CQR U.S.-Iran Relations

Published by CQ Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. www.cqresearcher.com U.S.-Iran Relations Will the nuclear deal ease tensions?

nder an agreement last July with the United States and five other world powers, Iran promised to dismantle its military nuclear facilities and refrain U from building a nuclear weapon for at least a decade. In exchange, the United States and other countries lifted stiff economic sanctions placed on Iran because of its nuclear ac - tivities. The agreement has raised speculation that Iran might some - day join China, Vietnam and Cuba — non-democracies a nd former U.S. enemies — in cooperating on trade and diplomacy. Indeed, some believe the deal not only could spur trade between the United Good working relations between Secretary of State John Kerry, left, and Iranian Foreign Minister Javad Zarif helped bring about the Iranian nuclear deal and States and Iran but also unite them in efforts to stabilize the Middle the quick release of 10 U.S. sailors held by Iran when their patrol boats entered Iranian waters. East. O thers say, however, that improvement in U.S.-Iranian relations is far from certain . I ran continues to antagonize the United States in national security- related incidents. As a result, the United States has imposed new sanctions on Iran unrelated to its nuclear activity. I Moreover, pro-engagement leaders in both countries face internal THIS REPORT N THE ISSUES ...... 219 resistance against forming a closer relationship. S BACKGROUND ...... 225 I CHRONOLOGY ...... 227 D CURRENT SITUATION ...... 232 E CQ Researcher • March 4, 2016 • www.cqresearcher.com AT ISSUE ...... 233 Volume 26, Number 10 • Pages 217-240 OUTLOOK ...... 234 RECIPIENT OF SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS AWARD FOR BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 238 EXCELLENCE N AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SILVER GAVEL AWARD THE NEXT STEP ...... 239 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

March 4, 2016 THE ISSUES SIDEBARS AND GRAPHICS Volume 26, Number 10 EXECUTIVE EDITOR: Thomas J. Billitteri • Should the United States 220 A Neighborhood of Turmoil [email protected] 219 seek closer ties with Iran? Iran sits in one of the world’s ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITORS: Kathy Koch , • Should better U.S.-Iranian most unsettled regions. [email protected], Chuck McCutcheon , relations depend on whether [email protected], Iran improves its human-rights Americans, Iranians Eye 221 Each Other Warily Scott Rohrer, [email protected] record? Most U.S. adults view Iran • Can Iranian nuclear activities SENIOR CONTRIBUTING EDITOR: unfavorably. Thomas J. Colin be accurately monitored? [email protected] Details of Iran’s Nuclear 224 CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Brian Beary, ACKGROUND Deal Marcia Clemmitt, Sarah Glazer, Kenneth Jost, B The agreement with the Reed Karaim, Peter Katel , Barbara Mantel, U.S. and other nations limits Tom Price 225 Hot and Cold Relations Iran’s uranium enrichment for The United States severed 15 years. SENIOR PROJECT EDITOR: Olu B. Davis ties with Iran after the 1979 ASSISTANT EDITOR: Ethan McLeod hostage crisis. Chronology 227 Key events since 1951. INTERN: Molly McGinnis “Axis of Evil” 229 FACT CHECKERS: Eva P. Dasher, President George W. Bush Sanctions Continue to Michelle Harris, Nancie Majkowski, accused Iran of supporting 228 Limit U.S.-Iran Business Robin Palmer terrorism. Trade supporters hope more American products can be Nuclear Negotiations sold to Iran. 231 Iran finalized an international deal last July limiting its Iran President a ‘Loyalist nuclear development. 230 of the System’ Rouhani is watching the An Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc. nuclear deal before VICE PRESIDENT AND EDITORIAL DIRECTOR, CURRENT SITUATION committing to better HIGHER EDUCATION GROUP: U.S. relations. Michele Sordi Iranian Elections 232 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, ONLINE LIBRARY AND Moderates and reform-minded At Issue: REFERENCE PUBLISHING: politicians dealt a blow to 233 Should the United States seek Todd Baldwin hard-liners. closer ties with Iran? Copyright © 2016 CQ Press, an Imprint of SAGE Pub - 232 Avoiding Sanctions lications, Inc. SAGE reserves all copyright and other Companies are prohibited FOR FURTHER RESEARCH rights herein, unless pre vi ous ly spec i fied in writing. from doing business with No part of this publication may be reproduced Iran’s Revolutionary Guards. For More Information electronically or otherwise, without prior written 237 Organizations to contact. permission. Un au tho rized re pro duc tion or trans mis - 234 U.S. Politics sion of SAGE copy right ed material is a violation of Some lawmakers want new Bibliography federal law car ry ing civil fines of up to $100,000. sanctions against Iran tough - 238 Selected sources used. ened. CQ Press is a registered trademark of Congressional Quarterly Inc. The Next Step 239 Additional articles . CQ Researcher (ISSN 1056-2036) is printed on acid-free OUTLOOK paper. Pub lished weekly, except: (March wk. 4) (May 239 Citing CQ Researcher wk. 4) (July wks. 1, 2) (Aug. wks. 2, 3) (Nov. wk. 4) 234 Uncertain Relations Sample bibliography formats. and (Dec. wks. 3, 4). Published by SAGE Publications, Hostility could diminish once Inc., 2455 Teller Rd., Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Annual the ailing Ayatollah Khamenei full -service subscriptions start at $1,131. For pricing, is replaced as supreme leader, call 1-800-818-7243. To purchase a CQ Researcher report experts say. in print or electronic format (PDF), visit www.cqpress. com or call 866-427-7737. Single reports start at $15. Bulk purchase discounts and electronic-rights licensing are also available. Periodicals postage paid at Thousand Oaks, California, and at additional mailing offices . POST - Cover: AFP/Getty Images/Kevin Lamarque MAST ER: Send ad dress chang es to CQ Re search er , 2600 Virginia Ave., N.W., Suite 600, Wash ing ton, DC 20037.

218 CQ Researcher U.S.-Iran Relations BY CHUCK MCCUTCHEON

security-related incidents. What’s THE ISSUES more, the pro-engagement leaders of both nations face or years, a nuclear re - deep skepticism over the nu - actor complex near clear deal at home. F Arak, Iran, stirred global Obama has worked to im - fears that World War III could prove relations with Iran since be looming. The Iranian gov - the deal was clinched last July, ernment claimed the complex but he has less than a year had a peaceful purpose — left in office. Many lawmakers conducting research that could and presidential candidates — benefit hospitals and business - as well as Prime Minister Ben - es. 1 Western experts thought jamin Netanyahu of Israel, a differently, however. stalwart U.S. ally — remain Antiaircraft guns and missiles highly suspicious of Iran, protected the complex, and which the State Department Iran refused to allow outside says supports terrorists and inspectors inside. Finally, the critics say wants to eradicate world’s worries were con - Israel. Some in Congress as e

firmed: Experts declared in r well as several candidates run - a n

2014 that the facility was on e ning for the White House want K

the verge of being able to pro - a tougher penalties on Iran but t t

duce weapons-grade uranium A must contend with Obama / s

that could be used to make an e and his veto pen as they await g atomic bomb. 2 a the outcome of November’s m I

y

Now, after years of interna - t U.S. elections. On the other t e

tional pressure, including the G hand, many U.S. allies are / imposition of onerous U.S. eco - P likely to be reluctant to jettison F nomic sanctions, Iran has A the deal because they see big stepped away from its nuclear Graffiti on a building in Tehran, Iran’s capital, says trade opportunities with Iran. “Down with the USA.” Despite Iran’s bellicose attitude program in a highly controversial toward the U.S. government, 53 percent of Iranians have (See sidebar, p. 228. ) deal with far-reaching global- positive feelings about Americans in general, though Tense talk over nuclear security implications. Under nearly 90 percent view the U.S. government negatively. weapons has dominated U.S.- pressure from the United States, Iranian relations for years, to China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom The agreement has raised speculation the dismay of some who say it has over - and Germany, Iran said it removed the in political and foreign-policy circles shadowed other areas. Obama’s prede - core of the Arak reactor, pledged to let about whether Iran can someday join cessor, George W. Bush, in 2002 labeled inspectors visit the site and put other China, Vietnam and Cuba — formerly Iran part of an “axis of evil” (along with nuclear research on hold for up to 15 staunch U.S. enemies that now cooperate Iraq and North Korea) for its alleged years. In return, the other countries lifted on trade, diplomacy and other matters, pursuit of atomic weapons despite Iran’s many — though not all — economic even as their political systems remain insistence that its nuclear development sanctions against Iran in January, providing far from American-style democracy. was for peaceful purposes only. 4 some relief to its struggling economy. But any uptick in relations that could “We used to have a wide-ranging and The deal does not limit Iran’s de - bring a flood of U.S. products to Tehran, often well-informed debate about Iran,” velopment of civilian nuclear sites. unite the two countries in stabilizing Suzanne Maloney, deputy director of “We have a rare chance to pursue the Middle East or yield other large the foreign policy program at the Brook - a new path — a different, better future benefits is far from imminent — if it ings Institution, a centrist think tank in that delivers progress for both our peo - occurs at all. Many U.S. sanctions remain Washington, said at a forum last fall be - ples and the wider world,” President in place. And despite some diplomatic fore the International Atomic Energy Obama said in announcing Iran’s reactor cooperation, Iran recently antagonized Agency (IAEA) certified Iran’s early ful - removal and the lifting of sanctions. 3 the United States in several national fillment of its nuclear commitments. “Our

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 219 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

A Neighborhood of Turmoil About the size of Alaska, Iran sits in one of the world’s most unsettled regions. It borders the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz — both militarily strategic and vital for crude-oil transportation. Surrounding Iran are war-torn Iraq and Afghanistan, plus Turkey and Pakistan — both wracked by civil unrest. Saudi Arabia, a key U.S. ally and longtime nemesis of Iran, lies just across the Persian Gulf. Most Iranians are Shiites, creating racial and religious tension with Iran’s predominantly Arab and Sunni Muslim neighbors. More than a dozen civilian nuclear facilities operate in Tehran or elsewhere in Iran.

Black Sea UZBEKISTAN Iran at a Glance GEORGIA KYRGYZSTAN ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN Population: 81.8 million (2015) Ethnicity: 60 percent are Persian. TURKEY Caspian TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN Gaziantep Tabriz Sea Others include Azeri, Kurd, Lur, Mashhad Arab, Turkmen. Karaj CYPRUS SYRIA IRAQ Tehran Area: 636,372 sq. miles LEBANON * AFGHANISTAN GDP: $396.9 billion (2015) Damascus Baghdad Esfahan lf Per Capita Income: $16,900 (2013) ISRAEL u G n JORDAN ia Life Expectancy: 71 years (2015) rs IRAN e P Shiraz Adult Literacy Rate: 86.8% (2015) KUWAIT PAKISTAN Legislature: Islamic Consultative Strait of INDIA Assembly, 290 members a Riyadh Hormuz EGYPT e QATAR S Dubai d Gulf of Religions: Shia Islam (the national e U. A. E. Centrifuge R Oman religion) (90-95%); Sunni Muslim OMAN development or SUDAN SAUDI ARABIA parts manufacturing (5-10%); others include Zoroastrian, Uranium mine, Jewish, Christian and Bahá’í. production or enrichment Key Trading Partners: ERITREA YEMEN Gulf of Aden Reactor • Exports — China (29%), India * Being repurposed to produce non-uranium materials Heavy water production (11.9%), Turkey (10.4%) Sources: “The World Factbook, Iran,” CIA, http://tinyurl. • Imports — United Arab Emirates com/yoex73; “World Development Indicators, Iran, Islamic Rep.,” The World Bank, http://tinyurl.com/y3kcemn; “From the Sky,” Institute for Science and (30.6%), China (25.5%), Algeria International Security, http://tinyurl.com/zpu4xbt (8.3%)

conversations on Iran have been afflicted United States. 7 Rouhani can seek a tries that — along with Israel — generally with an almost obsessive focus on one second term in 2017, and experts say have better relations with the United question, the nuclear issue. ” 5 his chances of re-election could hinge States. Long-standing racial and religious On foreign policy, Iran shares the Unit - on whether he has sufficiently bolstered animosity between Iran and its neighbors ed States’ opposition to the Islamic State Iran’s economy after the easing of sanc - complicates U.S. diplomacy in the region. and al-Qaeda terrorist groups. Econom - tions. ( See sidebar, p. 230. ) America’s Arab allies deeply distrust Iran ically, Iran is enticing to foreign companies. But Rouhani, like Obama, is con - and accuse it of seeking to destabilize It has a population of 80 million — strained. Rouhani is the civilian leader the Middle East by backing armed ter - second only to Egypt among Middle East of an authoritarian theocracy led by rorist groups from Lebanon to Iraq. 9 countries and almost as large as California, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who has a The U.S. State Department has listed Texas and Florida combined . 6 lifelong position, final word on Iranian Iran as a state sponsor of terrorism Iranian President Hassan Rouhani, policy and a penchant for using the since 1984. a moderate, has taken a wait-and-see slogan “Death to America.” 8 In January, Iran pleased supporters stance on the nuclear deal, saying that Khamenei is the “supreme leader” of closer relations with the United States if it is implemented to Iranian leaders’ of Iran’s predominantly non-Arab Shiite by concluding a controversial prisoner satisfaction, “we can put other topics Muslim population, which is surrounded swap negotiated separately from the on the table for discussion” with the by Sunni Muslim-dominated Arab coun - nuclear talks. Under the agreement,

220 CQ Researcher Iran released Washington Post reporter Jason Rezaian, an Iranian-American, Americans, Iranians Eye Each Other Warily and two other Americans. In return, An overwhelming majority of U.S. adults view Iran unfavorably, the United States legally cleared seven Iranians charged or imprisoned for vi - according to a February Gallup poll. Another poll found nearly olating economic sanctions and dis - 90 percent of Iranian adults view the U.S. government negatively, missed legal charges against 14 others but 53 percent of Iranians had positive feelings about Americans. outside the United States. 10 But Iran has refused to release Siamak Views of One Another’s Governments and People Namazi, an Iranian-American business - 100% 79% 88%88 % man arrested last fall under mysterious 80 11 53% circumstances. Iran also has provoked 60 43%43 % U.S. anger recently by: 40 • Displaying renewed hostility toward 20 14% 10% U.S. ally Saudi Arabia. A January mob 0 Americans’ views Iranians’ views Iranians’ views attack on the Saudi embassy in Tehran of Iran of U.S. government of Americans led the Saudis and several of their allies 12 to cut formal ties with Iran . Sources: Andrew Dugan, “After Nuclear Deal, U.S. Views Favorable • Launching non-nuclear ballistic of Iran Remain Dismal,” Gallup Poll, Feb. 17, 2016, missiles last fall, leading Obama in http://tinyurl.com/jdaaggy; Ebrahim Gallagher, Nancy Unfavorable January to impose new sanctions — Mohseni and Clay Ramsay, “Iranian Attitudes in Advance of the Parliamentary separate from those lifted as part of Elections: Economics, Politics, and Foreign Affairs,” Center for International and the nuclear deal — on people and Security Studies, University of Maryland, January 2016, p. 33, companies involved with Iran’s missile http://tinyurl.com/zxrs4kk program . 13 • Hacking computer systems at U.S. Americans and Iranians harbor deep Advocates of improved ties cite im - banks and other entities. Experts say suspicions about one another. A Gallup proved U.S. relations with two former those attacks have risen since the nu - poll in February showed that only 14 per - adversaries as guides for gradually mak - clear agreement was reached. Moreover, cent of Americans have a favorable ing up its rift with Iran: Vietnam, where Iran “may be preparing” larger cyber - view of Iran, just slightly above the the United States waged a 21-year war attacks, said Martin Libicki, a senior 11 percent average since 1989. 18 A tele - in a failed bid to stop the spread of management scientist at the RAND phone poll of more than 1,000 Iranians communism in Southeast Asia, and Corp., a think tank specializing in na - found that 53 percent had positive feel - communist Cuba, which has been shut tional security. 14 ings about the American public, but off from U.S. commerce and diplomatic Although Khamenei accepted 88 percent felt unfavorably toward the ties until an easing this year by the Rouhani’s request to pursue the nuclear U.S. government. 19 (See graph, above. ) Obama administration. 20 deal, he has said Iran should not negotiate As politicians, scholars, diplomats “If the United States and Vietnam with the United States about anything and others assess whether U.S.-Iran could reconcile after America’s Vietnam else. 15 But Middle East experts question relations will improve or worsen, here fiasco, and if the U.S. is able to restore how long the 76-year-old — reportedly are some questions being debated: relations following some six decades of ailing — will remain in power. 16 enmity with Cuba, a similar development “Iranians voted on Feb. 26 to elect Should the United States seek with Iran is not to be viewed as insur - members of Parliament and the As - closer ties with Iran? mountable,” says Amin Saikal, a professor sembly of Experts, a clerical council The United States severed diplomatic of political science at Australian National with the power to name Khamenei’s relations with Iran after the 1979 revo - University and author of the 2015 book eventual replacement. Moderates and lution, when supporters of Ayatollah Iran at the Crossroads. reform-minded politicians who back Ruhollah Khomeini — Khamenei’s pre - Democratic presidential candidate the nuclear deal won majorities in both decessor — stormed the U.S. embassy and Vermont Sen. Bernie Sanders, often bodies. 17 But some experts say those in Tehran and took 52 Americans hostage described as a “socialist independent,” gains are unlikely to have a significant for 444 days. Since then, neither country said at a January debate that the United effect on U.S. relations as long as has had an embassy in the other, so States should not open an embassy in Khamenei remains in power. contacts are severely restricted. Tehran immediately. “But I think the

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 221 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

goal has got to be, as we’ve done Some Iranian business leaders em - elite branch of the military enforcing with Cuba, to move in [the direction brace an opportunity for closer ties. internal security — coinciding with the of] warm relations with a very powerful They say 60 percent of the country’s arrest of Namazi, who had advocated and important country,” he said. 21 population is under age 35 and is far closer relations. The National Iranian American more interested in improving its standard As of mid-February, Iranian officials Council, a group in Washington that of living than adhering to the ayatollah’s had provided no reason for his arrest. seeks better U.S.-Iran relations, says dictates. “This generation is worldly. . . . They subsequently arrested Namazi’s the United States should follow former They have a different range of thinking,” father, also an Iranian-American, in Republican President Richard M. Nixon’s said Said Rahmani, the CEO of Iran’s what some experts said was a possible example of reaching out to communist first venture-capital fund . 25 attempt to pressure a confession from China on trade. Nixon’s move in 1972 Stephen Kinzer, a senior fellow in his son about being a spy. 29 lessened three decades of U.S.-Chinese international and public affairs at Brown Experts say the computer attacks and hostility. The two countries restored University, said Iran’s opposition to the arrests of Namazi and his father are the diplomatic relations in 1979. Two coun - Islamic State and al Qaeda — terrorist Revolutionary Guards’ warning against cil members called for “a new [U.S.] movements based on extreme inter - closer ties. “If there’s a warming of re - outlook towards Iran — one in which pretations of Sunni Islam — separates lations, the reason for existing that unites economics facilitates an evolution of it from other Middle Eastern countries hard-liners will dissipate and wither away political relations.” 22 and offers potential for cooperation in — it’s their biggest fear,” says Nader Some advocates say closer U.S.-Iran trying to stabilize the Middle East. Hashemi, director of the Center for relations would build on diplomatic “Our perception of Iran as a threat Middle Eastern Studies at the University ties forged by the nuclear deal. For to vital American interests is increasingly of Denver’s Josef Korbel School of In - instance, last October Iran agreed to disconnected from reality,” Kinzer said ternational Studies. participate in multination talks aimed in a January op-ed column. His 2010 Iran’s hard-liners have discouraged at ending the violent, years-long re - book Reset: Iran, Turkey and America’s the smallest appearances of U.S. influ - bellion in Syria against President Bashar Future , argued that Iran should join Turkey ence. In November they shut down an al-Assad’s government. 23 Then, in Jan - — another Muslim country struggling to Iranian fast-food store that mimicked uary, Iran captured 10 U.S. sailors and modernize — as a crucial U.S. ally . 26 Kentucky Fried Chicken; an Iranian news accused them of illegally straying into But critics of Iran say it remains un - agency contended the knockoff com - its waters in two small patrol boats. reliable and dangerous and should be pany’s red-and-white décor too closely Secretary of State John Kerry, who kept at arm’s length. After Sanders’ re - resembled the American flag . 30 played a leading role in negotiating marks about Iran, his Democratic rival Some experts also suspect Iran may the nuclear deal with Iran, worked Hillary Clinton responded that the lifting be holding Robert Levinson, a retired with his counterpart, Foreign Minister of sanctions and prisoner swap should FBI agent who vanished in the country Javad Zarif, with whom he had forged not cloud U.S. judgment. in 2007. Iranian leaders have denied a partnership during the nuclear talks. “We’ve had one good day over 36 knowing anything about his where - Iran released the sailors within 16 hours, years, and I think we need more good abouts, but in January The New York defusing what Kerry said would have days before we move more rapidly” Times reported that an Iranian official been a major crisis had it occurred a toward better relations, she said. Her had acknowledged in 2011 that Levinson few years earlier. 24 top foreign policy adviser, Jake Sullivan, was being used as a bargaining chip Kerry and Zarif “have reshaped the later said Iran “seeks the destruction in nuclear negotiations at the time . 31 relationship between Iran and the U.S. of Israel” and is “flouting international And the hard-liners would much at least on the diplomatic level, and law with its ballistic missile threats.” 27 rather sully the reputation of the United that is something to look at” in building Republican presidential candidates States, some observers say. Iran released better relations, says Vera Eccarius- share Clinton’s skepticism. Before the images of the captured U.S. sailors Kelly, a professor of political science sailors’ release in January, current GOP kneeling on deck with their hands at Siena College in Loudonville, N.Y. frontrunner Donald Trump called the clasped behind their heads, called by “Now we have staffers at the State De - incident “an indication of where the Senate Armed Services Committee partment and Iran Foreign Ministry hell we’re going” with Iran. 28 Chairman John McCain, R-Ariz., “one of who know each other. It’s not just in - Iran’s computer hacking also worries the great propaganda triumphs that the dividuals, but entire structures . . . that U.S. critics. Administration officials said Iranians have ever had.” 32 have the element of more familiarity they detected a surge in cyberattacks Despite anti-U.S. attitudes in some and trust.” by Iran’s Revolutionary Guards — an Iranian circles, “Moving forward, Iran’s

222 CQ Researcher leadership is likely to exploit this channel The situation has led human-rights of those on the other side of the [of closer contacts] with the United States activists and others to argue that the table,” he said. “If a regime is based whenever doing so suits its own inter - United States and other countries on beating its people into submission, ests,” said Aaron David Miller, a vice should demand improvements as a how can we count on its good faith president at the Woodrow Wilson Center precondition of conducting more trade with us? ” 41 for International Scholars, a foreign- or forming ties in other areas. Western But many experts say if the United policy think tank in Washington . 33 countries “should remember that in - States uses human rights as a condition Within Iran, at least one prominent creasing economic, financial and diplo - of better relations it risks further an - onetime advocate of closer relations now matic integration with Iran will give tagonizing Iran. In addition, they note, is more skeptical of the idea. Former them greater leverage not only to make Iranian officials are quick to cite what Iranian diplomat Sadegh Kharrazi was lucrative business deals but to speak they contend are U.S. human-rights the author of a 2003 memo sent to the out strongly against rights abuses,” said abuses, such as supporting the Saudi State Department proposing a broad

dialogue between the two nations, but y r a

the Bush administration rejected the e L 34 ’ O

offer. Kharrazi last year said the out - l l i

come of November’s U.S. presidential B / t

elections remains too uncertain for his s o P country to commit to anything. n o “We need more positive gestures from t g n the Americans” before Iran reciprocates, i h s said Kharrazi. “We do not have high a W

confidence in what will happen after e 35 h President Obama leaves office.” T / s e g a

Should better U.S.-Iranian relations m I

y

depend on whether Iran improves t t e

its human-rights record? G Human-rights groups consider Iran Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu urges U.S. lawmakers not to negotiate one of the world’s worst countries on the nuclear deal with Iran during an address to Congress made at the invitation of congressional Republicans. The State Department says Iran supports terrorists, the issue. Its execution rate per capita and critics of Iran say it wants to eradicate Israel, a stalwart U.S. ally. is the highest of any U.N. member: In the last two years, more than 2,000 Faraz Sanei, a researcher for Human government, which tightly restricts people are believed to have been put Rights Watch’s Middle East and North women’s rights. to death for drug use or other crimes, Africa division. 39 “We don’t expect the West to impose or more than in any similar period in The nuclear talks led to a “de- its assumptions on human rights and the last quarter-century. prioritization” of human rights that must human dignity to all societies,” said Amnesty International says the punish - be reversed, said Mark Lagon, president Sadeq Amoli Larijani, chief of Iran’s ment is imposed “either for vaguely worded of Freedom House, a U.S.-based human judiciary. 42 or overly broad offenses, or acts that should rights and democracy advocacy group. Such assertions show why “it will not be criminalized at all,” such as speaking “In dealings with Iran, the United States take generations for the United States out against the government. 36 should address the serious human- to gain some measure of trust with An Iranian female cartoonist who rights concerns with at least the same the Iranians” about human rights, says depicted members of Iran’s parliament energy as it did in negotiating a nuclear Christopher Dolan, a professor of poli tics as animals was sentenced last year to accord,” he said. 40 and director of global studies at Penn - more than 12 years in prison. 37 The Rep. Dana Rohrabacher, R-Calif., sylvania’s Lebanon Valley College. In government also is accused of discrim - who chairs a House Foreign Affairs the meantime, he and other experts inating against Baha’is, the country’s Committee panel on emerging threats , say the United States should let the largest non-Muslim religious minority, agreed. “History teaches that it is U.N. continue to assume the lead on by imprisoning its followers, restricting not necessarily wrong to parley with monitoring and demanding progress their ability to worship and shutting the world’s bad actors, but that on human rights, given its established down Baha’i-owned businesses. 38 doesn’t mean ignoring the evil nature mission in that area.

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 223 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

The deal commits Iran to what the Details of Iran’s Nuclear Deal Obama administration calls “extraordi - nary and robust monitoring, verification The nuclear deal that Iran struck in January 2015 with the United and inspection.” Inspectors from the States and five other world powers limits Iran’s uranium enrich - International Atomic Energy Agency ment for 15 years. Some limits on Iran’s nuclear research and (IAEA) — an arm of the U.N. — have development loosen in about 10 years, but other restrictions will authority to verify that Iran has not remain for up to 25 years. hidden any weapons-grade materials. If the IAEA learns of possible sus - Components of Nuclear Deal picious sites, Iran has agreed to allow Most American trade with Iran remains banned by other long-standing its inspectors to assess them. The agency sanctions imposed by the U.S. government, but sales of American will search for sites that could be ura - commercial aircraft are permitted while luxury Iranian goods such as nium mines, along with any unex - carpets and caviar, along with nuts, can be imported by the United States. plained international purchases of po - tential bomb-making materials. It will U.S. sanctions were lifted on foreign companies involved in Iran’s rely on intelligence gleaned from U.S. automobile or energy sectors that conduct business with most major and other foreign sources. 46 Iranian banks. American companies in those sectors still cannot do “I come away pretty confident” in business with Iran without being penalized. the U.S. spy network’s ability to “observe The European Union ended its ban on oil and gas purchases from Iran and monitor what the Iranians are doing,” and a ban on the use of an electronic payments system, enabling Iran said Director of National Intelligence to move money among international banks. James Clapper, who oversees the CIA and other intelligence agencies . 47 The deal requires a future American president to ask Congress within If Iran is found to have cheated, eight years to lift virtually all U.S. sanctions still in place. All remaining the deal calls for re-imposition of in - U.N. sanctions are to end within 10 years. ternational economic sanctions. The Sources: William J. Broad and Sergio Pecanha, “The Iran Nuclear Deal — A deal establishes a formal process in Simple Guide,” The New York Times, Jan. 15, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/njnl4mh; which the IAEA and Iran have up to Kenneth Katzman and Paul K. Kerr, “Iran Nuclear Agreement,” Congressional 24 days to resolve any disputes over Research Service, Jan. 19, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hwhso9m inspection. 48 Supporters of the agree - ment say 24 days are plenty of time: “We should support that U.N. role order freezes the U.S. bank accounts of In 2003, they said, it took six months of holding Iran accountable so it’s not anyone found guilty of providing com - for Iran to grant the U.N. the access a bilateral, tit-for-tat in terms of who’s puters or other technology used by Iran it sought to one facility, but testing more guilty” on human rights, the Uni - to abuse human rights, adding to the still uncovered nuclear activity, despite versity of Denver’s Hashemi says. existing sanctions on providing com - Iran’s attempt to cover it up. 49 Secretary of State Kerry has main - puters for military purposes . 44 “If Iran should decide to start pro - tained the United States should monitor The biggest public misconception ducing weapon-grade highly enriched how well Iran lives up to its commit - about the nuclear deal is that “there uranium, it would take about a year ments in the nuclear deal before further has been comprehensive sanctions relief before it could accumulate enough sanctions are imposed to punish it for to all the things like terrorism sanctions for a first bomb,” said deal supporter human-rights abuses. 43 He and other and human-rights sanctions,” said Chris Frank von Hippel, senior research officials have stressed that, despite the Backemeyer, the State Department’s physicist and professor of public and lifting of economic sanctions over nu - deputy coordinator for sanctions policy. international affairs emeritus at Prince - clear weapons, the United States can “That’s absolutely not the case.” 45 ton University’s Program on Science still penalize Iran for committing vio - and Global Security . 50 lations in that area. Can Iranian nuclear activities But some lawmakers, arms-control Obama issued executive orders in be accurately monitored? experts and critics of Iran remain un - 2010 and 2012 barring U.S. companies Backers of the nuclear deal say it convinced that all cheating can be de - from doing business with Iranian officials addresses all the ways in which Iran tected. And they predict the country responsible for serious human-rights could cheat to pursue a bomb. But will seek to drag the inspections process abuses. In addition, a 2012 executive critics are unpersuaded. past 24 days.

224 CQ Researcher “There is a lot the regime can do [to hide material] in a few hours, let alone days,” said Charles Duelfer, who led the Iraq Survey Group that searched for evidence of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons in that country a decade ago. “So this allows room for Iran to maneuver and potentially hide much of what it is doing regarding weapons de - sign or component testing. ” 51 n

Other skeptics say that for all of the o s r

attention the agreement pays to places e t e

where Iran was known to have done P

t t

nuclear work, they are not as certain o c S

that inspectors will be able to ferret out / s e

work at new secret sites. That includes g a m

any that Iran might choose to establish I

y t

in other nuclear-capable countries, such t 52 e as North Korea. G “In the previous cases of nuclear Iranians vote on Feb. 26 to elect members of Parliament and the Assembly of Experts. Moderates and reform-minded politicians who back the nuclear deal proliferation over the past two decades won majorities in both bodies, dealing a blow to hard-liners. But those gains may . . . the issue was the use of undeclared not have a significant effect on U.S. relations as long as Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, material, primarily at undeclared facilities ,” the anti-American supreme leader of Iran’s theocracy, remains in power. said a report by Olli Heinonen, a former IAEA deputy director general who is arm, said in a February report that now a senior fellow at Harvard Uni - the IAEA will need an extra $10 mil - versity’s Belfer Center for Science and lion each year for the next 15 years BACKGROUND International Affairs. to police the nuclear deal. Some The inspections process is “unclear members of Congress who opposed and leaves unanswered questions,” the deal said the report raises con - Hot and Cold Relations Heinonen said. Inspectors cannot sim - cerns about the IAEA’s ability to do ply visit any Iranian site unannounced; a thorough job. 54 or much of the 20th century, the they must first give the Iranians evidence Even some nuclear deal supporters F United States and Iran were on friend - of suspected wrongdoing. Moreover, wonder how the United States will re - ly terms and partners in some areas. But Heinonen questions whether the process spond if it encounters relatively minor, since 1979, relations have been marked allows inspectors to protect highly con - yet punishable, evidence of possible by demonization on both sides, with a fidential spying sources and methods. nuclear activity. The United States could few less tense periods in between. And he worries the United States and come under pressure from allies not “Iran’s attitude toward the United States other monitoring countries may not to impose penalizing economic sanc - is like someone pining for a former, agree on what constitutes conclusive tions because doing so could erode perhaps abusive, lover,” said Banafsheh proof of cheating, such as suspicious future leverage if evidence of even Keynoush, who served as an interpreter work that Iranians contend is for non- bigger cheating emerges later. for four Iranian presidents. “It has de - nuclear purposes. “We can detect and enforce this if clared its contempt but also longs again “What happens when . . . the evi dence we find an egregious violation,” says to be a partner.” 55 provided does not meet the standards Ross Harrison, a nonresident scholar The tension can be traced to Mo - of all [U.S. allies]?” Heinonen asked. at the Middle East Institute, a Wash - hammed Reza Pahlavi, the “shah” or “In other words, the bar will be set ington think tank, and a faculty member ruler of the country from 1941 to very high to begin with and may not at Georgetown University’s School of 1979. His father, Reza Khan Pahlavi, allow for gray areas where intelligence Foreign Service. “The bigger issue is, a military officer, had become shah is not foolproof.” 53 what constitutes a real breach of the in 1921 after launching a coup against The Government Accountability deal? If we impose [sanctions], they the royal family that had ruled the Office (GAO), Congress’ investigative might cheat even more.” country since 1794.

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In 1935 Reza Shah’s government began But the program alienated religious The EU and U.N. joined in threatenin g asking other countries to refer to it as Iranians and the Shiite clergy, who felt harsh fines or other penalties on mem - Iran, which in Farsi means “land of the such Westernization was antithetical to ber countries that sold Iran weapons Aryans,” instead of its traditional name Islam. 61 And the shah’s SAVAK spy service or any nuclear- or military-related equip - of Persia. Britain and Russia accused him was loathed for torturing dissidents. ment. They also imposed further restric - of supporting Nazi Germany and forced In 1964 the autocratic Pahlavi gov - tions on their member countries’ banks him from power during World War II, ernment exiled Ayatollah Khomeini, a doing business with Iranian banks and but those countries permitted his son, religious leader without formal political severely limited trade and investment Mohammed Reza, to succeed him. 56 power who passionately argued that with Iran’s energy, telecommunications As with other Middle Eastern coun - Iran had ceded its sovereignty to the and transportation industries. 66 tries, Iran’s vast oil reserves sparked U.S. United States. 62 The shah never listened Iran’s inability to do business with and British interest in the country. In to the public, Reset author Kinzer said, other countries sharply constricted its 1951, nationalist Prime Minister Moham - imposing his policies “by decree or economy. A Gallup poll conducted in mad Mosaddeq — whom Shah Pahlavi through acts of Parliament, which he Iran in 2012 found that 31 percent of appointed under pressure from members corrupted and used like a toy.” 63 Iranians rated their lives poorly enough of Iran’s parliament — nationalized the But successive U.S. presidents re - to be considered “suffering,” one of the oil industry, removing it from British mained loyal. At a 1977 state dinner highest rates of any country in the control. The shah tried to dismiss Mosad - in Tehran, Democratic President Jimmy Middle East or North Africa. The polling deq, but his followers started an uprising, Carter lauded the expanded economic company said countries with comparable and Pahlavi fled the country in 1953. cooperation between the two countries. suffering levels either were at war, such The United States and Great Britain “Iran, because of the great leadership as Afghanistan, or experiencing severe were in the midst of a Cold War with of the shah, is an island of stability in instability, such as Tunisia. 67 the communist Soviet Union, and Amer - one of the more troubled areas of the Iran approached the Carter admin - ican and British leaders felt that “while world,” 64 Carter said. istration in September 1980 about end - Mosaddeq was certainly not a com - The exiled Khomeini continued to ing the crisis, but an agreement could munist, . . . the things he was doing demand a revolution, however, triggering not be reached. Iranians ended up might give the Communist Party of rioting and turmoil in Iran. On Jan. 16, freeing the hostages within minutes of Iran an opportunity to strengthen itself 1979, the shah left Iran to seek medical Republican Ronald Reagan’s inaugura - and perhaps eventually take over,” said treatment, and in February Khomeini re - tion as president in January 1981, in Mark Gasiorowski, a professor of po - turned, declaring a new Islamic Republic what some historians say was intended litical science at Tulane University and with himself as supreme leader. The as a final insult to Carter. 68 author of a book on the shah. 57 country adopted a new constitution Reagan designated Iran a state spon - Pahlavi was restored to power with - through a referendum. sor of terrorism in 1984 in response to in several days in a CIA-backed coup, The biggest rupture between the coun - Iran’s funding and training of Hezbollah, leading to Mosaddeq’s surrender and tries came that November, when a group a militant Islamist group based in Beirut, imprisonment. U.S. officials hailed it of Khomeini’s followers seized the U.S. Lebanon, which was blamed for a 1983 as a triumph. But author Tim Weiner Embassy in Tehran and took 52 Americans suicide bombing at a Marine barracks wrote in a history of the spy agency: hostage. Carter cut diplomatic ties in April in Beirut that killed 241 U.S. military “A generation of Iranians grew up 1980, two weeks before his administration personnel. During the 1980s, Iran was knowing that the CIA had installed staged a failed military mission to rescue drawn into a bloody eight-year war with the shah.” 58 the hostages . 65 Iraq, after that country’s leader, Saddam Seeking to bring Iran closer to the Carter imposed what became “per - Hussein, attacked Iran with, among other United States, Pahlavi instituted the haps the most comprehensive sanctions things, nerve and mustard gas. Iraq’s “White Revolution,” a series of devel - effort ever marshaled by the interna - use of those deadly agents led the United opment reforms — such as land re - tional community,” according to a Har - States, two decades later, to invade Iraq distribution — and moved to liberalize vard Belfer Center report. The initial on the suspicion that it might again women’s rights. 59 The two countries executive orders froze Iranian assets deploy such weapons. 69 worked together on oil extraction, ed - in U.S. banks and restricted financial During the Iran-Iraq War (1980- ucation and nuclear energy. The United transactions between the countries. 1988), the United States tilted its support States in 1957 signed a civilian nuclear- The 28-country European Union (EU) toward Iraq and became entangled in cooperation deal that provided Iran and the U.N. followed suit, imposing several incidents as it sought to protect 60 with technical assistance. separate but related sanctions on Iran. Continued on p. 228

226 CQ Researcher Chronology

1986 2006 1950s-1980s Reagan admits his administration U.N. Security Council imposes U.S. and Iran forge ties; Revolt illegally sold weapons to Iran and sanctions on Iran’s trade in nuclear in Iran forces out shah and funneled profits to “contra” guerrillas materials and technology. sours U.S. relations. in Nicaragua. • 1951 1989 Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq Ayatollah Khomeini dies. . . . Con - nationalizes the oil industry, negating servative Ayatollah Ali Khamenei re - 2009-Present Britain’s majority interest. places Khomeini as supreme leader. Iran reaches nuclear deal with U.S. and other world powers. 1953 • CIA directs coup that ousts Mosad - 2009 deq and returns shah to power. Newly elected President Obama 1990s U.S.-Iran relations sends negotiator to meet with Iranian 1977 deteriorate further. counterpart on nuclear issues. President Jimmy Carter, on visit to Tehran, toasts Shah Mohammed 1992 2011 Rezi Pahlavi as a key ally. Iran restarts nuclear program begun Iran denies International Atomic under shah’s rule. Energy Agency (IAEA) report 1978 warning of its increasing nuclear Civil unrest against shah’s rule 1995 weapons capabilities. erupts, inflamed by Ayatollah U.S. imposes oil and trade embargo Ruhollah Khomeini’s taped ser - because of Iran’s alleged efforts to 2013 mons. acquire nuclear weapons and its Moderate Hassan Rouhani is elected hostility toward Israel. Iranian president by pledging to get 1979 sanctions lifted and improve the Shah leaves Iran. . . . Khomeini 1997 economy. . . . Iran reaches interim returns and establishes Islamic re - Reformist cleric Mohammed Khatami nuclear deal with the United States public following referendum. . . . elected Iranian president. and five other powers. Militants storm U.S. embassy and take 52 Americans hostage. • 2015 At the invitation of U.S. House Re - 1980 publican leaders, Israeli Prime Minister Iraq attacks Iran, triggering eight- 2000-2008 Iran Benjamin Netanyahu argues against year war. . . . U.S. breaks off steps up nuclear activities in the deal in address to Congress. . . . diplomatic relations and begins im - defiance of United States. Iran and other countries finalize the posing economic sanctions on Iran. agreement. . . . Congressional oppo - 2001 nents fail to override threatened presi - 1981 Iran helps U.S. military during its dential veto, leaving deal intact. . . . Iran frees the hostages on the day invasion of Afghanistan. Iran launches ballistic missiles in defi - Carter leaves office. ance of international ban. 2002 1983 President George W. Bush calls Iran 2016 Iranian-backed Hezbollah terrorists part of the “axis of evil,” along with IAEA certifies Iran has fulfilled initial attack U.S. Embassy and Marine North Korea and Iraq, for its alleged commitments under the deal, l eading barracks in Lebanon, killing 304. pursuit of nuclear weapons. to lifting of many sanctions . . . . Iran releases Washington Post reporter 1984 2005 Jason Rezaian and two other Ameri - President Ronald Reagan’s adminis - Hardliner Mahmoud Ahmadinejad cans as part of a prisoner swap with tration designates Iran a state elected Iranian president, declares the United States. . . . Iran holds 10 sponsor of terrorism. United States an international bully. U.S. sailors captive for 16 hours after they cross into Iranian waters.

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Sanctions Continue to Limit U.S.-Iran Business Trade supporters hope more American products can be sold to Iran. he recent easing of economic sanctions against Iran say the United States is the biggest loser of all sanctions-enforcing permits U.S. companies to sell it commercial planes and nations, having sacrificed between $134.7 billion and $175.3 billion T aircraft parts — but hardly anything else. in potential export revenue to Iran from 1995 to 2012 alone. 5 Backers of closer relations, however, hope that someday However, the Washington-based Iran-American Chamber of American consumer goods ranging from iPhones to Marlboros Commerce, an association of Iranian-American business executives, might legally be exported to the long-standing U.S. enemy. is optimistic that Iran’s eagerness to improve its economy The nuclear deal among the United States, Iran and five other eventually could pave the way for U.S. investment. countries continues to prohibit a variety of U.S. companies from “There is a vast area for expanding the two countries’ future doing business with Iran. While it did lift U.S. sanctions related to trade relations [because] the demands and resources of the two Iran’s nuclear work, it did not affect other U.S. sanctions, such as countries are abundant and, in Iran’s case, untapped,” according those imposed after the 1979 Iran hostage crisis or others implemented to the group. 6 after the State Department designated Iran a state sponsor of terrorism Supporters of greater engagement say if U.S. sanctions against in 1984. Under the 1984 sanctions, for instance, U.S. companies Iran are ever lifted, attention should be paid to the potential cannot export products to Iran that could have both commercial trade benefits. Meanwhile, companies like Apple are watching and military purposes, such as computer equipment . 1 to see if things are likely to change. Here are some areas in Suzanne Maloney, deputy director of the foreign policy which American companies see potential for U.S.-Iranian trade: program at the Brookings Institution, a centrist Washington, Airplanes: Under the terms of the nuclear agreement, U.S. D.C., think tank, said it could be difficult to ease future sanctions, aircraft firms can sell commercial aircraft to Iran, which needs in part because U.S. policymakers have come to depend on up to 600 new planes for its aging fleet, and in February the them as a tool to punish the country. government cleared Boeing Co. to begin selling in Iran. 7 “The sanctions are now a semi-permanent fixture of American Even if Boeing doesn’t sell Iran any planes, it could still policy” towards Iran, Maloney wrote in a 2015 book on Iran’s provide parts and maintenance, said Richard Aboulafia, an analyst economy. 2 with the Teal Group aerospace consulting firm in Fairfax, Va. 8 The recent deal allows American aircraft to be sold to Iran, In 2014, Boeing sold manuals, drawings, navigation charts and and it also allows certain Iranian products into the United States: data to Iran Air, the national airline — its first transaction with Those include so-called “luxury items” such as carpets and caviar, the country since 1979. Because the sales were aimed at improving along with pistachio nuts, one of Iran’s biggest exports. 3 commercial aircraft safety, they were not prohibited under U.S. Experts say conservatives in Iran’s government who control sanctions . 9 many industries are wary of the impact of trade with the West. Oil and gas infrastructure: Iranian officials said they want They cite iBridges, a nonprofit international technology consortium to invest upward of $100 billion to modernize aging oil pipelines that held meetings in Berkeley, Calif., and Berlin to discuss and other parts of the industry. 10 future investment possibilities in Iran. Hardline media in Iran U.S. companies are best-positioned to provide oil pipeline and accused the group of seeking a “soft overthrow” of the Iranian drilling technology, according to Amin Saikal, a professor of political government by trying to supplant home-grown companies. 4 science at Australian National University and author of the 2015 American groups supporting greater U.S.-Iranian engagement, book Iran at the Crossroads. However, Russia already is working such as the National Iranian American Council in Washington, D.C., with Iran on the issue and would be a competitor . 11

Continued from p. 226 istration also secretly sold weapons to defuse U.S.-Iran tensions. In seeking international oil shipments in the Persian Iran — in violation of U.S. and inter - Iranian help for getting the hostages in Gulf. For example, in 1988 a U.S. war - national sanctions — using the profits Lebanon released, in exchange for easing ship shot down an Iranian commercial to fund anti-government “contra” rebels sanctions, Bush said that “goodwill begets jet that the Pentagon later said had been in Nicaragua in what became known goodwill.” But even the presidency of mistaken for a military plane, killing 290 as the “Iran-Contra affair.” 71 The sale centrist Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989-1997), people aboard. Outraged Iranians labeled of arms to Iran did little to improve re - who advocated closer U.S.-Iranian ties, the incident a “barbaric massacre. ” 70 lations between Iran and the United could not bridge differences because of Nevertheless, the two sides talked States: When Reagan left office, several the ayatollah’s grip on power. 72 secretly about the release of seven U.S. Americans remained in captivity in Beirut. Bush’s successor, Democrat Bill Clin - hostages held in Lebanon by Iranian- When President George H. W. Bush ton, wanted to prevent either Iraq or backed militants. The Reagan admin - succeeded Reagan in 1989, he tried to Iran from interfering with his broader

228 CQ Researcher Consumer electronics: The Wall Street Journal has reported that Apple has approached Iranian distributors about selling

iPhones and other products if U.S. sanctions eventually are R T S

lifted on consumer products. However, the technology giant / s

has declined to comment. 12 e g a

Currently, Iran’s 50 million cellphone users rely on Chinese m I

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technology. However, Apple and Dell computer products are t t smuggled into Iran, where they are resold. 14 China will continue e G /

to be a U.S. competitor in consumer electronics: In January, P F

Chinese president Xi Jinping signed 17 agreements with Iran A on technological and economic cooperation. 15 Pipelines for oil exports stretch along the shore of the Cars: Iran is the Middle East’s biggest automobile market, Persian Gulf. Iranian officials have promised to spend as much as $100 billion to upgrade aging pipelines with 900,000 passenger cars and trucks — mostly Chinese and other infrastructure. imports — purchased in 2014. But the National Iranian American Council says U.S. manufacturers could sell cars in Iran, where 6 “About Us,” United States-Iran Chamber of Commerce, undated, http://tinyurl. com/zgggug5. they were once popular and where Chinese cars are seen as 7 16 Jon Ostrower, “Boeing Secures Iran License,” The Wall Street Journal , Feb. 19 , low-quality. 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zn4q3lm. Tobacco: Western cigarette brands such as Marlboro were 8 Jackie Northam, “Boeing Can Sell Planes To Iran, But Does Iran Want Them?” popular during the 1970s in Iran, where the number of smokers NPR, Feb. 7, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zax8bjj. reportedly has risen in recent years and a pack of cigarettes 9 “Boeing books first sales to Iran since 1979,” Reuters, Oct. 22, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/zhrnrfm. costs about 50 cents. The state-owned Iranian Tobacco Company 10 Najmeh Bozorgmehr, “Iran eyes $100bn of western investment in oil controls just over one-third of the market, and British and industry,” Financial Times , July 1, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/h8us5k9. Japanese companies share the rest. 17 11 Andy Tully, “Russia To Help Iran Reboot Oil Industry,” OilPrice.com, Jan. 3 , 2016, http://tinyurl.com/z9knnrt. — Chuck McCutcheon 12 Benoit Faucon, “Apple in Talks to Sell iPhone in Iran,” The Wall Street Journal , Oct. 29, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/ohl69fq. 13 “Losing Billions,” op. cit. 1 Kenneth Katzman, “Iran Sanctions,” Congressional Research Service, Jan. 21, 14 Garrett Nada, “If sanctions are lifted, here’s what trade between Iran and 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hq2vgbe. the US could look like,” Quartz , April 24, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/m4vht25. 2 Suzanne Maloney, Iran’s Political Economy Since the Revolution (2015), p. 487. 15 Steve Mollman, “Iran plans to boost trade with China by about 1,000% 3 Steven Mufson, “For U.S. firms, the Iran deal means pistachios, airline parts over the next 10 years,” Quartz , Jan. 24, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jqdhpb6. and carpets,” The Washington Post , July 14, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/gst8d6h. 16 “Losing Billions,” op. cit. ; Andy Sharman, “Carmakers eye golden Iranian 4 Saeed Kamali Dehghan, “From Digikala to Hamijoo: the Iranian startup opportunity in wake of nuclear deal,” Financial Times , July 15, 2015, revolution, phase two,” The Guardian , May 31, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/pzngcyv; http://tinyurl.com/j7awtwk; Mathieu Rosemain and Golnar Motevalli, China David Ignatius, “Despite the nuclear deal, Iran continues its economic Carmakers Will Challenge West in Iran When Sanctions Lift,” Bloomberg , sabotage,” The Washington Post , Dec. 29, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/h86wbsf. April 15, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/ong249x. 5 Jonathan Leslie, Reza Marashi and Trita Parsi, “Losing Billions: The Cost of 17 Elizabeth Whitman, “Iran Nuclear Deal: Big Tobacco Sees Opportunity Sanctions to the U.S. Economy,” National Iranian American Council, July 2014 , For Cigarette Market Amid Lagging Revenues Elsewhere,” International http://tinyurl.com/gsnvaub. Business Times , Oct. 27, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/gtboxjz. goal of reaching an Israeli-Palestinian goods, such as medical instruments help the United States defeat the Taliban peace agreement. His administration and pharmaceuticals. 74 in Afghanistan, which was sheltering initially imposed tougher bans on trade al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. 75 and investment with Iran. But two days after the president’s The 1997 election of moderate Iran - “Axis of Evil” “axis of evil” speech, Bush’s national se - ian President Mohammad Khatami, who curity adviser, Condoleezza Rice, criticized called for eroding the “wall of mistrust” fter the November 2000 election Iran’s “direct support of regional and between the two countries, raised hope A of Republican George W. Bush global terrorism” and “its aggressive efforts of better relations. 73 The United States and the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks to acquire weapons of mass destruction,” agreed to lift some sanctions and by by al Qaeda, U.S.-Iranian relations took including nuclear weapons. 76 2014 was annually exporting to Iran a far rockier course. Khatami publicly An exiled opposition group in 2002 about $180 million in humanitarian condemned the attacks and sought to revealed the existence of two previously

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Iran President a ‘Loyalist of the System’ Rouhani watching nuclear deal before committing to better U.S. relations. hen it comes to dealing with the United States, “If it is well implemented, it will lay the foundations for Iranian President Hassan Rouhani is no Mahmoud lesser tension with the U.S., creating the conditions for a new W Ahmadinejad, his antagonistic predecessor who ac - era,” he told an Italian newspaper. “But if the Americans don’t cused America of trusting the devil. 1 But he’s also no Mikhail meet their nuclear deal commitments, then our relationship will Gorbachev, the former Soviet leader who helped end the Cold certainly be the same as in the past.” 2 War and ushered in better U.S.-Russian relations. Rouhani, 67, who was born with the last name Feridoun, Rouhani, elected in 2013, is a sophisticated, Western-educated studied religion and changed his name in his youth to the Persian politician who pushed for last year’s nuclear deal with the word for “cleric.” He received a Ph.D. in law from Glasgow United States and five other nations. He is vastly different from Caledonian University in Scotland in 1995. 3 Ahmadinejad, who was reviled worldwide for his scathing Rouhani became a supporter of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini criticisms of the United States and Israel and stout defense of in the 1970s before the Khomeini-led Islamic Revolution toppled his country’s nuclear program. the U.S.-backed shah, whom hard-liners reviled for his use of Many foreign-policy experts say, however, that Rouhani should torture. But Rouhani also became close with Hashemi Rafsanjani, not be mistaken for Gorbachev, who, upon becoming the Soviet Iran’s centrist former president (1989-1997) who advocated repairing Union’s president in 1990, oversaw the dismantling of communism ties with the United States. 4 to spur more trade with the United States and other nations. “Rouhani’s pragmatic policy approach on issues such as the Unlike Gorbachev, they say, Rouhani is a careful political insider nuclear issue and relations with the United States approximate unwilling to upend his country’s entrenched power structure Rafsanjani’s views,” the Congressional Research Service, which for the sake of improving its standing in the world. studies issues for Congress, said in an analysis published in “Rouhani is a loyalist of the system,” says Nader Hashemi, January. 5 a professor at the University of Denver’s Josef Korbel School Rouhani’s long background in government posts has given of International Studies and director of its Center for Middle him credibility with Iranian conservatives loyal to Ayatollah Ali East Studies. “To the extent he can bring about change within Khamenei, Khomeini’s successor and current “supreme leader.” it, he’ll try to do so by making speeches and appeals within In 1986, as deputy speaker in parliament, Rouhani took part the corridors of power. But he’s not going to rock the system.” in secret talks with U.S. officials as part of what became known Rouhani showed his cautiousness when asked about the prospects during the Ronald Reagan administration as the Iran-Contra for U.S.-Iranian relations after Iran agreed to curtail nuclear work “arms-for-hostages” affair. Administration officials defied an arms in exchange for the West lifting numerous economic sanctions on embargo on Iran and sold it weapons to obtain the release of Iran. Without providing specifics, he said he first wants to see hostages held in Lebanon by a group with Iranian ties. The whether the deal is carried out to his satisfaction, such as ensuring money then was funneled to the “contra” guerrillas fighting sanctions are not reimposed for what he considers unfair reasons. Nicaragua’s left-wing government. 6 unknown Iranian nuclear sites. 77 The which Nazi Germany exterminated 6 mil - program and in 2011 refused to make resulting international criticism helped lion Jews — a “myth.” 79 Many outraged concessions. International negotiations spur Khatami’s government to reach agree - U.S. and Israeli officials said Ahmadinejad broke off for more than a year. 82 ment with France, Germany and the U.K. had vowed that Israel should be “wiped Meanwhile, the U.N. Security Council to temporarily suspend some aspects of off the map,” but experts say he was in 2010 had imposed even tougher its program and invite inspections of the incorrectly paraphrasing Khomeini, who sanctions, including a tightening of the facilities, which Khatami claimed were consistently has said “the cancerous arms embargo and a ban on interna - for non-military work. The United States tumor called Israel must be uprooted tional travel for those involved in Iran’s joined in the negotiations in 2005, but from the region.” 80 nuclear program. 83 talks sputtered after Iran insisted on re - At a 2007 Democratic presidential de - The IAEA warned the country had suming uranium enrichment before con - bate, Obama — then a U.S. senator from sought to learn how to put a nuclear tinuing to try to strike a deal. 78 Illinois — said that if elected, he would payload onto an intermediate-range Khatami’s elected successor, Mahmoud seek to talk to Iran’s leader and those missile capable of reaching Israel, but Ahmadinejad, ratcheted up the tension from other hostile countries. 81 Once in Iran said the allegations were based with the United States by labeling it an office, Obama sent a senior official to on false Israeli and U.S. information. international bully and offending Israel meet with Iran’s chief nuclear negotiator. Nevertheless, Ahmadinejad agreed to by proclaiming the Holocaust — in But Iran continued to expand its nuclear restart negotiations. 84

230 CQ Researcher Rouhani drew attention last November when he accused Iran’s e hardline, anti-Western media of being too closely aligned with r a n

the ayatollah-controlled Revolutionary Guards Corps, which enforces e K 7

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in Iran, Rouhani also rebuked an internal election committee’s A /

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of those surveyed regarding him “very favorably.” A Rouhani has succeeded in cutting Iran’s annual inflation rate Moderate President Hassan Rouhani says that if the from about 40 percent to less than 13 percent over the past two nuclear deal is implemented to Iranian leaders’ years and ending three straight years of economic downturns . 10 satisfaction, “we can put other topics on the table But experts say he needs to achieve more economic progress for discussion” with the United States. by 2017, when he would be eligible to seek re-election. the World,’ ” Corriere della Sera (Italy), Nov. 12, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/h5qay2o. If the sanctions-unburdened economy doesn’t dramatically 3 Ian Black and Saeed Kamali Dehghan, “Hassan Rouhani, ‘ultimate insider’ improve by then, they agree, impatient voters may be more who holds key to a more moderate Iran,” The Guardian , June 20, 2013, http:// tinyurl.com/hfrsrw3. willing to back a challenger less inclined to work with the 4 Robin Wright and Garrett Nada, “Latest on the Race: Rafsanjani Redux?” U.S. United States. At the same time, they say, a new U.S. president Institute of Peace Iran Primer, May 20, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/zgrxpeh. might try to undo the nuclear deal and reimpose sanctions. 5 Kenneth Katzman, “Iran, Gulf Security and U.S. Policy,” Congressional Research “Rouhani does not have a lot of time on his hands,” says Service, Jan. 14, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/gw2ca94. 6 Amin Saikal, a professor of political science at Australian National Shane Harris, “When Rouhani Met Ollie North,” Foreign Policy , Sept. 28, 2013 , http://tinyurl.com/jgxqurv. University and author of the 2015 book Iran at the Crossroads. 7 Thomas Erdbrink, “Iran’s President Suggests Link Between Hard-Line Media “He will have to move really fast to show evidence of the and Arrests,” The New York Times , Nov. 8, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/j2mykab. nuclear agreement not only to the public, but the hard-liners.” 8 “Rouhani Enters Iran Election Row Over Barred Candidates,” Agence-France Press, Yahoo News, Jan. 21, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/z67a4mz. — Chuck McCutcheon 9 Nancy Gallagher, Ebrahim Mohseni and Clay Ramsay, “Iranian Attitudes in Advance of the Parliamentary Elections: Economics, Politics, and Foreign Affairs,” University of Maryland Center for International & Security Studies, 1 Dana Hughes and Amy Bingham, “Iran’s Ahmadinejad Says America Entrusted January 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zowabqs. Itself to the Devil,” ABC News.com, Sept. 12, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/bt8j9dc. 10 Najmeh Bozorgmehr, “Iran desperate for nuclear deal dividend as economy 2 Viviana Mazza and Paolo Valentino, “Rouhani: ‘A New Era Between Iran and stagnates,” Financial Times , Sept. 20, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/gnu4zdd.

The Obama administration contin - New York City for a U.N. meeting, but to consider a “resolution of disapproval.” ued a program, begun during the he did speak with his White House Congressional opponents had enough second Bush administration, to use an counterpart by telephone. The gesture votes to pass such a measure but not Israeli-developed computer virus to was the highest-level contact between enough to override a threatened presi - shut down computer-driven nuclear- the two countries in decades and was dential veto, leaving the deal intact. 89 processing machines. 85 widely interpreted as underscoring The two sides continued talks even Tehran’s seriousness about wrapping up after Rezaian, a dual U.S.-Iranian citizen nuclear negotiations . 87 and The Post ’s Tehran bureau chief, Nuclear Negotiations The deal was finalized in July 2015 was abducted in July 2014 and charged over the vehement objections of Israel’s with spying. He was tried behind closed s the number of Iranian families Netanyahu, whom congressional Repub - doors and sentenced to prison. Obama A living in poverty reached 40 per - licans had invited earlier to address a resisted calls from journalism organi - cent of the population by 2013, Rouhani joint session of Congress to make his zations, human-rights groups and politi - won election that year by promising case against negotiating with Iran . 88 cians to make the reporter’s release a to lift Iran’s economy. 86 The agreement was not a formal treaty condition of the nuclear deal, saying The same year Rouhani spurned a requiring U.S. Senate ratification, but ne - he did not want to set a precedent or chance to meet Obama while visiting gotiators gave Congress the opportunity complicate negotiations. 90

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 231 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

In January Obama announced he expanding social freedoms in Iran as “will quickly face division among them - had resolved a separate dispute with well as greater engagement with the selves” because of differences in their Iran dating back to the shah’s era, when United States and other Western countries, political backgrounds. “To write off the Iran demanded more than $400 million won at least 85 seats. Moderate conser - hard-liners would be a major mistake,” in payments for U.S. military equipment vatives, who also support the nuclear Taraghi said. 93 sold to the shah but never delivered deal but whose views are not quite as after his overthrow. The Iranians received far to the left politically as those of the the money in January, plus $1.3 billion reformists, won 73 seats. Those combined Avoiding Sanctions in accumulated interest. gains are enough to give both camps he lifting of sanctions after Iran was T judged to have met its initial com - n

o mitments under the nuclear deal has s w

a sparked a flood of international invest - D

n ment interest. But the United States has o m

i promised to penalize any domestic S

/ companies or foreign countries whose g r

e companies conduct business with the b m

o Revolutionary Guards, who control many o l

B industries through front companies. / s

e As a result, European and Asian g

a businesses are scrambling to ensure m I

y that the companies they do business t t 94 e with are not fronts. The Treasury G Young women chat at a coffee shop in Tehran. Some experts on Iran see Department has begun issuing guide - bright potential for improved U.S.-Iran relations over the long term, given the lines about what foreign companies greater influence they say Iran’s youthful, well-educated population must do to avoid penalties, but experts will exercise over the country’s politics. say the Commerce and State depart - But in response to Iran’s missile a majority in the 290-seat assembly over ments need to provide more clarity. tests last fall, Obama imposed new hard-liners who oppose the nuclear deal. Besides the Revolutionary Guards, sanctions on a handful of Iranian busi - Moderates also won a 59 percent other parts of Iran’s government directly ness officials and some foreign com - majority in the Assembly of Experts, an own and operate hundreds of enter - panies accused of shipping crucial tech - 88-member group charged with choosing prises and indirectly control others. With - nologies to Iran, including missile parts. Khamenei’s eventual successor. Two ex - in the first few weeks after the sanctions Because the new sanctions were fo - tremely prominent hard-liners lost their were lifted, all of the major international cused on those individuals and firms seats in the assembly . 92 deals involved industries in which Iran’s — not the government — the penalties Experts say the results mean Rouhani government is somehow involved. are small compared to the nuclear- will have more political support as he One of the largest agreements was based sanctions and not expected to seeks to conduct more trade with other with Iran’s national airline, Iran Air, which affect most Iranians. 91 countries to improve Iran’s economy. signed a deal with the European consor - But they say Khamenei’s opposition to tium Airbus to buy more than 100 planes . negotiating anything with the United (See sidebar, p. 228. ) An Italian steelmaker, States beyond the nuclear deal still Danieli, began a $2 billion joint venture CURRENT matters more than the election results. with the Iranian Mines and Mining In - “The elections will have little direct dustries Development and Renovation or immediate effect on U.S.-Iran relations , Organization . 95 SITUATION in large part because the supreme Meanwhile, Iran, which hopes to ship leader has the full and final say on more oil overseas, is jostling with two this matter,” the University of Denver’s oil-producing U.S. allies — Saudi Arabia Iranian Elections Hashemi says. and the United Arab Emirates — for Iranian political analyst Hamidreza control over an oil market in which prices n the Feb. 26 election for Parliament, Taraghi, who is close to Iran’s leader - have plummeted because of worldwide I reformist candidates, who advocate ship, predicted the moderate faction Continued on p. 234

232 CQ Researcher At Issue:

Shoyes uld the United States seek closer ties with Iran?

TRITA PARSI SEN. DAN SULLIVAN , R-ALASKA FOUNDER AND PRESIDENT , N ATIONAL MEMBER , S ENATE ARMED SERVICES IRANIAN AMERICAN COUNCIL COMMITTEE

WRITTEN FOR CQ RESEARCHER , MARCH 2016 WRITTEN FOR CQ RESEARCHER , MARCH 2016

he idea of improving relations with Iran has spread panic hen President Obama and Secretary of State John among both U.S. and Iranian hard-liners. The latter fear w Kerry were selling the Iranian nuclear deal to t that improved U.S.-Iran relations will open a window for Americans, implicit in their appeal was that it would mark the Washington to regain influence in Iran and bring about its beginning of a more transparent and cooperative Iran, as it shed “cultural subversion.” The former fear that a U.S.-Iran thaw will its pariah-state identity and re-entered the community of nations. cause the United States to betray its security commitments to However, since its signing, we have seen no evidence of this historical allies in the Middle East — and jeopardize military hoped-for transformation, only an escalation of provocations by contracts worth billions of dollars. an emboldened regime. Clearly, a wide gulf separates U.S. and Iranian interests, Since the deal was negotiated, Iran has captured U.S. particularly if viewed from a narrow and immediate security sailors in the Persian Gulf and used their detention for propa - perspective. But it is a profound mistake to reduce Iran to its ganda, conducted ballistic missile tests in violation of U.N. Se - current regime and discount Iran’s vibrant society. That per - curity Council resolutions, launched rockets near a U.S. aircraft spective led to the West consistently being surprised by Iran - carrier and used innocent Americans as bargaining chips for ian presidential elections. the release and clemency of Iranian criminals. The regime If we study Iran’s society, however, we will quickly notice continues to hold rallies where leaders chant “death to America.” that it holds one of the region’s most modern, well-educated It also refuses to renounce its sponsorship of terrorism by and liberally oriented populations. In fact, Iranian society continuing to finance groups such as Hezbollah, whose long tends to share far more values with Western liberal democra - history of activities includes the 1983 bombing of a U.S. Marine cies than do the societies of most of America’s Middle East - barracks in Beirut and the dispatch of troops and weapons to ern allies. fight Americans in the Iraq War. Consider: yAmong 15- toe 24-years-olds s in Iran, literacy rates This is a regnime with the bloodo of thousands of American are near universal for men and women. Primary school en - soldiers on its hands, for which it refuses to take responsibility. rollment is at 99.9 percent. Most Iranians (69 percent) live in Might Iran change in the future? We hope so. Data suggest cities and have adopted both an urban lifestyle and the val ues that Iranian youths are as open to change as any similar that come with it. Astonishingly, women represent one-third Middle Eastern demographic. More than 60 percent of Iran’s of Iran’s doctors, 60 percent of its civil servants, 60 percent of population is under 30. The possibility that a future U.S. ad - its university students and 80 percent of its teachers. Compare ministration could strike an understanding with a more demo - that to Saudi Arabia — American’s chief Arab ally — where cratic and peaceful Iran — if its politics moderate — the question of whether women should drive continues to be shouldn’t be discounted, but it is not likely to occur with the debated. current Iranian president, nor in the next decade. Indeed, the Moreover, according to economist Djavad Salehi-Isfahani regime most recently barred thousands of pro-reform candidates of Virginia Tech, 60 percent of Iran’s population is middle from running in the February elections — seen as the largest class. If Iran grows a moderate 5 percent a year for 10 suppression of human rights in Iran since 2009. years as a result of the nuclear deal, its middle class will The Islamic Republic’s revolutionary identity is tied to ad - constitute 85 percent of the population by 2025. A country vancing an agenda that seeks the destabilization of the Middle with such a large middle class is more likely to pursue mod - East and complete hegemony in the region. Even so-called erate, status-quo policies, both internally and externally, than political moderates are more pragmatists than reformists. This promote radicalism. Clearly, engagement with Iran would ben - presents a challenge. There is no incentive for political change efit Iran’s moderate society. because the nuclear deal, which should have been a reward Granted that the U.S. interest in the region is stability and for good behavior, was offered before such good behavior not domination, then the long-run compatibility of U.S. and transpired. Iranian interests are clear. But to gain a friend in the long The regime, as it is, is no friend of the United States, our run, American must look beyond Iran’s current regime in the policies or our people, and until reformation replaces radicalism , short rno un. we should remain vigilant.

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 233 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

Continued from p. 232 vo cal in vowing to revoke the nuclear and ordering federal agencies not to im - oversupply. After Saudi Arabia’s state oil deal immediately upon taking office. plement it. But they predict those moves company announced it would sell oil at Rubio, a Florida senator, said he would would face tremendous opposition from discounted prices, Iran said it would demand that Iran permanently forsake abroad. follow suit. 96 That followed a November any pursuit of nuclear weapons and U.S. allies that signed the deal would 2014 move by those countries to oppose would back up the demand with “a put significant pressure on a new chief Tehran’s call for a cut in oil production credible threat of military force,” along executive to keep it intact to avoid to boost plummeting oil prices. with tougher economic sanctions for ter - what the experts agree would be an The Saudis and their allies have sought rorism and human-rights violation s. 101 extremely messy international dispute. to use their dominance in the 13-member Cruz, a Texas senator, said the deal “If we try to reimpose sanctions on Organization of Petroleum Exporting “will facilitate and accelerate” Iran’s Iran and no one follows, then we have Countries (OPEC) “to limit Iran’s income pursuit of a nuclear weapon. the worst of all worlds,” said Robert from its oil and thus restrain its military But many experts refute Cruz’s asser - Einhorn, a former Iran nuclear nego - spending,” Australian National University’s tion . Iran’s pledges under the deal “would tiator at the State Department. 105 Saikal wrote. 97 slow and impede any nuclear weapons Australian National University’s Saikal effort, not facilitate and accelerate it,” agrees a U.S. pullout could leave the said Matthew Bunn, a specialist in nuclear new administration “very much isolated U.S. Politics issues at Harvard’s John F. Kennedy by other world powers” while accel - School of Government . 102 erating the potential for Iran to pursue ongressional lawmakers who op - Republican front-runner Trump has bomb making. Senate Foreign Relations C posed the nuclear deal have passed joined Cruz and Rubio in harshly criti - Committee Chairman Bob Corker, R-Tenn. , or are considering legislation intended cizing the deal. But Trump has not said he is frustrated by what he predicts to punish Iran for its recent ballistic called for its abandonment, instead will be the unwillingness of those coun - missile tests. pledging stringent enforcement to deter tries to get tougher with Iran if it breaks Some senators from both parties cheating. “I would police that contract the nuclear deal. said Obama’s sanctions imposed after so tough that they [Iran] don’t have a “It’s going to be difficult — very, very the missile tests did not go far enough. chance,” he said. 103 difficult — in the future to push back They are crafting bills that impose Clinton has expressed strong support in any meaningful way against the vio - harsher, broader-ranging penalties, for the deal but said she would consider lations that take place,” Corker said. 106 along with legislation to beef up sanc - military action if Iran is found to have But Saikal and other experts say tions for Iran’s human-rights violations. cheated. And she has outlined several the flourishing business ties between “I think Congress can be bolder” in other hawkish measures, including in - Iran and other countries are likely to dealing with Iran, said Sen. Benjamin creasing support for Israel’s military to create an incentive for Iran to fulfill Cardin of Maryland, the Senate Foreign protect itself against Iranian threats, its commitments under the deal. If Relations Committee’s top Democrat and strengthening ways to keep Hezbollah that happens, they say, U.S. hostility a staunch supporter of Israel. Cardin was from acquiring weapons and consid - toward Iran eventually could lessen one of four Senate Democrats to oppose ering expanding current human-rights — depending on how long Khamenei the nuclear deal, citing Israel’s security sanctions against Iran. 104 is in control. concerns, but he said he wants to make “As long as the supreme leader re - sure it is successfully implemented. 98 mains in power, I don’t think Iran and In February the House passed, along America will normalize relations,” said party lines, a bill to restrict a president’s Karim Sadjadpour, a senior associate 99 OUTLOOK ability to lift economic sanctions. for the Middle East program at the The White House said the bill would Carnegie Endowment for International undo the progress made in the nuclear Peace, a Washington think tank. 107 deal and threatened a veto. 100 Uncertain Relations RAND Corp. researchers said Khamenei’s In the U.S. presidential race, all major departure “will mark a fundamental candidates except Sanders have taken ecause the nuclear deal is not a change” in how Iran deals with the tougher public stances toward Iran than B formal treaty, foreign-policy experts world, since a successor could be more Obama. say the next U.S. president could use willing to engage the United States. 108 Republican contenders Marco Rubio executive authority to negate the agree - Khamenei suggested in September that and Ted Cruz have been especially ment, re-imposing suspended sanctions he may be gone within a decade . 109

234 CQ Researcher Other experts see bright potential 2 William J. Broad, “Plutonium Is Unsung Con - 19 Nancy Gallagher, Ebrahim Mohseni and for U.S.-Iran relations over the longer cession in Iran Nuclear Deal,” The New York Clay Ramsay, “Iranian Attitudes in Advance of term, given the greater influence they Times , Sept. 7, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/gmpqt9m . the Parliamentary Elections: Economics, Politics, 3 say Iran’s youthful, well-educated popu - “Statement by the President on Iran,” White and Foreign Affairs,” University of Maryland lation will exercise over the country’s House Office of the Press Secretary, Jan. 17, Center for International & Security Studies, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/j5p9y2o . February 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zowabqs . politics. “It’s a young, dynamic, incredibly 4 “How Iran Entered the ‘Axis,’ ” PBS Frontline, 20 For background see Peter Katel, “Restoring well-positioned society for the future,” undated, http://tinyurl.com/zbfehph . Ties With Cuba,” CQ Researcher , June 12, 2015 , Brookings’ Maloney said. “If I were to 5 “Understanding Iran Beyond The Deal,” pp. 505-528. place a bet on the long-term democratic panel discussion, The Brookings Institution, 21 “Transcript of the Democratic Presidential opportunities in the region, Iran is it, Oct. 15, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/zfkqqby . Debate,” The New York Times , Jan. 17, 2016, by a long shot.” 110 6 “Florida Passes New York to Become the Na - http://tinyurl.com/h8espoy . The Middle East Institute’s Harrison tion’s Third Most Populous State, Census Bureau 22 Tyler Cullis and Amir Handjani, “US should says while it’s difficult to predict what Reports,” news release, U.S. Census Bureau, forge economic ties with Iran,” The Hill , Oct. 8 , will happen in the region, it could re - Dec. 23, 2014 , http://tinyurl.com/jq8trzm . 2015, http://tinyurl.com/gsqhmgo . 7 23 main highly unstable, which could com - “Transcript: Iranian President Hassan Thomas Erdbrink, Sewell Chan and David pel a closer U.S.-Iran partnership on Rouhani’s Full NPR Interview,” NPR, Sept. 28, E. Sanger, “After a U.S. Shift, Iran Has a Seat 2015, http://tinyurl.com/jhmtclt . at Talks on War in Syria,” The New York Times , fighting terrorism. 8 For background, see Roland Flammini, “Rising Oct. 28, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/ntjqaq4 . “Given the challenges Iran and all Tension Over Iran,” CQ Global Researcher , 24 Karen DeYoung, “Intense diplomacy between the major players [in the Middle East] Feb. 7, 2012, pp. 57-80; Peter Katel, “U.S. Secretary of State Kerry and his Iranian coun - are going to have in the next 10 years, Policy on Iran,” CQ Researcher , Nov. 16, 2007, terpart to secure sailors’ release,” The Washington I would expect a more pragmatic re - pp. 961-984. Post , Jan. 13, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/gsakfm6 . lationship to evolve” between Iran and 9 “Country Reports on Terrorism 2014,” U.S. 25 Robin Wright, “Tehran’s Promise,” The New the United States, he says. But he ex - Department of State, http://tinyurl.com/plvrsfz . Yorker , July 27, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/om pects that on some “deeply ideological” 10 Carol Morello et al. , “Plane leaves Iran with nvsdk . issues such as human rights, “We are Post reporter, other Americans in swap,” The 26 Stephen Kinzer, “Is Iran Really So Evil?” going to cross swords.” Washington Post , Jan. 17, 2016, http://tinyurl. Politico Magazine , Jan. 17, 2016, http://tiny The recent University of Maryland poll com/h2mkdvc . url.com/z9o7r9n . For background on Turkey, 11 Jessica Schulberg, “Siamak Namazi’s Friends see Brian Beary, “Unrest in Turkey,” CQ Re - conducted with the University of Tehran Thought He’d Be Freed From Iranian Prison, searcher , Jan. 29, 2016, pp. 97-120. and IranPoll.com found a split among But The Media Had It Wrong,” The Huffington 27 Leigh Ann Caldwell, “Clinton Expands Her Iranians about the future of relations be - Post , Jan. 19, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hm7gyxm . Attacks Against Sanders Over Foreign Policy,” tween the two countries. Thirty- eight per - 12 Thomas Erdbrink, “Iran’s Supreme Leader NBCNews.com, Jan. 21, 2016, http://tinyurl. cent said relations would improve in Condemns Mob Attack on Saudi Embassy,” com/hcredzg . the next three years, while 36 percent The New York Times , Jan. 20, 2016, http://tiny 28 Barbara Starr et. al. , “10 U.S. Sailors in predicted they would stay the same. url.com/hjmbeao . Iranian Custody,” CNN.com, Jan. 12, 2016, Just over one-fifth speculated that re - 13 Gregory Korte, “U.S. Sanctions Iran’s Ballistic http://tinyurl.com/zpwdkqv . lations would worsen. 111 Missile Program,” USA Today , Jan. 17, 2016, 29 Jay Solomon, “U.S. Detects Flurry of Iranian Because of the persistent ideological http://tinyurl.com/zwxctqx . Hacking,” The Wall Street Journal , Nov. 4, 14 constraints between Iran and the United Martin C. Libicki, “Iran: A Rising Cyber 2015, http://tinyurl.com/nkwwmae ; Yeganeh Power?” RAND.org blog, Dec. 16, 2015, http:// Torbati and Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Iranian- States, Trita Parsi, the National Iranian tinyurl.com/je95d4l . American businessman detained in Iran denied American Council’s founder and pres - 15 “Khamenei says Iran will not negotiate with access to lawyer,” Business Insider , Feb. 21, ident, is pragmatic about how much U.S. beyond nuclear talks,” Reuters, Sept. 9, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zpouqce ; Haleh Esfan - can be achieved over the short term. 2015, http://tinyurl.com/jp83n6y . diari, “Iran Arrests 80-Year-Old Father of Dual- “I don’t think they’re going to be 16 Teresa Welsh, “Supreme Leader’s Poor Health Citizen Already in Custody,” The Wall Street Jour - best friends anytime soon,” Parsi said. Injects Instability Into Iranian Politics,” U.S. nal , Feb. 24, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/guph95f . “But I think they can stop being worst News & World Report , March 10, 2015, http:// 30 Tim Craig, “In Islamic countries, Kentucky enemies.” 112 tinyurl.com/mj4jqtv . Fried Chicken isn’t always ‘finger-lickin’ good,’ ” 17 “Iranian Hard-liners Losers In Parliament, The Washington Post , Nov. 4, 2015, http://tiny Clerical Body,” The Associated Press, The New url.com/jto3mc8 . Notes York Times , Feb. 29, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/ 31 Dugald McConnell and Brian Todd, “Despite je42m4c . Iran prisoner swap, Robert Levinson’s family 1 “Iran Fact File: Arak Heavy Water Reactor,” 18 Andrew Dugan, “After Nuclear Deal, U.S. still seeks answers,” CNN.com, Jan. 18, 2016, U.S. Institute of Peace, April 28, 2014, Views of Iran Remain Dismal,” Gallup.com, http://tinyurl.com/z3x8hgn ; Barry Meier, “Clues http://tinyurl.com/zo9vt5y . Feb. 17, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jdaaggy . Emerge on Robert Levinson, C.I.A. Consultant

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 235 U.S.-I RAN RELATIONS

Who Vanished in Iran,” The New York Times , the Lifting of Certain U.S. Sanctions Under 55 Banafsheh Keynoush, “The secret side of Jan. 22, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/j5ypj5b . the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action Iran-US relations since the 1979 revolution,” 32 Sarah Mimms, “The GOP’s Iran Frustration,” (JCPOA) on Implementation Day,” U.S. Trea - The Guardian , July 10, 2015, http://tinyurl. National Journal , Jan. 20, 2016, http://tinyurl. sury Department, Jan. 16, 2016, http://tinyurl. com/owq3bna . com/zh8lagr . com/jy6qasr . 56 Kenneth Katzman, “Iran, Gulf Security and 33 Aaron David Miller, “America’s awkward 45 Darren Samuelson, “The Debrief: What’s Next U.S. Policy,” Congressional Research Service, Iran dance,” CNN.com, Feb. 2, 2016, http://tiny for the Iranian Sanctions,” Politico , Sept. 29, 2015, Jan. 14, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/gw2ca94 ; Ehsan url.com/je75hxn . http://tinyurl.com/jq6o3at . 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236 CQ Researcher Iran Deal’s ‘Argo’ Moments,” The New Yorker , Jan. 19, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jxszf7m . 72 Maureen Dowd, “Iran Is Reported Ready FOR MORE INFORMATION for a Deal to Recover Assets,” The New York Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs , Harvard University, 79 Times , Aug. 9, 1989, http://tinyurl.com/j8w4ngf . John F. Kennedy St., Cambridge, MA 02138 ; 617-495-1400 ; http://belfercenter.ksg. 73 Tharoor, op. cit. harvard.edu . Conducts research on international security issues and sanctions. 74 Garrett Nada, “If sanctions are lifted, here’s what trade between Iran and US could look Brookings Institution , 1775 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20036 ; like,” Quartz , April 24, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/ 202-797-6000 ; www.brookings.edu . Centrist think tank that studies U.S.-Iran relations . z5l63kc . 75 Amin Saikal, Iran at the Crossroads (2015), Foundation for Defense of Democracies , P.O. Box 33249, Washington, DC 20033 ; p. 62. 202-207-0190 ; www.defenddemocracy.org . Conservative think tank focusing on 76 “How Iran entered the Axis,” op. cit. national security and foreign policy. 77 Tharoor, op. cit. 78 Kenneth Katzman and Paul K. Kerr, “Iran International Atomic Energy Agency , P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria ; Nuclear Agreement,” Congressional Research Ser - 431-2600-0 ; www.iaea.org . UN agency charged with overseeing international nuclear vice, Jan. 19, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hwhso9m ; research and development. Molly Moore, “Iran Restarts Uranium Program,” The Washington Post , Feb. 15, 2006, http://tiny National Iranian American Council , 1411 K St., N.W., Suite 250, Washington, url.com/co3eyc . DC 20005 ; 202-386-6325 ; www.niacouncil.org . Nonprofit advocating for improved 79 Karl Vick, “Iran’s President Calls Holocaust U.S.-Iran relations. ‘Myth’ In Latest Assault on Jews,” The Wash - , 2201 C St., N.W., Washington, DC 20520 ; 202-647-4000 ; ington Post , Dec. 15, 2005, http://tinyurl.com/ U.S. Department of State www.state.gov . Oversees diplomatic relations between Iran and the United States. ckvug . 80 Glenn Kessler, “Did Ahmadinejad really say Israel should be ‘wiped off the map’?” The 92 “Iranian Hard-liners Losers in Parliament, 103 “Meet the Press transcript — Aug. 16, 2015,” Washington Post , Oct. 5, 2011, http://tinyurl. Clerical Body,” op. cit. NBCNews.com, Aug. 19, 2015, http://tinyurl. com/ht49sak . 93 Thomas Erdbrink, “Iranian President and com/ju6l3v7 . 81 “Fact check: Would Obama meet ‘uncon - Moderates Appear to Make Strong Gains in 104 “Hillary Clinton: Consistent, Tough, and ditionally’ with Iran?” CNN.com, Sept. 25, 2008, Elections,” The New York Times , Feb. 29, 2016, Effective Leadership to Counter Threats from http://tinyurl.com/zwtda96 . http://tinyurl.com/zbdxjyf . Iran,” Hillary Clinton campaign, http://tinyurl. 82 “Iran nuclear agreement — a timeline,” CBS 94 Hannah Murphy, “Iran is back in business,” com/hqvtnpu . News, July 14, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/jmr8ra4 . Financial Times , Jan. 29, 2016, http://tinyurl. 105 Nahal Toosi, “How a Republican president 83 Katzman, op. cit. com/jf7jquy . could kill the Iran deal,” Politico , July 14, 2015 , 84 Ibid. 95 Thomas Erdbrink, “In Iran, State-Backed Com - http://tinyurl.com/htlahov. 85 David E. Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave panies Win From Lifted Sanctions,” The New York 106 Mimms, op. cit. of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” The New York Times , Times , Feb. 5, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hkkkjf6 . 107 Isaac Chotiner, “ ‘Iran is the Arsonist and the June 1, 2012, http://tinyurl.com/d264zk4 . 96 Murphy, op. cit. Fire Brigade,’ ” Slate.com , Jan. 6, 2016, http://tiny 86 Beheshteh Farshneshani, “In Iran, Sanctions 97 Saikal, op. cit. , p. 132. url.com/jghn89p . Hurt the Wrong People,” The New York Times , 98 Karoun Demirjian, “With Iran nuclear deal 108 Alireza Nader, David E. Thaler and S. R. Jan. 22, 2014, http://tinyurl.com/hal6uan . in place, key senators look to slap new sanctions Bohandy, “The Next Supreme Leader: Succession 87 Jeff Mason and Louis Charbonneau, “Obama, on country,” The Washington Post , Feb. 2, 2015 , in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” RAND Corp., Iran’s Rouhani hold historic phone call,” Reuters, http://tinyurl.com/zzowr7n . 2011, http://tinyurl.com/hpkmqqd . Sept. 28, 2013, http://tinyurl.com/zpsokq8 . 99 “House passes bill again to restrict Obama 109 Welsh, op. cit .; Rick Gladstone, “Iran’s Ayatollah 88 “5 Things to Know About Netanyahu’s lifting Iran sanctions,” Reuters, Feb. 2, 2016, Suggests He May Not Be Around in 10 Years,” Speech to Congress,” CBS News, March 3, 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/jk8ra9o . The New York Times , Sept. 16, 2015, http://tiny http://tinyurl.com/gstfbyh . 100 “Statement of Administration Policy — HR url.com/nu27zr6 . 89 Jordain Carney, “Senate Dems stonewall Iran 3662, Iran Terror Finance Transparency Act,” 110 Suzanne Maloney and Fred Dews, “Suzanne resolution, handing victory to Obama,” The Hill , White House Office of Management and Bud - Maloney talks U.S.-Iran relations, the Iran nuclear Sept. 17, 2015, http://tinyurl.com/owxghqm . get, Jan. 11, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/zdzf8zr . deal, and the future of Iran,” Brookings Cafeteria 90 Gregg Zoroya, “Timeline: From Jason Reza - 101 “As President, I’ll Reimpose Sanctions On podcast, Brookings Institution, Sept. 11, 2015, ian’s arrest to release in Iran,” USA Today , Iran On Day One,” Marco Rubio campaign http://tinyurl.com/hokw789 . Jan. 16, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/hklevth . website, undated, http://tinyurl.com/zuco5xs . 111 Gallagher, Mohseni and Ramsay, op. cit. 91 David E. Sanger, Rick Gladstone and Thomas 102 Louis Jacobson, “Ted Cruz says deal will 112 “Arena: What is the future of U.S.-Iran re - Erdbrink, “3 Freed Americans Leave Iraq; U.S. ‘facilitate and accelerate’ Iran getting a nuclear lations?” “Upfront,” Al Jazeera, Sept. 19, 2015, Places New Sanctions,” The New York Times , bomb,” PolitiFact , Sept. 10, 2015, http://tinyurl. http://tinyurl.com/ovy296w . Jan. 17, 2016, http://tinyurl.com/jt68l7r . com/pwwmkmo.

www.cqresearcher.com March 4, 2016 237 Bibliography Selected Sources

Books A former Middle East negotiator who is now at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars think tank examines Berman, Ilan, Iran’s Deadly Ambition: The Islamic Republic’s why improved U.S-Iran relations could be difficult. Quest for Global Power , Encounter Books , 2015 . A vice president at a foreign-policy think tank details what Nada, Garrett, “If sanctions are lifted, here’s what trade be - he says are conflicts between Iran’s ambitions and those of tween Iran and the US could look like,” Quartz , April 24, Israel and the United States. 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/m4vht25 . A writer for a business website provides an overview of Edwards, Brian T., After the American Century: The areas most likely to benefit from future U.S.-Iranian trade. Ends of U.S. Culture in the Middle East , Columbia Uni - versity Press , 2015 . Tharoor, Ishaan, “The key moments in the long history A Northwestern University professor of Middle Eastern studies of U.S.-Iran tensions,” The Washington Post , April 2, 2015 , examines how Iran and neighboring countries have interpreted http://tinyurl.com/gkokj2g . American popular culture through comic books, social net - A journalist looks at the events that have formed the basis working sites and other means. for hostile relations between the United States and Iran since 1979. Maloney, Suzanne, Iran’s Political Economy Since the Revolution , Cambridge University Press , 2015 . Wright, Robin, “Tehran’s Promise,” The New Yorker , July 27, The deputy director of the Brookings Institution’s foreign 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/omnvsdk . policy program explores the changing nature of Iran’s economy A journalist specializing in the Middle East visits Iran and and future foreign investment. interviews residents who want improved relations with the United States. Saikal, Amin, Iran at the Crossroads , Polity , 2015 . An Australian National University professor of political science Reports and studies and author of several books on the Middle East contends closer U.S.-Iranian ties would benefit both countries as well Gallagher, Nancy, Ebrahim Mohseni and Clay Ramsay, as the region. “Iranian Attitudes in Advance of the Parliamentary Elec - tions: Economics, Politics, and Foreign Affairs,” University Secor, Laura, Children of Paradise: The Struggle for the of Maryland Center for International & Security Studies , Soul of Iran , Riverhead Books , 2016 . February 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/zowabqs . A journalist who frequently writes about Iran chronicles American and Iranian universities, together with a Canadian the efforts of several people pressing for greater Iranian en - firm, present the results from a poll of more than 1,000 gagement with the United States and the West. Iranians on the United States, President Hassan Rouhani and the February parliamentary elections. Articles Heinonen, Olli, “Strengthening the Verification and Im - “The Iranian Inspections Mirage,” The Wall Street Journal , plementation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action,” July 22, 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/zne7r6m . Foundation for the Defense of Democracies , Nov. 25, 2015 , The newspaper’s conservative editorial page argues that http://tinyurl.com/j7kekhk . Iran’s nuclear program cannot be adequately inspected. A former International Atomic Energy Agency official critiques the implementation of the nuclear deal. Kinzer, Stephen, “Is Iran Really So Evil?” Politico Magazine , Jan. 17, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/z9o7r9n . Katzman, Kenneth, “Iran, Gulf Security and U.S. Policy,” The author of several books on Iran and the Middle East Congressional Research Service , Jan. 14, 2016 , http://tiny contends the threat Iran poses to the United States is greatly url.com/gw2ca94 . overstated. An analyst for the agency researching background issues for Congress provides an overview of Iran’s politics. Libicki, Martin C., “Iran: A Rising Cyber Power?” RAND.org , Dec. 16, 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/je95d4l . Samore, Gary, ed., “Sanctions Against Iran: A Guide to A researcher for a think tank specializing in national security Targets, Terms and Timetables,” Harvard University Belfer assesses recent Iranian cyberattacks. Center for Science and International Affairs , June 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/jrr3vrf . Miller, Aaron David, “America’s awkward Iran dance,” The university’s scientific and foreign policy research group CNN.com , Feb. 2, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/j3s72us . provides an overview of economic sanctions.

238 CQ Researcher The Next Step: Additional Articles from Current Periodicals

Elections effort to beat ISIS and end Syrian war,” The Guardian , Dec. 18, 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/pac6y87 . Karami , Arash , “Rouhani calls for more Iranian women Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif called for to ‘lean in’ to politics,” Al-Monitor , Feb. 8, 2016 , http://tiny the United States, the United Kingdom and others to collaborate url.com/gvjkqgl . with Iran to defeat the growing Islamic State, but discouraged Iranian President Hassan Rouhani in February urged Iranian military intervention by Western countries. women to be more politically active and said that not voting in upcoming Iran’s parliamentary and Assembly of Experts Sanctions elections would be detrimental to the country. Dipaola , Anthony , and Angelina Rascouet , “Iran Seeks Oil Murdock , Heather , “Iran Reformists Seek Electoral Gains Barter as European Buyers Face Bank Hurdles,” Bloomberg After Nuclear Deal,” Voice of America , Jan. 15, 2016 , http:// Business , Feb. 25, 2016 , http://tinyurl.com/h5flysu . tinyurl.com/joke7mb . Iran’s state-owned National Iranian Oil Co. has offered to President Rouhani and other leading Iranian reformers have trade crude oil to new European customers for refined fuel, touted the nation’s nuclear deal, including sanctions relief, to rather than cash, because some banks still refuse to process attract more voter support for reformist candidates in the par - payments due to confusion over U.S. and international sanction liamentary and Assembly of Experts elections, analysts say. terms under the new nuclear deal.

Human Rights Glusac , Elaine , “Sanctions Lifted, American Tourists Head to Iran,” The New York Times , Feb. 8, 2016 , http://tinyurl. Morello , Carol , “Iran criticized for human rights abuses in com/zdl2m63 . State Department report,” The Washington Post , June 25, More American tourists are traveling to Iran after the removal 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/zgkt5bz . of some sanctions, despite active State Department travel Iran’s treatment of its citizens is “cruel” and “inhuman” and warnings that “various elements in Iran remain hostile to the includes psychological torture of political opponents and ex - United States.” ecutions without due process, according to an annual human- rights report by the U.S. Department of State. Levitt , Matthew , “On Iran Sanctions, Mixed News — and Warnings for Potential Investors,” The Wall Street Journal , Nichols , Michelle , “Iran appears more willing to talk Dec. 9, 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/z8hb6k5 . human rights: UN investigator,” Reuters , Oct. 26, 2015 , U.S. Treasury Department officials warned Americans hoping http://tinyurl.com/zt848xz . to invest in Iranian businesses after the lifting of some Iranian officials responded more seriously to U.N. human- economic sanctions to avoid engaging in money laundering rights investigations in 2015 than in past years after the or financing of terrorism. approval of Iran’s nuclear deal, although the country was still on track to execute more than 1,000 people last year, a U.N. investigator said. CITING CQ RESEARCHER Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography Robins-Early , Nick , “Executions In Iran Have Surged This Year, Report Finds,” The Huffington Post , July 23, include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/hgyq8yg . vary, so please check with your instructor or professor. Iran executed an unprecedented number of prisoners in the first half of 2015, mostly for drug offenses, according to MLA STYLE the human-rights organization Amnesty International. Jost, Kenneth. “Remembering 9/11.” CQ Researcher 2 Sept. Islamic State 2011: 701-732. APA S TYLE Melvin , Don , “Iran hosts anti-ISIS cartoon competition,” Jost, K. (2011, September 2). Remembering 9/11. CQ Researcher, CNN , May 31, 2015 , http://tinyurl.com/p33rqxa . Iran, a predominantly Shiite country with a history of cen - 9, 701-732. sorship and imprisonment of journalists, sponsored a contest soliciting cartoons from artists around the world criticizing CHICAGO STYLE the Sunni terrorist group Islamic State (ISIS). Jost, Kenneth. “Remembering 9/11.” CQ Researcher , September 2, 2011, 701-32. Tisdall , Simon , “Iran calls for concerted international

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