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An Integrated Study for the Evaluation of Natural and Anthropogenic Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Vol. 56, Suppl. 1, 045–067 Article Stuttgart, January 2012 An integrated study for the evaluation of natural and anthropogenic causes of fl ooding in small catchments based on geomorphological and meteorological data and modeling techniques: The case of the Xerias torrent (Corinth, Greece) Efthimios Karymbalis, Petros Katsafados, Christos Chalkias and Kaliopi Gaki-Papanastassiou, Athens with 9 fi gures and 2 tables Summary. This study investigates the natural (hydro-meteorological and geomorphological) and anthro- pogenic factors responsible for fl ooding events in the ungauged Xerias torrent drainage basin, which is located in northeastern Peloponnesus, Greece. The study focuses on the analysis of the meteorological and hydrological processes of the most severe fl ooding event of the torrent, which happened on January 11th and 12th, 1997. The combined effects of spatially-varied precipitation and catchment characteristics on surface runoff were examined for this fl ash-fl ood event. The major meteorological feature of this event is associ- ated with the passage of a cyclonic system accompanied by a cold front. 176 mm of rainfall in 10 hours was recorded at the meteorological station closest to the fl ooded area, demonstrating the severity of the event. In order to investigate the development and evolution of this cyclonic system, a numerical simulation was performed using a non-hydrostatic limited area atmospheric model on a very fi ne spatiotemporal resolution. Detailed atmospheric and soil parameters derived from the atmospheric simulation were imported into an integrated Geographical Information System (GIS) for further hydrological analysis and estimation of hy- drographs throughout the catchment area. Additionally, the quantitative geomorphological characteristics of the Xerias torrent drainage basin were estimated and studied. The hierarchical drainage by stream order was investigated and the longitudinal profi les, as well as the stream power diagrams of the main stream and seven of its major tributaries, were constructed and analysed. The estimated maximum discharge for the outlet was ~610 m3/sec at almost 21:00 (12/12/1997), while this value for Solomos (9 km upstream from the river mouth) and Soussana (13.6 km upstream from the mouth) were estimated as ~540 m3/sec and ~410 m3/sec, respectively. Among the most important natural fl ood causes are extreme rainfall and the geomorphological characteristics of the drainage network. These features include irregularities in the number of channels that drain directly into streams of higher order, as well as the high bifurcation ratio values between the fourth and the fi fth order streams and high channel gradients in the upper reaches of the tributaries. A crucial fl ood factor is also human interference, expressed by artifi cial confi nement of the channels and the construction of ineffi cient bridges and pipes to facilitate the discharge. Keywords: Xerias torrent, fl ash-fl ood event, Geographical Information System (GIS), runoff simulation, stream power Zusammenfassung. Eine zusammenfassende Studie über die Beurteilung der natürlichen und anthropogenen Gründe für Flutereignisse in kleinen Einzugsgebieten, basierend auf geomorphologischen und meteorologischen Daten sowie Modelltechniken: Der Xerias Strom (Korinth, Griechenland) Diese Studie untersucht die natürlichen (hydro-meteorologische und geomorphologische) und an- thropogenen Faktoren, die für das Hochwasser in der Umgebung des Xerias Stroms (nordöstliche Pelopon- nes, Griechenland) verantwortlich sind. Die Studie konzentriert sich auf die Analyse der meteorologischen und hydrologischen Prozesse der schwersten Hochwasserkatastrophe vom 11. und 12. Januar 1997. Sowohl die räumlich variierende Niederschlagsmenge als auch die Beschaffenheit des Oberfl ächenabfl usses wird © 2012 Gebrüder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany www.borntraeger.de DOI: 10.1127/0372-8854/2012/S-00072 0372-8854/12/S-00072 $ 5.75 F-05_Karymbalis.indd 45 27.02.2012 09:44:03 46 E. Karymbalis et al. hierfür untersucht. Der wesentliche meteorologische Bestandteil dieses Ereignisses ist der Durchzug eines Tiefdruckgebietes, das von einer Kaltfront begleitet wird. Eine Niederschlagsmenge von 176 mm in 10 Stun- den wird von der nahegelegenen meteorologischen Station gemessen. Um die Entstehung und Entwicklung dieses Zyklons zu erforschen, wird eine numerische Simulation benutzt, unter Verwendung eines nicht hyd- rostatisch begrenzten Modells mit einer sehr feinen spatiotemporalen Aufl ösung. Detaillierte Parameter der Luft sowie des Bodens sind das Ergebnis der Simulation. Diese wurden für weitere hydrologische Analysen und Einschätzung von Ganglinien im gesamten Einzugsgebiet in ein integriertes geographisches Informati- onssystem (GIS) eingegeben. Die Deutung dieser Ganglinien trägt zur dynamischen Auswertung des Ereig- nisses, sowie zur quantitativen Schätzung der Höchstentladungen bei. Zusätzlich wurden die quantitativen geomorphologischen morphometrischen Eigenschaften des Xerias Strom-Entwässerungsgebietes geschätzt und studiert. Die hierarchische Entwässerung durch Verdampfung wurde erforscht und die Längsprofi le des Hauptstromes und der sieben Nebenfl üsse wurden konstruiert und analysiert. Der geschätzte maximale Abfl uss war ~610 m3/s um 21:00 (12/12/1997) für den Abfl usskanal, ~540 m3/s für Solomos (9 km von der Mündung fl ussaufwärts) und ~410 m3/s für Soussana (13,6 km von der Mündung fl ussaufwärts). Die Ursachen dieser Flut sind extremer Niederschlag und die geomorphologischen Eigenschaften des Entwäs- serungsnetzes. Dazu zählen Unregelmäßigkeiten in der Anzahl der Kanäle, die direkt in Ströme höherer Ordnung fl ießen sowie der hohe Anteil an Gabelungen zwischen der vierten und fünften Ordnung von Zufl üssen. Ein entscheidender Faktor ist auch der menschliche Eingriff durch künstliche Anordnung von Kanälen sowie ineffi zienten Brücken und Rohren, die das Entladen erleichtern. Résumé. Une étude intégrée pour l’évaluation des causes naturelles et anthropogéniques amènent à des inondations en de petits bassins de drainage, basée sur de données géomorphologiques – météorologiques et de techniques de modélisation. Le cas du torretorrentnt de Xerias (Corinthe, Grèce). Cette étude vise à examiner l’environnement hydro-météorologique et géomorphologique aussi bien que les facteurs humains responsables pour les inondations dans le secteur plus large du bassin de drainage du torrent Xerias, situé au NE du Péloponnèse, Grèce. L’étude est concentrée sur l’analyse des processus mé- téorologiques et hydrologiques concernant les inondations les plus graves qui ont eu lieu les 11 et 12 Janvier 1997. A l’occasion de cette inondation exceptionnelle, la distribution spatiale de la précipitation ainsi que les caractéristiques du bassin de drainage ont été examinées. Les caractéristiques météorologiques majeures de cet événement ont été liées au passage d’un système cyclonique accompagné d’un front froid. Presque 176 mm de pluie ont été enregistrés en dix heures à la station météorologique la plus proche de la région étudiée. Les paramètres atmosphériques détaillés et du sol sont le résultat de la simulation atmosphérique utilisée comme données dans un système d’information géographique intégré (GIS) pour l’analyse hydrologique et l’évaluation des hydrogrammes directs et des décharges maximales aux endroits spécifi ques du bassin de drainage. En plus, les caractéristiques morphométriques géomorphologiques quantitatives du bassin de drainage de torrent de Xerias ont été estimées et étudiées. L’hiérarchisation du drainage par ordre de trib- utaires a été étudiée ainsi que les diagrammes de puissance du torrent et les profi les longitudinaux du torrent principal et de ses sept tributaires majeurs ont été également étudiés. La décharge maximale estimée à l’embouchure était de 610 m3/sec le 12/12/1997 vers 21:00 h, alors que ces valeurs pour Solomos (à 9 km en amont) et Soussana (à 13,6 km en amont) étaient respectivement estimées à 540 m3/sec et 410 m3/sec. Parmi les causes les plus importantes de la provocation de l’inondation fut la précipitation excep- tionnelle et les caractéristiques géomorphologiques du réseau de drainage. Ces caractéristiques incluent l’hiérarchisation du drainage par ordre de tributaires, la valeur élevée du ratio de bifurcation entre le quat- rième et le cinquième ordre tributaires et la grande pente à l’amont des tributaires. Le facteur crucial provo- quant l’inondation est également les interférences humaines qui se manifestent par l’arrangement artifi ciel du canal et la construction des ponts et des conducteurs insuffi sants pour faciliter le déchargement d’eaux. F-05_Karymbalis.indd 46 27.02.2012 09:44:04 Causes of fl ooding in small catchments 47 Introduction The Mediterranean region is a transition zone between the temperate, humid northern latitudes and the dry southern latitudes. Despite the diversity of environments included in the term “Medi- terranean”, it still denotes a particular combination of complex climatic, structural and geomor- phological factors (CAMARASA-BELMONTE & SEGURA-BELTRAN 2001). In this geographical context, ephemeral streams with torrential behaviour are common fl uvial systems. Rainfall and runoff processes in torrential streams have been studied in various morphoclimatic zones, including arid, semi-arid and the Mediterranean (DE VERA 1984, SCHICK 1988, MARTINEZ-MENA et al. 1998, MAR- TIN VIDE et al. 1999). In Greece, many drainage basins are relatively small with steep slopes, confi
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