Háskóli Íslands
Hugvísindasvið Medieval Icelandic Studies
Ritgerð til MA-prófs í Medieval Icelandic Studies
Mathias Blobel Kt.: 1601865939
Leiðbeinandi: Emily Lethbridge September 2015
Abstract
The goal of this thesis is to establish a methodology of utilising network analysis to investigate ethnic genre categories in the corpus of Old Icelandic literature. Unlike other such attempts, which focus on the similarities of different texts, it approaches the problem from the perspective of manuscripts. Texts that frequently appear in manuscripts together are assumed to have been thought of as generically similar. Communities in a network of manuscripts connectedHandrit.is by the co-occurrence of texts can therefore be used to establish groupings of generic significance. The necessary data is obtained through web scraping of the database. A network is as- sembled from this and subjected to several community detection algorithms. The result is a system of categories of literature that could arguably represent a glimpse into the medieval mind.
Markmið þessarar loka ritgerðar er að koma á fót aðferðafræði sem nýtir netgrein- ingu til að rannsaka flokkunarhópa í safni forníslenskra bókmennta. Ólíkt öðrum slí- kum tilraunum, sem hafa einblínt á líka þætti innan ólíkra texta, er efnið nálgast frá sjónarhóli handrita. Textar sem oft birtast saman í handritum eru taldir hafa verið álitnir svipaðir. Slíkur samanburður texta myndar þar afHandrit.is leiðandi samfélög innan netkerfis sem hægt er að nota til að gera flokka eða hópa textanna. Nauðsynlegum gögnum er safnað gegnum vefhremmingu af gagnagrunni . Úr þeim gögnum er byggt netkerfi sem á er beitt nokkrum samfélagsgreiningaralgrímum. Útkoman er kerfi bókmenntaflokka sem færa má rök fyrir að gefi innsýn í hugarheim miðalda manna.
Acknowledgments
Like any human endeavour, an MA thesis cannot be created in isolation (or at least it wouldn’t be half as good if it were). I am therefore indebted to the following people (in no particular order): - Handrit.is Guðvarður Már Gunnlaugsson, Haukur Þorgeirsson and Örn Hrafnkelsson for an swering endless (and probably tedious) questions about (Which is an amazing tool into which has gone a lot of hard work. I hope my criticism of some of- its components does not sound too harsh. It isn’t intended to be). Beeke Stegmann for answering questions about Árni’s habit of butchering manuscripts. The organ isers and audience of the Aarhus student conference for valuable comments and encouragement and especially Luke for introducing me with my nom de guerre. The organisers and teachers of the VMN and MIS programmes at HÍ for having made this one of the best experiences of my life, academic and otherwise. Emily Lethbridge for- agreeing to supervise this rather unorthodox thesis and being genuinely interested in it, as well as for very valuable comments. Stéfania Andersen Áradóttir for transla tion help. Katie Thorn for going above and beyond in proofreading. My parents for supporting me even through this second Master’s in an even more obscure field.
And finally, all of my friends for encouragement, coffee (and other beverages), and diversions. Seriously, thanks guys!
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Genre and Manuscripts - Old Norse texts in their context 2 Handrit.is Handrit.is 7 3. and Network Analysis 3.1 3.2 Network Analysis 9 3.3 Methodology 12 3.3.1 General Methodology 12 4 3.3.2 The Data 13 3.3.3 Scraping 1 7 3.3.4 Parsing and Network Analysis 16 3.3.5 Problems and Potential Sources of Error 1
4. Analysis and Results 4.1 Identifying Unusual Manuscripts - 21 4 Basic network statistics and betweenness centrality 4.2 The General Structure of the Network - 2 Spring-embedded clustering 4.3 Tackling Fragmentation - Reduction by edge-weight 36 4.4 Identifying Specific Groups - Markov Chain Clustering 38 4.5 The Time Component - Networks by year 40 4.6 Synthesis of Analysis Results 43
5. Conclusion 46
7 Bibliography 48 Software: 5 Appendices: 58 Figures 69
The use of digital technology has1. Introduction a (maybe somewhat surprisingly) long tradition in medieval studies. In Old Norse studies, however, these projects have been largely confined to the worthy projects of digital editions of texts and manuscripts. While some forays have been made, such as digital mapping and automatic stemma generation, not many projects in Old Norse scholarship use large-scale data sources for digital analysis and visualisation. There are two reasons for this. On the one hand there is always a cer- tain reluctance in literary criticism to embrace quantitative and statistical methods. On the subject of quantitative codicology Gumbert remarks that “there are [those] who are constitutionally unable to handle numbers, and who are physically paralysed at sight of a formula”. He goes on to decry a fear “that quantitativists are trying to take over and to replace good, traditional, humanistic ways of work by their own mechanical activities”. Such harsh words are hardly necessary, but quantitative approaches are certainly seen with some scepticism in literary history. The other reason for its slow adoption is that using quantitative methodology requires a sizeable investment of time: not only for the acquisition of the necessary skills, but also for the entering of sufficient data in order to have a dataset of a size that actually allows meaningful interpretation. Ideally such data- sets would be assembled as part of larger projects and be freely available to scholars for interpretation. This is not yet common for Old Norse subjects; where data is available it has not been assembled with quantitative analysis in mind and is therefore rather hard to exploit in that manner.
One such dataset is the Handrit.is catalogue of manuscripts. It contains a large amount of information about individual manuscripts but, since the entries are not linked consist- ently (and the database does not offer an API, see below), quantitative information can not be extracted directly. Any such information must therefore be obtained by crawling the database by software means and reconstructing connections from the obtained data. As it is indexing the most important collections of Old Norse manuscripts, the data on Handrit.is is the closest thing to a corpus of Old Icelandic literature available in a dig- ital format. Through the technique of web scraping the data contained within it becomes available for a wide variety of analyses.
By utilising network analysis, hidden structures can be uncovered in the dataset. When building a network with individual manuscripts as nodes and connections between
1 See Unsworth 2012. ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� For example the Medieval Nordic Text Archive (www.menota.org), the Skaldic Project (http://abdn.ac.uk/skaldic/), and the Stories for all Times: The Icelandic Fornaldarsögur project (http://fasnl.ku.dk/). ���������������������� http://sagamap.hi.is/ ����������������������� Hall and Parsons 2013. ������������������� Gumpert 2004, 525. ��������������������������� And to some extent Danish. them based on the number of texts they share, communities of manuscripts can be identi- fied that contain similar kinds of texts even if they do not all share the same one. If one assumes that manuscript compilers in general combined texts that they believed should belong together, these communities should mostly correspond to these categories. Since they are clusters of manuscripts, not texts, a single text can be in more than one commu- nity. This means that the clusters should be close analogies to the categories of literature in which a manuscript compiler would have thought, even if they themselves would not necessarily have clearly defined and delineated categories. This is what Joseph Harris has called “ethnic genre”.
This thesis is an attempt to develop and apply a methodology of web scraping Handrit.is and network analysis to investigate these categories in the corpus of medieval Ice- landic manuscripts as represented in . Its goal is not so much to propose a new analytical system of genre for Old Icelandic literature. Nor does it aim, like some similar studies, to look at a manuscript or a small group of manuscripts. Rather it tries to extract general trends of genre and collection interests out of as large a part of the medieval Icelandic manuscript corpus as is reconstructable. It tries to meet Handrit.is three goals: showing the usefulness of a web scraping approach on datasets such as the one contained in , even if they weren’t originally compiled with quan- titative analysis in mind; developing a methodology of utilising the co-occurrence Handrit.is of texts in manuscripts as indicators of ethnic genre through network analysis; and applying this methodology to data from .
2. Genre and Manuscripts - Old Norse texts in their context
The question of genre is one that implicitly underlies a great deal of the discussion in the study of medieval literature but that is only infrequently discussed explicitly. In Old Norse studies, as in the study of other European medieval literature, the genre categories used by modern scholarship evolved over time without explicit theoris- ing. Hans Robert Jauss has attempted to develop a theory of the genre of medieval European literature, and especially that in the Romance languages. He understands genre not as one fixed category a work has to fit in but rather a series of traits, which are more or less dominant. The genre of a work is then the most dominant trait, which can also define the work on its own. Other productive theoretical approaches to genre theory in medieval studies have been the application of Bakhtinian theory and, deriving from that, Even-Zohar’s Polysystem theory. However, in general the
������������� Harris 1975. 8 Jauss 1982, 78-82. 9 For an overview over Bakhtinian theory as relating to Old Norse studies see Phelpstead 2007, 37–75. For a general introduction to Polysystem theory see Even-Zohar 1990, for an application in Old Norse studies see Bampi 2012. Jón Karl Helgasson (1999, 2) has used the theory before, not necessarily with a focus on genre, however.
traditional10 genre categories of medieval European literature remain largely unchal- lenged.
Many of the same categories of genre, such as historiography and hagiography, can be found in the medieval Scandinavian world. As Lars Lönnroth has shown most
Scandinavian prose texts of the period are not very different from those found in11 the rest of Europe and would probably not have been seen as such by their authors. It is only when it comes to narrative texts that Old Norse literature breaks that mould, sagas sögur since the texts found there often do not have a direct equivalent in continental me- þættir dieval literature. A method of classifying the texts generally called / and in scholarship (and modern Icelandic usage) has therefore developed over time.
This system of genre classification used, explicitly or implicitly, in modern saga scholarship has been developing for at least 100 years. It is based mainly on the time period in which the action of a saga takes place and its relationship to the (pre- sumed) time of writing, as well as the area where the action 12takes place (Iceland or Íslendingasögur elsewhere). The following is a rough outline of this system: Sagas taking place in Iceland before the time of writing are generally termed (Sagas of samtiðarsögur Icelanders or Family Sagas). If the action takes place in Iceland but is closer to the biskupasögur Sturlunga sögur time of writing they are called (Contemporary Sagas). These in turn can be split into (Bishops’ Sagas) and (Sagas of the fornaldarsögur Sturlungs). Sagas taking place before the settlement of Iceland, in a mythical prehis- konungasögur tory influenced by Germanic heroic myth are called , sagas of (Nor- riddarasögur wegian) kings are (Kings’ Sagas) and sagas of continental knightly adventure are called (translated or indigenous, depending on whether they are translations of popular European knightly literature or merely inspired by riddarasögur lygisögur these). fornaldarsögur. Indigenous are sometimes also termed (lying sagas),13 al- though this term can additionally also encompass younger
samtíðarsögur fortíðarsögur Sigurður Nordal proposed an alternative classification scheme to this one, which slendingasögur konungasögur forneskjusögur categorises sagas into (contemporary sagas, see above), ornaldarsögur, riddarasögur onungasögur (sagas of the past, i.e. Í and most ) and 14 (sagas of ancient times, i.e. f and some k ). While the genre categorisations according to these systems are widely used by schol- ars, they are by no means fixed. As can be seen even in the attempt to describe the
10 For a list of such genres see e.g. Jauss 1979, 185. 11 Lönnroth 1964, 32. 12 See e.g. Sigurður Nordal 1968, 13. 13 Driscoll 2004a, 190. 14 Sigurður Nordal 1968, 14-15. two systems above they are frequently mixed and not everyone agrees on what the different categories should be and even less on which category a given text should belong to. In addition15 sub-categories and competing categories to these are being proposed frequently. In practice, therefore, countless systems of genre exist which differ only slightly in terminology and the texts they incorporate.
There is however no dispute that these genres are purely analytical categories made up after the time of production, which are only useful for modern scholarship. A competing school of thought asserts that a better method of genre classification would be to try to reconstruct the system of genre used by the saga compilers them- selves. Lars Lönnroth attempted this through lexicographical analysis in 1964. He came to the conclusion that there is no reason to believe that the Old Norse genre Íslendingasaga system would have been very different from the continental one and that there was16 no distinction made between, for example, an and a translated text. Of course the question remains whether such a system would be of any use to mod- ern scholarship, even if it were possible to partly reconstruct it. This dispute came to a head in a discussion between Lönnroth and Joseph Harris in the form of facing articles in the journal Scandinavian 1Studies7 in 1975 (which Theodore Andersson refereed somewhat in a third article), with Lönnroth arguing for the reconstruction of a medieval system of genres and Harris for the18 supremacy of what he calls the „modern analytic system“ over an „ethnic“ one. The apparent consensus reached was that both systems are valid for different reasons, with the analytic one being more relevant to modern scholarship. In the words of Theodore Andersson: “We may modify our views in detail19 but I doubt that we need any major reorganization of our current terminology”. Indeed, no such major reorganisation has happened since then.
In recent years the discussion has turned more towards hybrid texts and the shortcomings of the traditional genre system in as much as it assigns every text to riddarasögur fornaldarsögur only one genre. This20 began in the 1980s with Astrid van Nahl’s work on the indig- enous21 and Elizabeth Ashman Rowe’s on the respec- Fornaldarsagaerne: Myter og tively. It was the main point of contention in a round-table discussion on genre in virkelighed the fornaldarsögur which started at the conference ” 22 “ in 2005 and was continued in print form in 2006. Among the diverse 15 Such as, for example, “political sagas” (Berman 1985), “Abenteuersagas” (Schier 1970) or “bridal-quest romances” (Kalinke 1990). 16 Lönnroth 1964, 32. 17 Lönnroth 1975; Harris 1975; Andersson 1975. 18 Harris 1975, 434. He admits to an unprovable belief that the two systems may be in many ways congruent, however. 19 Andersson 1975, 441. 20 van Nahl 1981. 21 Ashman Rowe 1989. 22 Quinn et al. 2006. opinions expressed there, there seems to be a certain consensus that classical genre theory is inadequate in describing Medieval23 Icelandic texts in as much as it requires each text to fit into exactly one category. However, no such consensus was reached in the question of whether the traditional system of genres (or, in this particular case,24 the term and the concept of fornaldarsögur) should be kept as25 an analytical tool or rather discarded (or at least treated with the utmost caution) .
Rather removed from the genre debate is another development in Old Norse stud- ies that also aims to see texts in their wider context. Instead of comparing them with similar texts of the same genre this approach emphasises the manuscript context. It has become more popular since the late 1980s with the development of “new philol26- ogy” or “material philology” and a rise of scholarly interest in the book as an object.
While this is a general trend in medieval philology such studies in Old Norse usually27 take the form of considering one text in the context of its manuscript tradition,28 looking at a single manuscript or small group29 of manuscripts with shared features, or even at one text in one manuscript.30 One project even looks at the manuscript tradition of a whole genre of texts.
What all of these studies have in common is a willingness to employ a holistic view of a saga text and not work from a reconstructed hypothetical text as it might be presented in popular editions, such as Íslenzk Fornrít. In Old Norse studies mate- rial philology also helped shift the focus away from looking exclusively at sagas and vernacular literature and instead considering31 the wide variety of Latin texts pre- served in Scandinavian manuscripts. Of course this approach is not new, indeed in the aforementioned 1964 article Lars Lönnroth had already attempted to come to grips with medieval conceptions of32 genre by looking at what sagas were combined in some compilation manuscripts; however, this particular part of his argument is far from an exhaustive analysis and more of an off-hand comment. The methodology of material philology allows for a more complete look at medieval literature away from a reconstructed ideal text. Rather it attempts to investigate how literature was consumed and propagated in reality.
23 See e.g. Margaret Clunies Ross (Quinn et al. 2006, 278) or Ármann Jakobsson (Quinn et al. 2006, 283). 24 See e.g. Matthew Driscoll (Quinn et al. 2006, 294). 25 See Ármann Jakobsson (Quinn et al. 2006, 283). 26 See Wilcox 2013, 2–3, Driscoll 2010, 90–91. 27 e.g. Lethbridge 2014. 28 e.g Kalinke 1996, Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir 2012b, Lethbridge 2012b. 29 e.g. LethbridgeStories for All 2012a. Time: For The more Icelandic examples fornaldarsögur of Old Norse studies in the tradition of material philology see Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir 2012a. 30 The project (http://fasnl.ku.dk) 31 Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir 2012a, 212-213. 32 Lönnroth 1964, 23–24. Around the same time as these paradigm shifts happened in philology, a new kind of approach was developed in codicology as well. In the late 1970s statisti- cal methods33 were first applied to whole corpora of codicological information on a large scale. This new “quantitative codicology” was spearheaded and championed by Ezio Ornato and Carla Bozzolo. Based on the newly developed catalogue of dated manuscripts in France they examined statistics of book production per year, the size distribution of manuscripts, the use of white space by medieval34 scribes, the book market for manuscripts and incunables and much35 more. The same approach was used in Old Norse studies by Már Jónsson in 2003. Since then the infrastructure and tools for quantitative codicology have become much more sophisticated, however not many studies of that kind have been undertaken in this field. At the Supporting Digital Humanities conference in 2011 Matthew Driscoll, Eric Andrew Haswell and
Silvia Hufnagel presented an36 example of the usefulness of well-structured XML files for quantitative codicology. Nevertheless, there have not been many studies using
XML encoding37 to do quantitative codicological investigations on a larger corpus of texts. However, with the webscraping techniques outlined here codicological analy- sis would also be possible with the data from Handrit.is, even if it was not explicitly built for this.
In many ways this thesis is a combination of all three of these approaches to see the manuscript in its context. It is quantitative codicology in as much as it looks at many manuscripts at the same time (but not looking at the traditional metrics of this field, such as size and foliation). It is material philology in as much as it looks at texts in their manuscript context (but doing this at a different scale it can never aspire to such nuanced analysis as some of the studies in that field boast), and it is genre studies in as much as it tries to find some information on ethnic medieval genre (but being constrained by time and space it can only suggest ways for future research).
Since it uses digital techniques as primary38 research tools, this thesis can also be classified as an exercise in Digital Humanities. The merits of having such a label for a very varied set of methodologies can not be discussed here, but it should be noted that most studies using network analysis in fields primarily dealing with texts utilise 33 See Ornato 1997b, 42. Like many such approaches this ultimately goes back to advances in computer technology and availability in the late 1960s. 34 For all of these see Ornato 1997a. 35 Már Jónsson 2003. 36 Driscoll, Haswell, and Hufnagel 2011. At the same conference David J. Birnbaum claimed to have introduced the term “quantitative codicology” to Digital Humanities in 2005 – a mere quarter- century after Bozzolo and Ornato’s landmark article on the topic and two years after Már Jónsson’s application in OldHrólfs Norse saga studies kraka (Birnbaum 2011). 37 An exception is Tereza Lansing’s PhD thesis on the post-medieval production, dissemination and reception of .(2014, 37-52). 38 The origins and development of this field can not be gotten into here, as it is both too large and developing too quickly to do this in anything but its own essay. For the early history of the dis- cipline see Hockey 2004.
39
Social Network Analysis (SNA). The ones that use complex networks,40 like this study41 does, are usually to be found in disciplines such as archaeology and art history.
When this study uses the word genre and the traditional genre terms of Old Norse scholarship (such as fornaldarsögur or Íslendingasögur) it is as a shorthand to refer to groups of texts that would be identified as such by most scholars. The groups uncovered by the analysis, on the other hand, are referred to as “groupings” or “clusters”. No claim is made that these correspond to genres in the sense it is used above. However, an argument can, and indeed will be made that they do represent groupings a medieval compiler of a manuscript would have understood as belonging together, be that because of a thematic link or one of geography or other factors. This general sense of “belonging together” is basically what Harris defined as “ethnic gen- re”, so this is what this study is trying to uncover. By using manuscripts as a starting point, it is possible to account for a text belonging to more than one grouping. Due to the nature of the methodology the generic categories are those of42 the reader, not the author, which are the ones most generic studies are interested in. It is therefore more a study into the consumption of literature than into its production. Handrit.is Handrit.is 3. and Network Analysis 3.1 Handrit.is The current starting point for any engagement with Old Norse manuscripts is the Stofnun catalogue. This is in fact a database combining the catalogues of manu- Árna Magnússonar í íslenskum fræðum den Arnamagnæanske Samling Lands- scripts of several different institutions. Chiefly it contains the holdings of bókasafn Íslands/Háskólabókasafn Skjalasafn Alþingis , and Þjóðminjasafn Íslands Þjóðskjalasafn Íslands . In addition manuscripts from , Sagnanet.is and are listed.43 The database is the suc- 44 cessor of and has been online since 2010. It currently contains 9868 entries. This is about half of45 the total amount of manuscripts in the possession of the participating institutions. It also offers complete high-quality photographic fac- similes of 1854 manuscripts.
39 Often in quite innovative ways, such as Hoyt, Ponto, and Roy 2014. 40 For an overview of the use of graph theory and complex networks in archaeology (as op- posed to SNA), see Brughmans 2013, 641-648. 41 Örne.g. SchichHrafnkelsson 2009. 2014, 283. 42 AsMullett of 10.06.2015. 1992, 234. This number is based on a search in the database for any manuscript writ- ten43 after the year 1AD. It therefore might not contain manuscripts that are wrongly labelled or that are otherwise44 not available to the search function. The overall number of around 10,000 should be correct though. See Örn Hrafnkelsson 2014, 290.
45 Handrit.is
The data on individual manuscripts46 in is encoded in XML files accord- ing to the TEI P5 standard. XML, or eXtensible Markup Language is a markup lan- 47 guage that allows for the encoding of documents, as well as additional information and interpretations, in a structured way. It is a flexible format that can be custom- ized to fit the needs of different users and has found wide acceptance across differ- ent fields. The TEI scheme developed by the Text Encoding Initiative Consortium is specifically intended to allow for the markup of texts by scholars in order to make them machine-readable; making not only the text itself but also additional data, such as its structure, any 48background information or linguistic annotation available to computer programs. The scheme has the advantage of having a specialized manu- script description module that was developed specifically with Norse manuscripts in mind,49 since its development was spearheaded by Old Norse scholar Matthew Dr- iscoll. This module allows for a large amount of codicological and palaeographical information on an individual manuscript to be stored in the header of the XML file itself. Most of the information is also clearly identified with tags, in order to facili- tate its retrieval in an automated fashion. Only some more complicated concepts are Handrit.is generally stored as free text.50 The extent to which the structure is adhered to is up to the individual encoder. The XML documents in are generally highly structured, however, making it relatively easy for quantitative codicology to access relevant information without much human intervention.
51 Handrit.is Unlike other projects, such as the Medieval52 Nordic Text Archive or the afore- mentioned Stories for All Time project, only uses XML to store meta in- formation on manuscripts, not the actual text itself. The database seems not to have been built with quantitative codicology in mind, since it does not offer an API (Appli- cation Programming Interface) that would allow the user to easily query and export information from within the XML structure. This is why this thesis has to rely on the techniques of webscraping instead, first crawling the website and downloading the relevant information before being able to use it. Handrit.is
The entries for individual manuscripts on are served up to the user as an HTML web page, however a link on each of them leads to the underlying XML files. One of the interesting features of the XML files is that individual texts in some
(but not all) of the manuscripts53 are additionally tagged with an attribute that seems See Örn Hrafnkelsson 2014, 289 to indicate See Sperberg-McQueen, their genre. These Burnard, actually and TEI show Consortium up (in 2015an expanded XXV. form) on the HTML 46 See Sperberg-McQueen, Burnard, and TEI Consortium 2015 XVI. 47 Driscoll 2014, 299. 48 Sperberg-McQueen, Burnard, and TEI Consortium 2015, 310. 49 http://www.menota.org/ 50 http://fasnl.ku.dk/ 51 The @class attribute of the
Efnisorð Keywords version of the page as / (and can be searched for through the Handrit.is search function (see below)). The choice of what exact keyword to use when enter- ing a new manuscript into is up to the individual contributor, who chooses from a list of previously used keywords and can add new ones if necessary, which ul54- timately are based on the Icelandic National and University Library’s authority file. Handrit.is Considering the problems of genre categorisation outlined above and the inconsist- ent use of the tags in , it seems prudent not to use these classifications as the basis of any analysis. Of course, the use of pre-existing genre tags in order to gain new information about the genre system would lead to circular reasoning anyway. These tags are therefore disregarded in this thesis. Rather the texts two manuscripts have in common are used to build a network for network analysis.
3.2 Network Analysis
thThe analysis55 of structures that can be represented as a network goes back to the 19 century. It found most attention in the social sciences where Social Network Analysis was developed in order to model social interactions between different peo- ple. A mathematical grounding for networkth analysis in the form of graph theory was developed from the middle of the 20 century onwards. This is a distinct approach from SNA and the principal method employed in this thesis. However, only the rise of (relatively) cheap personal computing made these disciplines popular from the 1970s onwards. This, in combination with the growing influence of social networks in the daily lives of almost everyone in recent years, has led56 to a resurgence of inter- est in SNA and its adoption across many different fields. In Old Norse studies the Íslendingasögur technique has only been used in a few projects so far. In 2013, Mac Carron and Kenna analysed the character networks of 18 major and compared57 them to those of similar literature, as well as real-world social networks. They found that according to most metrics the relationships between characters are very close to those found in the real world and observed that “although one cannot conclusively determine whether the saga societies are real, on the basis of network theory, we samtiðarsögur 58 can conclude that they are realistic.” Similar but unpublished experiments with Egils saga 59 SNA applied to were attempted by Erika Sigurdson. Timothy Tang- herlini has interpreted social relations in according to SNA in a paper de- livered at the 101st 60Annual Meeting of the Society for the Advancement of Scandina- vian Study Skráningarreglur in 2011. 2012, For this12. he built networks of familial relations, friendship and See Heidler et al. 2014, 1. 54 See Börner, Sanyal, and Vespignani 2007, 538. 55 Mac Carron and Kenna 2013. 56 Mac Carron and Kenna 2013, 9. 57 Pers. comm. 58 Tangherlini 2011. 59 60 enmity and analysed friendship triads. He used the concepts of friendship transitiv- Höfuðlausn ity and status in order to illuminate the complex social relationships surrounding Njáls saga Íslendinga Egill’s . SNA terminology was also used by Richard Gaskins to describeth and partially analyse social structures 61in and saga at the 12 International Saga Conference in 2003. .
Unlike these previous studies, however, the approach outlined here is not based on Social Network Analysis but simply on network analysis, since it does not concern itself with social interactions between people or characters, but rather with similari- ties and relationships between different entities. This kind of research is more com- mon in disciplines such as geography or archaeology. Indeed, since archaeology is in- terested in the relationships and shared traits of objects and sites, the inspiration for this thesis came from there. Like archaeological objects, medieval manuscripts can be seen as artefacts that share certain traits (such as texts) and the networks these shared characteristics build can be analysed to62 find groupings. A somewhat similar Konráðs saga keisarasonar approach was previously taken by Alaric Hall; in his attempt at deriving a stemma riddarasögur of from a small sample of texts, the data assembled from a survey of -manuscripts by Kalinke63 and Mitchell was digitised and used to build a network of the sagas of that genre. Unlike the approach proposed here, this network was made64 up of nodes of saga texts connected by edges if they occur in the same manuscripts. After the application of a force algorithm the graph shows, riddarasögur according to Hall’s interpretation, a generally cohesive group of sagas, which can rid- still be clustered into original and translated . The fact that some of the darasögur translated sagas generally regarded as pivotal in the development of Icelandic are not especially well connected is interpreted by Hall as evidence that
„these did not enjoy a centrality65 in the transmission of the genre commensurate with their historical importance.“
This is certainly true; however,66 since most of the manuscripts in the dataset are from the post-medieval period unfortunately that fact does not shed any light on the role the sagas did play in the introduction of romances to Old Norse/Icelandic literature. The network graph, and the article, still show how easily data can be visu- alised and analysed in new ways once it is available digitally in a standardised for- mat. Network Gaskins 2003.analysis is only one of the possible research approaches using the data Hall and Parsons 2013, § 10. 61 At a workshop entitled Easy Tools for Difficult Texts in The Hague on the 18th and 19th of April 2013,62 Herman Brinkman also introduced a similar approach. He created networks of manuscripts of Middle63 Dutch rhymed prayers, as well as networks of texts with shared lines as edges. (See http://easy- tools.huygens.knaw.nl/?page_id=39#Brinkman). Unfortunately the results of this experiment were not published and the author could not be reached for further explanations due to being on a sabbatical. See Figure 1. For the terminology see below. Hall and Parsons 2013, § 13. 64 Hall and Parsons 2013, Figure 3. 65 66
10 Handrit.is freely available through .
Any relationship between different entities can be visualised as a network. To name but a few examples, in SNA a common use of networks is to represent people and their friendship status; in biology proteins and their interactions are the most frequent application of network analysis; in science metrics authors and their co-au- thors, or citation relationships are often portrayed and analysed via networks. node vertex 67 edges ties The basic entity68 of any network is called a or . Nodes can be connect- ed by or . Edges can either be directed or undirected. An undirected edge represents a binary relationship, it is either present or absent. A directed edge ad- ditionally carries information about the hierarchy of a network. For example, a mes- sage sent from one person to another may be represented as a directed edge, since it has a sender and a receiver, while two people being co-authors of a paper might be represented by an undirected edge in a citation network. Directed edges are usually represented by arrows while undirected ones are simple lines. Edges can also carry additional information, such as an edge weight. This is an attribute of a number that determines how sorting algorithms are supposed to treat the edge, usually a higher weight signifies a closer relation between the nodes connected by the edge. Nodes can belong to one or several classes. A graph only containing one class of nodes is called a unipartite graph, while two69 node-classes produce a bipartite and more than two classes a multipartite graph.
The network graphs produced for this thesis are weighted undirected unipartite Handrit.is networks. The nodes represent individual manuscripts in the collections covered by70 . They are connected by undirected edges if they contain the same texts. Edge weights represent the number of texts two manuscripts share. The graphs are analysed according to network analytical techniques outlined below.
For the following see Nooy, Mrvar, and Batagelj 2005, 6-8 and Gündüz-Öğüdücü and Etaner-Uyar 2014, 3-6. 67 In the following the terms used are nodes and edges, which is the accepted terminology of SNA. See Gündüz-Öğüdücü and Etaner-Uyar 2014, 4. 68 i.e. if the same text headings are used in Handrit.is. Unfortunately this process cannot account for textual69 variation. See below. 70
11 3.3 Methodology 3.3.1 General Methodology
The assumption on which the methodology in this thesis is based, is that the compilers of manuscripts would have grouped together texts that they felt should belong together. The reasons for71 choosing the texts in compilation manuscripts72 can 74 be manifold. Personal interest,73 the inspiration of other manuscripts, the availabil- ity of texts for copying, or general themes of the texts have all been suggested as explanations for the combinations of texts found in individual manuscripts and all of these certainly played a role. This study does not look at individual manuscripts, however, but at general trends in the larger corpus. It therefore assumes that in gen- eral those texts would have been written down together, which had something in common in the eyes of their compilers. This shared property might be called “genre” or “collection interest”, averaged out over a larger amount of manuscripts it is prob- ably as close as modern scholarship can come to ethnic genre. Of course this as- sumption is hampered by several methodological problems, not the least of which is the fact that only a small part of the original corpus survives. These challenges will be listed further down.
In order to illuminate the shared structures, the network graphs described above are examined for clusters. Since the value connecting the nodes (i.e. manuscripts) is the texts they contain, a group of manuscripts must share texts of the same kind and therefore, according to the theory outlined above, represent a specific “genre”. It should be stressed that this method groups manuscripts, not texts. While a specific text can belong to one such group and even define it, it would not be exceptional for it to show up in a manuscript of a completely different generic group among texts more in line with that community. This allows for some flexibility that is7 5much need- ed in genre studies, as no text completely belongs to one genre anyway; and even if it did, as outlined above, such a text might still show up in a different manuscript for reasons not having anything to do with genre.
fornaldarsögur This is the reason why for this thesis the approach chosen was not the one Alaric Hall employed in his network analysis of the . Using texts as nodes certainly creates a clearer and more easily interpretable picture. It has, however, the same shortcomings as all of classical genre theory in that it is only really able to assign one genre76 to one text. Overlapping genres and hybrid texts cannot really Sverrir Jakobsson 2007, 25. be considered. Ashman Rowe It seems2008, 67–69. to have emerged from discussions of genre in Old Norse 71 Lethbridge 2014, 76. 72 Kalinke 1996, 244. 73 See e.g. Margaret Clunies-Ross in Quinn et al. 2006, 276-278. 74 Though it may be worthwhile to experiment with applying overlapping clustering algorithms 75 76
12 literature, however, that these are the rule, not the exception. A network of manu- scripts on the other hand can deal with the hybridity of texts more easily, since edges can span communities. The clusters are then not ones of genre but of manuscript affinities, which in a second step may allow conclusions as to the genre of the texts contained within them.
Ordbog over det This thesis is only investigating medieval manuscripts. The upper limit used here norrøne prosasprog for inclusion in this category is the year 1540. This is the date that 77 uses as the cut-off point, since it represents the dating of the first printed book destined for Iceland. However, this is a somewhat artificial date.
Others that could have been used just as well are the date of the reformation78 (repre- Handrit.is sentedth by the execution of the last catholic79 bishop of Iceland in 1550) , the turn of the 16 century (as itself does) or even the plague-years 1402-04 which represent a turning point in Icelandic manuscript80 production, turning it into a more domestic,th less export-oriented industry. However, a date around the first half of the 16 century seems appropriate, since both the reformation (bringing with it a changing interest in religious texts) and the arrival of the printing press (resulting in different editorial processes in book production) probably changed the Icelandic ec- osystem of books after this. Of course it would be interesting to investigate and track these very changes with the methods outlined here, but this cannot be achieved in the course of this thesis. As a first step, at least, concentrating on the Middle Ages seems to be a sensible demarcation of the objects of study, then.
Handrit.is3.3.2 The Data
As outlined above,81 the data in is stored in XML files conforming to the TEI P5 standard. It is retrieved via the website’s search function, which offers three different levels of search. The first one, accessible directly on the homepage, allows full text search. According to its description “It will start by looking to see if the text matches a shelf number, person or place. If none82 are found it will expand its search to the general text held about the manuscripts.“ The advanced search option allows searches(such as the by one titles, decribed personal in Evans names, and Lambiotte place 2010) names, to such text a network.classes or shelfmarks. Unfor- Registre 1989, 11. As Guðvarður Már Gunnlaugsson does (Guðvarður Már Gunnlaugsson 2004 245). 77 It offers on its homepage a list of all manuscripts before 1501. 78 Stefán Karlsson 2000, 204. 79 See Appendix 1 for an example of such an XML file. 80 http://handrit.is/en/search/regular 81 In the interest of consistency and ease of translation the English version of Handrit.is (handrit. is/en/)82 is used in the following. Only where the Icelandic version is giving more detailed information is that the one referred to.
13 Handrit.is tunately no documentation is offered for the search function of , but a bit of experimentation and the autocomplete options of the search field reveal that the titles are supposed to be the titles of texts, not manuscripts. Similarly the text classes seem to83 be the keywords encoded in the @class-attribute of individual manuscript items. As mentioned above, their encoding is left up to individual contributors to Handrit.is some degree, which somewhat limits the usefulness of this search function. The ad- vanced search function on is only really useful when combined with the lists of titles and keywords which can be obtained through the „Browse“ section of the site. This allows the user to actually look up the standardised vocabulary used Handrit.is by the search function. Unfortunately the connection between these two functions Power Search is not stated clearly on the website. The final search option on is called . It allows searches for many of the attributes and elements of the XML files in the database. Since it allows for searching in specific date ranges this search Power Search Handrit.is function was used as the basis of the scraping algorithm explained in the following. Unfortunately the function on only allows one to search for manuscripts that are currently located in Iceland or Denmark, not for those originat- ing in a specific country,84 although this information is available as an element in the
XML documents 85 and would therefore be easily searchable. Manuscripts not origi- nating in Iceland were therefore removed in the manual cleaning of the data after downloading (see below) and only a production date before 1540 (or the specific date range this particular network was supposed to represent) was chosen to define the searches the results pages of which were given as start URLs to the scraping program.
Handrit.is 3.3.3 Scraping
As noted, since does not offer an API to retrieve data in a structured way, any attempt to build data files for quantitative codicology that does not rely on spider crawler large amounts of human data entry must be built on web scraping. This is the proc- ess of using a computer program (a or ) to mimic a human user of 86a website, follow links, extract data, and store it in a structured way for later analysis. At this point it should be mentioned that, while webscraping is a perfectly legitimate tool of research, its application can put strain on the servers of the websites being explored and the use of this technique can be against their terms of service. Re8-7 searchers using this methodology should be aware of this and behave accordingly.88 See p. 2. This particular
14 as limiting the number of connections per second. Python 2.7 Scrapy For the purposes of this thesis, a program in the programming89 language Handrit.is using the framework was written by the author. The program takes a list of search result pages on as input and crawls the individual results.
It extracts relevant information90 from the XML files of individual manuscripts and stores them as JSON files. The information needed for this project is the manu- scripts’ shelfmarks and the texts they contain. However, additional information on the individual texts’ class (or genre) is also collected, but as outlined above that data is not particularly useful. If a manuscript has an official name stored in the XML file’s GKS 1005 fol. GKS 1005 fol./Flateyjarbók
As a starting point the following searches were undertaken: All manuscripts until the year 1540 All manuscripts until the year 1540 in 100-year intervals 1. 3. All manuscripts until the year 1540 in 50-year intervals91 2.
Due to some idiosyncrasies in the XML files and the scraping program some manual cleaning of the resulting JSON files was necessary. As mentioned above, non-Icelandic texts had to be removed; furthermore, since the parsing program only æ œ Handrit. matches strings (i.e. sequences of letters) that are exactly92 the same, the inconsistent is use of the - and -ligatures had to be corrected. As the information in was entered by several people in different countries and in Icelandic, Danish and Prédikan Prædiken Predikun occasionally English, the titles of the same types of text can be quite different. For ex- ample sermons can be styled as “ ”, “ ” and even “ ”, as well as their plural forms. These and other forms therefore had to be normalised in order den Arnamagnæanske Samling Handrit.is for the parsing program to match them. Furthermore, some of the manuscripts of in have duplicate entries, one in Danish and a reduced one in English. This also had to be rectified in the data set.
Note on code development: The development of working and reliable code for this thesis is a sig- nificant part of the work for it, which has taken several months. If it is not mentioned any further here, this89 is simply because it is of little relevance to the analysis part of the thesis. JSON, JavaScript Object Notation, is a file format for easy, human readable storage of structured data. See Appendix 2 for an example. 90 The data from this scrape was ultimately not used for this thesis, as a 50-year interval proved to be too narrow a time frame to produce networks of a sufficient size. 91 For example the same saga appears as Fóstbrœðra saga in the entry for AM 544 4to and as Fóst- bræðra saga in the entry for AM 132 fol. 92
15 3.3.4 Parsing and Network Analysis Python NetworkX The cleaned JSON files were transformed into network files with another program purpose-built for this thesis. This is built on the framework and parses the JSON files it receives as input in such a way that every manuscript (or, more precisely, every shelfmark or combination of shelfmark and name) appears as a node in a network, with a comma-separated string of the texts it contains as an attribute. An edge is added between nodes if the two shelfmarks each appear to- gether with a text that has exactly the same title. If an edge already exists, its weight is raised by 1. The names of the texts connecting the manuscripts are stored as an .gexf- Gephi edge attribute string. The resulting network, i.e. nodes, edges and their attributes, Gephi are then stored as a file for import into , an open-source network visuali- sation and analysis program. Since offers easy access to the underlying data in a table format, quick visualisation, and is able to handle a large amount of different network file formats it was used for preliminary analysis, data cleaning and in order Gephi NetworkX Cytoscape to generate network files for use in other analysis programs. Analysis was carried out in , and the bioinformatics program .
Network analysis comprises a variety of different techniques to visualise and analyse the underlying structures of network graphs. Most of these are not relevant in this case. As mentioned above, one of the main lines of research into network analysis recently has been Social Network Analysis. In the study of social networks the interesting parameters are those of individual nodes and their relationship with each other. Thus93 metrics are used to detect and define status and connectivity of in- dividual nodes. These metrics can be interesting when looking at individual nodes (i.e. manuscripts) in this study, as they can, for example show how “extraordinary” a given manuscript is compared to94 others. However, these questions are usually better answered in a qualitative study.
If questions about genre are to be answered from the networks produced here it is necessary to find groupings in the data, i.e. groups95 of nodes that form distinct groups with only few connections to other groups. These communities represent manuscripts that not only have texts in common, but also combinations of texts. It can therefore be argued that the texts they collected were seen as belonging togeth- er by the manuscripts’ compilers. The need to find clusters96 in large networks is a problem that is often encountered in biological research. Many of the tools and al- gorithms See used Gündüz-Öğüdücü here are therefore and Etaner-Uyar taken 2014, from 4–6. the literature of that field. Clustering is Though, arguably such metrics could be used to find interesting manuscripts for such studies. See below93 for such a use of Betweenness Centrality. 94 These are usually called communities or clusters. Longabaugh 2012, 275. 95 96
16 a complex problem with a variety of different approaches to solving it. Consequently different approaches were used here, however it will be shown that the clusters dis- covered in the data are relatively stable and reproducible. They should therefore represent actual, statistically relevant groupings and their interpretation should be correspondingly solid. The actual clustering methods used will be explained in more detail in the following chapter on analysis and results.
3.3.5 Problems and Potential Sources of Error
Like any project undertaken in Old Norse studies this study is based on very Handrit.is incomplete data: there are therefore several potential sources of error in the un- derlying data obtained from . Some of these can be accounted for, others Handrit.is unfortunately cannot. Those that can are mostly due to the above-mentioned incon- sistencies in the encoding of XML-documents of and the resulting impreci- sion of its search function. These were countered by careful manual cleaning of the scraped data, yet there are undoubtedly still errors which have been overlooked in this process. These should, however, be relatively minor.
The main problem that any student of Old Norse literature has, is that only a small amount of the texts that were originally put onto parchment and paper have been preserved. There is no way of knowing what percentage of all manuscripts97 written in Iceland are still in existence but it is bound to be a very small number. The proc- esses of transmission are of course not random, meaning any quantitative analysis based on the existing corpus cannot be claimed to be representative for the actual corpus of manuscripts that have existed in the Middle Ages. This is a major problem98 of any quantitative approach and one that unfortunately there is no accounting for. Indeed this problem is one that underlies all of Old Norse studies, even qualitative studies cannot make comparisons with any certainty that the results are representa- tive. All that one can hope for, therefore, is that the differences in transmission aver- age out and a somewhat representative picture emerges.
Another obstacle this particular study faces is the fact that the modern shelf- marks in the catalogues do not necessarily each represent exactly one original man- uscript. Since their production, many manuscripts have been taken apart and re- combined. It is not uncommon for single quires or even single leaves99 to have been taken out of manuscripts and loaned out for copying or reading, which might have led to the eventual breaking up of a codex. Much more significant, however, was the Matthew Driscoll estimates it is less than 10% (Driscoll 2004b, 21). tendency For of similar Árni problems Magnússon in the tocorpus recombine of French themanuscripts manuscripts c.f. Bozzolo in his and possession Ornato 1997, (which180. 97 See e.g. Már Jónsson 2012a, 39. 98 99 17 of course make up an overwhelming part of the corpus investigated here). He was in the habit of rearranging codices both by taking them apart, binding them, and shelving them in different places and100 by combining fragments he thought should belong together under one shelfmark. In a qualitative study this problem is rela- tively easily addressed through careful comparison of original manuscripts. The only way this could be incorporated into a study that encompasses as many manuscripts as this one, however, would be if there were a catalogue listing all reconstructable manuscripts and their current shelfmark. Unfortunately such a catalogue does not exist, even101 if researchers are working on the problem of the recombination of manu- Handrit.is scripts. While some of the necessary information does exist in Árni’s own words102 in the form of AM slips reproduced in and in Kristian Kålund’s catalogue, it is not in a sufficiently structured form to be automatically parsed and used in modi- fying the network.
However, it seems that in general Árni’s rearrangement of parchment manu- scripts was not as extensive as that of paper manuscripts and he even seems to have succeeded in many cases in reconstructing103 older codices by taking apart or recombining the ones in his possession. Therefore, only two manuscripts were Hauksbók reconstructed from several shelfmarks for this project: the three104 shelfmarks AM 371 4to, AM 544 4to, and AM 675 4to which make up have been combined into one node in the network, as have AM 445 b 4to, AM 445 c I 4to, and AM 564 a Pseudo-Vatnshyrna 4to, which have been105 conclusively argued to have once constituted a single codex, . The size and diversity of these two compilation manuscripts, as well as their importance in scholarship, seemed to warrant these exceptions to the general rule.
Handrit.is Another problem is the high number of fragments of originally longer codices among the shelfmarks in . Roughly 40-50% of the shelfmarks of the period106 under consideration here represent manuscripts of only one or two extant pages. Since this study is interested in texts that manuscripts have in common, fragments that only represent one text do not add any new information to the graphs. On the other hand, the creation of fragments through reuse in bookbinding or other appli- cations must have been essentially random. Therefore no major disturbance to the pattern can be expected to stem from this. While the high number of fragments in the corpus See Már obfuscates Jónsson 2012a, the picture 188-194. somewhat, it does not distort it in a major way. Beeke Stegmann for example is investigating Árni Magnússon’s rearrangement of paper manu- scripts100 for her doctoral dissertation (pers. comm.). 101 Kålund 1889-94. Már Jónsson 2012a, 189. 102 Finnur Jónsson and Jónsson 1892, V. 103 McKinnell 1970. 104 Már Jónsson 2012b, 233 and Guðvarður Már Gunnlaugsson 2014, 129–130. 105 106
18 Unfortunately this methodology can also not account for textual variance. It is not quite clear what would107 have caused a compiler of a manuscript to add a par- ticular version of a text. On the one hand questions of availability would probably have played a large role: if a manuscript’s compiler could only get their hands on one version this is the one that would have been incorporated in the compilation. On the other hand textual variance could in some cases be due to the conscious choice of one version over the other. Obviously this would influence the network built here, as two manuscripts containing the same variant of a text are more closely related than two that contain the same text, but in different versions. However, again this is a problem that can only be addressed through careful comparison of versions and Handrit.is which cannot be considered in a large-scale quantitative study, since the data is not available on (or at least not in a structured form). However, manuscripts containing the same text still are closely related, even if they preserve different ver- sions. While this challenge therefore makes the network more imprecise, it does not distort it.
This is also true for the fact that manuscripts108 would not necessarily have acquired the texts contained in them at the same time. It can be argued that in the diachron- Handrit.is ic network, collection interests would still be at work in the genesis of the final form of the manuscript. Since lists the dating of a manuscript as a time period , spanning from the beginning to the end of the collection process of a particular man- uscript such manuscripts don’t show up in searches for time periods that are not exactly overlapping. In the networks based on arbitrary time slices therefore (see below), these manuscripts would only appear if they were both started and finished in the century under consideration, which arguably doesn’t affect the analysis at this resolution. Handrit.is
Since the basis for this thesis is the data from , it only incorporates man- uscripts that are listed there. While the holdings of the Arnamagnæan institutes and Kungliga biblioteket their affiliated institutions comprise most of the medieval Icelandic manuscripts in existence today, they are not the only ones. The holdings of in Bergsbók Stockholm, for example, contain several Icelandic manuscripts (such as the Icelandic th Handrit. Homily Book (Perg 4to nr 15) and the 15 century compilation manuscript is (Holm perg 1 fol)), however they are not accessible in a database similar to and could therefore not be incorporated in this analysis. Han- drit.is Furthermore, this study limits itself to manuscripts which are described in
as Quinn having 2010, been 15. written in Iceland. While this makes sense, as Iceland is the See Lethbridge 2014, 73, footnote 14. 107 108 19 area of interest of this thesis, it excludes manuscripts which have been written in dif- ferent countries but circulated in Iceland at some point. Obviously such manuscripts say as much about the attitudes of their users as those written in Iceland. However, this study is concerned with compilation manuscripts and the compilers of these codices would not have been Icelandic themselves. The foreign manuscripts could therefore have been imported because of an interest in only one text, while the other texts in the codex would have been introduced to Iceland purely by chance. These manuscripts would therefore distort the network. On a purely pragmatic level it is Handrit.is also difficult to distinguish between foreign manuscripts that circulated in Iceland and those that circulated in Denmark based on structured data in . Handrit.is
The last challenge to the data basis of this project is the fact that is not yet complete. So far it does not incorporate all of the manuscript holdings of the participating109 institutions. As mentioned above, only about half are incorporated up to this point. However most of the110 manuscripts in which this thesis is interested seem to be catalogued electronically.
While it might seem that the list of problems and pitfalls recited above would make any kind of analysis of the kind proposed here rather difficult, most of them do not actually distort the structure of the data too much. As already mentioned, any engagement with Old Norse texts is based on very incomplete data; this study is not an exception, but it is also not less valid than any other. Indeed an explicit awareness of biases and limitations of the underlying data is a prerequisite for any interpreta- tion.
See also Örn Hrafnkelsson 2014, 290. i.e. all or most of the parchment codices of Stofnun Árna Magnússonar; although many charters are109 still missing (Haukur Þorgeirsson, pers. comm.). There is however a large number of manuscripts from110 Landsbókasafn Íslands which remain to be catalogued on Handrit.is. These may well contain codi- ces of interest here (Örn Hrafnkelsson, pers. comm.).
20 4. Analysis and Results 4.1 Identifying Unusual Manuscripts - Basic network statistics and betweenness centrality Han- As stated above, the first step in analysis is to build a network from the data drit.is 706 nodes 5767 edges gathered111 in the first scraping, i.e. of all the manuscripts of Icelandic origin on . This network contains connected by . The shelf- marks corresponding to these nodes belong to the following collections: 569 nodes (roughly 80%) represent AM, the holdings from Árni’s original collection of the two Accessoria Arnamagnæan institutions. 28 nodes represent AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc., diplomas from Ár- Gammel kongelig samling ni’s collection. 1 node represents Acc., later to Árni’s collection. 10 nodes represent GKS, manuscripts originally held in the in Co- Landsbókasafn Íslands penhagen. 9 nodes represent JS dipl, diplomas from the Jón Sigurðsson collection Landsbókasafn Íslands held in and 9 nodes JS fragm, fragments from that collection. 10 nodes represent Lbs dipl, diplomas from and 61 nodes Lbs fragm, fragments held in that institution. 1 node represents the shelfmark Rask, Stofnun Árna Mag- the Rasmus Rask collection held in the Arnamagnæan Collection at the University of nússonar Copenhagen. 3 nodes represent the shelfmark SÁM, holdings of Hið íslenzka bókmenntafélag not originally in Árni’s collection. Finally 1 node represents ÍB, the Copen- hagen collection of .
112 As mentioned above, SNA uses metrics calculated for individual nodes in or- der to quantify and analyse their position in the network structure. These are not a Betweenness Centrality priority of this thesis since it is mostly focused on clustering (see below). However, some of them can still be of interest. The metric of is defined by how many shortest paths between other nodes pass through a given node. It also produces a higher value for nodes that connect different clusters. Therefore a higher betweenness centrality translates to a node with many connections with different113 groups or a very connected position inside one particular but very diverse group. In the context of Social Network Analysis these nodes signify entities that are posi- tioned for optimal communication within the network. In the network assembled here, however, they represent manuscripts with a combination of texts that are either atypical compared to other manuscripts or are central for a heterogeneous class or cluster of manuscripts. As mentioned above, a high betweenness centrality can therefore be used to identify interesting manuscripts for further intensive study. Appendix 3 shows a table of the ten nodes with the highest betweenness centrality in the network of all manuscripts.
Barring any errors resulting from the Handrit.is search function and manual cleaning. See p. 16. 111 Gündüz-Öğüdücü and Etaner-Uyar 2014, 4–5. 112 113 21 The first two shelfmarks with the highest possible betweenness centrality scores of 1.0 (AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,16 and AM 238 X fol.) can be ignored. They represent manuscripts that are connected to two different manuscripts by a different text each. This central position in a triad of nodes that are unconnected themselves means that all information must flow through the central node, giving it a perfect betweenness Flat- centrality score. However, this is an artefact of the network structure and not diag- eyjarbók Hauksbók nostically relevant here. The two manuscripts with the next highest scores are and . Both of these are extraordinary manuscripts in the number and diversity of texts they contain. Of course this has been known114 for a long time and both manuscripts have been studied extensively as a result.
This cannot be said about the manuscript with the fifth-highest betweenness Konungs skuggsjá Hugsvinnsmál centrality score, however, AM 243 f fol. This late 15th- or early 16th-century co- Maríuvísur Heims-ósómi dex combines the didactic texts of the and 115 with the Christian poem and the satirical poem . This interesting collection of late-medieval poetry and didactics deserves deeper study.
Jónsbók The sixth-highest score in betweenness centrality is achieved by AM 136 4to. This is a law book that contains the usual collection of and the Christian laws of Lilja bishop Árni, as well as several charters. However, it also contains the Christian poem Lilja as a later addition116 to the text. It is not unheard of for Icelandic law books to con- Jónsbók tain Christian texts. However, does not usually appear in this context,11 indeed7 this is the only manuscript in the corpus where it is combined with .
Lilja AM 720 a VIII 4to, the manuscript with the seventh-highest betweenness central- Maríujarteikn ity score, also contains (parts of) . In addition, this fragment, consisting of two fornaldarsaga Eiríks saga víðförla leaves, contains parts of , which is not found anywhere else in the cor- Lilja pus, and the . The latter two texts are found on the Eiríks saga víðförla same leaf (1r and v), while the former is to be found on the second leaf. Whether and actually appeared together in one manuscript is therefore not entirely certain. The extraordinary position in the network however suggests they do not. And indeed the lineation and hands of the two manuscript leaves118 look sufficiently different to cast doubt on whether they actually belong together. For newer studies (with a manuscript focus) on Hauksbók (with further literature) see e.g. Sverrir Jakobsson 2007 and Ashman Rowe 2008. For Flateyjabók Ashman Rowe 2005. 114 In the following any statement on manuscripts and their contents that is not otherwise sourced is based on the entry on Handrit.is and the corresponding data extracted from there for this project. 115 Jens Eike Schnall has studied the inclusion of the beginning of the Gospel of John in copies of Jónsbók (2005). 116 Then again it is only one of two where it appears at all. Other medieval manuscript that contain it, such as Bergsbók (Holm perg 1 fol) are not on Handrit.is. See also Chase 2007, 555–556. 117 Based on the photographs of the manuscript available on Handrit.is. See http://handrit.is/en/manu- script/imaging/is/AM04-0720a-VIII 118
22 The manuscript with the eighth-highest betweenness centrality score, AM 235 vitae fol., dated to c. 1376-1425, contains 21 sagas with Christian themes, almost all of them saints’ . The high score is due to the fact that this manuscript bridges the Óláfs saga helga gap between the clusters of saints’ lives and that of kings sagas, since it contains Óláfs saga . Though maybe not too surprising, given the protagonist’s status as helga Óláfs saga a saint, this is still an interesting finding from the perspective of genre. Trygvassonar usually appears together with other Norwegian kings sagas, such as Óláfs saga hel- . These texts form a coherent cluster (see below). Only in two other ga manuscripts in the corpus, AM 325 V 4to and AM 325 XI 2 m 4to, is combined with other Christian texts. This seems to suggest that the compilers of these manuscripts understood the saga as a saint’s life, while those of the other manuscripts interpreted it as a king’s saga. At the same time the presence of these Óláfs saga two clusters also means that these two genres would have been recognised as dis119- tinctive categories, even if would have been acknowledged as a hybrid. Óláfs saga Carl Phelpstead has previously arrived at the same conclusion from a different angle. helga His analysis of the genre of saints’ lives in the kings’ sagas also reveals as a hybrid form; however, his point of departure is genre theory and literary analysis, he does120 not take the manuscript tradition into account in this part of his investigation.
Duggals leiðsla Maríu saga AM 681 a 4to has the ninth-highest betweenness centrality score. It contains , a Latin sermon, and . The manuscript connects three distinct clusters around these texts that would otherwise not be connected. Fig. 2 Duggals leiðsla shows the ego-network of AM 681 a 4to,121 demonstrating the clear separation of the Visio Tnugdali three clusters the manuscript connects. is a translation of the 12th century , a popular text of an infernal vision. It appears in the corpus in three other manuscripts, AM 122681 b 4to, AM 681 c 4to, and AM 624 4to. Only in AM 681 b 4to does it appear alone, the other two manuscripts combine the text with Duggals other Christian literature. This whole group probably deserves further study as it leiðsla Visio Pauli Páls leiðsla preserves translations into Old Norse of popular European texts, not only Meditationes piissimæ de cognitione humanæ conditionis but also translations of ( , AM 681 c 4to) and Bernard of
Clairvaux’s (AM 624 4to). ævintýri The latter manuscript also contains not only clerical texts but also several Icelandic and many of the texts found in this codex are not found anywhere else in It does not seem that a chronological difference can explain this. While there are not many other thecopies corpus. of Óláfs For saga these helga reasons that date toAM the 624late 14th 4to or would early 15th also century, be an the interesting other two manuscript object wherefor a that119 saga is combined with religious texts date to the late 13th/early 14th centuries and are contemporary with several collections of konungasögur, such as AM 39 fol. Phelpstead 2007, 60–61. An ego-network is a network centred on one node, i.e. one that only shows this node, the nodes it is120 connected to, and their connections between each other. See Brughmans 2013, 639. 121 Although with only four leaves this is probably a fragment of a larger manuscript that might well have been a compilation work like the others in this group. 122
23 123 qualitative study.
AM 655 XXIII 4to, the manuscript with the 10th-highest betweenness-central- ity score combines a sermon and prayers. Surprisingly, this is not actually common Physiologus Elucidarius in the corpus. Other manuscripts containing sermons usually combine these with Hauksbók learned texts, such as in AM 673 a II 4to or and many similar124 Margrétar saga texts in . Prayers, on the other hand, are often combined125 with law texts and, unsurprisingly, Christian texts, such as . This suggests that ser- mons could have126 been seen as closer to learned secular texts than other texts127 of a religious manner. This also is a phenomenon that warrants further study.
4.2 The General Structure of the Network - Spring-embedded clustering
The first clustering method that was employed on the network is a spring-embed- ded layout. This is one of the most popular network visualisation techniques since it allows a quick and aesthetically pleasing overview over the network structure. Spring-embedded layout algorithms impose a simple physical model on a network. Nodes are treated as being subject to gravity that pushes them apart while edges are treated as springs that pull nodes together. In weighted networks the strength of the spring is dependent on the weight of the edge. The result of applying this model is an arrangement of the network into a clustered form that is easy to interpret visu- ally. This method has drawbacks, however. While the actual final form of the network is always going to be similar if the method is applied to the same network multiple times, it is never going to be exactly the same. This is because the outcome of the network is dependent on its initial layout. Hence a network graph produced with a force-directed layout algorithm may look rotated in respect to another one produced with the same algorithm and with exactly the same input and unconnected clusters may have “drifted” to different positions in the graph. Furthermore, a large network can look cluttered and be hard to interpret even when laid out this way. Since there are no hard distinctions between clusters, it can be hard to decide whether an indi- For a short palaeographic study of the manuscript see Cahill 1983, xxi-xxix. The manuscript has vidualthe 38th-highest node belongs betweenness to one centrality or the score. other This of isa stillpair in ofthe clusters top 10% ofif scores.they are It connects particularly several distinct123 clusters but these are not as large as others, accounting for the relative low score compared to AM 681 a 4to. e.g. in GKS 3270 4to or AM 135 4to. e.g. in AM 433 d 12mo or AM 433 b 12mo. 124 The two major collections of sermons in Old Norse, the Old Icelandic Homily Book (Stock. Perg. 4to125 no. 15) and the Old Norwegian Homily Book (AM 619 4to) are not in the dataset since the former is not126 on Handrit.is while the latter was filtered out for not having been written in Iceland. Since they only contain sermons, however, their presence would not change the picture outlined above. On the termino- logical difference between sermons and homilies see (Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir 2004), 339-340. However, see below, p. 32, for the role of Hauksbók in this.
127
24 interconnected. However, force-directed approaches are very intuitive128 and the clus- tering they produce is as valid as that produced by other methods. For this reason ForceAtlas2 Gephi they are a good first approach when analysing a network. The method used here for129 doing a first layout of the network is , an algorithm offered in . The result can be seen in Fig. 3.
The first thing to be noticed about the network graph produced by this algorithm is the large cluster dominating the picture. This contains all manuscripts connected by law texts. As can be seen from the graph, law books make up a large portion of Jónsbók Kristin- the Old Icelandic corpus. The upper part of this cluster contains mostly manuscripts réttur Árna biskups containing . The lower part is made up of manuscripts containing Grágás , while130 the dense cluster in the middle represents compilation Járnsíða manuscripts of law texts. Manuscripts containing make up a small inde- pendent cluster. , on the other hand, only appears in combination with other law texts and therefore does not make up its own cluster. The law books do not have many connections to other manuscripts and most of the ones they do are based on the fact that some law books also contain prayers. In general law books do not Jónsbók tend to contain texts not connected to the law. Many of them only contain copies of . The compilation manuscripts among law books tend to contain other laws, annals and charters. Only a few of them (such as AM 48 8vo or AM 136 4to) also contain Christian literature or learned texts.
There are several distinct clusters in the network that are not connected to any other communities. Fig. 5 shows those that contain more than three nodes. All but one of these clusters is based on only one shared text among the manuscripts in the group, which therefore represent texts that would not be combined with any other Kaupbréf ( Vitnisburðar texts or only regularly with the same texts. This is perhaps most easily understanda- ble in the case of purchasing documents)131 and (witness state- ments). Both of these types of texts are documents. Therefore they are single texts not combined with any other type of text. At first it may be somewhat more surpris- lectionaria ing that certain liturgical texts written in Latin also each only appear in manuscripts that contain no other texts. This is the case for antiphonaries, breviaries, and missals. However, this is not a sign that these texts would have been written in dedicated manuscripts containing no other kind of text (though this may very well be the case). Rather the isolation of these manuscripts in the network graph is a function of the fact that not many Latin manuscripts were collected by Árni and his fellow collectors and that the Latin texts extant from the Icelandic Middle Ages are Noack 2009. For a full explanation of the algorithm and its implementation in Gephi see Jacomy et al. 2014. 128 See Fig. 4. 129 All of the manuscripts in these clusters have a shelfmark ending in “dipl”. 130 131 25 132 almost all fragments, most of which only survived by accident. Indeed all of the lectionarium manuscripts in these clusters of Latin texts are fragments133 with the exception of AM
788 4to, an almost complete Latin 134 . Latin texts of the psalms of David Nikulás saga are only preserved in fragments as well. The situation is somewhat similar when135 Ærlækjarbók it comes to , which is mostly preserved in fragmentary manuscripts. Nikulás saga The only exception is (AM 640 4to), which is a compilation manuscript Nikulásvísur Officium Sct. Nicholai, containing not only with a prologue and two letters connected to it but also and the as well as documents pertaining to the church in Ærlæk in Öxarfjörður. This book belonged to this church so it is not too surprising that it would not contain other texts.
The cluster of Latin calendars is mostly made up of complete manuscripts. Most of these contain only the calendar text. However one manuscript (AM 249 d fol.) also Talbyrðingur contains an Easter table and five manuscripts are additionally connected by a copy of . These computistical texts then are not usually combined with either learned or ecclesiastical texts, as might be expected, but only with other texts of the same nature; this points towards an interpretation of these manuscripts as having a very specialised audience. 136 Although the homilies found in the dataset are all in Icelandic, they still only show up in fragmented manuscripts of a maximum of two leaves each. It is therefore Old Icelandic Homily Book not too surprising that they are not combined with any other text. The two extant Old Norwegian Homily Book homily books which are not in the corpus, the (Stock. Perg. 4to no. 15) and the (AM 619 4to) suggest that this clus- ter would have been unconnected even if the degree of fragmentation among homi- Konungs skuggsjá lies was not as high.
or the King’s Mirror appears as unconnected to other texts137 in Konungs skuggsjá Hugsvinnsmál most manuscripts, only some of which are fragmentary. As mentioned above, one Maríuvísur Heims-ósómi manuscript containing , AM 243 f fol., also contains , Hugsvinnsmál Hugsvinnsmál, and . This is the reason why AM 696 XV 4to, which only con- Disticha Catonis, Konungs skuggsjá tains a fragment of is connected to this cluster. Like a See Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir 2013, 22–23. translation Antiphonaria or adaptation: JS fragm 10,of JSthe fragm 13, JS fragm 17, Lbs fragm 29, Lbs fragm is30, a Lbs text fragm of in31,- Lbs132 fragm 32, Lbs fragm 33, Lbs fragm 34, Lbs fragm 35, Lbs fragm 36, Lbs fragm 37, Lbs fragm 38, Lbs133 fragm 39, Lbs fragm 40, Lbs fragm 41, Lbs fragm 42, Lbs fragm 43. Breviaria: Lbs fragm 26, Lbs fragm 59, Lbs fragm 60, Lbs fragm 61, Lbs fragm 62, Lbs fragm 63, Lbs fragm 64, Lbs fragm 65. Lectionaria: JS fragm 14, Lbs fragm 68, Lbs fragm 69, Lbs fragm 70, Lbs fragm 71. Missales de tempore: AM 788 4to, JS fragm 15, Lbs fragm 18, Lbs fragm 22, Lbs fragm 23. JS fragm 15, Lbs fragm 50, Lbs fragm 51, Lbs fragm 52, Lbs fragm 53, Lbs fragm 54, Lbs fragm 55, Lbs fragm 56. Note that JS fragm 16 and SÁM 60 should also appear in this cluster but do not, due to a134 quirk in Handrit.is that was overlooked during manual cleaning. Both of these are fragments as well. AM 642 a I alfa 4to, AM 642 a I beta 4to, AM 642 a I gamma 4to, AM 642 a I delta 4to. And were therefore probably not subject to Árni’s disinterest to as large a degree as the Latin texts.135 136 p. 22.
137
26 138 struction. Why it does not seem to have been combined with other such texts in compilation manuscripts is an open question; however, it is one that the fragmented ævintýri state of most manuscripts and their small number make impossible to answer. The , four manuscripts containing fairy139 tales or are all very fragmented, only con- taining two or three leaves each which explains their disconnect from the rest of the manuscripts. It is therefore impossible to say whether they would have been seen as equal to other sagas and combined with these in compilation manuscripts at this early point. This was certainly the case after the Middle Ages (e.g. in Lbs 423 fol.).
Many of the observations above also140 apply to clusters of two or three manuscripts. These are made up of either fragments or documents. Since the unconnected clus- ters just described do not have any influence on how other manuscripts are con- nected among each other, it is possible to remove them from the network without changing its overall structure. The same is true of nodes with a degree of 0, i.e. those that do not have any connection to any other node (126 nodes/17.85% overall). As stated previously law books do not have many connections to other manuscripts. In order to further reduce the complexity of the network for analysis and visualisation 385 nodes 2172 edges purposes, therefore, those that are only connected to other law books can also be removed. The network arrived at through this has and . The reduced network can again be subjected to the ForceAtlas2 algorithm to make clus- ters stand out. Fig. 6 shows the result. In this highly-connected network it is harder to make out clearly defined communities; however, a few observations can still be made.
The network is dominated by seven well defined clusters connected and framed by less clearly structured nodes. The text or group of texts holding these large com- munities together can be seen in Fig. 7. At this level the network is structured as much by the ties between communities as by those within them. Describing every single cluster by itself, as has been practised above for largely unconnected clusters, is therefore not very helpful. Instead a general structure of the network can be dis- cerned. By visually141 analysing this structure the graph can be broken down into five Stories large groups, which in turn, of course, host several different subgroups. As Fig. of Norwegian Kings Icelandic History Learned Literature Secular Narra- 8 shows, these large groupings are Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles,
Indeed the Disticha, Catonis have probably, influenced the writing of ,Konungs and skuggsjá as well. See Schnall 2000, 76. 138 AM 238 XXIV fol., AM 238 XXV fol., AM 238 XXVII fol., AM 696 VII 4to. Such as the fragments containing Knýtlinga saga (AM 20 b I fol., AM 20 b II fol.), Kirjalax saga (AM139 567 XV 4to, AM 589 a 4to), or graduals (Lbs fragm 44, Lbs fragm 45, Lbs fragm 46). 140 Law books would make up a sixth, and the largest, group, had they not been filtered out of this network. Here, however, they are reduced to a few manuscripts that also contain texts connecting them with141 other groups.
27 tives. 142 These would be joined by Law Books, if this group had not been largely fil- tered out.
The most clearly defined and definable of these large communities143 is that which I have chosen to call Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles. Despite this name this group does not contain manuscripts which mainly relate sagas about sainted Icelan- dic bishops or Norwegian kings (which belong144 firmly into the categories of Icelandic Maríu saga, History and Stories of Norwegian Kings). Rather, it is dominated by a large amount of manuscripts containing sagas of apostles, or sagas of non-Scandina- vian saints. In effect this group corresponds to the kind of narrative Christian litera- Maríu saga ture found in any European medieval corpus. Almost all of the manuscripts contain- ing only contain this text. This is due to them being mostly fragments. Thómas saga erkibiskups Only AM 234 fol. and AM 662 b 4to survive in larger parts and both of these combine Jóns saga Hólabiskups the saga with a life of Thomas à Becket ( ). AM 234 fol. also vitae contains other texts 145on the Virgin Mary, a bishop’s saga ( ) and further saints’ . Maríu saga
Apart from the cluster containing the other clear group in the com- munity of Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles are the sagas of apostles. These146 Niðrstigningar saga Kross saga centre around seven manuscripts which each contain several sagas of this type. If they contain additional texts, such as , or cartularies of the church at Skarði at Skarðsströnd, these are also of an ecclesiastical nature. Maríu saga The manuscripts connected with these compilations mainly contain a single text or vitae two texts of apostles’ sagas. Between the two poles of and the apostles’ sagas, the rest of this large group is made up of manuscripts mostly containing of other saints. A faint cluster can be made out that seems to contain mostly sagas of female saints. This will be examined with more appropriate analytical methods Konráðs saga keisarasonar below. In general, the sagas in this group tend to only contain religious material, but Knýtlinga saga Bærings saga fagra Katrínar saga there are exceptions. AM 180 b fol., for example, contains , Dunstanus saga Laurentius saga Hólabiskups fragments of , and in addition to , and . The manuscripts in the group of Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles share texts with manuscripts in each of the The names chosen for these groups impose a certain interpretation on them, of course. Hopefully otherthe logic three behind large that groups.interpretation However, will become in general clear from the the groupfollowing, is though.clearly delineated from 142 Capitalised names in the following refer to the names of groupings as defined in Fig. 8. See below. 143 It should be reiterated at this point that the fact that a manuscript belongs into one of the groups identified144 does not mean that it cannot contain texts from any of the other groups. The goal of this study is145 to identify trends of genre, not to classify every single text. The fact that with Jóns saga Hólabiskups this manuscript contains a text that would be expected to show up in another group does not invalidate the grouping, indeed this flexibility makes it possible to tentatively identify ethnic genre groupings, which would not be possible when only looking at texts instead of manuscripts. AM 239 fol., AM 645 4to, AM 652 4to, AM 655 XII-XIII 4to, AM 655 XVI 4to, AM 667 V 4to, SÁM 1. Compare Roughton 2005 for a more detailed studies of the texts in two of these manuscripts. 146
28 each of these. Stories of Norwegian Kings konungasögur Óláfs saga helga The group which I have chosen to call is dominated Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar by manuscripts containing and especially . Manu- scripts with make up the second largest group and those Heimskringla containing other sagas of Norwegian kings the third. These three clusters are con- konungasögur nected by manuscripts containing . This group then corresponds nearly þættir exactly with what in classical Old Norse genre theory is the genre of .
As is the nature of manuscripts containing these texts, they also147 contain many , as these can mostly be found interpolated into kings’ sagas. Flateyjarbók Orkneyinga This group also contains the large compilation manuscript (GKS saga Færeyinga saga Jómsvíkinga saga 1005 fol.). By virtue of being connected to this, manuscripts containing , , and also belong to the group of Stories of Norwegian Kings. These texts do not appear in any manuscripts belonging to one of Flateyjarbók the other groups. However, they are only connected with each other and the group of Nordic History because all three of them are contained in . While they do therefore appear to be more closely related to the kings’ sagas than to other kinds of narrative texts (and hence their inclusion in this group is justified), this is a tan- talising hint but not enough evidence to148 support Melissa Berman’s theory that these three sagas make up their own genre. At the very least their lack of connection to the 149community of Secular Narratives shows that they are somewhat between gen- Flateyjarbók res. The two compilation manuscripts AM 557 4to and GKS 2845 4to are visually also in the group since they share many texts with . However, their other connections are with manuscripts belonging to the group of Secular Narratives (and in one case to a hybrid manuscript belonging to Icelandic History also containing Stories of Saints, AM 657 c 4to). These two exceptional manuscripts cannot be clas- sified well in this system. Icelandic History Sturlunga saga The group of contains manuscripts of Icelandic bishops’ sa- gas and . It is relatively sparsely connected to other groups. The only Michaels saga Maríu saga egypsku manuscript that maintains any connections at all is AM 657 c 4to, which contains Flateyjarbók, texts of Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles ( , ) Eiríks saga víðförla as well as being connected to AM 551507 4to and GKS 2845 4to, because This methodology cannot add to the discussion on the genre of the þættir. For a recent study see allÁrmann of these Jakobsson manuscripts 2014. share . As mentioned above these three 147 Berman 1985. See also Finlay 2014, 63. 148 It is also connected through the same text to AM 720 a VIII 4to, which is in turn connected to these149 three manuscripts. See above, p. 22. Eiríks saga víðförla is an interesting case of a generic hybrid. 150While it is usually classified as a fornaldarsa ga (and would therefore be expected to most likely show up in the group of Secular Narratives in this network, see Kaiper 2013) in its sources it shows influence from Learned Literature (although it seems that most or all of its learned sources are texts in Latin, not
29 manuscripts have an extraordinary position in the group of Stories of Norwegian Kings, so there is no strong structural connection between this group and that of Ice- Guðmundar saga biskups landic History. The connection of AM 657 c 4to with the group of Icelandic History is Þorláks saga helga due to . This text also connects the largest cluster inside this group, the second largest cluster being manuscripts containing . Most of the manuscripts containing these two sagas are fragments, however, so it Hólar Skálhólt is impossible to tell whether they would have contained additional texts. There is no indication that sagas of the bishops of and those of the bishops of were separated in the surviving manuscripts from the Middle Ages; indeed, both the biskupasögur manuscripts containing more than one bishops’ saga contain sagas of bishops affili- Páls saga biskups ated with both of these sees. Two are not represented in this group: Laurentius saga Hólabiskups is not in any manuscript in the corpus (i.e. it was not preserved in any Icelandic medieval manuscript) and is only pre- Dunstanus saga Katrínar served in one manuscript: AM 180 b fol. This manuscript belongs structurally to the saga Vitus saga riddarasögur Konráðs saga kei- Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles, since it contains , sarasonar Bærings saga fagra), Knýtlinga saga , and ; however, it also contains two 151 ( bisku- and as well as . As mentioned above pasögur this manuscript is somewhat exceptional, so all in all the classical genre of Sturlunga sögur Sturlunga saga seems to fall into the purview of the group of Icelandic History. The same can be said of the genre of . Two manuscripts of con- Árna saga biskups tain the only two non-religious texts in this group. While one of them (AM 122 a fol.) Guðmundar saga biskups only contains this text, the other (AM 122 b fol.) also contains and samtiðarsögur . These two manuscripts152 are the only two preserving non- samtiðarsögur religious in the whole corpus. So, while it looks as if the classical Sturlunga sögur genre of corresponds exactly to the group of Icelandic History, this is only a weak link in the case of the . Learned Literature
The group of is possibly the most interconnected with the other groups. It is still relatively compact, however. This group has been named thus because it mostly contains manuscripts that share texts in the tradition of European Hauksbók medieval learned literature. As is to be expected, the central manuscript of this group is (AM 371 4to, AM 544 4to, AM 675 4to), which contains a wide variety of texts of this description, as well as texts belonging to other groups. As mentioned before,their vernacular sermons translations. are as often See Simekcombined 1984. Accordinglywith learned it can literature be found in as manuscripts they are withthat are other hard to classify. Three of them structurally belong to the group of Learned Literature, although they maintain strong connections to that of Secular Narratives (AM 557 4to, GKS 2845 4to/Konungsbók) and Stories of Norwegian Kings (GKS 1005 fol./Flateyjarbók). The other two are religious in nature, the aforemen- tioned hard to classify AM 720 a VIII 4to and the Icelandic History manuscript AM 657 c 4to. Margaret Cormack has previously arrived at the same conclusion: “The only medieval manuscript to contain Lárentíus saga (AM 180b fol.) shows that medieval manuscripts may not be dedicated to modern151 genres; it includes saints’ lives, a king’s saga, and romances. Páls saga has not been preserved in manuscripts from the Middle Ages.” Cormack 2004, 28. See Úlfar Bragason 2004, 428.
152
30 153 religious literature. They can therefore be seen as part of this group. While most Algorismus Elucidarius Physiologus) of the texts shared by manuscripts in this group are the ones to be expected (such as Trójumanna saga , , or it also contains manuscripts sharing sagas Breta sögur tjórn Gyðin- of biblical and classical history. Of these, manuscripts154 containing ga saga Alexanders saga Rómverja saga and constitute their own cluster, while those containing S , Vitae Patrum , , and an Old Norse translation of the hagi- Veraldar saga ographic history of the early church fathers, , are also clearly155 grouped together. Interestingly enough, manuscripts containing are not part of this cluster, or indeed this group. Instead they are to be found together in the Rómverja saga group of Stories of Foreign156 Saints and Apostles. Although this text shares a close kin- ship with it seems to have been combined with religious material instead of with other historical texts. This may be due to the fact that it relates not only classical and Old Testament history but also stories of the apostles and early Veraldar saga church15 7history; however, the connection to this group is only through one manu- script and two of the four manuscripts containing are fragmentary (AM 655 VII 4to and AM 655 VIII 4to), so may have contained other texts, maybe of fræði fróðleikr a learned nature. As Preben Meulengracht Sørensen has noted, historical knowledge saga Fræði is called158 or in Old Norse sources, while its narrative159 form is called . also has the meaning of “learning” in a general sense. This semantic overlap mirrors the structures of the network.
These texts, and indeed all texts of the group of Learned Literature mentioned so far, are translations or composites of translations from Latin. However, genuinely in- Stjörnu-Odda Tal digenous Icelandic scholarship is also part of this group, as it comprises manuscripts containing the astronomical treatise (AM 425 4to and GKS 1812 Codex Regius 4to) as well as the aforementioned sermons. In addition it includes two manuscripts Hauksbók containing poems of the Poetic Edda: of the Poetic Edda (GKS 2365 4to) Völuspá. and AM 748 I a 4to. These are connected to because the latter contains a version of It is possibe, then, that the Poetic Edda would have been seen as Hauksbók a kind of learned text as well. However, since these manuscripts are only connected to this is by no means certain.
However, see below for the role of Hauksbók in this. As Stefanie Würth has noted (2006, 297) the β-version of Trójumanna saga is transmitted together with153 Breta sögur in all extant manuscripts. The two manuscripts in the network that do not contain Breta sögur154 (AM 598 II α 4to and AM 598 II β 4to) contain the α-version of the saga. The two sagas may (at least after the period under consideration here) even have been seen as two parts of the same text, as evi- denced in the 17th-century indices of Ormsbók (Würth 2006, 203-304, esp. footnotes 26, 27). AM 625 4to, AM 626 4to, AM 655 VII 4to, AM 655 VIII 4to. See Hofmann 1986. 155 AM 625 4to, a collection of ecclesiastical texts of various kinds. 156 Meulengracht Sørensen 1993, 107–108. 157 Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog Online, s.v. “frǿði”. 158 159 31 Snorra Edda Interestingly enough the network as described here has no connection between the group of Learned Literature and manuscripts containing or parts of it; these constitute their own cluster together with manuscripts containing the Third Pseudo-Vatnshyrna Grammatical Treatise. This cluster is connected to the group of Secular Narratives because, like (which belongs to that community, see below), AM 748 II 4to contains genealogies. There is reason to believe however, that the two Snorra Edda manuscripts AM 748 I a 4to (which contains parts of the Poetic160 Edda) and AM 748 Snorra Edda, I b 4to (which contains ) once belonged together. If this is indeed the case then manuscripts containing and by extension the Grammatical Treatises, would also belong to the group of Learned Texts, or, if the Poetic Edda can not be counted161 as part of this community (see below) at least as part of their own cluster. Hauksbók
being the central manuscript of this group poses a problem. This very diverse collection of learned texts naturally has many shared texts with other manu- scripts of a learned nature. The question might therefore be posed, whether the group Hauksbók of Learned Literature is only formed because of this one manuscript. If one removes from the network, however, there is still a recognisable cluster of Learned Trójumanna saga Breta sögur Literature; yet some manuscripts are no longer connected to this community: those containing the Poetic Edda, and , and sermons.162 The two historical sagas are often associated with encyclopedic manuscripts, it does there- Physiologus fore not seem unlikely they can be counted as part of the community of Learned Texts. A sermon can be found in association with a learned text ( ) in AM Hauksbók 673 a II 4to. However, this manuscript is not structurally connected to the commu- Physiologus nity of Learned Literature if is discounted. From a purely network stand- point then, and sermons would not be part of this community. Since it clearly is a learned text, however, at least the former should probably be considered Hauksbók as belonging to it. Whether sermons should as well, then, is a question that warrants further study. The same can be said for the Poetic Edda. If is discounted, Snorra Edda the manuscripts containing the eddic poems are not connected to any community. If, as mentioned above, AM 748 I a 4to and AM 748 I b 4to connect and the Poetic Edda, those and the Grammatical Treatises would form their own cluster ættartölur loosely connected to Secular Narratives. This connection is only formed through the general term “genealogies” ( ) and is therefore probably not very signifi- Hauksbók cant. If not a part of Learned Literature, then, the Eddas and the Grammatical Trea- tises should probably be seen as part of their own genre. Since does exist, though, See and http://handrit.is/en/manuscript/view/da/AM04-0748-I-a the Grammatical Treatises at least can be clearlyand Kålund defined 1889-94, as II, learned 174. lit- While only the Third Grammatical Treatise is shared by multiple manuscripts in this cluster, the only160 medieval manuscript containing the other Grammatical Treatises (Ormsbók, AM 242 fol.) is part of it.161 Würth 2006, 321.
162
32 erature, a classification as part of this group does not seem overly problematic. Secular Narratives
The last major group in the network is that of . It could also have been called Sagas, since it contains manuscripts of the kinds of texts that most come to mind upon hearing that word. However, all of the other groups also contain texts which can be called sagas and which have that name in classical Old Norse Íslendingasögur riddarasögur fornaldarsögur genre theory. In general, this group comprises manuscripts chiefly containing texts that would be called , , and in this tra- dition. What these three categories have in common is that they are stories which were probably told mostly for entertainment. Njáls saga Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Laxdæla saga Eyrbyggja saga The only texts in this group that define clear clusters of their own are and 163 , while and together Möðruvallabók Bæjarbók í Flóa define a third cluster. These three groups are connected by two compilation man- Íslendingasögur Möðruvallabók uscripts: (AM 132 fol.) and (AM 309 4to). Both of these codices contain a large number of . is of course Bæjarbók í Flóa þættir Laxdæ- known for only containing texts that are traditionally classified as belonging to this la saga Eyrbyggja saga Njáls saga genre, while mostly contains Kings’ sagas and , but also Njáls saga Egils saga Skallagrímssonar , , and . If it were not for these two manuscripts the Laxdæla saga Eyrbyggja saga clusters of and would be entirely unconnect- ed, while that of and would be loosely connected to the rest of the group of Secular Narratives. The codicology of these two codices indeed Laxdæla saga Eyrbyggja saga suggested that the selection of texts they currently contain, and that is used in this Bæjarbók í Flóa Njáls saga analysis, is not the original one. While and originally Möðruvallabók were164 copied out together in , it seems that was not part of Njáls saga it. The same pattern can be observed in . Here it seems likely that Egils saga Skallagrímssonar at least was not originally intended to be part165 of the larger compilation. Njáls saga Egils saga Skallagrímssonar The same may be true for . It is entirely possible, then, that and should form their own, unconnected cluster in this network. In other words, it is possible that these two texts would have been seen as so exceptional that they would not generally have been considered as Egils saga Skallagrímsso- the same kind of texts as other sagas. It should be noted that, except for these two nar compilation manuscripts, all the manuscripts containing Njáls saga are fragments, which might explain the tendency of that text to form a cluster.
on the other hand is preserved166 in at least three manuscripts that probably originally Consisting only contained of AM 162 thisD 1 fol.,text. AM That162 D saga, 2 fol., at AM least, 162 Edefinitely fol./KBAdd. has 20 an fol., exceptional AM 132 fol. (Möðruvallabók), and AM 309 4to/ (Bæjarbók í Flóa). 163 Lethbridge 2014, 60. It also does not seem like these sagas and Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar origi- nally belonged together. 164 Lethbridge 2014, 61–63. AM 468 4to (Reykjabók), GKS 2870 (Gráskinna), and AM 466 4to (Oddabók ). See Lethbridge 2014,165 58. 166
33 Laxdæla saga Eyrbyggja saga position in the network, then. To a lesser degree this is also true for and . However, the manuscripts containing these two texts maintain some Möðruvallabók links with the rest of the larger group of Secular Narratives. By virtue of containing Íslendingasögur Sálus saga og Nikanórs and AM 162 C fol. this group contains many of the sagas which are Íslendingasögur traditionally classified as (as well as ). While it looks like this somewhat redeems the category of as their own ethnic medieval genre, the fact that it is only two manuscripts that situate many of them in this cluster, and indeed the fact that many of them cannot be found in it, but in the other half of the community of Secular Narratives (see below), means that on the basis of this analysis this is by no means a foregone conclusion.
Njáls saga The second group in the community contains a number of manuscripts which Egils saga Skallagrímssonar preserve texts that were clearly very popular, however not as much as or Mágus saga . This manifests itself in clusters connected principally167 by Adónías saga a single text. , for example, is preserved in seven manuscripts, less168 than Rémundar saga kei- half of which are fragmentary. is contained in five manuscripts, only sarasonar. Elís saga og Rósamundu two of which169 are not highly fragmentary. The same is the case for Gautreks saga Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar 170 is preserved in four manuscripts, all of which are fragmentary. 171 and are each contained in four manuscripts. Some of the sagas just mentioned, as well as other sagas in Flóvents saga Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar this group, appear together in more than one compilation manuscript. AM 152 1-2 Elís saga og Rósamundu fol., AM 570 a 4to, and AM 580 4to share and Rémundar saga keisarasonar. and AM 574 4to, AM 579 4to, and AM 567 II 4to share and Arnarbælis- The most densely connected cluster, however, is the bók one created by AM 343 a 4to, AM 471 4to, AM 577 4to, and AM 586 4to ( Gríms saga loðinkinna Örvar-Odds saga Þórðar saga hreðu Króka-Refs ). Although not all of them contain every one of these texts, these four manu- saga Ketils saga hængs Flóres saga konungs og sona hans Bósa saga Vilmundar saga scripts share , , , viðutan Hálfdanar saga Eysteinssonar Vilhjálms saga sjóðs Egils saga einhenda og , , , , Ásmundar berserkjabana Þorsteins þáttr bæjarmagns , , , , and . None of the manuscripts only contain sagas which would in the classical scheme belong to the same genre. Like the clusters of manuscripts just described suggest, there is no indication of a riddarasögur fornaldarsögur division inside the group of Secular Narratives along the lines of the classical gen- res of or . Just like these compilation manuscripts,172 the whole group AM 152 does 1-2 fol., not AM draw 533 a4to, dividing AM 534 line4to, AM between 556 b 4to, these AM two567 XVII genres. β 4to, AM Texts 567 which XVII γ 4to, AM 580 4to. 167 AM 567 I 4to, AM 567 VI alfa 4to, AM 567 VI beta 4to, AM 579 4to, AM 593 a 4to. AM 567 II 4to, AM 567 XIX α 4to, AM 567 XIX γ 4to, AM 574 4to, AM 579 4to. 168 AM 567 II 4to, AM 567 X 4to, AM 574 4to, AM 579 4to. 169 Gautreks saga: AM 152 1-2 fol., AM 567 XIV α 4to, AM 567 XIV β 4to, AM 567 XIV γ 4to. 170 Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar: AM 152 1-2 fol., AM 556 b 4to, AM 567 XXIV 4to, AM 579 4to. 171 Or three genres, if one wants to distinguish between translated and indigenous riddarasögur.
172
34 Íslendingasögur would be considered show up in manuscripts in the group of Secu- Njáls saga Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Laxdæla saga, Eyr- lar Narratives but they are shared between them only rarely. With the exception of byggja saga Íslendingasögur the above mentioned , , and Grettis saga , none of them show up regularly in the network. Most Bárðar saga are only preserved in one or two medieval manuscripts. Exceptions are , Snæfellsáss Pseudo-Vatnshyrna which connects AM 152 I-II fol., AM 551 a 4to, and AM 556 a 4to and , which connects AM 162 H fol., AM 551 a 4to, and (AM 445 b 4to, AM 445 c I 4to, AM 564 a 4to). The manuscripts containing these sagas are Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Laxdæla saga to be found in the second part of the community of Secular Narratives, i.e. not associ- Egils saga einhenda Flóvents saga ated with the manuscripts containing or , Gísla saga Súrsonnar but rather with those containing or (to name but a Pseudo- few examples). can be found in two of the same manuscripts, in Vatnshyrna fact it connects these two small clusters by being both in AM 556 a 4to and Íslendin- . The low number of manuscripts these sagas can be found in discourages gasögur too detailed an interpretation, but it is still striking that while most of the1 73 Íslendingasaga are found in the other group,174 the texts considered “outlaw sagas”, as well as a “post-classical” 1 75are associated with the more fanciful half of the community of Secular Narratives. Pseudo-Vatnshyrna
With its mixture of all of these kinds of texts stands symboli- cally for the community of Secular Narratives and it is indeed the manuscript that structurally connects the two parts of the community. Not surprisingly, maybe, it Landnámabók Hauksbók also connects this community with the one of Learned Literature, since it shares Landnámabók with (AM 371 4to, AM 544 4to, AM 675 4to). It is perhaps a bit simplistic to consider as belonging to both communities; yet it is also very tempting as this fits its contents and its intertextual connections as well as its position in the network.
The unconnected clusters described in the beginning of this chapter fit well into the five categories just described (with documents being the obvious sixth one) and do not really conflict with them. Can this then be considered a system of thought that would have been recognised by a medieval compiler of manuscripts? The network structure certainly suggests a certain regularity of combinations of texts. It has to stand up to other clustering methods, though.
On this generic terminology see Faulkes 2004, xix. Harðar saga og Hólmverja is also found in AM 556 a 4to. 173 This generic term was first used by Stefán Einarsson (1957, 150). Elizabeth Ashman Rowe identifies Bárðar saga and Grettis saga as generic hybrids and describes them174 as “Icelandic mythic-heroic sagas” (1993). See also Mitchell 1991, 30 on the hybridity of Grettis saga175 .
35 4.3 Tackling Fragmentation - Reduction by edge-weight
The biggest challenge in the interpretation of the network as presented so far is the large amount of fragments in the corpus. Since fragmentary manuscripts only carry one identifiable text, in most cases they tend to cluster together automatically and distort the picture of underlying structure. So far this has been compensated by qualitative analysis of clusters. In order to check the validity of this approach the network is subjected to further reductions.
The very attribute that makes fragmentary manuscripts so prominent in clus- tering can also be used to identify them. Since most of them share only one text, the original network (including law books) is reduced by any 1edges76 with a weight 128 nodes 526 edges of one and in a next step stripped of any unconnected nodes. The resulting net- work of and is then laid out anew with the ForceAtlas2 algo- rithm. This process eliminates almost all fragmentary manuscripts. Of course it also removes many more complete codices which just happen to be connected to each other through only one text. The groupings derived from this network are therefore not too sound. However, they can still be used to check whether the groups identi- fied above are valid or whether the high amount of fragmentary manuscripts has distorted the picture too much.
Fig. 9 shows the clustering and Appendix 4 provides the manuscripts and texts contained in them. It shows that the groups roughly correspond to the ones Jónsbók identified above. The graph is split into 12 independent clusters. The large central cluster again contains exclusively law books. is not as dominant here, since this text very commonly appears alone in manuscripts (either due to convention Talbyrðingur or to degree of fragmentation). The second cluster consists entirely of manuscripts containing Latin calendars and and therefore corresponds to the un- Íslendingasögur Möðruvallabók Bæjarbók í Flóa connected cluster of calendars. The third cluster incorporates manuscripts mostly containing . It includes both and and Stjórn Gyðinga saga corresponds to one half of the group of Secular Narratives. The fourth cluster con- Elucidarius Rómverja saga Alexanders saga Vitae sists of three manuscripts which share versions of and . They Patrum also contain , , and the hagiographic . This cluster then corresponds to the historical part of the community of Codex Regius of the Learned Literature. The fifth cluster only contains two manuscripts, both of them preserving the Poetic Edda or parts of it ( Poetic Edda and AM Óláfs saga helga 748 I a 4to). With 18 nodes the sixth cluster is the second largest one in this graph. Heimskringla It mostly contains sagas of Norwegian kings. is only rarely present It would of course be more accurate to delete all nodes with only one associated text. However, inwhile the manuscriptsedge-weight is a ofnumerical this cluster attribute (though that can beit filteredis contained for, the texts in belonging to a manuscript of course). are only176 stored as a string. Such a cleaning of the network would therefore have to be done by hand.
36 Flateyjarbók Hauksbók and GKS 2845 4to are also part of this cluster. The most surprising out- liers, however, are and the closely related AM 685 d 4to. These two manu- scripts form a central part of the community of Learned Literature, yet here they are Flateyjarbók associated with manuscripts belonging to the cluster of 1Stories77 of Norwegian Kings. This connection, however, is only through , which, as outlined above, Óláfs saga is an exceptional manuscript among the manuscripts of kings’ sagas. The seventh helga Rauðulfs þáttr cluster also contains sagas of kings. However, these exclusively contain and and therefore represent part of the Stories of Norwegian riddarasögur fornaldarsögur Kings. The eighth and ninth clusters both contain manuscripts with a wide variety of what would be called and in the classical terminology. These two genres are spread over both clusters and indeed there is no discernible Snorra Edda governing principle separating the two clusters. The tenth cluster is made up of two Ormsbók manuscripts containing parts of and the grammatical treatises (AM 748 I b 4to and (AM 242 fol.)). The eleventh cluster contains two hard to clas- Handrit.is sify manuscripts that share several texts: AM 626 4to is termed a theological hand- Veraldar saga book on and AM 672 4to a priest’s manual. Since AM 626 4to contains , it was classified as part of the group of Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles in the larger network (see above) and since it also contains several texts on saints and apostles, this does indeed seem reasonable. The manuscripts in the Maríu saga twelfth cluster definitely belong into that group as they all contain texts relating to saints and apostles. is not as important for clustering here as in the main network (due to the high degree of fragmentation of the manuscripts containing it). Rather a clear division between manuscripts178 containing sagas of apostles and those containing sagas of saints is visible. Again this contains a small sub-cluster of manuscripts containing sagas of female saints.
The clustering of the reduced network does not produce communities inconsist- ent with the ones identified earlier. This is a hint that the high degree of fragmenta- tion does not influence the community structure too much and that it is therefore quite sound. The community most affected by this reduction is the one of Learned Literature. While the other communities split into different clusters but were other- wise recognisable in this reduced network, only the cluster of manuscripts of clas- Hauksbók sical and biblical history remains of the group of Learned Literature. Some of the most central manuscripts, and AM 685 d 4to are even part of the cluster otherwise containing sagas of kings. This suggests that this group is either made up of very fragmented manuscripts or can be incorporated into the other groups.
Which shares Eiríks saga rauða and Fóstbræðra saga with Hauksbók. Fig.10 shows the cluster with labelled edges. 177 178 37 4.4 Identifying Specific Groups - Markov Chain Clustering
Having identified the larger groups structuring the manuscript corpus there is still a lot of detail to be gained from looking at individual smaller clusters. The meth- od used so far, spring-embedded clustering, is not ideal for identifying and studying these because it17 is9 hard to see a clear distinction between communities in the large network graph. In order to look at smaller but more intimately related communi- ties other methods of clustering must be used. Rather then relying on the human eye for distinguishing between communities, most clustering algorithms provide a nu- merical attribute that clearly identifies each node as belonging to a cluster. There are a wide variety of clustering algorithms available, each with their unique advantages and disadvantages. The algorithm chosen here is based on Markov Chain Clustering (MCL). It finds communities based on the flow of information in the graph and it has the advantage over other algorithms 180that a predetermined number of clusters does not have to be provided by the user. It is,181 however, necessary to provide a value specifying the granularity of the clustering.
The network clustered this way reproduces182 the communities and sub-communi- ties identified so far remarkably well. Not all of the clusters can be described in the following, but none of them contradict the larger communities established further up. The first and largest cluster again exclusively contains law books. The second Óláfs saga helga and seventh clusters represent the group of Stories of Norwegian Kings. While the Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar second cluster contains manuscripts that primarily preserve and Sverris saga Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar Hákonar saga Sverrissonar , the seventh cluster primarily contains manuscripts with Heimskringla , , and , but also
. These 183two clusters correspond to the three subgroups of kings’ sa- gas identified earlier. Clusters three and four contain Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles respectively. Like the previously used clustering methods, this one also vitae identifies a small cluster of manuscripts (which is part of cluster184 three) that contains Margrétar saga manuscripts which mainly preserve of female saints. Five of the manuscripts185 only preserve . Only two of these manuscripts are fragmentary, while the others seem to have contained this saga as a single text, not combined with Which is why this kind of graph is sometimes dismissively called a “hairball” by network analysts (see e.g. Longabaugh 2012). 179 For background on the algorithm see van Dongen 2001. The clustering was performed with the clusterMaker2 plugin for Cytoscape. 180 In this case a value of 2.5 was used as this proved to provide good groupings. Fig. 11. 181 With the two Óláfs sögur being separate groups in the force-directed graph. The split between these182 two groups of manuscripts can also be somewhat seen in the second cluster in Fig. 11. 183 See Fig. 12. The manuscripts in question are marked in black. Appendix 5 lists the manuscripts and the texts they contain. Note that AM 180 b fol. is structurally a part of this cluster but only contains one184 saga of a female saint (Katrínar saga), among a collection of (male) hagiography. AM 428 b 12mo and AM 667 I 4to.
185
38 Katrínar saga 186 187 vitae other sagas. A fragment of is also associated with these. The other188 manuscripts in this cluster are compilations of several saints’ . One of these Katrínar saga Agnesar saga only contains189 sagas of female saints and the other two predominately female hagi- Agathu saga Saga af Fides, Spes og Karitas ography. These three compilation manuscripts share , , Margrétar saga and , while two of them also contain and
. Possibly these books were connected190 to the two Icelandic nunneries Kirkjubæjarbók at Kirkjubær at Síða and Staðr on Reynisnes. This is almost191 certainly the case for duodecimo the all-female legendary (AM 429 12mo). It is also remarkable that duodecimo this cluster of female saints’192 lives contains seven of the twelve books of Margrétar saga size in the whole network. All of the manuscripts in this cluster contain , but only in AM 429 12mo is this combined with other sagas. Con- quarto folio sidering the other manuscripts of the group of Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles Margrétar saga are of and size, there is a strong correlation between female saints’ lives folio in general (and in particular) and a small size of the manuscript. In- terestingly the two -sized manuscripts in this cluster are the only two ones that also contain sagas of male saints. Considering the relatively small sample size, too much should not be made of these differences, but it seems quite possible that books manufactured for193 a female audience, be that in a convent or as private persons, are of a smaller size.
Physio- The fifth cluster in the MCL-clustered network belongs to the community of logus Elucidarius Breta sögur Learned Literature. It contains manuscripts preserving sermons, as well as Trójumannasögur , , and other learned texts. The historical sagas of and
can also be found in this group. Manuscripts194 containing the other historical texts that form part of learned literature, however, form their own cluster (Cluster 13), as does GKS 1812 4to. This is the only manuscript in the network that forms its own cluster, despite being connected to several other manuscripts. Kristian
Kålund already195 recognised this collection of indigenous and translated learned texts AM 430 12mo, AM 432 12mo, AM 433 a 12mo. In addition AM 433 b 12mo contains a single asprayer unusual. and AM 433 d 12mo a verse to St. Margaret of Antioch and prayers in Latin. 186 AM 667 II 4to. AM 429 12mo. 187 AM 233 a fol., AM 238 II fol. It has been suggested that the latter is made up of two parts, one of which188 might have been a purely female legendary (Morgenstern 1895, 96–97, Note 9. See Wolf 2006, 268,189 footnote 10). See Wolf 2003, xlviii. Wolf 2011, 14. 190 AM 434 a 12mo, AM 434 b 12mo, AM 435 12mo, AM 456 12mo, AM 469 12mo. 191 Provided, of course, stories of female saints would be read by a primarily female audience. At least for192 Margrétar saga that is highly likely, however, considering St. Margaret of Antioch was held to be a helper193 in childbirth. Indeed the saga itself encourages women to own the book for this purpose through the words of the saint herself. (see Jón Steffensen 1965, 16-17 and Wolf 2003, 48) Of course this “practi- cal use” of the book could also be an explanation for its diminutive size, since its power lies not in the text but in the presence of the book as an object. i.e. Stjórn, Rómverja saga, Alexanders saga, Gyðinga saga and Vitae Patrum. Kålund 1918, X. 194 195 39 The community that experiences the largest amount of fragmentation under
MCL clustering of the network is that of Secular Narratives.196 It is split up into eleven clusters, none of which contradicts the larger grouping. Three of the clusters only Egils saga Skallagrímssonar contain two manuscripts each, their significance is therefore rather doubtful. Cluster 16 is heavily dominated by manuscripts containing and Njáls saga corresponds to one of the sub-clusters discovered earlier. Similarly Cluster 8 con- Laxdæla saga Eyrbyggja saga tains mainly manuscripts of ; however, it also incorporates manuscripts of Bæjar- and , which form their own cluster in the force-directed bók í Flóa layout of the network. The connection is only provided by one manuscript, Íslendingasögur (AM 309 4to), so it should probably not be overestimated. Again it can Möðruvallabók Grettis saga be noted, though, that most are part of these two clusters (mostly Gísla saga Súrssonar Þórðar saga hreðu due to being part of Cluster16) except for some, such as , Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss Pseudo- or . Some of these can be found in Cluster 28 Vatnshyrna. riddarasögur fornal- which mostly consists of manuscripts of as well as darsögur Íslendingasögur The other clusters contain a mix of manuscripts of , and (most of these would be described as post-classical in the standard terminology). Again there is no clearly discernible difference between Bevers saga Bærings saga, Elís saga og Rósamundu Rémundar saga keisarasonar the texts in these clusters, except for maybe those in Cluster 21, which shows that , , and are often preserved together.
In general the clustering with the MCL method shows largely the same commu- nities and sub-communities identified earlier through force-directed layout. At this point a rather solid and coherent picture of these communities emerges. It is still a picture of the whole corpus over a span of c. 400 years, however. The next step there- fore is an analysis with a slightly higher resolution in time.
4.5 The Time Component - Networks by year
The dating of the manuscripts in question has been mostly ignored in the analy- sis so far. The reason for this is that the identification of larger communities is only possible on the basis of a large-enough sample size. Now that these communities are identified, however, it is possible to look at manuscripts in the context of their time of manufacture. New networks were created which incorporated manuscripts dated Handrit.is to within a 100-year period. The dates used for this purpose are the ones supplied on and have not been checked further. The division into 100-year slices is necessarily arbitrary and not guided by any historical considerations. This time interval was chosen because it still allows networks large enough that meaningful interpretation See Appendix is possible. 6. Similar experiments with 50-year intervals were discon- 196
40 Han- drit.is tinued, since this is not the case there and the span of dating of manuscripts on often makes it impossible to assign a manuscript to one such interval anyway. The networks have been clustered with the MCL method and are being examined with an eye to whether197 the same communities emerge or whether different ones are being uncovered.
198 The first network incorporates all manuscripts dated to before the year 1250. Physio199- It only contains three clusters of more than two manuscripts. The first one of these logus contains manuscripts containing200 sermons and learned literature, chiefly
. The second cluster contains201 manuscripts which mainly preserve sagas of apostles and the third cluster consists of three manuscripts of Latin calenders and other computistical literature. These three clusters then represent the communities Ágríp Grágás Vita S. Thorlaci episcopi of Learned Literature and Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles. Indeed, since it in- cludes manuscripts preserving , and the , manu- scripts belonging to all of the communities identified earlier can be found among the earliest Icelandic manuscripts, with the exception of Secular Narratives.
202 This changes in the next period under investigation. The fourth cluster in the Njáls saga Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Laxdæla network of manuscripts from the period 1251-1350 contains eight manuscripts of saga Eyrbyggja saga Elis saga ok Rósamundu Bærings saga Flóvents saga Mágus . In addition manuscripts containing , saga jarls Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar Gautreks saga , , , , , , , and are to be found alone or in Óláfs saga helga Sverris saga Heimskringla clusters of two. The first cluster in this network consists of manuscripts preserving Stories of Norwegian kings, chiefly , , and Maríu saga and the second cluster contains manuscripts of Stories of Foreign Saints and Apos- tles, with and apostles’ lives being the most common texts. The third Trójumanna saga Elucidarius Hauksbók cluster contains Law Books and the fifth one Learned Literature, chiefly manuscripts of sermons, but also and . is the centre of this Snorra Edda cluster. The other two clusters of more than two manuscripts contain collections of It might and seem Latin illogical calendars to expect different(and computistical groupings in a subset literature) of the network respectively. than the onesAll com found- in the larger network; however, it is quite possible, for example, that a manuscript that would be highly connected197 to one community because it shares many texts with it but only weakly connected to another one might end up in the other community, if the manuscripts connecting it to the first group belong to a different time period. Fig. 13. AM 237 a fol. (Prédikan, Kirkjudagsmál), AM 655 I 4to (Prédikan), AM 655 XXIII 4to/Villa (198Prédikan , Bæn), AM 673 a I 4to (Physiologus), AM 673 a II 4to (Physiologus, Fjallræðan, Læknisráð, Prédikan199 ). AM 655 IX 4to (Plácidus saga, Blasius saga, Matheus saga postola), AM 655 XII-XIII 4to/ Höskuldstaðabók (Pétrs saga postola, Jakobs saga postola, Bartholomeus saga postola, Matheus saga postola200 , Tveggja saga postola Símons og Judas), AM 655 XVI 4to (Pétrs saga postola, Páls saga posto- la). AM 249 c fol. (Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur), AM 249 f fol. (Calendarium latinum, Talby- rðingur), AM 249 h fol. (Calendarium latinum), AM 249 l fol. (Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur). 201 Fig. 14.
202 41 Þorláks saga helga munities of texts are present in this 100 year period, even if Icelandic History is still Guðmundar saga. only represented by a single manuscript of and one containing the oldest version of
203 In the network for the period 1351-1450 all of the communities are represent- ed in the six largest clusters, with the exception of Learned Literature, which plays Stjórn Rómverja saga Alexanders saga Gyðinga saga Vitae almost no role in this century. It is only represented by two manuscripts containing Patrum the historical texts , , , , and Óláfs saga Tryggvassonar and by two manuscripts containing prayers. In the first cluster, containing Óláfs saga helga Stories of Norwegian Kings, manuscripts containing are more common than those containing 204 or other kings’ sagas. The sec- ond cluster is made up of purchasing documents. The third and fourth clusters contain Law Books and Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles, respectively. The fifth Þorláks saga helga Guðmundar saga Árna saga biskups Jóns saga helga cluster is a more complete collection of Icelandic History, now containing not only Sturlunga saga and , but also , , Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss Pseudo-Vatnshyrna and . The sixth cluster contains manuscripts of Secular Narratives, chiefly , centred on .
The final century205 of the Icelandic Middle Ages shows dramatic changes in manu- script culture. In the network for the period 1451-1540 manuscripts of Law Books represent 33 of 126 nodes, or more than a quarter of all extant Icelandic books of the period. The next two clusters represent manuscripts of Stories of Foreign Saints Konungs skuggsjá Hugsvinnsmál and Apostles. Apart from documents the only other clusters of more than two manu- Bæjarbók í Flóa scripts are one of five manuscripts of and and one Njáls saga Óláfs saga Tryggvassonar centred around (AM 309 4to) that contains this manuscript as well Óláfs saga helga Codex Resenianus as one of and of each. With the exception of a single manuscript of (AM 325 XI 2 d 4to/ ) the network contains no more Stories of Norwegian Kings. There are a few manuscripts containing Secular Narratives. They can now mostly be found in compilation206 manu- scripts with many different texts and yet they do not cluster together. This can be Fig. 15. interpreted However, as asince wide documents variety are of not stories completely being integrated in existence into Handrit.is but their yet, the writing significance down of this203 should not be overestimated. 204 Fig. 16. AM 162 I fol. (Hrafnkels saga Freysgoða), AM 180 b fol. (Konráðs saga keisarasonar, Dunstanus saga205 , Katrínar saga, Bærings saga fagra, To fragmenter af Knýtlinga saga, Vitus saga, Laurentius saga 206Hólabiskups ), AM 335 4to (Sturlaugs saga starfsama, Um Samson, Af þremur kumpánum, Af þremur þjó- fum í Danmörk, Af sjö listum og sjö dyggðum og sjö leikum, Um heilræði er einn arabískur maður kenndi syni sínum, Frá skógfaranda manni og einum ormi, Af versificatori er gjörðist portari, Gibbons saga, Hverju áköllun heilagrar Dórótheu getur áorkað, Drauma-Jóns saga, Af rómverska dáranum), AM 551 a 4to (Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss, Víglundar saga, Grettis saga), AM 556 a 4to (Sigurgarðs saga frækna, Saga af Sigurgarði hinum frækna, Grettis saga, Grettisfærsla, Gísla saga Súrssonar, Harðar saga og Hólmverja), AM 556 b 4to (Mágus saga, Bragða-Mágus saga, Jarlmanns saga og Hermanns, Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar), AM 567 I 4to (Adónías saga, Viktors saga og Blávus), AM 696 XVIII 4to (Barlaams saga og Jósafats).
42 207 being an eclectic process. Like the general structure ofth the network, this can be interpreted as a function of market processes of the 15 century. With the Black
Death and changing political structures208 in Norway, Icelandic books were no longer produced for a Norwegian market. When produced for a domestic audience the choice of stories can be more eclectic, or bespoke, than in the “mass production” for export. Learned Literature is very uncommon in this time period and Icelandic His- Skarðsárannáll tory is not present at all. As Agnes S. Arnórsdóttir has argued on the basis of Björn
Jónsson’s prologue to , this might be a direct consequence209 of the Black Death, or it was at least perceived as such in the Early Modern period.
Creating networks in 100-year time slices has shown that the communities identified earlier once again hold up well. It also shows the changing fortunes of manuscripts of these categories. While early Icelandic literature comprises mostly
Learned Literatureth and Sagas of Apostles, the former have lost their importance by the mid-14 century. Secular Narrativesth andth Stories of Norwegian Kings rise and fall together over the course of the 13 to 15 centuries while the numbers of Law Books and documents steadily grow. At least in the case of documents that might simply be due to the increasing likelihood of younger manuscripts being preserved. However the wide-spread use of paper also made the creation and keeping of docu- ments more accessible210 to wealthy families involved in the export of fish in the fif- teenth century. This may also beth the reason whyth the community of Icelandic His- tory has its heyday in the late 14 and early 15 centuries.
4.6 Synthesis of Analysis Results
The clustering of the network with two different networks both as a whole and through different time periods has shown surprising consistency. A picture of six Jónsbók Kristinréttur Árna biskups main groups has emerged. The most common type of manuscript is Law books with being the main text in this community and the Stories of Norwegian Kings second most common. These law texts, as well as others, show up both as single konungasögur þættir manuscripts and in larger compilation codices. are Óláfs saga manuscripts which mostly relate and the commonly interpo- helga Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar lated in these. This community is divided into manuscripts containing Heimskringla , those containing , and those containing the sagas of other kings. An alternative Cohesion interpretation is provided would by be manuscriptsthat younger books of have had less time. As to suggesteddisintegrate into by fragments and would therefore be more likely to still contain multiple sagas. However, as Már Jónsson has207 shown (2012b, 233) the degree of fragmentation is relatively constant for all periods of Icelandic and Norwegian manuscript production. Stefán Karlsson 2000, 226-227. Agnes S. Arnórsdóttir 2013, 384-385 and 2014, 224-225. 208 Agnes S. Arnórsdóttir 2013, 384 and 2014, 223-224. 209 210 43 Stories of Foreign Saints and Apostles vitae heilagra manna sögur the name, are split into manuscripts of postola sögur Maríu saga translated of non-Scandinavian saints (i.e. ) and those of Icelandic History apostles (i.e. ). is part of the saints’ lives but by far the most biskupasögur common text in this community. is a category of manuscripts that Sturlunga saga contains (and therefore also sagas of Icelandic saints) on the one hand samtiðarsögur and a single manuscript of on the other hand. This means that the Learned Literature community as a whole corresponds to the category of . The commu- Hauksbók nity of is the most unstable one of the network. It is centred on the collection of and, like this, it contains mostly translations of foreign learned texts, but also indigenous Icelandic scholarship, and sermons. The latter, as Hauksbók well as manuscripts containing the Poetic Edda, should possibly not be counted as Snorra a part of this group, as their inclusion relies exclusively on . A distinct sub- Edda group are manuscripts of (translated) texts of classical and biblical history. Secular Narratives might also belong to it, this is not entirely certain, however. The hardest group Íslendingasögur fornaldarsögur riddarasögur to subdivide is the one of . It contains most of the texts which Njáls would be called , , and in the accepted saga Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Laxdæla saga Eyrbyggja saga genre terminology. Some of these sagas are clearly delineated from the others. , , and and (which fre- Íslendingasögur quently appear together) are set off from the rest of the group and from each other. fornaldarsögur riddarasögur 211 Together with many they make up one half of this community. The Íslendingasögur second half is made up of manuscripts of and , as well as some . While some sagas frequently appear together, there is no clear distinction to be made between sub-clusters in this half of the community.
Do these groups correspond to the categories in which a medieval Icelandic man- uscript compiler, or indeed a medieval Icelander in general, would have thought? Of course the complexities of individual human thought are impossible to reconstruct from the incomplete data we have on medieval Icelandic manuscript culture. How- ever, the fact that the same kinds of texts were frequently combined does at least suggest a certain kind of community between them, the knowledge of which was “bæði lög ok áttvísi eða þýðingar hel- shared between different people and time periods. The categories also almost match gar eða svá þau in spakligu fræði er Ari Þorgilsson hefir á bækr sett af skynsamlegu up with the First Grammarian’s description of viti 212
”. As Hreinn Benediktsson has argued,th these do not213 represent a full list of the categories of literature available in 12 century Iceland; yet the fact that very sim- ilar groupings are mentioned by the First Grammarian as were independently ar- Although many of these Íslendingasögur are only present in one or two medieval manuscripts. rivedTheir at presence through in this this cluster study should is a notfurther be overestimated indication therefore. that they would have been familiar 211 Hreinn Benediktsson 1972, 181. In his translation: “both the laws and genealogies, or interpreta- tions of sacred writings, or also that sagacious historical lore that Ari Þorgilsson has recorded in books with212 such reasonable understanding.” Hreinn Benediktsson 1972, 185.
44213 to a medieval reader.
This does not mean, however, that these categories are meant as a replacement for the categories traditionally used in Old Norse scholarship. This analysis has also shown that most of these fit quite well in the communities discovered. Partly this is certainly conditioning on the part of the analyser, as it has proven quite hard not to think in the established genre categories. However, the network structure does show clear groupings of different genres. Nothing suggests therefore that the tradi- tional genre system used in Old Norse scholarship is not a useful modern analysis tool, as long as the users are aware of the fact that it only partly represents medieval thought. Like Joseph Harris, then, ”I confess to harboring an unprovable belief that the analytical system intuition has bequeathed to us does214 to some extent coincide with relevant aspects of the inaccessible ethnic system”.
Harris 1975, 434–435.
214 45 5. Conclusion
The goals of this thesis were threefold. On the one hand it wanted to demonstrate Handrit.is the usefulness of using a web scraping approach to do quantitative analysis on the data of . On the other hand it developed a methodology of network analysis Handrit.is applied to a network of manuscripts in order to allow a tentative reconstruction of ethnic genre. Finally, it applied this methodology on data scraped from in order to demonstrate its usefulness.
Handrit.is With its limited search functionality, hampered by an inconsistent markup of in- dividual texts, is a tool built by and for manuscript scholars, not literary scholars. It is a marvellous resource for information about single manuscripts but comparative work between manuscripts is only possible by using the database in ways it was not built for, which requires very involved work of the kind this thesis attempts to do. Using web scraping techniques it is possible, however, to utilise the wealth of information of the catalogue for quantitative analysis. Network analysis is only one of the possible analyses that this data can be subjected to. Quantitative codicology and the mapping of manuscript origins, for example, are two areas of inquiry which promise interesting results as well.
The data acquired through this methodology has proven useful for exploration through network analysis. The metric of betweenness centrality can be used to identify manuscripts that do not conform to the expected network structure and are therefore worthy targets for individual attention. Two different methods of cluster- ing allowed the identification of larger groupings in the network and of sub-group- ings contained in these. They have been summarised in the preceding chapter and they can be tentatively interpreted as indicators of ethnic genre.
Many of the insights of this thesis could have been, and indeed have been, reached by more traditional methods of scholarship as well. While on the one hand this le- gitimises the methodology used here as a valid analytical tool, it may also pose the question of whether any new information has been gained through it. The answer to this lies in the fact that a relatively inexperienced scholar could arrive at these conclusions in a relative short amount of time, without being an expert in various sub-fields. After all, findings derived from a structural analysis of the network have in many details matched up amazingly well with conclusions other scholars have drawn independently. This is a strong indicator that despite its shortcomings the methodology employed here can contribute to scholarship in a meaningful way.
Not all of the possible approaches to the dataset could be explored as a part of this thesis due to constraints on time and permissible length of the work. Both net- 46 work and non-network methods of analysis are still left to be explored in further work. The print format has also proven to be a difficult medium to make accessible the complexities of a network of several hundred nodes and several thousand con- nections. For example, while node labels showing manuscript shelfmarks could be shown in most graphics accompanying this thesis, edge labels, showing the texts they are connected by, can only be rendered in very small networks without mak- ing the whole graph unreadable. It is therefore my hope to publish the full network as an interactive graph online in order to make it accessible to other scholars. If not Handrit.is as an analytical tool it can at least serve as a visual index to the medieval Icelandic manuscripts on and the connections between them.
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57 Appendices:
Note that the shelfmarks and texts in the lists of manuscripts have been taken straight from Handrit.is. An attempt has been made to manually correct inconsisten- cies and mistakes but some still remain.
Appendix 1:
Example of an XML file on Handrit.is: AM 567 XVI 4to (Source: http://handrit.is/is/manuscript/xml/AM04-0567-XVI-is.xml)
Tilraunaútgáfa
58 ). Blaðmerking með rauðu bleki, r-v. Blaðstrimill. Hluti af ytri dálki, en skorið hefur verið langsum beggja megin og einnig að ofan. Texti er skertur vegna afskurðarins, vantar bæði framan og aftan af hverri línu. Leifar af lituðum upphafsstaf (gulur). Leifar af rauðum fyrirsögnum. Á versósíðu hefur titlum verið bætt við neðst og að um sé að ræða upphaf Konráðs sögu. Band frá mars 1959 ( Laus seðill frá Kaupmannahöfn um forvörslu AM 567 4to- brotanna í öskju með brotunum. Stofnun Árna Magnússonar á Íslandi tók við handritinu 26. mars 1992.
Fabulosæ Islandorum Historiæ
á seðli með hendi
59 Viðgert í Kaupmannahöfn í mars 1959, sett í plastvasa sem festur er á móttak í pappakápu. Brotin AM 567 I-XXVI 4to eru saman í öskju, utan VI sem sér í spjöldum.
60
Appendix 2:
The JSON file generated from Appendix 1 by the webscraper. The actual JSON file contains several entries like these. For this example only one entry has been converted into valid JSON. The letter-combinations beginning with “\u” are Unicode code points and are later converted into letters that are not part of the English al- phabet. [{“Origin”:[“\u00cdslandi”],”Title”:[],”Country”:[“IS”],”Texts”:[“Gibbons saga”,”Konr\ u00e1\u00f0s saga keisarasonar”],”Shelfmark”:[“AM 567 XVI 4to”],”Genre”:[“ridd”,”ridd”], ”Dating”:[],”Owner”:[]}]
61 Appendix 3:
Manuscripts with the ten highest betweenness centrality scores in the network of all Icelandic manuscripts before 1540. Shelfmark Betweenness centrality AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,16 1.0 AM 238 X fol. 1.0 GKS 1005 fol./Flateyjarbók 0.29958743 AM 371 4to, AM 544 4to, AM 675 0.25250247 4to/Hauksbók AM 243 f fol. 0.22222222 AM 136 4to 0.16091947 AM 720 a VIII 4to 0.16064485 AM 235 fol. 0.12604957 AM 681 a 4to 0.12603681 AM 655 XXIII 4to/Villa 0.11915407
Appendix 4:
Full list of manuscripts and associated text by clusters in the network after re- ductionCluster by1: edges with a weight of 1 and unconnected nodes.
AM 152 4to AM 126 4to Jónsbók, Kristinréttur Árna biskups AM 344 fol. Jónsbók, Norsk-islandske retterbøder, Kristinréttr Árna biskups, Kristinn réttr hinn nýi, Hirðskrá, Réttarbœtr Magnúsar Eiríkssonar, um okr ok tíundargjörd, Skipanir Eilífs erkibiskups AM 136 4to Jóhannesar guðspjall, Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Skipan Vilhjálms kardínála, Lagaákvæði, Kristinréttur Árna bisk- ups, Kirkjuskipanir Máldagi yfir eignir kirkjunnar í Hafrafellstungu ásamt landamerkjalýsingu, Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Lagaákvæði, Lagaformálar, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Kirkjuskipanir, Lilja, Eiður í árásarmáli, Ályktun Alþingis um vinnufólk 1404, Nöfn AMrúnastafanna, 132 4to Réttarbætur Hákonar konungs Magnússonar, Skipan Vilhjálms kardinála um helgidaga og kirknaeignir, Ámin- AMning 159 um dóma4to AM 51 8vo Jónsbók, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Kaflar úr kirkjulögum, Lagaformálar, Réttarbætur GKS 3270 4to Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Kristinréttur Árna biskups Jónsbók, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Skipan Jóns biskups Sigurðarsonar (1345) Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Biblían, Jónsbók, Bæn, Réttarbætur Eiríks konungs Magnússonar, Réttarbæ- AMtur Hákonar346 fol. konungs Magnússonar, Skipan Vilhjálms kardinála, Staðfesting Innocentíusar páfa fjórða, Bygginga kapítuli, AMHirðskrá 41 8vo AM 48 8vo Járnsíða, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Grágás, Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Lagaformálar Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Kristinréttur Árna biskups Jóhannesarguðspjall, Mynd af Kristi á krossinum með Maríu og Jóhannes fyrir neðan., Kristinréttur Árna bisk- AMups, 39 Um 8vo bannsverk, Biskupa statútur, Saktal ór lögbók Íslendinga, Lagaformálar, Réttarbætur, Um ósæran eið og rangan, GKSÞessum 3269a málum 4to má eigi appellera, Skipan Péturs biskups um ljóstolla, Latnesk undanþága, Jónsbók Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Lög og lagaformálar, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Reglugerðir Yfirlit yfir efni Jónsbókar, Áminning við eiðatökur, formularer, niðurstöður alþingis, Áminning, Formularer, Sýslumannskyldur, Að verða tvísaga, Hórdómsbrot og frillulífisbrot, Um barneignir, Manntalsþingseting, Manntalsþingsup- psögn, Héraðsþingsetning, Þingslit, Stóridómur, Um persónur Stóradóms, Lögfræðilegar formgerðir / eyðublöð (?), Söguste- fna, Stundarstefna, Heimstefna, Statúta Eylífs erkibiskups, Kyrrsetning, Að vinna eið að skatti, Sáttarboð, Jarðaróðal, Hryn- henda, Jónsbók, Þingfararbálkur, Kristindómsbálkur, Kristinn réttur og konungserfðir, Konungs þegnskylda, Mannhelgi, Erfðabálkur, Kvennagiftingar, Erfðatal, Framfærsluþáttur, Landabrigðabálkur, Landsleigubálkur, Rekabálkur, Kaupabálkur,
62 AMFarmannalög, 138 4to Þjófabálkur, Réttarbætur, Réttarbót Eiríks, Réttarbót Hákonar, Biskupatal á Hólum, Kristinréttur Árna bisk- ups, Ákvarðanir Vilhjálms kardinála um helgidagaleyfi, eð staðfestingu Innocens páfa AM 128 4to Réttarbætur, Lagaákvæði, Lagaformálar, Jónsbók, Yfirlit yfir efni Jónsbókar, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Kirkjuski- panir, Kirkjulagagreinar, Grágás, Um reglur dómara, Um ósæra eiða, Um gjald á ljóstollum, Annálsgreinar um staðamál Jónsbók, Réttarbót Eiríks konungs Magnússonar um framfærslu skyldmenna, um ómennskumenn og vergangs- menn og um handsöl, Alþingissamþykkt um melrakkaveiðar, Sektir Jónsbókar, Örskotshelgi, Þokkabót og öfundarbót, Brul- laup að lögum, Bréf Magnúsar konungs Eiríkssonar um að menn á Íslandi gjaldi hirðstjóra jafnmikla peninga í sakeyri ko- nungs sem þeir hafa goldið biskupum eða þeirra umboðsmönnum fyrir okur og rangar tíundargerðir, Alþingissamþykkt um vinnufólk og fiskimenn, Réttarbót Eiríks konungs Magnússonar handa Íslandi um breytingar á Jónsbók í nokkrum atriðum, Réttarbót Eiríks konungs Magnússonar hin almenna, Réttarbót Eiríks konungs Magnússonar um stefnufall, Réttarbót Eiríks konungs Magnússonar og Hákonar hertoga um að Kristinréttur hinn forni skuli standa um alla þá hluti er lærðir menn eiga að hafa, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um ýmsar breytingar á Jónsbók, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um að Kristinréttur hinn forni skuli gilda, sem að undanförnu, um að alþingi sé uppi og um ýmsar breytingar á Jónsbók, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um að Kristinréttur hinn forni skuli vera í gildi, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um félags- gerð hjóna, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um arftökur og annað fleira, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs Hákonarsonar um áverka á saklausum mönnum og um rannsóknir, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs Magnússonar um heitingar, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um arftöku ættleiðinga, Herjólfsréttarbót, Þræturéttarbót, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs háleggs um að sýs- lumenn og umboðsmenn þeirra geri rétt, Guðmundur ábóti á Helgafelli, tveir prestar og þrír leikmenn transskríbera réttar- bót Hákonar konungs frá 10. júní 1375, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs yngra um arf eftir Gunnar Andrésson, er skipar fyrir, að Pétur Hálfdánarson skilgetinn bróðursonur Gunnars taki arfinn, en ekki skilgetnir dóttursynir, er móðir þeirra var hórgetin, og býður konungur að færa þessa réttarbót inn í Jónsbók, Helgafellsréttarbót, Réttarbót Magnúsar konungs Eiríkssonar um sýslur, um skemmdarvíg og margt fleira, Réttarbót Magnúsar konungs lagabætis við Landslög hin nýju um ýmsa hluti og þar á meðal óbótamál, Réttarbót Magnúsar konungs Eiríkssonar um að Íslendingar séu hlýðnir kirkjunnar formönnum, og að þeir gangi ekki undir neinar sektir framar en Kristinréttur vottar, Réttarbót Magnúsar konungs Eiríkssonar til Íslands um skuldir við austræna kaupmenn, að þær skuli vera goldnar að Ólafsmessu fyrri, Réttarbót Magnúsar konungs lagabætis um forkaupsrétt konungs og um fjárskaða, Sættargerð Eiríks konungs Magnússonar og Árna Þorlákssonar biskups í Skálholti um staðamál, Gamli sáttmáli, Endurnýjun sáttmálans af hendi Íslendinga við Hákon konung Hákonarson og Magnús konung son hans, um skattgjald og landsréttindi, svo sem samþykkt var af Oddaverjum og öllum almúga á Íslandi, Hirðskrá, Um vitni, Forsagnir sem eiga við Jónsbók og hafa tíðkast á 14. öld, Forsögn fyrir lýsing ættleiðingar, Forsögn fyrir ómagalög- boði, Forsögn fyrir fjárkröfu, Forsögn fyrir heimstefnu, Forsögn að bjóðast til viðtöku fjár, Þingstefnuforsögn, Stefnuforsögn, Fjárkröfuforsögn á þingi, Eiðsforsögn vitnis í skuldamálum, Eiðsforsögn vitnis í skuldamálum enn, Forsögn fyrir upptekt fjár, Forsögn fyrir lagasvari, Griðaforsögn, Forsögn fyrir uppsögn þings, Þingstefnuforsögn og grið, Forsögn fyrir uppsögn þings, Lögfesta til jarðar, Lagaskipunarbréf Þórðar lögmanns frá 25. nóv. 1584, um fátækraflutning og ítrekan Býjasker- jadóms frá 22. apr. 1583, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Búalög, Alþingissamþykkt um ljóstoll, Dómur útnefndur af Stefáni AMbiskupi 127 í 4to Skálholti um heytollagjald, Dómur Nikulásar Björnssonar um skaðræði á hestum, Um bókareið, De virtutibus et AMvitiis, 135 Efnisyfirlit 4to Jónsbókar, Tíundartal Jónsbók, Réttarbætur Eiríks konungs Magnússonar, Réttarbætur Hákonar konungs Magnússonar Lögfræðilegar athugagreinar, Réttarbætur, Jóhannesarguðspjall, Bæn, Upphaf Móses laga, Af dómadags un- drum, Jónsbók, Um melrakkaveiðar, Um almennilegar pútur, Um byggingu á konungsjörðum, Um dómnefnu, Grágás, Eindagi á tíðakaupi presta, Tíundarlög Gissurar biskups, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Lagaformálar, Lagaákvæði, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs um kristindómsrétt 1316, Gamli sáttmáli, Formáli um útnefningu nefndarmanna til Öxarárþings, Lögfræðile- gar athugagreinar, Formáli um héraðsþingssetningu, Formáli um héraðsþingsslit, Um tíund og matgjafir, Lögfræðilegar AMathugagreinar, 148 4to Tafla yfir tíund og afgjöld, Skýring á þýðingu Eden, Biblíutilvitnun, Réttarbót Hákonar konungs, Tafla yfir tíund - Tafla yfir sakfallsgjöld, Kirkjuskipanir, Lögfræðilegar athugagreinar AM 43 8vo Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Lagaákvæði, Lagaformálar, Registur yfir Mannhelgi, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Kirkjuski- AMpanir 42 a 8vo AM 151 4to Jónsbók, Reglugerðir Jónsbók, Búalög, Kirkjulegar tilskipanir Formáli um setningu héraðsþings, Formáli um uppsögn héraðsþings, Jónsbók, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, AMUm 351 félag fol. hjóna, Alþingissamþykkt um vinnufólk, Um skyldleika hjóna, Erfðavísur, Tíundargjörð á Íslandi, Lagaformálar, Lagaákvæði, Tilskipanir, Gamli sáttmáli AM 157 a 4to Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Kirkjuskipanir, Grágás, Annálsgreinar, Sættargerð Magnúsar AMkonungs 154 4toog Jóns erkibiskups, Annálsgrein, Réttarbætur, Lagaformúlur AM 354 fol. Stóridómur, Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Lagaformálar Lagaformálar, Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Skipan Magnúsar biskups 1479 Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Kirkjuskipanir, Skipan Goðsvins biskups um tíund, Um kirkjubót vegenda, Eiðstafir, Um rekamark milli Hornafjarðar og Hjörleifshöfða, Hvað gagngjald og gjöf er með réttu, Um lögfesting Íslendinga, XIII. Erfð AMlaungetinna, 456 12mo Ráðsmannseiður í Skálholti, Skipan Sveins biskups 1472, Úr réttarbót um refsingu fyrir því að bera ljúgvitni, AMJónsbók 350 fol. Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Kirkjuskipanir, Formúlur Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Hver mál eigi má appellera, Lagaformálar, Sakatal í Jónsbók, Hirðskrá, Kristinréttur Árna AMbiskups, 56 8vo Kirkjuskipanir og kirkjuréttarlegt efni, Um dísmala daga, Grein á sjávarföllum, Nöfn austurvegskonunga, Um heim- saldra, Dómadagsundur, Kirkjuleg skjöl, Lagaformálar, Efnisyfirlit, Formáli um syndaaflausn AM 347 fol. Búalög, Ærkebiskop Jons statut 1280, Hvar dómum skal vægja, Um bókareið, De virtutibus et vitiis liber (Virtutes et vitia) AM 175 c 4to Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Efnisyfirlit, Lausavísur, Jónsbók, Réttarbót Eikríks konungs 1294, Grágás, Ákvæði AMum prestastefnur,334 fol./Staðarhólsbók Kirkjuskipanir Jónsbók AM 157 b 4to Jónsbók, Réttarbætur AM 137 4to , Grágás, Járnsíða Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Réttarbætur AM 158 a 4to Bæn, Fjármark , Helga Halldórssonar í Miðhúsum, Dies mala - Illir dagar, Réttarbætur, Lagaákvæði, Lagaformá- AMlar, Jónsbók,175 a 4to Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Gamli sáttmáli, Um fátækraskatt - Um tíundargjöld, Um landbúnað AM 158 b 4to Jónsbók, Réttarbætur, Skipan Kristjáns konungs I. um kirkjufé AM 155 a 4to Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Gamli sáttmáli, Kirkjuskipanir, formálar o.fl. Kristinréttur Árna biskups, Grágás Jónsbók, Réttarbætur
63 AM 168 a 4to AM 173 c 4to AM 50 8vo Jónsbók, Réttarbætur Grágás, Kristinréttur Árna biskups Grágás, Kristinréttur Árna biskups
ClusterAM 249 c 2: fol. AM 249 l fol. AM 249 p fol. Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur AM 249 f fol. Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur AM 249 n fol. Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur Calendarium latinum, Talbyrðingur
ClusterAM 162 C 3: fol.
AM 132 fol./Möðruvallabók Ljósvetninga saga, Vopnfirðinga saga, Droplaugarsona saga, Finnboga saga ramma, Þorsteins þáttur stangar- höggs, Sálus saga og Nikanórs AM 309 4to/Bæjarbók í Flóa Njáls saga, Egils saga Skallagrímssonar, Finnboga saga ramma, Bandamanna saga, Kormáks saga, Víga-Glúms saga, Droplaugarsona saga, Ölkofra þáttur, Hallfreðar saga, Laxdæla saga, Fóstbræðra saga Uddrag fra Flateyarbók, Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar, Ættartala, Hverir konungar styrt hafa Nore- gi, Þáttr Þorvalds tasalda, Þáttr Finns ok Sveins, Þáttr Rauðs hins ramma, Þáttr Þorsteins skelks, Þáttr Indriða ilbreiðs, Gauta AMþáttr, 162 Þáttr E fol./KBAdd. Þorsteins uxafóts, 20 fol. Þáttr af Norna-Gesti, Þáttr Helga Þórissonar, Þáttr af Sneglu-Halla, Laxdæla saga, Eyrbyggja saga, Njáls saga Laxdæla saga, Eyrbyggja saga
ClusterAM 225 fol. 4: AM 226 fol. AM 229 fol. Stjórn, Rómverja saga, Alexanders saga, Gyðinga saga, Vitae Patrum Stjórn, Rómverja sǫgur, Alexanders saga, Gyðinga saga Stjórn, Gyðinga saga, Elucidarius, Om håndskrifterne af Stjórn
ClusterAM 748 5: I a 4to
GKS 2365 4to Eddadigte, Hárbarðsljóð, Baldrs draumar, Skirnismál, Vafþrúðnismál, Grímnismál, Hymiskviða, Vǫlundarkviða Eddukvæði - Sæmundar-Edda, Völuspá, Hávamál, Vafþrúðnismál, Grímnismál, Skírnismál, Hárbarðsljóð, Hymiskviða, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Völundarkviða, Alvíssmál, Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, Frá dauða Sinfjötla, Grípisspá, Reginsmál, Fáfnismál, Sigurdrífumál, Brot af Sigurðarkviðu, Sig- urðarkviða hin skamma, Helreið Brynhildar, Dráp Niflunga, Guðrúnarkviða II, Guðrúnarkviða III, Oddrúnargrátur, Atlakviða, Atlamál, Guðrúnarhvöt, Hamdismál
ClusterAM 81 a fol./Skálholtsbók6: yngsta
AM 66 fol. Sverris saga, Bǫglunga sǫgur, Hákonar saga Sverrissonar, Guttorms ok Inga, Bǫglunga AMsǫgur, 325 Hákonar VIII 1 4tosaga Hákonarsonar /Huld Heimskringla, Noregs konunga sǫgur AM 39 fol. . Noregs konunga sögur, Heimskringla, Haralds saga Hárfragra, Hákonar saga Goða, Haralds saga Gráfel- dar, Ólafs saga Tryggvassonar Noregs konunga sögur, Heimskringla, Hákonar saga góða, Hákonar saga Aðalsteinsfóstri, Haralds saga gráfeldar, AMÓlafs 45 saga fol. Tryggvasonar, Ólafs saga helga, Magnúss saga góða, Haralds saga harðráða, Ólafs saga kyrra, Magnúss saga ber- fætts, Magnússona saga, Magnúss saga blinda ok Haralds gilla, Saga Inga Haraldssonar ok bræðra hans Heimskringla, Noregs konunga sǫgur, Ynglinga saga, Hálfdanar saga svarta, Haralds saga hins hárfagra, Hákonar saga góða, Hákonar saga Aðalsteinsfóstra, Haralds saga gráfeldar, Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar, Magnúss saga góða, Haralds saga harðraða, Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar, Óláfs saga kyrra, Magnúss saga berfætts, Saga Sigurðar, Eysteins ok Óláfs, Mag- AMnússona 47 fol. saga, Magnúss saga blinda ok Haralds gilla, Sigurðar saga slembidjákns, Saga Inga Haraldssonar ok bræðra hans, Haraldssona saga, Hákonar saga herðibreiðs, Magnúss saga Erlingssonar, Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar /Eirspennill Leiðarvísir, Heimskringla, Noregs konunga sögur, Magnúss saga góða, Haralds saga Harðráða, Ólafs saga kyrra, Magnúss saga berfætts, Magnússona saga, Magnúss saga blinda ok Haralds gilla, Haraldssona saga, Saga Inga AMHaraldssonar 325 VIII 4 ok b bræðra4to hans, Hákonar saga herðibreiðs, Magnúss saga Erlingssonar, Sverris saga, Bǫglunga sǫgur, Hákonar AMsaga 61 Sverrissonar, fol. Guttorms ok Inga, Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar AM 325 VIII 4 a 4to. Sverris saga, Hákonar saga Sverrissonar AM 325 VIII Ólafs 4 c 4tosaga Tryggvasonar, Ólafs saga Haraldsonar, Ólafs saga helga AM 325 X 4to . Sverris saga, Hákonar saga Sverrissonar . Sverris saga, Hákonar saga Sverrissonar AM 557 4to . Sverris saga, Hákonar saga Sverrissonar, Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, Magnúss saga lagabætis Hákonarso- nar Valdimars saga, Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu, Hallfreðar saga vandræðaskálds, Hrafns saga Sveinbjarnarsonar, GKSEiríks 1005 saga rauða, fol./Flateyjarbók Rögnvalds þáttur og Rauðs, Dámusta saga, Hróa þáttur heimska, Eiríks saga víðförla, Stúfs þáttur, Karls þáttur vesæla, Sveinka þáttur Steinarssonar Geisli, Ólafs ríma Haraldssonar, Hyndluljóð, Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Sigurðar þáttur slefu, Hversu Noregur byggðist, Ættartölur konunga og konungatöl í Noregi, Eiríks saga víðförla, Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar, Jómsvíkinga saga, Ottó þáttur keisara, Færeyinga saga, Þingamanna þáttur, Þorleifs þáttur jarlaskálds, Orkneyinga saga, Seljumanna þáttur, Albani þáttur og Sunnifu, Landnáma þáttur, Þorsteins þáttur uxafóts, Kristni þáttur, Sörla þáttur, Stefnis þáttur Þorgilssonar, Rögnvalds þáttur og Rauðs, Hallfreðar saga vandræðaskálds, Kjartans þáttur Ólafs- sonar, Ögmundar þáttur dytts, Norna-Gests þáttur, Helga þáttur Þórissonar, Þorvalds þáttur tasalda, Sveins þáttur og Finns, Rauðs þáttur ramma, Hrómundar þáttur halta, Þorsteins þáttur skelks, Þiðranda þáttur og Þórhalls, Kristni þáttur, Eiríks
64 saga rauða, Svaða þáttur og Arnórs kerlingarnefs, Þórhalls þáttur knapps, Indriða þáttur ilbreiðs, Eindriða þáttur ilbreiðs, Halldórs þáttur Snorrasonar, Eiríks þáttur Hákonarsonar, Orms þáttur Stórólfssonar, Erlings þáttur Skjálgssonar, Grænlend- inga saga, Einars þáttur þambarskelfis, Hálfdanar þáttur svarta, Haralds þáttur hárfagra, Noregskonungatal, Hauks þáttur hábrókar, Haralds þáttur grenska, Ólafs þáttur Geirstaðaálfs, Ólafs saga helga, Eyvindar þáttur úrarhorns, Styrbjarnar þáttur Svíakappa, Hróa þáttur heimska, Fóstbræðra saga, Eymundar þáttur Hringssonar - Eymundar saga Hringssonar, Tóka þát- tur Tókasonar, Sigurðar þáttur Ákasonar, Ísleifs þáttur biskups, Egils þáttur Síðu-Hallssonar, Eymundar þáttur af Skörum, Orkneyinga saga, Guðbrands þáttur kúlu, Indriða þáttur og Erlings, Ásbjarnar þáttur Selsbana, Knúts þáttur ríka, Steins þát- tur Skaptasonar, Rauðúlfs þáttur, Völsa þáttur, Brenna Adams biskups, Sverris saga, Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar, Hákonar saga gamla, Magnús saga góða og Haralds harðráða, Hemings þáttur Áslákssonar, Auðunar þáttur vestfirska, Sneglu-Halla GKSþáttur, 2845 Halldórs 4to Konungsbók þáttur Snorrasonar, Þorsteins þáttur forvitna, Þorsteins þáttur tjaldstæðings, Blóð-Egils þáttur, Grænlend- inga þáttur, Biskupa- og kirknatal á Grænlandi, Helga þáttur og Úlfs, Játvarðar saga helga, Flateyjarannáll AM 371 4to, AM/ 544 4to, AM Bandamanna675 4to/Hauksbók saga, Norna-Gests þáttur, Orms þáttur Stórólfssonar, Rauðúlfs þáttur, Hálfs saga og Hálfsrekka, Göngu-Hrólfs saga, Yngvars saga víðförla, Eiríks saga víðförla, Hervarar saga og Heiðreks Landnámabók, Kristni saga, Geographica qvædam et physica, Theologica qvædam ex sermonibus Augustini, Varia, atqve inter ea Astronomica qvædam - Heimlýsing ok helgifrœði, Um ár, vötn ok tjarnir, Om Paradis, Geografisk kompendium, Prédikan, Hvordan Noahs sønner delte verden mellem sig, Fantastiske fol- keslag, Fire afsnit fra Elucidarius, En prædiken om tamperdagene, Om regnbuen, Om solens bane, Om fremmede byer og helgenernes gravsteder, Theologica qvædam, videntur esse úr Adamsbók - Heimspeki ok helgifrœði, Sagan af Guðs þiónús- tumaðr, Samtale mellem en elev og en lærer, Afhandling om de fire elementer og deres fordeling i blodet, Om Seths rejse til Paradis og om Kristi Kors, Liste over tolv af verdens usømmeligheder, Grundplan af Jerusalem med aftegninger af kirker og templer, Afsaknir Fyrir Samneyti Við Bannsetta, Völuspá, Trójumanna saga, Om syv ædelstenes natur, Cisiojanus, Breta AMSögur 685 med d 4to Merlínusspá, To dialoger, Hemings þáttr Áslákssonar, Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, Fóstbræðra saga, Algorismus, Eiríks saga rauða, Skálda saga, Af Upplendinga konungum, Ragnarssona þáttr, Prognostica Temporum, Elucidarius Um sjálfsþekking ok syndameðvitund, Elucidarius, Aicuini de virtutibus et vitils liber, Algorismus, Småstyk- ker, Værdiberegning, mål- og vægtangivelser, Geometriske og andre beregninger, Alfabeter, Græske og latinske talord, Om verdensbygningen efter imago mundi, Um Móyses
ClusterAM 75 a fol./Bæjarbók7: í Borgarfirði AM 921 II 4to AM 75 c fol. Ólafs saga helga, Rauðulfs þáttr Ólafs saga helga, Saga Ólafs konungs hins helga Haraldssonar Ólafs saga helga, Saga Ólafs konungs hins helga Haraldssonar, Rauðulfs þáttr
ClusterAM 471 4to8:
AM 343 a 4to Þórðar saga hreðu, Króka-Refs saga, Kjalnesinga saga, Ketils saga hængs, Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar-Odds saga, Viktors saga og Blávus Þorsteins þáttur bæjarmagns, Samsons saga fagra, Egils saga einhenda og Ásmundar berserkjabana, Flóres saga konungs og sona hans, Vilhjálms saga sjóðs, Yngvars saga víðförla, Ketils saga hængs, Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar- AMOdds 586 saga, 4to/Arnarbælisbók Áns saga bogsveigis, Sálus saga og Nikanórs, Hálfdanar saga Eysteinssonar, Bósa saga, Vilmundar saga viðutan, Perus saga meistara Af þremur kumpánum, Um kóngsson, hertogason og jarlsson, Af þremur þjófum í Danmörk - Af Ill, Verra og Versta, Um bryta einn í Þýskalandi, Af bryta og bónda, Af meistara Perus - Af meistara Pero og hans lei- kum, Af Vilhjálmi bastarði og sonum hans, Anselmus þáttur erkibiskups, Af Tómasi erkibiskupi, Roðberts þáttur, Frá ferðum Roðberts og hans manna, Af Baldvin Jórsalakonungi, Flóres saga konungs og sona hans, Bósa saga, Vilmundar saga viðutan, AMHálfdanar 577 4to saga Eysteinssonar, Hrings saga og Tryggva, Þórðar saga hreðu, Sagan af Þórði hreðu, Króka-Refs saga, Ásmundar saga kappabana AM 567 IV 4to Egils saga einhenda og Ásmundar berserkjabana, Vilhjálms saga sjóðs, Bósa saga, Af bóndasyni nokkrum í kóngsgarði, Þorsteins þáttur bæjarmagns, Vilmundar saga viðutan, Flóres saga konungs og sona hans Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar-Odds saga
ClusterAM 574 4to 9: AM 152 1-2 fol. Bærings saga, Rémundar saga keisarasonar, Elís saga og Rósamundu Grettis saga, Hálfdanar saga Brönufóstra, Flóvents saga, Sigurðar saga þögla, Þórðar saga hreðu, Göngu- AMHrólfs 579 saga, 4to Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, Ectors saga - Hektors saga, Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar, Mágus saga, Gautreks saga, Hómilía AM 556 b 4to Elís saga og Rósamundu, Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, Adónías saga, Rémundar saga keisarasonar, Ectors saga AM- Hektors 567 II saga 4to AM 570 a 4to Mágus saga, Jarlmanns saga og Hermanns, Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar AM 580 4to Bevers saga, Rémundar saga keisarasonar, Elís saga og Rósamundu, Bærings saga Adonias saga, Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar, Flóvents saga, Hákonar saga Ívarssonar, Sálus saga ok Nikanórs Elis saga ok Rósamundu, Bærings saga, Flóvents saga, Mágus saga, Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar
ClusterAM 748 I 10: b 4to
AM 242 fol./Ormsbók, Snorra-Edda, Codex Ritgerð Wormianus um skáldskaparfræði, The Third Grammatical Treatise, Skáldskaparmál, Íslendinga- drápa Snorra Edda, Gylfaginning, Bragaræður, Skáldskaparmál, The First Grammati- cal Treatise, The Second Grammatical Treatise, The Third Grammatical Treatise, The Fourth Grammatical Treatise, Háttatal, Rígsþula, Orms-Eddu-brot
ClusterAM 626 4to 11: Skýring á faðirvori, Um aflausn synda, Um rétta siðsemi, Hugleiðingar dýrkaðs líkama, Hugleiðing um miskunn
65 AM 672 4to guðs, Um skriptamál ok syndajátning, Um syndir, Um vilja manns ok skynsemd, Veraldar saga Parva pars oculi dextri sacerdos, Skýring boðorðanna, Um sjaufalda gipt heilags anda, Helligåndens syv gaver, Um sjau dauasyndir, De syv dødssynder, Um sjau sacramenta heilagrar kirkju, De syv sakramenter, Pønitentiale, Casus re- servati et casus majores, Um Bartolomeus postola, Um Barbaru mey, Um langaföstu hald, Guðspjallsgrein um sádmannin, Messuskýring, De sancta Agatha, Áf Blasius, Um Thómas postola, Teologisk afhandling, Um aflausn synda, Um rétta siðsemi, Hugleiðingar dýrkaðs líkama, Hugleiðing um miskunn Guðs, Om respektløshed, On anger
ClusterAM 655 XII-XIII 12: 4to Höskuldstaðabók
AM 652 4to / Pétrs saga postola, Jakobs saga postola, Bartholomeus saga postola, Matheus saga postola, Tveggja saga postola Símons og Judas AM 655 XVI Jóns4to saga postola, Jakobs saga postola, Bartholomeus saga postola, Andreas saga postola, Thómas saga postola, AMTveggja 645 postola4to saga Simonis ok Jude, Matheus saga postola Pétrs saga postola, Páls saga postola AM 667 V 4to Jarteinabók Þorláks Biskups, Clemens saga, Pétrs saga postola, Jakobs saga postola, Bartholomeus saga postola, Matheus saga postola, Andreas saga postola, Páls saga postola, Niþrstigningar saga, Martinus saga biskups Andreas saga postola, Jakobs saga postola, Filippus saga postola, Markús saga postola, Kross saga JS fragm 8 a/postola sögur Tómas saga postola, Andreas saga postola SÁM 1/Codex Scardensis, Skarðsbók postolasagna Tíundargerð á Skarðsströnd 1507-1523, Máldagi kirkjunnar á Skarði á Skarðsströnd 1533, Pétrs saga postola, Páls saga postola, Andreas saga postola, Tveggja postola saga Jóns og Jakobs, Tveggja AMpostola 239 saga fol. Jóhannis og Jakobi, Tómas saga postola, Filippus saga postola, Jakobs saga postola, Barthólómeus saga postola, Matthías saga postola, Tveggja postola saga Símonar og Júdasar, Mattheus saga postola, Máldagi kirkjunnar á Skarði 1401 AM 625 4to Tveggja postola saga Jóns og Jakobs, Jóns saga baptista, Pétrs saga postola, Andreas saga postola, Viðræður Gregoríusar, Dialogi Gregorii AM 651 I-II 4toVeraldar saga, Um stórþing, Kennimannsskapur, Páfatal, Andreas saga postola, Jóns saga baptista, Blanda, Gátu- AMvísa, 235 Bóndi fol. nokkur sendi húskarl sinn, Skriftaboð Þorláks biskups, Messuskýring og allra tíða Tveggja postola saga Jóns og Jakobs, Jóns saga baptista Hallvarðs saga, Jóns saga baptista, Sebastíanus saga, Agnesar saga meyiar, Maríu saga egipzku, Magnús saga Eyjajarls - Magnús saga hin skamma, Jóns saga Hólabiskups, Pétrs saga postola, Margrétar saga, Marthe saga ok Marie Mag- AMdalene, 238 Ólafs VIII fol.saga hins helga, Fídesar saga, Spesar ok Karítasar, Lárentíus saga erkidjákns, Saga vorrar frú, Ágústínus saga, AMMauritius 238 II saga, fol. Díónysíuss saga, Kross saga, Theódórs saga, Marteins saga biskups, Cecilíu saga meyiar AM 233 a fol. Sebastíanus saga, Hallvarðs saga, Jóns saga baptista Andreas saga postola, Basislius saga, Vita Sancti Basilii, Katrínar saga, Agnesar saga, Agathu saga AM 234 fol. Jóns saga baptista, Maríu saga, Maríu jartegnir, Niðrstigningar saga, Kross saga, Saga af Fides, Spes og Karitas, Katrínar saga, Marthe saga ok Marie Magdalene, Agnesar saga, Agathu saga, Margrétar sagaAdónías saga AM 429 12mo Antóníus saga - Vita beati Antonii abbatis, Páls saga postola, Maríu saga ok Maríu jartegnir, Mirakel om Jomfru Marias fødsel, Maríu saga, Maríu jartegnir, Jóns saga Hólabiskups, Ágústínus saga, Vitæ patrum, Thómas saga erkibiskups Margrétar saga, Bøn til den hellige Margrete, Katrínar saga, Cecilíu saga, Cecilíu diktur, Dorotheu saga, Doro- AMtheudiktur, 662 b 4to Dorotheu kvæði, Et vers til den hellige Dorothea, En bøn til den hellige Dorothea, Agnesar saga, Agöthu saga, Barbare saga, Saga af Fides, Spes og Karitas Maríu saga, Thómas saga erkibiskups
Appendix 5:
AMManuscripts 233 a fol. in the cluster of female saints AM 238 II fol. Jóns saga baptista, Maríu saga, Maríu jartegnir, Niðrstigningar saga, Kross saga, Saga af Fides, Spes og Karitas, AMKatrínar 428 bsaga, 12mo Marthe saga ok Marie Magdalene, Agnesar saga, Agathu saga, Margrétar saga AM 429 12mo Andreas saga postola, Basislius saga, Katrínar saga, Agnesar saga, Agathu saga Margrétar saga Margrétar saga, Bøn til den hellige Margrete, Katrínar saga, Cecilíu saga, Cecilíu diktur, Dorotheu saga, Doro- AMtheudiktur, 430 12mo Dorotheu kvæði, Et vers til den hellige Dorothea, En bøn til den hellige Dorothea, Agnesar saga, Agöthu saga, AMBarbare 432 saga,12mo Saga af Fides, Spes og Karitas AM 433 a 12mo Margrétar saga AM 433 b 12mo Margrétar saga AM 433 d 12mo Margrétar saga AM 667 I 4to Margrétar saga, Bæn AM 667 II 4to Margrétar saga, Margrétarvers, Latneskar bænir Margrétar saga Katrínar saga
66 Appendix 6:
MCL clusters of manuscripts containing Entertaining Stories ClusterAM 133 fol./Kálfalækjarbók 8: AM 162 B alfa fol. AM 162 B beta fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B delta fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B epsilon fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B eta fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B gamma fol./Óssbók Njáls saga AM 162 B iota fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B kappa fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B zeta fol. Njáls saga AM 162 B þeta fol. Njáls saga AM 162 D 1 fol. Njáls saga AM 162 D 2 fol. Njáls saga AM 162 E fol./KBAdd. Laxdæla 20 saga fol. AM 309 4to/Bæjarbók Laxdæla í Flóasaga Laxdæla saga, Eyrbyggja saga Uddrag fra Flateyarbók, Ólafs saga Tryggvasonar, Ættartala, Hverir konungar styrt hafa Nore- gi, Þáttr Þorvalds tasalda, Þáttr Finns ok Sveins, Þáttr Rauðs hins ramma, Þáttr Þorsteins skelks, Þáttr Indriða ilbreiðs, Gauta AMþáttr, 466 Þáttr 4to Þorsteins uxafóts, Þáttr af Norna-Gesti, Þáttr Helga Þórissonar, Þáttr af Sneglu-Halla, Laxdæla saga, Eyrbyggja AMsaga, 468 Njáls 4to/Reykjabók saga GKS 2870 4to Njáls saga Njáls saga, Vísur vedrørende Njáls saga, Lovsang til Jomfru Maria Njáls saga
ClusterAM 152 1-211: fol. Grettis saga, Hálfdanar saga Brönufóstra, Flóvents saga, Sigurðar saga þögla, Þórðar saga hreðu, Göngu- AMHrólfs 533 saga, 4to Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, Ectors saga - Hektors saga, Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar, Mágus saga, Gautreks saga, AMHómilía 534 4to AM 556 a 4to Mágus saga, Partalópa saga, Karls þáttr vesala, Stúfs þáttr skálds Þórðarsonar, Elis saga Mágus saga AM 556 b 4to Sigurgarðs saga frækna, Saga af Sigurgarði hinum frækna, Grettis saga, Grettisfærsla, Gísla saga Súrssonar, AMHarðar 567 saga XIII og 4to Hólmverja AM 567 XIV α Mágus4to saga, Jarlmanns saga og Hermanns, Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar AM 567 XIV β 4to Ectors saga - Hektors saga AM 567 XIV γ 4to Gautreks saga AM 567 XVII β 4to Gautreks saga AM 567 XVII γ 4to Gautreks saga AM 567 XXIV 4to Mágus saga AM 570 a 4to Mágus saga AM 580 4to Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar AM 596 1-2 4to Adonias saga, Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar, Flóvents saga, Hákonar saga Ívarssonar, Sálus saga ok Nikanórs Elis saga ok Rósamundu, Bærings saga, Flóvents saga, Mágus saga, Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar Sigurðar saga þögla
ClusterAM 132 fol./Möðruvallabók16:
AM 162 A beta fol. Njáls saga, Egils saga Skallagrímssonar, Finnboga saga ramma, Bandamanna saga, Kormáks AMsaga, 162 Víga-Glúms A delta fol. saga, Droplaugarsona saga, Ölkofra þáttur, Hallfreðar saga, Laxdæla saga, Fóstbræðra saga AM 162 A epsilon fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar AM 162 A eta fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar AM 162 A gamma fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar AM 162 A iota fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar AM 162 A kappa fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar AM 162 A zeta fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar AM 162 A þeta fol. Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Egils saga Skallagrímssonar Egils saga Skallagrímssonar
ClusterAM 343 a 1 4to7: Þorsteins þáttur bæjarmagns, Samsons saga fagra, Egils saga einhenda og Ásmundar berserkjabana, Flóres saga konungs og sona hans, Vilhjálms saga sjóðs, Yngvars saga víðförla, Ketils saga hængs, Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar- AMOdds 344 saga, a 4to Áns saga bogsveigis, Sálus saga og Nikanórs, Hálfdanar saga Eysteinssonar, Bósa saga, Vilmundar saga viðutan, Perus saga meistara Örvar-Odds saga
67 AM 471 4to
AM 567 IV 4to Þórðar saga hreðu, Króka-Refs saga, Kjalnesinga saga, Ketils saga hængs, Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar-Odds AMsaga, 577 Viktors 4to saga og Blávus Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar-Odds saga AM 586 4to/Arnarbælisbók Egils saga einhenda og Ásmundar berserkjabana, Vilhjálms saga sjóðs, Bósa saga, Af bóndasyni nokkrum í kóngsgarði, Þorsteins þáttur bæjarmagns, Vilmundar saga viðutan, Flóres saga konungs og sona hans Af þremur kumpánum, Um kóngsson, hertogason og jarlsson, Af þremur þjófum í Danmörk - Af Ill, Verra og Versta, Um bryta einn í Þýskalandi, Af bryta og bónda, Af meistara Perus - Af meistara Pero og hans lei- kum, Af Vilhjálmi bastarði og sonum hans, Anselmus þáttur erkibiskups, Af Tómasi erkibiskupi, Roðberts þáttur, Frá ferðum Roðberts og hans manna, Af Baldvin Jórsalakonungi, Flóres saga konungs og sona hans, Bósa saga, Vilmundar saga viðutan, AMHálfdanar 589 b saga4to Eysteinssonar, Hrings saga og Tryggva, Þórðar saga hreðu, Sagan af Þórði hreðu, Króka-Refs saga, Ásmundar AMsaga 589 kappabana e 4to Samsons saga fagra AM 593 b 4to Þorsteinn þáttur bæjarmagns, Egils saga einhenda og Ásmundar berserkjabana, Hálfdanar saga Brönufóstra, Ála flekks saga, Hákonar þáttur Hárekssonar Viktors saga og Blávus, Sneglu-Halla þáttur
ClusterAM 567 II 21: 4to AM 567 VII 4to AM 567 X 4to Bevers saga, Rémundar saga keisarasonar, Elís saga og Rósamundu, Bærings saga AM 567 XIX α 4to Bevers saga AM 567 XIX γ Elís4to saga og Rósamundu AM 574 4to Rémundar saga keisarasonar Rémundar saga keisarasonar Bærings saga, Rémundar saga keisarasonar, Elís saga og Rósamundu
ClusterAM 335 4to27: Sturlaugs saga starfsama, Um Samson, Af þremur kumpánum, Af þremur þjófum í Danmörk, Af sjö listum og sjö dyggðum og sjö leikum, Um heilræði er einn arabískur maður kenndi syni sínum, Frá skógfaranda manni og einum ormi, AMAf versificatori 567 III 4to er gjörðist portari, Gibbons saga, Hverju áköllun heilagrar Dórótheu getur áorkað, Drauma-Jóns saga, Af AMrómverska 567 XVI dáranum 4to AM 657 a-b 4to Drauma-Jóns saga, Af dauða og kóngssyni, Sagan af Mors Gibbons saga, Konráðs saga keisarasonar Michaels saga höfudengils, Maríu jartegnir, Íslenzk æfintýri, Drauma-Jóns saga, Hákonar þáttr Háreks sonar, Íslenzk æfintýri, Af Furseo, En abbed og hans plejefader, Kejser Phocas, En strid mellem engle og djævle, Kejser Tiburcius
ClusterAM 162 H 28: fol. AM 162 M fol. AM 445 b 4to, Bárðar AM 445 saga c I Snæfellsáss4to, AM 564 a 4to/Pseudo-Vatnshyrna Ættartölur, Um fornan átrúnað Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss, Þórðar saga hreðu, Bergbúa AMþáttur, 551 Kumlbúa a 4to þáttur, Draumur Þorsteins Síðu-Hallssonar, Víga-Glúms saga, Harðar saga, Ættartölur, Landnámabók, Vatns- dæla saga, Flóamanna saga, Eyrbyggja saga, Gísla saga Súrssonar Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss, Víglundar saga, Grettis saga
ClusterAM 567 XV 46: 4to AM 589 a 4to Kirjalax saga Kirjalax saga Cluster 47:
AM 598 I α 4to Mǫttuls saga AM 598 I β 4to Mǫttuls saga
Cluster 61:
AM 567 IX 4to Clarus saga AM 589 d 4to Clarus saga, Ectors saga - Hektors saga, Stúfs þáttur
68 Figures
Fig. 1: riddarasögur
Network of co-occurring in manuscripts (Source: Hall and Parsons 2013, Figure 2)
69 Fig. 2:
The ego-network of AM 681 a 4to extracted from the network in Figure 3
70 Fig. 3: Handrit.is ForceAt- las2 Network of Icelandic manuscripts produced before 1540 on in spring-embedded layout
71 Fig. 4:
The clusters of law books in Fig. 3. Labels indicate the main shared text
72 Fig. 5:
Otherwise unconnected clusters with more than 3 nodes in Fig. 3. Labels indicate the main shared text
73 Fig. 6:
The network after removal of unconnected nodes, unconnected clusters and other- wise unconnected law books
74 Fig. 7:
Well defined clusters in Fig. 6. Labels indicate the main shared text
75 Fig. 8:
General structure of the network in Fig. 6. Note that law books would make up the largest group if they had not been reduced. The dividing lines are only approximate
76 Fig. 9: - The network after reduction by edges with a weight of 1 and uncon nected notes. See Appendix 4 for a full list of nodes and associated texts
77 AM 56 8vo AM 325 IX 2 a 4toAM 325 XI 2 i 4to AM 624 4to AM 655 XXXI 4to AM 696 AMXXXI 667 4toAM XVII 667 4to XV 4to AM Dipl.AM Isl. Dipl. Fasc. Isl. II,20 Fasc. II,8 AM 325 XI 2 n 4to AM 598 II 4to AM 655 XX 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,18 AM 325 XI 2 k 4to AM 696 XVI 4to Lbs dipl 7 AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,4 AM 325 XI 2 e 4to AM 681 b 4to AM 325 XI AM2 l 4to 73 b fol./BæjarbókAM 325 XI á2 AMRauðasandif 4to 325 XI 2 m 4to Lbs dipl 2 AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,11 AM 238 XXVIII fol. Lbs dipl 4 AM 432 12mo AM 238 XXVI fol. AM 688 c 4to AM 667 I 4to AM 655 XXIII 4to/Villa AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. III,10 AM 75 a fol./BæjarbókAM í 921BorgarfirðiAM II 3254to VII 4to AM 655 XVII 4to AM 573 4to AM 655 XI 4to AM 325AM VI 325 4to XI 2 c 4to JS dipl 6 AM 325 XI 2 g 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,14 AMKG 325 1 V 4toAM 68AM fol. 325 XI 2 aAM 4to 75 b fol. AM 433 b 12mo AM 655 XVIII 4to AM 673 a II 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,14 AM 186 4to AM 681 c 4to AM 687 a 4to AM 291 4to AM 433 a 12mo AM 238 XV fol. AM 696 IV 4to AM 75 c fol. AM 371 4to, AM 544 4to, AM 675 AM 75AM e I-V325 fol. IX 2 4to AM 433 d 12mo AM 667 V 4to AM 598 II 4to AM 650 b 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,17 Lbs fragm 58 AM 240 I fol. AM 660 4to 4to/Hauksbók AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,5 AMAM 325 325 XI XI 2 2h d4to 4to/Codex AM 655 IX 4to AM 655 I 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,11 GKS 1157 fol./Konungsbók Grágásar AM 61 fol. AM 240 fol. AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,5 AM AM173 173d A 28d A 4to 11, 19 4to Resenianus AM 240 XI fol. AM 646 4to AM 645 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,1 AM 126 4to AM 42 b 8vo AM 428 b 12mo AM 681 a 4to JS dipl 4 JS dipl 5 AM 173 d A 1 4to AMAM 42 173 a 8vo d A 22 4to AM 325AM XI 3252 p 4toXI 2 b 4to AM 430 12mo AM 696 XXVI 4to AM 325 XI 2 o 4to AM 240 X fol. AM 696 XII 4to AM 237 a fol. AM 673 a I 4to AMLbs 173 fragm d AAM 9 7/Jónsbók AM 4to456 138 12mo 4to AMAM 240 238 IX VI fol. fol. AM 621 4to AM 736 III 4to AM 434 b 12moAMJS 173 fragm d A 12/Jónsbók 7 4to AMAM 51175 8vo a 4toAM 128 4to AM 315 c fol. AM 240 VIII fol. AM 240 II fol. AM 655 XVI 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. III,1 Rask 72 b AM 173 c 4to AM 429 12mo LbsAM fragm655 XXIV 3/Maríu 4to saga AM 655 XII-XIII 4to/Höskuldstaðabók AM AM344AMAM 48 fol.354 1358vo fol. 4to AM 325 IV 4to AM 667 XIAM 4to 667 VII 4to GKS 1005 fol./Flateyjarbók AM 655 II 4to Lbs dipl 3 AMAM 173 173 b 4to d AMA AM25 347 4to173AM fol. d334 AMA 23 fol./Staðarhólsbók 173 4to d A 18, 31 4to AM 53 fol. AM 240 XIII fol. AM 623 4to AM 674 c 4to AMAM 37 173 a 8vodAM A 4 127 4to 4to AM 136 4to AM 325 IX 1 a 4to AM 325 I 4to AM 655 XXXIIAM 240 4to III fol. AM 173 d A 21, 26, 35, 36 4to AM 315 d fol. AM 180 b fol. AM 233 a fol. JS fragm 8 a/postola sögur AM 173 d A 30 4to AM 139AM 4to137 4to AM 158 b 4to SÁM 1/Codex Scardensis, AM 639 4to AM 173 d A 14 4toAM 173 d CAM 4 4to AM41 8vo50 8vo AM 325 VIII 2 h 4to. AM 647 4to AMAM 173151 d4to A 17, 24AM 4to 350 fol. AM 325 VIII 2 d 4to. AM 238 XIII fol. Skarðsbók postolasagna AM 343 fol./SvalbarðsbókAM 168 a 4toAM 132 4to AM 173 d B 8 4to AM 325 VIII 2 a 4to. AM 240 V fol. AM 667 XIIIAM 4to 240 IV fol. AM 674 a 4to AM 346 fol.AM 173AM d A169 8 4to 4toAM 279 a 4to AM 325 VIII 2 c 4to. AM 658 I-V 4to AM 685 b 4to AM 315 l fol. GKS 3270 4to AM 240AM VI666 fol. a 4to AM 652 4to AM 239 fol. AM 168 b 4toAM 152AM 4to 158AM a 4to 148 4to AMLbs 240 fragm XIV fol. 4/Maríu saga JS fragmAM 159 20/Jónsbók 4toAM 154 AM4toAM 39155 8vo a 4to AM 310 4to AM 667 II 4to AM 238 IV fol. AM 49 8voGKS 3269a 4toAM 52 8vo AM 54AM fol. 325 VIII 2 g 4to. AM 325 III - 4to AM 234 fol. AM 625 4to AMAM 173 134 d A 4to ÍB6 4to 301AM 4to173 d A AM3AM 4to 175351 cfol. AM4to 177 4to AM 325 VIII 2 e 4to. AM 662 b 4to AM 173 d A 33AM 4to 173 d A 5, 20, 34 4to AM 238 II fol. AM 655 XIX 4to AM 674 b 4to JS fragmAM 1/Jónsbók 173 d A 10, 13 4to AM 720 a VIII 4to AM 650 a 4to AM 173 AMd B 1749 4to I A-D 4to AM 325 VIII 2 f 4to. AM 325 XI 1 4to AM 173 d A 12 4toAM 157 b 4to AM 325 VIII 2 b 4to. AMAM 15643 8vo 4to AM 240 XII fol. AM 649 a 4to AMAM 173 155GKS d b B 32684to 4 4to 4to AM 651 I-II 4to AM 173 d B 6 4to JS fragm 7/Tveggja postola saga AM 173AM d 173 B 3 d4to B 5 4to AM 238 V fol. AM 653 b II 4to AM 557 4to AM 240 VII fol. Jóns og Jakobs AM 157 a 4to AM 687 d 4to GKS 2845 4to/Konungsbók AM 662 a II 4to AM 653 a 4toAM 653 b I 4to
AM 662 a III 4to
AM 589 c 4to
AM 589 f 4to
AM 325 VIII 1 4to. AM 466 4to Lbs fragmLbs 41 fragm 38 AM 383 II 4to AM 383 I 4to AM 567 XXIV 4to AM 667 XII 4to AM 249 n fol. AM 598 III 4to AM 696 XV 4to AM 736 II 4to AM 162 B beta fol. AM 249 e fol. AM 598 III 4to JS fragm 17 AM 533 4to AM 238 IX fol. AM 249 b fol. AM 162 B gamma fol./Óssbók JS fragm 10 AM 133 fol./Kálfalækjarbók Lbs fragm 29 AM 667 IX 4to AM 243 e fol. AM 39 fol. GKS 2870 4to AM 66 fol./Hulda JS fragm 13 AM 556 a 4to AM 243 g fol. Lbs fragm 37 AM 556 b 4to AM 249 f fol.AM 249AM k fol. 249 q fol. I-VIII AM 162 B zeta fol. Lbs fragm 33 AM 383 IV 4to AM 567 XVII 4to AM 249 c fol. AM 243 f fol. AM 162 B eta fol. AM 162 B þeta fol. Lbs fragm 31 AM 382 4toAM 383 III 4to Lbs fragm 40 AM 655 X 4to AM 595 a-b 4to AM 162 B alfa fol. AM 567 XVII 4to AM 238 VIII fol. AM 243 a fol. Lbs fragm 34 AM 232 fol. AM 228 fol. AM 162 B kappa fol. Lbs fragm 36 Lbs fragm 35 AM 567 XIII 4to AM 249 o fol.AM 249 l fol. AM 243 k fol. AM 162 B iota fol. Lbs fragm 42 AM 249 h fol. AM 238 XVII fol. AM 325 VIII 5 b 4to. AM 468 4to/Reykjabók AM 225 fol. AM 243 h I fol. AM 45 fol. AM 325 VIII 4 c 4to. AM 47 fol./Eirspennill AM 309 4to/Bæjarbók í Flóa Lbs fragm 32 Lbs fragm 39 AM 152 1-2 fol. AM 580 4to AM 1056 I 4to AM 655 XXV 4to AM 243 h III fol. AM 327 4to AM 162 B delta fol. Lbs fragm 30 AM 235 fol. AM 249 d fol.AM 249 p fol. AM 162 D 1 fol. AM 162 B epsilon fol. Lbs fragm 43 AM 219 fol. AM 534 4to AM 238 XII fol. AM 567 XIV 4to AM 243 l fol. AM 325 X 4to.AM 325 VIII 3 a 4to. AM 243 h II fol. AM 325 VIII 5 a 4to. Lbs fragm 5/Guðmundar sagaAM 220 V fol. AM 227 fol. AM 325 VIII 3 d 4to./Jöfraskinna AM 229 fol. AM 519 a 4to Lbsbiskups fragm 6/Guðmundar saga AM 81 a fol./Skálholtsbók yngsta biskups AM 221 fol. AM 226 fol. AM 325 VIII 3 c 4to. AM 220 I fol. AM 570 a 4to AM 238 XI fol. AM 325 VIII 5 c 4to. AM 396 4to AM 567 XIV 4to AM 325 VIII 4 b 4to.AM 162 E fol./KBAdd. 20AM fol. 162 D 2 fol. AM 567 XIV 4to SÁM 2 JS fragm 5/Guðmundar saga biskups AM 655 XXIX 4to AM 325 VIII 3 b 4to. AM 596 1-2 4to AM 655 XXXIII 4to AM 325 VIII 4 a 4to. AM 238 I fol. AM 657 c 4to AM 220 II fol.
AM 220 IIIAM fol. 220 IV fol.
AM 242 fol./Ormsbók, Codex AM 162 A epsilon fol. AM 589 e 4to Lbs fragm 60 Lbs fragm 55 AM 567 XIX 4to AM 686 c 4to Lbs fragm 71 AM 640 4to/Ærlækjarbók AM 579 4to AM 672 4to AM 162 A iota fol. Lbs fragm 64 Lbs fragm 51 Wormianus AM 696 XXX 4to Lbs fragm 70 AM 642 a I alfa 4to AM 567 VI beta 4to AM 162 A kappa fol. AM 162 A delta fol. AM 577 4to Lbs fragm 65 Lbs fragm 50 AM 574 4to Lbs fragm 62 JS fragm 15 AM 757 a 4to AM 696 XXXII 4to Lbs fragm 68 AM 642 a I beta 4to AM 593 a 4to AM 162 A eta fol. Lbs fragm 63 Lbs fragm 53 AM 686 b 4to AM 162 A gamma fol. AM 132 fol./Möðruvallabók AM 567 XIX 4to AM 589 b 4to AM 748 I b 4to AM 757 b 4to Lbs fragm 61 Lbs fragm 54 Lbs fragm 69 AM 642 a I delta 4to AM 567 VI alfa 4to AM 626 4to GKS 2367 4to/Codex Regius AM 686 a 4to AM 343 a 4to Lbs fragm 26 Lbs fragm 52 AM 162 A zeta fol. AM 162 A beta fol. AM 567 II 4to JS fragm 14 AM 642 a I gamma 4to AM 567 I 4to AM 567 X 4to AM 642 a II 4to AM 162 A þeta fol. Lbs fragm 59 Lbs fragm 56 AM 586 4to/Arnarbælisbók AM 748 II 4to AM 567 IV 4to AM 756 4to AM 655 VIII 4to AM 344 a 4to AM 655 VII 4to
AM 567 VII 4to AM 471 4to
AM 593 b 4to
AM 335 4to AM 162 H fol. Lbs fragm 18 Lbs fragm 22 AM 238 XXVII fol.AM 238 XXIV fol. Lbs dipl 10 Lbs dipl 8 AM 60 4to AM 469 12mo AM 655 XIV 4to AM 921 IV 4to AM 696 II 4to JS dipl 3 AM 791 4to
AM 655 XXII 4to AM 696 I 4to AM 680 a 4to AM 657 a-b 4to AM 435 12mo AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,16 AM 445 b 4to, AM 445 c I 4to, AM 564 a 4to/Pseudo-Vatnshyrna AM 304 fol. AM 238 X fol. AM 567 III 4to Lbs fragm 23 AM 788 4to AM 238 XXV fol. AM 696 VII 4to Lbs dipl 5 Lbs dipl 9 AM 551 a 4to AM 162 M fol. AM 661 4to AM 655 XXX 4to AM 680 b 4to AM 567 XVI 4to AM 683 c 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,23
AM 173 d C 3 4to AM 655 XXVIII a 4to
Lbs dipl 12 AM 220 VI fol. AM 238 VII fol. Lbs fragm 46 AM 688 a 4to JS dipl 9 AM 725 4to AM 567 XV 4to AM 598 I 4to AM 642 b 4to AM 20 b II fol. AM 696 XXI 4to AM 238 XIX fol. AM 826 4to AM 162 C fol. AM 415 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,19 AM 180 a fol. AM 62 fol. AM 230 fol. GKS 2365 4to Lbs fragm 78 AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,10 AM 655 IV 4to Lbs fragm 45
AM 122 b fol. AM 685 d 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,20 AM 655 V 4to Lbs fragm 44 JS dipl 10 AM 733 4to AM 589 a 4to AM 598 I 4to AM 643 4to AM 20 b I fol. AM 696 XXV 4to AM 696 XX 4to AM 825 4to AM 561 4to AM 732 b 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,1 AM 180 c fol. AM 567 V 4to AM 231 I-X fol. AM 748 I a 4to Lbs fragm 77
AM 122 a fol. AM 194 8vo
AM 567 IX 4to AM 696 XVII 4to Lbs fragm 49 AM 685 c 4to AM 238 XIV fol. AM 667 III 4to SÁM 60 AM 921 V 4to AM 720 a VI 4to Lbs fragm 57 AM 732 a VII 4to AM 567 XXV 4to AM 238 XX fol. AM 173 d B 1 4to AM 696 XXIX 4to AM 696 XVIII 4to AM 696 XXII 4to AM 720 a VII 4to AM 241 b I fol. AM 325 XI 3 4to AM 736 I 4to AM 673 a III 4to AM 903 4to AM 241 b IV fol. AM 696 XXIV 4to AM 696 III 4to AM 655 III 4to AM 1 e I fol.
AM 589 d 4to AM 696 XIX 4to Lbs fragm 48
Fig. 11: - Han- AM 656 I-II 4to AM 667 XVIII 4to AM 445 c II 4to AM 567 XXVI 4to AM 238 XXIX fol. AM 673 b 4to AM 684 4to AM 241 b VI fol. AM 276 b 4to AM 241 b VII fol. AM 162 I fol. AM 829 4to AM 641 4to AM 696 XXXIII 4to AM 173 d C 1 4to AM 667 XIX 4to AM 655 XXVIII b 4to JS dipl 8 JS dipl 7 GKS 1812 4to AM 679 4to AM 696 X 4to AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. II,13AM 238 XXII fol. AM 668 4to AM 655 XV 4to Acc. 7 e AM 238 XXIII fol. drit.is Network of Icelandic manu scripts produced before 1540 on AM 133 4to AM 655 XXVII 4to AM 671 4to AM 386 II 4to AM 655 XXI 4to Lbs fragm 27 Lbs fragm 24 Lbs fragm 25 JS fragm 8 b Lbs fragm 21 AM 966 4to AM 240 XV fol. AM 325 II 4to AM 191 4to AM 315 b fol. AM 406 a I 4to AM 241 b V fol. AM 655 XXVI 4to AM 238 XXI fol. AM 696 XXVIII 4to AM 696 XIV 4to AM 173 d C 2 4to AM 662 a I 4toAM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VI,12AM 238 XVI fol. AM 241 b II fol.AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. IV,11AM 241 a I fol. clustered with MCL
AM 720 a V 4toAM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,22AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. V,21 AM 687 b 4to AM 315 a fol. AM 173 d C 6 4to AM 567 XII 4to Lbs fragm 76 Lbs fragm 73 AM 420 b 4to AM 155 b 8vo AM 386 I 4to AM 667 X 4to AM 688 b 4to AM 325 IV 4to AM 420 a 4to AM 655 VI 4to AM 114 a 4to AM 61 a 4to AM 567 XXII 4to AM 434 a 12moAM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. III,12AM Dipl. Isl. Fasc. AMIII,13 Dipl. Isl. Fasc. VII,29AM 921 III 4to AM 696 XI 4to AM 173 d C 5 4to AM 680 c 4to
Lbs fragm 1/Heiðarvíga sagaLbs fragm 47 AM 575 a 4to AM 583 c 4to AM 241 b IIIAM fol. 399 4to/Codex ResenianusAM 667 XIV 4to Lbs fragm 74 AM 696 V 4to JS dipl 11 AM 678 4to AM 685 a 4to AM 696 XXIII 4to AM 162 G fol. Lbs fragm 20AM 764 4to/ReynistaðarbókLbs dipl 11 AM 241 a II fol.
78 Fig. 10:
Cluster 12 in Fig. 9 with node and edge labels. Notice the split into sagas of saints and apostles
Fig. 12:
Clusters 3 and 4 of the network in Fig. 11. Manuscripts primarily containing sagas of female saints are marked in black
79 Fig. 13: Handrit.is
MCL clustered network of Icelandic manuscripts on dated to before the year 1250
80 Fig. 14: Handrit.is
MCL clustered network of Icelandic manuscripts on dated to the years 1251-1350
81 Fig. 15: Handrit.is
MCL clustered network of Icelandic manuscripts on dated to the years 1351-1450
82 Fig. 16: Handrit.is
MCL clustered network of Icelandic manuscripts on dated to the years 1451-1540
83