also confirmed that before the game, there is a larger In the present study, the correlation between the ref- range of side bend (both active and passive) to the left side erees’ seniority and range of movement in the cervical compared with the movement to the right. It would seem, spine was also examined, and statistically significant re- however, that in order to verify the results a larger group sults between seniority and passive flexion after the game of respondents should be examined. The present study- were achieved. The correlation coefficient R = 0.39, P = also managed to partly confirm the relationship between 0.033 indicates that it is a statistically significant correla- seniority and the range of movement before the game. tion with moderate strength. It can therefore be assumed However, the low sample size does not allow radical con- that respondents of longer seniority were characterized clusions. Results obtained suggest further analyses and by a greater range of motion of passive flexion after the further research on more numerous groups, taking into match. Similar conclusions were reachedby Lark and account sub-groups depending on other factors such as McCarthy, who compared ROM and proprioception of the moment during the season in which the movement the cervical spine in rugby players to athletic people not measurements are made. It is the authors’ opinion that practicing the discipline. The results showed that rugby more studies on measurements of range of movement of playershad reduced range of movement of the cervical the cervical spine should be conducted, not only among spine when compared to non-rugby players, especially basketball referees or basketball players, but in athletes when it comes to extension [13]. This range showed and referees of other disciplines as well. a statistically significant correlation with the number of years of playing rugby. It can be observed, then, that Conclusions in both studies similar conclusions were reached: playing/refereeing seniority affects the range of motion of the 1. Using two-person officiating mechanics has signifi- cervical spine, but only in selected directions. cant impact on the range of movement of the cervical Another aspect that should be taken into consider- spine in basketball referees. ation is the stress associated with officiating a match. 2. The range of active extension of the cervical spine According to Lazarov, refereeing requires enormous and an active head turn to the left is larger before the concentration and an ability to cope with stress. The game and reduced after the match. stress has its source in the pressure to which referees 3. In referees practicing two-person officiating, before are exposed, put on them by coaches and players, and the game there is a larger range of side bend (both fans of both teams. Each of these groups require an fair- active and passive) to the left than to the right. ness and justice in decision-making from the referee. But 4. Referees with longer seniority show a greater range what for one team will be just a whistle, for the other of movement of passive flexion after the match.

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 49 Barbara Koperska, Bartosz Trybulec

References

[1] Borin JP, Daniel JF, Bonganha V, de Moraes AM, Cavaglieri CR, Mercadante LA et al.: The distances covered by basketball referees in a match increase throughout the competition phases, with no change in physiological demand. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 2013 4, 193–198. [2] Leicht AS: Physiological demands of basketball refereeing during international competition. Journal of Science and Medi- cine in Sport, 2008 11(3), 357–360. [3] Dziudzik L: A referee’s manual: technique and mechanics of officiating [in Polish]. Polish Basketball Association, Warsaw, 2003. [4] FIBA: Official Basketball Rules 2010: referees’ manual-two-person officiating. San Juan, Puerto Rico, 17.04.2010 Available in: http://www.fiba.com/downloads/Rules/2010/TwoPersonOfficiating2010.pdf. [Accessed:10.05.2014]. [5] FIBA: Official Basketball Rules 2014. Hiszpania, Barcelona. Available in: http://www.fiba.com/downloads/Rules/2014/Of- ficial_Basketball_Rules_2014_Y.pdf. [Accessed: 10.05.2014] [6] Kelvin J.: Assesment of Publisher reliability studies for cervical spine range of motion measurement tools. Journal of Ma- nipulative and Physiological Therapeutics, 2000 23(3). [7] Leicht AS: Aerobic power and anthropometric characteristics of elite basketball referees. Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 2007 47(1), 46. [8] Rupčić, T, Matković, B, Knjaz, D, Baščevan, S, Rodić S: Differences in the anthropological profile of the basketball referees with regards to their chronological age. SportLogia, 2011, 7(1), 27−33. [9] da Silva AI, Fernandes LC, Fernandez R: Energy expenditure and intensity of physical activity in soccer referees during match-play. Journal of sports science & medicine, 2008, 7(3), 327. [10] Lark SD, McCarthy WP: The effects of a single game of rugby on active cervical range of motion, Journal of Sports Sci- ences, 2009, 27(5):491–497. [11] Zietsman B, McCarthy WP: Cervical spine range of motion in elite female rugby union players, University of south Wales, Journal of Sports Sciences, 2011, 27(5):491–497. [12] Lark SD, McCarthy WP: The effects of a rugby playing season on cervical range of motion, Journal of Sports Science, 2010,28(6):649–655. [13] Lark SD, McCarthy PW: Cervical range of motion and proprioception in rugby players versus non-rugby players, Journal of Sports Science, 2007, 25:887–894. [14] Lazarov V: Psychology of officiating. FIBA Assist Magazine, 2006, s.34–36. [15] Lundberg U, Forsman M, Zachau G, Eklog M, Palmerud G: Efects of experimentally induced mental and physical stress on motor unit recruitment in the trapezius muscle. Work & stress, 2002, 16(2): 166–178. [16] Bruno Garza JL, Eijckelhof BHW, Huysmans MA, et al.: The effect of over-commitment and reward on trapezius muscle activity and shoulder, head, neck, and torso postures during computer use in the field. American journal of industrial medicine. 2013; 56(10): 1190–1200.

Address for correspondence: Barbara Koperska e-mail: [email protected] mobile: +48 601 305 458

50 Antropomotoryka Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 51-60, 2015

SECTION – FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED KINESIOLOGY

ICID: 1194801 (1.6) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194801

THE ASSESSMENT OF RANGE OF MOTION IN SELECTED JOINTS IN COMPETITIVE SWIMMERS

Authors’ contribution: Natalia RadlińskaABDEF, Arkadiusz BerweckiACDE A. Study design/planning B. Data collection/entry C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation Faculty of Movement Rehabilitation, E. Preparation of manuscript Bronisław Czech University of Physical Education in Krakow F. Literature analysis/search G. Funds collection Keywords: swimming, range of motion, hypermobility

Abstract

Background. Differences in range of motion between groups of athletes specialising in various disciplines result from the specificity of these disciplines. Competitive swimmers spend many hourstraining, which affects motor characteristics, including flexibility. Objective. To assess the difference in mobility of the joints: upper limb girdle, knee joint and ankle joint between groups of competitive swimmers and people who have never trained swimming or any other disciplines and, also, to determine whether there are any differences in range of motion in these joints between groups of swimmers specialising in various strokes. Material and methods. 63 individuals aged 17 to 23 participated in the study. The subject group included 32 competitive swimmers (13 women), with at least 5 years of experience in competitive swimming and minimum 10 training units per week. The control group included 31 individuals (14 women) who were not engaged in any sports discipline (did not participate in more than 3 training units per week). Range of motion in the upper limb girdle was assessed using the Bloomfield test. Extension in the knee joint, dorsiflexion and plantar flexion in the ankle were measured using a goniometer. Inversion and eversion of the foot were measured using an instrument designed by authors. Results. Greater mobility in the upper limb girdle and extension in the knee joint were observed in group of competitive swimmers compared to the control group. Measurement of ankle movement showed that female swimmers had greater dorsiflexion and male swimmers had greater plantar flexion than the controls. Inversion was slightly larger and eversion was smaller in the swimmer group. Conclusions. Competitive swimmers had greater range of motion in the upper limb girdle and the ankle than the control group. Swimmers are also more likely to have hyperextension in the knee joint. Differences in range of motion between groups of swimmers specialising in various strokes were not noticed.

Introduction the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The aquatic environment is used in physiotherapy as a form of relief, Swimming is a discipline recognized as one of the especially recommended for joint pain or injuries when most beneficially affecting the human body. It is a par- one should not be allowed to take on axial loads. ticularly recommended form of recreation and reha- As a sports discipline, swimming requires a lot of bilitation. The benefits of this form of physical activity effort and dedication. Competitive swimmers at the mainly result from the specificity of its aquatic environ- highest level spend dozens of hours a week in the water. ment. Floating in water or performing different strokes Characteristics of the aquatic environment, techniques requires the involvement of many muscle groups. Over- of movement in different strokes and multiple repeti- coming water resistance develops muscle strength and tion of movement patterns require specific shaping of endurance, and improves overall fitness by activating individual motor skills: strength, speed, endurance, co-

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 51 Natalia Radlińska, Arkadiusz Berwecki ordination and flexibility. The above-mentioned factors a reduction of dynamic stabilization of the shoulder joint. affect the range of motion in the joints of people practic- Instability, in turn, can cause subluxation and numerous ing swimming, and as a result, can make it differ from micro-traumas, adding up during multiple repetitions of physiological standards. movements may even lead to labral tear [1]. Another joint susceptible to overloading in swimmers Biomechanical factors affecting the range is the knee joint. Competitors specializing in the breast- of motion in selected joints of swimmers stroke are Particularly vulnerable to these ailments. Most Swimming is one of the so-called “Overhead sports”, often, they complain of pain in the medial knee compart- which require repetitive lifting of the arms above one’s ment, which may be associated with specific loads that head. Tennis, volleyball and all kinds of throwing dis- occur while performing paroxysmal movements in the ciplines also belong to this group of sports. High-level breaststroke swimming technique. According to stud- competitive swimmers perform 2,500 cycle repetitions ies, 86% of swimmers specializing in the breaststroke per day in their main stroke. Annually, this number ex- had an episode of knee pain at least once. It is reported ceeds 500,000. The large range of motion in the shoul- that the risk of such episodes is five times higher for der joints required for swimming and the large number the breaststroke than other swimming styles [5]. Lopsid- of repetitions are the main factors inducing pain associ- ing the knee during paroxysmal movements can be the ated with the girdle of the upper limbs. Numerous stud- cause of pain on the medial side of the joint. Freestyle, ies show that pain episodes within the shoulder occur in butterfly and backstroke can also cause overburdening 40-90% of swimmers [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The mechanisms of of the knee joints. When performing paroxysmal move- injury in this sport can be different. To a large extent, they ments, maximum extension of the knee joint occurs, and depend on the biomechanics of movement, characteris- water resistance forces acting on the limb intensify the tic of each stroke. Often the cause of pain is overload- extension (Fig. 1, 2). ing the muscles, especially the rotator cuff and pectoral The muscles straightening the hip joint act on the muscles. In addition, training focused on strengthening proximal part of the limb. Water resistance force, which the muscle adductors and rotating internally, can lead have opposite turn to the force of hip muscles, acts on to an imbalance of muscle tension. This may result in the entire surface of the limb: thigh, lower leg and foot.

Fm – muscle strength Fo – water resistance force

Fig. 1. Diagram showing the forces acting on the knee while swimming the backstroke and butterfly

Fig. 2. Hyper-extension of the knee joint during the crawl stroke

52 Antropomotoryka

The assessment of range of motion in selected joints in competitive swimmers i

to some researchers and trainers, while performing the downward kicking movement during the crawl stroke, the foot should be facing upwards and inwards as much as possible [13]. The forces acting on the ankle joint during movements of the stroke are similar to those acting on the knee joint and can cause a similar phenomenon of stretching certain anatomical structures. In this case, the resulting muscle strength and water resistance contribute to enhancing plantar flexion and inversion in the joint (Fig. 3).

Fm – muscle strength Study aim Fo – water resistance force The aim of the study was to investigate differences Fig. 3. Diagram showing the forces acting on the ankle joint while in mobility of the following joints: shoulder, knee and swimming the backstroke. ankle, between a group of people professionally-training swimming and untrained persons, as well as to determine whether there are differences in mobility in those joints Resistance forces, acting distally to the knee joint, cause between swimmers specializing in different styles of intensification of its extension. Multiple repetition of this swimming (breaststroke, backstroke, freestyle, butterfly). movement may cause stretching of structures respon- The joints selected for the study were those whose sible for stabilizing extension in the joint. mobility is determined by the correct technique of each Hyper-mobility of the knee joint can cause symp- swimming stroke: shoulder joints, in which flexibility is toms of pain in the back of the joint capsule and reduc- particularly exposed in the butterfly stoke, and hocks, tion of joint stability [6]. In people with hyper-extension, determining the effectiveness of footwork in all of the decreased proprioceptive control can be found, particu- stokes. The mobility of the knee joints was tested for larly in the final phase of the extension. This increases specific loads, to which the limbs are subjected, espe- the risk of damage to the knee joint. In the research by cially during the butterfly stroke. J. Loudon et al. [7], it is suggested that patients with increased hyper-extension of the joint are five times more Study material and methods at risk of damage to the anterior cruciate ligament [8, 9]. Ramesh et al., conducted a study on a group of 169 The study involved 63 participants who were divided people following ACL reconstruction in one knee. In this into two groups: those training swimming (51%) and research 78.7% of the subjects presented hyper-exten- randomly selected untrained (in any discipline) individu- sion above 10° in both knee joints. In the control group, als (49%). The inclusion criteria for the study group were which consisted of persons not declaring any knee joint among others: minimum 5-years training experience, the pain, hyper-extension was diagnosed in 37% of the pa- number of training units per week – minimum of 10, no in- tients [10]. Hutchison et al. contend that hyper-extension jury that may affect the results of range of motion measure- in the joint leads to incorrect habitual posture because ments. The study involved 57% men, and 43% women. the excessive extension in knee is perceived as normal. The study participants ranged in age from 17 to 23 Subjects presenting it, tend to take a standing position in years, mean age = 18.1 years. The individuals train- which the knee joint is hyper-extended. This can lead to ing and not training swimming did not differ among overburdening of the joint, related to non-physiological themselves in terms of age: t(61) = 0.12; p = 0.906. stance [11]. These reports suggest that hyper-extension The average body height of the subjects was 177 cm of the knee joints increases the risk of both overload and (155 cm min. and 201 cm max.), their body mass was acute injuries. Sudden injury can occur when an addi- an average of 69.3 kg (from 43 kg to 93 kg). There were tional force acts on this stance, such as a blow, causing no statistically significant differences between the two an increase in hyper-extension. The muscles are then not analyzed groups in terms of body height: t(61) = 1.37; able to absorb the forces by increasing the tension or p = 0.177 or body mass: t(61) = 0.99; p = 0.327. bending the knees quickly enough. The training experience of the subjects from the stud- The proper execution of movements in various ied group ranged from 7 to 15 years, with an average strokes are also dependent on hocks. Often competi- M = 9.5 years. tors, especially during the warm-up, perform stretching The dominating styles for 6 of the participants was exercises designed to maintain an adequate or even in- the breaststroke, for 9 – the butterfly, the backstroke for crease the range of motion in the joints [12]. According 10 of them, and 7 specialized in the crawl stroke.

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 53 Natalia Radlińska, Arkadiusz Berwecki

Study methodology In order to objectively compare the mobility of the girdle joints (to exclude discrepancy resulting from dif- Prior to testing, anthropometric measurements were ferences in shoulder width), the “Bark” (=shoulder) in- taken, i.e. body mass, body height and shoulder width dicator was constructed (shoulder width [cm]/mobility (distance acromion-acromion). of the shoulder [cm]). For the measurement of range of motion, the fol- Hyper-extension in the knee joint was measured with lowing were selected: upper-limb girdle, knee and ankle the Baseline 365° metal goniometer. During the measure- joints. The upper-limb girdle was examined using a test ment, the subject laid face-up on the couch, the lower legs developed by J. Bloomfield in 1967. The subject moves not touching it. The dorsiflexion plantar ankle movement his/her straightened arms upward in front, then behind was examined using the Baseline 365° metal goniometer. his/her back while holding a stick his/her hands. The The movement of inversion and eversion was mea- result of the test is the distance between the subject’s sured using a self-constructed instrument, allowing to thumbs which are clenched on the stick by their fists. read data simultaneously from the two angular planes: The examiner makes sure motion abduction compensa- transverse (movement around the vertical axis of the de- tion does not occur during movement and sees to it that vice) and the frontal (around the long axis/horizontal). the movement was made symmetrically, without bend- The study was conducted in a lying position, the subject ing the elbow joints (Fig. 4). lying on his/her back. (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Range of motion measurement in the girdle of the upper limbs using the J. Bloomfield Test

Fig. 5. The measurement of inversion and eversion. Initial stance.

54 Antropomotoryka

The assessment of range of motion in selected joints in competitive swimmers i

The lower leg of the subject was stabilized with the immobile parts of the instrument. Then, the subject was instructed to perform a movement of inversion (instruction: “bend the foot maximally towards the floor and turn inwards”) and eversion (instruction: “bend the foot maximally towards yourself and turn outwards as if you are trying to grab your little toe”). After performance of the movement, the examiner applied the movable part of the device to the foot of the subject, so that the line formed by the heads of the metatarsal was parallel to the surface of the board (Figs. 6, 7). After applying the moving part parallel to the foot, the results were read from protractors. In order to facilitate the comparison of results of inversion and eversion, an Fig. 7. Inversion measurement index summing up the of angle results from the vertical and horizontal axes for these movements was created. To ensure the reliability of the measurements, they were taken by a one examiner. The mobility in chosen joints was checked after a brief, individual warm-up. The subjects were instructed to make a few movements (5–10 repetitions) in each of the tested joints: swings in the shoulder joint, bending and straightening of the knee joint and abduction of the ankle joint.

Results

Analysis showed that the women training swimming had a larger shoulder width by 3.8 cm (ά < 0.001) and their mobility was higher by 27.5 cm (ά = 0.001) compared to women who had no training in this sport (Diag. 1). No statistically significant differences were found between women with different dominant swim- Fig. 6. Eversion measurement ming strokes.

Shoulder mobility

Shoulder width

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Average level [cm]

Trained Untrained

Diag. 1. The average level of upper-limb girdle mobility (cm) (lower results indicate better mobility) shoulder width (cm), women.

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 55 Natalia Radlińska, Arkadiusz Berwecki

Eversion horizontal axis

Inversion horizontal axis

Ankle joint dorsiflexion

Knee hyper‐extension

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Average level [º]

Trained Untrained

Diag. 2. The average level of individual measurement variables (°) in the studied groups of women

The same analysis in men showed no differences between women performing different dominant swim- in shoulder width, however, they were noticeable in ming strokes. mobility: the average in the trained group was about For the men, analysis showed that subjects training 22.35 cm larger than the untrained (ά = 0.001) (Tab. swimming had a larger range of knee hyper-extension 1). No statistically significant differences were found by 3.8° (ά = 0,006), range of hock plantar flexion by between men performing different dominant swimming 11.9° (ά = 0.001), inversion in the vertical axis by 7.8° strokes. (ά = 0.044) and by 11.4° in the horizontal axis (ά = 0.002), It was found that women who trained swimming but a lower eversion level in the horizontal axis by 4.3° had a higher range of hyper-extension in the knee compared to men untrained in this sport (ά = 0.002) by 5° (ά = 0.018), plantar flexion of the hock by about (Diag. 3). 8° (ά < 0.001), inversion in the horizontal axis In the case of shoulder, inversion and eversion in- by 7° (ά = 0.035). but lower levels of eversion in dicators – no statistically significant differences were the horizontal axis by 4.6° (ά = 0.035) compared to found among women. However, in the trained men, the women untrained in this sport (Diag. 2). The analy- inversion indicator was higher by 19.3 (ά = 0.007), and sis showed no statistically significant differences the shoulder indicator by 0.15 (ά = 0.001) (Tab. 2).

Tab. 1. Descriptive statistics for shoulder width and upper-limb girdle mobility (lower results indicate greater mobility).

Swimming Standard Student’s t-test Level Variable Average [º] training deviation result of significance

Yes 43.05 2.17 Shoulder width 0.27 0.785 No 42.85 2.18

Yes 77.00 19.93 Shoulder mobility 3.62 0.001 No 99.35 16.76

56 Antropomotoryka The assessment of range of motion in selected joints in competitive swimmers i

Eversion horizontal axis

Inversion horizontal axis

Inversion vertical axis

Ankle joint plantar flexion

Knee hyper‐extension

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Average level [º]

Trained Untrained

Diag. 3. Average level of individual measurement variables in the studied group of men

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for individual indicators in the studied groups of men

Swimming Standard Student’s t-test Level Index Average [º] training deviation result of significance

Yes 126.05 22.82 Inversion 2.89 0.007 No 106.74 16.29

Yes 33.74 9.83 Eversion 1.32 0.195 No 37.35 5.81

Yes 0.59 0.15 Shoulder 3.82 0.001 (width / mobility) No 0.44 0.08

Discussion on a group of 96 girls aged 16–18 years, indicates that BHJS occurs in 28% of subjects diagnosed using the Swimming is a discipline which strongly shapes all Beighton scale, and 45% when using the Bulbeny scale motor characteristics of a competitor. The aim of the [15]. study was to evaluate its impact on various ranges of In the case of athletes specializing in other disci- motion in the joints. Research confirms increased mo- plines, a series of tests for diagnosing generalized hyper- bility of selected joints in swimmers. The reason for this mobility of the joints was conducted (Generalized Joint may be genetic predisposition of competitors to greater Hypermobility – GJH). This most often affects ballet per- mobility of the joints. Wanivenhous et al., diagnosed formers – 97% of them were diagnosed with GJH [16]. constitutional joints hypermobility for 20% of swimmers Among the professional dancers, hypermobility was [4]. According to various authors, Benign Hypermobility diagnosed for 66% of them. Soper et al., diagnosed ar- Joint Syndrome (BHJS) occurs in 4–43% of the popula- ticular hypermobility and 63% in those practicing netball tion. Differences stem from lack of standardized diag- [17], Decoster et al., 49% in lacrosse players [18] and nostic criteria, race, sex and age of the subjects [14]. Stewart and Burden 24% in rugby players [19]. Okamura Research conducted by a scientific team from Krakow et al. examined the occurrence of GJH in figure-skaters

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 57 Natalia Radlińska, Arkadiusz Berwecki

(25.8% showed hypermobility according to the criteria the shoulder joint of dominant limb in swimmers, tennis adopted by the researchers) and speed-skaters (15.2% players and those untrained. Analysis showed no differ- of the group presented hypermobility) [20]. ences in external rotation between the groups. In con- There are ongoing discussions on BJHS and GJH di- trast, internal rotation proved to be the smallest in tennis agnostic criteria. Dr. Kate Amon in her publication claims players and the largest in the untrained group. Similarly, that diagnostic tools used to confirm BJHS (i.e. Beighton GIRD: in tennis players, the difference in internal rotation Score) needs to be improved. In her view, the Beighton between the non-dominant and dominant limb was 23°, Score may mistakenly diagnose BJHS in people who for swimmers 12°, while in the control group, it was 4.9°. suffer from various types of pain in the musculoskeletal Reduction of internal rotation may be the result of a num- system of different origin [21]. ber of overlapping micro-injuries leading to contracture In the case of the upper limb girdle, the appropriate in the rear of the joint capsule. GIRD in tennis players scope of its mobility is necessary in order to effectively results from the characteristics of the sport - the vast perform the technique of movements in different styles majority of over-the-head movements is performed by so as to minimize friction and increase efficiency of pro- the dominant limb. Swimming is a sport in which work pelling movements [5]. This is probably because, among is performed by right and left forelimbs equally, yet GIRD swimmers at a high level, the percentage of individuals may result from greater force applied to the movement of with increased mobility of the shoulder girdle is greater. the dominant limb; however, it remains unclear if this is From a British study group consisting of 453 chil- the case [1]. The present study demonstrated that global dren aged 9-18 years training swimming, gymnastics, mobility of the upper limb girdle is greater in swimmers football and tennis, the swimmers presented the great- than in untrained people. The Bloomfield test checks est mobility of joints. Particularly large differences were the range of circumduction – which is a combination of seen in the mobility of the shoulder girdle measured us- flexion, abduction and external rotation, and so does not ing the “safety pin” test [22]. Our study confirms these exclude restrictions on internal rotation in swimmers. results. The “safety pin” test and the Bloomfield test, The present study showed that the range of exten- although differing from each other, measure the global sion in the knee joints turned out to be significantly high- range of motion in the whole shoulder girdle (in the com- er in athletes training swimming. The measurements of plex planes, in the left and right shoulder joint, simul- the movement in swimmers are not very well described taneously). For both women and men, the Bloomfield in scientific reports. The probable reason for the higher test results indicate greater mobility of the shoulder joint range of extension in the knees are the forces at work complex in swimmers compared to the untrained group. during propulsion movements during the freestyle, but- The research conducted by Jansson et al. on mobil- terfly and backstroke swimming techniques. The forces ity of joints in children is not so clear. The measurements broaden the extension of the joint, which extends liga- were taken for 120 swimmers and 1,277 untrained chil- mentous structures responsible for stabilization. Swim- dren aged 9 and 12 years old. Using the Beighth on scale, mers whose dynamic stabilization of the muscle is well- flaccidity of the joints was assessed with the drawer trained are probably less exposed to the consequences test, the stability of the shoulder joint was examined, and of non-physiological range of extension in the knee joint using the so-called Sulcus Test, its lower stability was than people not engaging in physical activity. It is worth tested. The internal and external rotation of the shoulder noting that the non-contracting structures (subjected to joint was measured goniometrically. The trained boys prolonged stress affecting their extension) have limited showed greater joint laxity than those from the control regenerative capacity (i.e. they regenerate little or not at group, whereas the differences between the trained and all) and muscle stabilization regresses rapidly after ces- untrained girls were not significant. Between the groups, sation of exercise. It is therefore possible that the effects there were no differences in the stability of joints in both of hyperextensions in the knee joint – in the form of vari- girls or boys. However, among the young swimmers of ous types of overload pain, will be noticed only after ces- both sexes, limitation of internal rotation was found, and sation of the exercise. for the trained girls, of external rotation as well. The di- The knee joint is, after the shoulder joint, the most vergence in the results of the study is probably due to frequent cause of pain for swimmers [4]. The frequency the different ages of the subjects. Swedish researchers of structural and functional abnormalities in the knee did not provide training experience or current frequency joint is difficult to assess because they are not always of training in the study inclusion criteria, which makes it associated with pain. The study conducted with mag- difficult to compare the results [23]. netic resonance imaging on a group of young, asymp- Torres et al. conducted studies comparing internal tomatic swimmers showed at least one pathological and external rotation, and so-called GIRD (glenohumeral symptom, visible in 69.2% of the swimmers. In the internal rotation deficit), thus an internal rotation deficit in control group, the percentage was 32.1%. The illnesses

58 Antropomotoryka The assessment of range of motion in selected joints in competitive swimmers i most commonly diagnosed with imaging were swelling higher in trained women, although statistically significant of the Hoffa body fat and bone bruising within the femo- results were found only regarding the horizontal axis of ral condyles, tibial plateau and patella [24]. The cause the measuring instrument. The results of vertical and of pain in the front part of the knee joint can be found horizontal axes and the summing indicator of both axes in patellofemoral joint degeneration, caused by frequent were significantly higher in trained men and their values contractions of rectus femoris while performing the free- similar to those achieved by women (smaller only by ap- style, backstroke or butterfly stroke. On the other hand, prox. 2°). The range of eversion proved, in turn, to be breaststroke swimmers complain of pain in the medial lower in trained women and men as compared to those side of the knee and their complaints about the knee joint not training. Tests of statistical significance indicated are indeed the most common [4]. Pacey et al. report only a smaller range of eversion in the horizontal axis as in their review article that generalized articular hyper- a valuable result, but this may indicate a tendency to lim- mobility is linked to knee injuries in athletes of various iting the range of this motion in trained men and women. disciplines [25]. Bin AbdRazak et al., studied people fol- Comparison of the range of motion in specific joints, lowing musculoskeletal injuries. Within this group, those performed among swimmers specializing in various with hypermobility were over three times more numer- styles, showed no significant differences in the mea- ous than in the control group. Most often, they suffered surements. Biomechanics of joint work in during the from knee injuries [26]. The diagnosis of hypermobility freestyle, backstroke and butterfly stroke are similar. It it based, among others, on finding increased hyper-ex- is different in the breaststroke, which may suggest some tension in the joint (above 10°). The range of movement differences in mobility of the joints. The lack of signifi- was proved to be significantly greater in swimmers than cant differences may result from the small number of in the control group, which may predispose swimmers subjects. Another reason for the lack of differences may to more frequent injuries. be the fact that during training, swimmers always use The premise to explore the range of mobility of the strokes other than their primary ones. They use the front talocrural and subtalar joints were reports suggesting crawl especially during endurance preparation, largely that the likely range of plantar flexion and inversion af- because it is the most effective of all strokes in this re- fects the effectiveness of swimming. The results of respect. search conducted by McMollough et al. show that swim- The present study has shown that in most cases, ming speed is only affected by greater plantar flexion and swimmers demonstrate greater mobility of the joints not greater inversion [13]. than people not associated with this discipline. This is Another factor that may affect the mobility of these probably the result of long training, heavily influenc- joints are the specific effects of muscle force and water ing swimmers’ organisms. However, since the range resistance. Just as in the knee, they can affect extension of movement affects the quality of swimming, there is of structures responsible for stabilizing the joint. The a possibility that genetically predisposed individuals with results of the present study indicate that the scope of greater mobility of joints, perform better in the sport and plantar flexion in the talocrural joint is significantly great- continue training at a competitive level. er in men training swimming than in those who do not train. In swimmers, it is also approx. 65°, while in those Conclusions untrained 52°. The result does not vary in women – it is approx. 65°. Because women generally have greater • People training competitive swimming have greater joint mobility, it is possible that the range of dorsiflex- mobility of the ankle and shoulder joints. ion motion determines the performance of propulsion. • The occurrence of hyper-extension in the knee joints Perhaps optimal mobility, allowing for proper movement is more frequent in trained than untrained individuals. techniques is approx. 65° and it does not differ from the • There are no differences in the mobility of the joints physiological mobility in women, while it is optimized in of the swimmers specializing in various swimming men as a result of training. Similar with inversion – it is strokes.

References

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Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 59 Natalia Radlińska, Arkadiusz Berwecki

[4] Wanivenhaus F, Fox AJS, Chaudhury S, Rodeo SA: Epidemiology of injuries and prevention strategies in competitive swimmers. Sports Health. 2012; 4 (3): 256–251. [5] Richardson AB, Jobe FW, Collins HR: The shoulder in competitive swimming. Am J Sports Med., 1980; 8 (3): 159–163. [6] Reid DC: Prevention of hip and knee injuries in ballet dancers. Sports Med., 1988; 6: 295–307. [7] Loudon JK, Goist HL, Loudon KL: Genu Recurvatum Syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 1998; 5: 361–367. [8] Hsiu-Chen Lin, Weng-Hang Lai, Yi-Fen Shih, Chia-Ming Chang, Chen-Yu Lo, Horng-Chaung Hsu: Physiological anterior laxity in healthy young females: the effect of knee hyperextension and dominance. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Artrosc, 2009; 17 (9): 1083–1088. [9] Myer GD, Ford KR, Paterno MV, Nick TG, Hewett TE: The Effects of Generalized Joint Laxity on Risk of Anterior Cruciate Liga- ment Injury in Young Female Athletes. Am J Sports Med, 2008; 36 (6): 1073–1080. [10] Ramesh R, Von Arx O, Azzopardi T, Schranz PJ: The risk of anterior cruciate ligament rupture with generalized joint laxity. The Bone & Joint Journal, 2005; 87: 800–803. [11] Hutchinson MR, Ireland ML: Knee Injuries in Female Athletes. Sports Medicine, 1995; 19: 288–302. [12] Rakowski M: Nowoczesny trening pływacki. Sowa, Rumia 2008. [13] McCullough AS, Kraemer WJ, Volek JS, Solomon-Hill GF, Hatfield DL, Vingren JL, Jen-Yu Ho, Fragala MS, Thomas GA, Hak- kinen K, Maresh CM: Factors Affecting Flutter Kicking Speed In Women Who Are Competitive And Recreational Swimmers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2009; 7: 2130–2136. [14] Mirska A, Kalinowska KA, Topór E Okulczyk K, Kułak W: Łagodny zespół hipermobilności stawów (BHJS). Neurologia Dzie- cięca, 2011; 41: 135–140. [15] Berwecki A, Ridan T, Berwecka M, Spannbauer A, Zdybel K: Incidence of hypermobility syndrome in girls aged 16–18. J Orthop Trauma Surg Rel Res, 2013; 3 (33): 17–25. [16] Scheper MC, de Vries JE, de Vos R, Verbunt J, Nollet F, Engelbert RH: Generalized joint hypermobility in professional dancers: a sign of talent or vulnerability. 2013; 52 (4): 651–658. [17] Soper K, Simmonds JV, KazKaz H, Ninis N: The influence of joint hypermobility on functional movement control in an elite netball population: A preliminary cohort study. Physical Therapy in Sport, 2014; 16: 127–134. [18] Decoster LC, Bernier JN, Lindsay RH, Vailas JC: Generalized joint hypermobility and its relationship to injury patterns among NCAA lacrosse players. Journal of Athletic Training, 1999; 34 (2): 99–105. [19] Stewart DR, Burden SB: Does generalized ligamentous laxity increase seasonal incidence of injuries in male first division club rugby players. Br J Sports Med, 2004; 38: 457–460. [20] Okamura S, Wada N, Tazawa M, Sohmiya M, Ibe Y, Shimizu T, Usuda S, Shirakura K: Injuries and disorders among young ice skaters: relationship with generalized joint laxity and tightness. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 2014; 5: 191–195. [21] Armon K: Musculoskeletal pain and hypermobility in children and young people: is it benign joint hypermobility syndrome? Arch Dis Child, 2015; 100: 2–3. [22] Maffulli N, King JB, Helms P: Training in elite young athletes (the training of young athletes (TOYA) study): injuries, flexibility, isometric strength. Br J Sp Med, 1994; 28 (2): 123–135. [23] Jansson A, Saartok T, Werner S, Renström P: Evaluation of general joint laxity, shoulder laxity and mobility in competitive swimmers during growth and in normal controls. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2005; 15: 169–176. [24] Soder RB, Mizerkowski MD, Petkowicz R, Baldisserotto M: MRI of the knee in asymptomatic adolescent swimmers: a controlled study. Br J Sports Med, 2012; 46: 268–272. [25] Donaldson PR: Does Generalized Joint Hypermobility Predict Joint Injury in Sport? A Review. Clin J Sport Med, 2012; 22: 77–78. [26] Bin AbdRazak HR, Bin Ali N, Tet Sen H: Generalized ligamentous laxity may be a predisposing factor for muscoskeletal injuries. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 2014; 17: 474–478.

Address for correspondence: E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: +48 538 109 794

60 Antropomotoryka Antropomotoryka. Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences JKES 70 (25): 61-64, 2015

SECTION – FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED KINESIOLOGY

ICID: 1194802 (1.7) DOI: 10.5604/17310652.1194802

IMPACT OF SYSTEMIC CRYOTHERAPY ON SELECTED ENZYMES, GLUTATHIONE AND SERUM TOTAL PROTEIN LEVELS IN HEALTHY YOUNG MALES

Authors’ contribution: Bartłomiej Ptaszek1 2 ABDEF, Aneta Teległów3 ABDEF, A. Study design/planning 3 BD 4 CE B. Data collection/entry Jacek Głodzik , Jakub Marchewka C. Data analysis/statistics D. Data interpretation

E. Preparation of manuscript 1 F. Literature analysis/search Ph.D. student, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Poland 2 G. Funds collection Malopolska Cryotherapy Centre, Krakow, Poland 3 Department of Clinical Rehabilitation, University of Physical Education in Krakow, Poland 4 Department of Orthopaedics and Trauma Surgery, 5th Military Hospital, Krakow, Poland

Key words: systemic cryotherapy, enzymes, AChE, G-6-PD, GSH

Abstract

Study aim. Determining the impact of systemic cryotherapy on the levels of AChE (acetylcholinesterases), G-6-PD (glucose- 6-phosphate dehydrogenases), GSH (glutathione), plasma proteins and occult Hb (occult hemoglobin) in young healthy men. Study group. The study group comprised of the 10 healthy men (untrained) aged 23–24 years (23.4 ± 0.52), who underwent cryotherapy treatments (treatment time 3 min, chamber temperature of –120°C, 10 treatment sessions – 5 times a week). The average body height was 179.2 ± 6.4 cm, weight 79.6 ± 8.8 kg, BMI 23.4 ± 2.6 kg/m2. In order to analyze the levels of AChE, G-6-PD, GSH, occult hemoglobin and plasma proteins, venous blood was collected from the study participants three times. The first test (control) took place two months before cryotherapy, the second on the day of beginning treatment and the third test after a series of 10 treatments. Methodology. Measurements were taken using the Helios Beta Z OP Spectro-Lab spectrophotometer, the VisionPro 4.10 Thermo Electron UV-Visible Spectroscopy program. To measure the concentration of AChE [U/gHb] and G-6-PD [U/gHb], the method proposed by Beutler (1986) was used. Plasma hemoglobin concentration [g/100 ml] was determined using the method by Chanazin (1989). The concentration of reduced glutathione GSH [mmol/gHb] was determined on the basis of the method developed by Ellman (1970). The Biuret method was used for the determination of total protein [g/l]. Results. Analyzing the average values of AChE [U/gHb], G-6-PD [mmol/gHb] and occult Hb. [g/dl] before and after the usage of systemic cryotherapy, no statistically significant differences were found. However, an increase in total protein concentration [g/l] and a decrease in GSH concentration [mmol/gHb] were found in the men who underwent cryotherapy in relation to the measurement taken two months before starting the treatment. Conclusions. Systemic cryotherapy does not cause any side effects in young, healthy men. Regular usage of cryotherapy treatments may affect the levels of enzyme indicators – total protein (concentration increase) and glutathione (concentration reduction) in the blood.

Introduction interest in cryotherapy (WBC – Whole Body Cryother- apy) causes the number extremely low temperature The impact of thermal factors on the human body treatment centers to constantly increase [1, 2, 3]. The has been studied for many years. Cold therapy is body’s response to cold is based on hormonal changes widely used in clinical practice and sports. The great [4, 5], in the cardiovascular system [6], nervous sys-

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 61 Bartłomiej Ptaszek, Aneta Teległów, Jacek Głodzik, Jakub Marchewka tem and muscles [7] and in the immune system [4, The time of a single treatment session for the group 5, 6, 8, 9]. Many studies have shown a relationship of males was 1.5 min (1st treatment), 3 min (2nd–10th between whole-body exposure to extremely low tem- treatment). 3 ml of blood were drawn from the vein inside peratures and changes in the level of selected enzymes the elbow from the participants on an empty stomach and hormones in body fluids [10]. Morphological and in the morning, into EDTA tubes. Blood samples were biochemical research carried out after application of drawn by a qualified nurse under medical supervision, in cryotherapy is indicative of an increase in levels of accordance with the applicable standards of the Pathol- hemoglobin, leucocytes and blood platelets compared ogy of Locomotion Laboratory at the University School to baseline values. There is also an increase in serum of Physical Education in Krakow, where rheological and concentrations of epinephrine, norepinephrine, ACTH, morphological parameters of the blood were determined. cortisol, testosterone (in men), and a reduction of in- The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee at flammatory parameters such as ESR, Waaler-Rose re- the Regional Medical Chamber in Krakow. action, seromucoid [10, 11]. Also observed is the ben- Measurements were performed using the Helios Beta eficial effect of cryotherapy on the cellular immunity of Z OP Spectro-Lab spectrophotometer, VisionPro 4.10 the body by increasing the number of Natural Killer cells Thermo Electron UV-Visible Spectroscopy program. To [12, 13]. A series of biochemical antioxidant reactions measure the concentration of AChE [U/gHb] and G-6-PD are launched, thanks to which the adverse effect of free [U/gHb], the method proposed by Beutler (1986) was radicals are limited [14]. Despite the many possible used. Plasma hemoglobin concentration [g/100 ml] was health benefits posed by cryotherapy, little scientific determined using the method by Chanazin (1989). The information is available in literature, and the impact on concentration of reduced glutathione GSH [mmol/gHb] laboratory results still requires much research. In our was determined on the basis of the method developed earlier study, we studied the effect of WBC on rheo- by Ellman (1970). The Biuret method was used for the logical-morphological indicators, in which we demon- determination of total protein [g/l]. strated the positive effects of these treatments [15]. We have decided to extend the determination by additional Statistical analysis parameters. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of The data is presented as mean and standard devia- systemic cryotherapy on the level of AChE (acetylcho- tion (x ± SD) or median and first and third quartile de- linesterase), G-6-PD (glucose-6-phosphate dehydroge- pending on the normality of distribution which was veri- nases), GSH (glutathione), plasma proteins and occult fied using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The differences between Hb (occult hemoglobin) in young healthy men. the resulting measurements were analyzed by one way repeated measurements analysis of variance (ANOVA). Study design Sphericity was assessed using Mauchly’s test. In the case that the sphericity assumption was not met, the The study group consisted of 10 healthy males multidimensional test was used (Wilks’ lambda). When – Physiotherapy students of the University School the ANOVA parametric assumptions were not met, dif- of Physical Education in Krakow (no athletes; pre- ferences between the measurements were calculated liminary research – without calculation), aged 23–24 using the Friedman test. Appropriate post-hoc tests (23.4 ± 0.52), who underwent systemic cryotherapy were applied to evaluate the differences between par- treatments (10 treatments – 5 times a week). Their av- ticular measurements. The significance level was set at erage body height was 178.9 ± 6.4 cm, weight 79.3 ± p<0.05. Analyses were performed using Statistica 10 6.8 kg and BMI 23.5 ± 2.4 kg/m2. In order to analyze (StatSoft®, USA). the AChE, G-6-PD, GSH, occult Hb and serum total protein levels, venous blood samples were drawn from the Results study participants three times. The first study was held two months before cryotherapy (control! – the control Analyzing the average values of AChE [U/gHb], group consisted of the same persons who had taken G-6-PD [mmol/gHb] and occult Hb. [g/dl] before and part in the project), the second on the day of beginning after the usage of systemic cryotherapy, no statisti- treatments and the third test was conducted after a se- cally significant differences were found. However, an ries of 10 treatments. increase in total protein concentration [g/l] and a decrease in GSH concentration [mmol/gHb] were found The parameters obtained in the cryo-chamber: in the men who underwent cryotherapy in relation to • aerial temperature: –60°C the measurement taken two months before starting the • chamber temperature: –120°C treatment (Tab. 1).

62 Antropomotoryka Impact of systemic cryotherapy on selected enzymes, glutathione and serum total protein... i

Table 1. Mean values ± standard deviation or median and (I-III quartile) of selected serum parameters in males before and after systemic cryotherapy

Measurement 1 Measurement 2 Measurement 3 Cryotherapy p p1/2 p1/3 p2/3 (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10) Serum total 65.71 ± 4.66 68.52 ± 8.45 72.71 ± 6.62 0.013 0.381 0.038 0.198 protein [g/l] AChE [U/gHb] 32.58 ± 3.51 30.39 ± 3.35 32.71 ± 4.76 0.350 G6PD [U/gHb] 0.41 ± 0.09 0.43 ± 0.14 0.47 ± 0.10 0.626 GSH [µmol/gHb] 15.23 (13.17–16.89) 13.68 (13.45–14.53) 10.73 (5.65–12.00) 0.045 0.316 0.039 0.358 Occult Hb [g/dl] 0.000 (0.000–0.000) 0.005 (0.000–0.010) 0.000 (0.000–0.000) 0.156 Description: measurement 1 – two months before cryotherapy (control); measurement 2 – day of beginning cryotherapy; measurement 3 – after a series of 10 treatments

Conclusions thione in men using cryotherapy treatment was noted. Even though Aslan and Meral (2007) used a “different Systemic cryotherapy does not cause any side ef- kind of cold” and used the animal model (guinea-pigs fects in young, healthy men. Regular usage of cryothera- with short-term hypothermia), they found the same re- py treatments may affect the levels of enzyme indicators lationship [23]. – total protein (concentration increase) and glutathione Pathological processes may be accompanied by (concentration reduction) in the blood. both a reduction and increase in GSH concentration in particular tissues. Action aimed at increasing the level Discussion of GSH is beneficial in all these disease states, in which a decrease in GSH concentration occurs. However, a de- The research presented in this article is intended to crease in the level of GSH is recommended in tumor cells show changes in the level of acetylcholinesterases, glu- in order to increase their sensitivity to chemo- as well as cose-6-phosphate dehydrogenases, glutathione, occult radiotherapy, and also in organ transplantation to induce hemoglobin and plasma proteins in young healthy men immunosuppression [24]. undergoing a series of 10 systemic cryotherapy treat- Research evaluating the effect of systemic cryother- ments (–120°C). A review of literature shows lack of apy in young men was conducted by Lubkowska et al. data on the effects of systemic cryotherapy on the levels (2012) [25]. Its objective was to assess the effect of 20 of AChE, G-6-PD, GSH, occult Hb. and plasma proteins systemic cryotherapy treatments on the antioxidant sys- (especially in humans). tem. The author noted, inter alia, that only after 10 treat- In our research, we have noted an increase in total ments, there was an increase in the total protein concen- protein concentration and a reduction in GSH concentration. The same relationship was observed in the present tration in the men undergoing cryotherapy treatments in study. The level of glutathione, however, increased after 10 relation to the measurements made two months before treatments, and after 20 treatments, decreased compared starting the treatment. However, there were no changes to the level prior to WBC. In the conducted study, the op- in the average values of AChE, G-6-PD or occult Hb. posite relationship was observed after 10 treatments. In literature, there are few studies on the enzymatic The conducted research require extension to gain properties of blood in cold water. Nonaka et al. (2012) a better knowledge of the body’s response in these condi- showed an increase of G-6-PD in rats performing exer- tions. Due to the small size of the study group, this re- cise, and then floating in cold water (4°C) [20]. In our search can be regarded as preliminary. The results of the study, we did not observe any changes in the activity of studies carried out so far (very few) are difficult to interpret glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. and compare because of differences in their research pro- Dede et al. (2002) showed that the reduced level of tocols. Lubkowska and Szyguła (2010) showed that the GSH in the blood of rats in a state of hypothermia is ac- number of WBC sessions is of significance when consid- companied by reduced G-6-PD activity [21]. ering the changes in morphological indicators [26]. Puntel et al. (2013) studied rats with ischemia, com- In summary, these studies have reported that expo- pared to healthy subjects [22]. Both groups were sub- sure to cold in the form of systemic cryotherapy can jected to cryotherapy (ice packs). In healthy subjects, no modulate the enzymatic parameters of the blood. It is changes in GSH levels were observed. believed that these results are important in determining Based on the research, decreased activity of gluta- the safety of WBC in the field of clinical trials.

Journal of Kinesiology and Exercise Sciences 63 Bartłomiej Ptaszek, Aneta Teległów, Jacek Głodzik, Jakub Marchewka

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Corresponding author: Bartłomiej Ptaszek E-mail: [email protected]

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