Heritage Education — Memories of the Past in the Present Caribbean Social Studies Curriculum: a View from Teacher Practice Issue Date: 2019-05-28

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The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/73692 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation.

Author: Con Aguilar E.O. Title: Heritage education — Memories of the past in the present Caribbean social studies curriculum: a view from teacher practice Issue Date: 2019-05-28

Heritage Education — Memories of the Past in the Present Caribbean Social Studies Curriculum: A View from Teacher Practice

Eldris Con Aguilar

Heritage Education — Memories of the Past in the Present Caribbean Social Studies Curriculum: A View from Teacher Practice

Proefshrift ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op dinsdag 28 Mei 2019 klokke 10:00 uur door

Eldris Odile Con Aguilar

geboren te Baruta (Venezuela) in 1986

Promotor

Prof. Dr. Corinne L. Hofman

Co-promotor

Dr. M.H. van den Dries

Promotiecommissie

Prof. Dr. J.C.A Kolen, decaan Faculteit der Archeologie (voorzitter) Prof. Dr. M.A. Soressi (secretaris) Prof. Dr. I. Lilley Prof. Dr. J. Mesman Dr. M.M. Antczak

They

This story is about them,

Is about all that brought us here

Just then,

When I look back

I see the past,

A past that was theirs,

And that today answers

Questions about us

And who we were, are and will be

***

Deepening myself

In their stories

I travel back

In time and there

I see us

In a day that is

Tomorrow

CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... LIST OF TABLES ...... ABSTRACT ...... ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: PERSPECTIVES ON TEACHING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN THE CARIBBEAN ......

INTRODUCTION 1.1 ...... 13 CHALLENGING TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON CARIBBEAN HISTORY: WHY DOES IT MATTER FOR EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE? 1.2 ...... 15 REVIVING THE PAST IN THE PRESENT: TEACHING ABOUT THE PAST IN THE CONTEMPORARY CARIBBEAN 1.3 ...... 18 EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND CARIBBEAN IDENTITIES 1.4 ...... 20 SOCIAL STUDIES: A WINDOW INTO UNDERSTANDING APPROACHES TO TEACHING AND LEARNING ABOUT THE PAST IN THE CARIBBEAN CURRICULUM 1.5 ...... 24 The role of teachers in defining indigenous heritage in classroom practice 1.5.1 ...... 25 RESEARCH DESIGN FOR STUDYING THE TEACHING OF INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 1.6 26 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY 1.7 ...... 27 CHAPTER 2 HERITAGE EDUCATION AND TEACHING PRACTICE ......

INTRODUCTION 2.1 ...... 28 HERITAGE AND HERITAGE EDUCATION 2.2………………………………………………………………………………………...28 Heritage Education 2.2.1 ...... 31 THE LINK BETWEEN HERITAGE AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION 2.3 ...... 33 INDIGENOUS HERITAGE EDUCATION 2.4 ...... 33 TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE OF INDIGENOUS HERITAGE 2.5 ...... 34 TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE: “PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE” 2.6 ...... 35 Content Knowledge 2.6.1 ...... 37 Instructional strategies and representations 2.6.2...... 37 1Goals and objectives of the curriculum 2.6.3 ...... 38 Student understanding 2.6.4 ...... 38 Knowledge of the Context 2.6.5 ...... 39 APPLICATIONS OF THE PCK MODEL IN INDIGENOUS HERITAGE EDUCATION 2.7 ...... 39 PCK for social studies and history 2.7.1 ...... 40 PCK for indigenous heritage 2.7.2 ...... 42 THE ROLE OF TEACHERS’ PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE IN DEFINING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE EDUCATION 2.8 ...... 43 CHAPTER SUMMARY 2.9 ...... 44 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY “APPROACHES TO ASSESSING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE EDUCATION FROM THE TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES” ......

INTRODUCTION 3.1 ...... 45 DOING RESEARCH IN EDUCATION 3.2 ...... 45 RESEARCH DESIGN 3.3 ...... 46 Selection of research design and approach 3.3.1 ...... 46 Case-Study Approach 3.3.2 ...... 46 DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE STUDIES: RESEARCH SITES AND SUBJECTS 3.4 ...... 48 Participants and sampling procedures 3.4.1 ...... 49 Sampling criteria 3.4.2 ...... 50 INSTRUMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION 3.5 ...... 52 Interviews 3.5.1 ...... 53 Surveys questionnaires 3.5.2 ...... 54 ANALYTIC PROCEDURES 3.6 ...... 55 Document research and curriculum analysis 3.6.1...... 57 Analysis and interpretation of qualitative data: The interviews 3.6.2 ...... 58 Analysis and interpretation of quantitative data: The survey questionnaires 3.6.3 ...... 63 CHAPTER SUMMARY 3.7 ...... 67

CHAPTER 4 FINDING LIAMUIGA: TEACHING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE EDUCATION IN SAINT KITTS ......

INTRODUCTION 4.1 ...... 68 HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF SAINT KITTS 4.2 ...... 69 CONTEXT OF STUDY 4.3 ...... 73 Social Studies Curriculum in Saint Kitts and Nevis 4.3.1 ...... 75 Primary-school education: Fostering understanding of cultural heritage 4.3.2 ...... 77 Secondary-school education and Caribbean identity 4.3.3 ...... 78 DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION 4.4 ...... 81 Teacher Interviews 4.4.1 ...... 82 Participatory Activities 4.4.2 ...... 83 Education and cultural stakeholders interviews 4.4.3 ...... 86 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4.5 ...... 87 The place of indigenous heritage in the school curriculum 4.5.1 ...... 88 Understanding of local history and heritage 4.5.2 ...... 89 Need for a more integrated agenda between local institutions and the school community 4.5.3 ...... 91 Engaging with the past through practical experiences 4.5.4 ...... 91 Difficulties in bridging the gap between the island’s Amerindian heritage and contemporary society 4.5.5 ...... 96 REFLECTIONS ON THE CURRENT STATUS OF TEACHING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN SAINT KITTS 4.6 ...... 97 CHAPTER 5 TEACHING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: MEMORIES OF QUISQUEYA IN THE CLASSROOM ......

INTRODUCTION 5.1 ...... 99 ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 5.2 ...... 100 The first inhabitants and the origin of the Taíno 5.2.1 ...... 100 Narratives of national identity in Dominican historiography 5.2.2 ...... 102 CONTEXT OF STUDY: EDUCATION POLICY IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 5.3 ...... 104 An overview of the instructional content and pedagogy of the social science curriculum in Dominican Republic 5.3.1...... 106 DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION 5.4 ...... 107 Participatory Activities 5.4.1 ...... 109 Survey Questionnaire 5.4.2 ...... 110 Semi-structured interview 5.4.3 ...... 115 Education officers and cultural stakeholders interviews 5.4.4 ...... 120 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 5.5 ...... 123 Subject matter knowledge and curriculum 5.5.1 ...... 124 Instructional strategies, knowledge of the context and student understanding 5.5.2 ...... 125 CHAPTER 6 THE PRESENCE OF WAI’TU KUBULI IN TEACHING HISTORY AND HERITAGE IN DOMINICA ......

INTRODUCTION 6.1 ...... 127 HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF DOMINICA 6.2 ...... 128 The Precolonial period 6.2.1 ...... 129 The Island Carib 6.2.2 ...... 130 Dominica Today 6.2.3 ...... 132 CONTEXT OF STUDY: EDUCATION POLICY FRAMEWORK IN DOMINICA 6.3 ...... 133 An overview of the instructional content and pedagogy of the social science curriculum in Dominica 6.3.1 ...... 133 DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION 6.4 ...... 134 Teacher Interviews 6.4.1 ...... 135 Participatory Activities 6.4.2 ...... 139 Results from surveys questionnaires and interviews 6.4.3 ...... 139 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS INTERVIEWS 6.5 ...... 152 Teacher training and education 6.5.1 ...... 153 Initiatives and activities 6.5.2 ...... 155 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 6.6 ...... 161 Prospective: Teaching and learning strategies for Kalinago heritage education 6.6.1 ...... 162

CHAPTER 7 DISCUSSION: THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN THE FORMATION OF A BALANCED CARIBBEAN IDENTITY WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF REGIONAL POLICY ......

NARRATIVES OF CARIBBEAN IDENTITY IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 7.1 ...... 164 A CHALLENGING PANORAMA: HARMONIZING EDUCATION POLICIES AND CONTENTS 7.2 ...... 165 CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF TEACHING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE: TOOLS FOR HERITAGE PROFESSIONALS 7.3 ...... 167 OVERCOMING THE CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION RESEARCH 7.4 ...... 168 PROSPECTIVE FOR STUDYING INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION 7.5 ...... 169 REFERENCES ...... 172 APPENDIXES ......

INTERVIEW PROTOCOL APPENDIX A ...... 189 INTERVIEW GUIDE (FOR IN-SERVICE TEACHERS, WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS AND STAKEHOLDERS, 2014)APPENDIX B ...... 1890 INTERVIEW GUIDE (FOR IN-SERVICE TEACHERS AND PARTICIPANTS OF THE WORKSHOPS HELD IN 2015 AND 2016) APPENDIX C ...... 191 QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUMENT APPENDIX D ...... 192 CXC CARIBBEAN HISTORY CURRICULUM INDICATORS APPENDIX E ...... 194 CXC SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM INDICATORS APPENDIX F ...... 195 CONTENTS RELATED TO INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM AT THE PRIMARY-SCHOOL LEVEL, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC APPENDIX G ...... 196 SUMMARY OF INDIGENOUS HERITAGE IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC APPENDIX H 205 SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM INDICATOR FOR THE PRIMARY-SCHOOL LEVEL, DOMINICAI ...... 207

Figures and Tables

Figures

1.1 Mural depicting the lifeways of the Kalinago people before the European arrival, Soufrière Primary School, Dominica 1.2 Map of the Caribbean and case-study areas

4.1 View of Nevis from Basseterre, Saint Kitts

4.2 Map of Amerindian archaeological sites identified on the island of Saint Kitts, 2014 4.3 View of the village of Challengers, location of the Amerindian site Bloody Point 4.4 Map of Saint Kitts and Nevis; red dots show the location of the secondary schools that took part in this study on the island of Saint Kitts. Below, Charles E. Mills Secondary School (Sandy Point) and Verchilds High School (Old Road Town) 4.5 Class project designed by a teacher of social studies at the second session of the workshop, May 22, 2014 4.6 School visit to Romney Major organized by a history teacher at Verchilds High School, January 2014 4.7 Class project designed by a geography teacher combining aspects of indigenous people’s history with map skills 5.1 Workshop at the School District Esperanza, Dominican Republic, August 2015 (photo by author) 5.2 Provinces visited during field research phases in the Dominican Republic. “Distrito Nacional” encompasses the national capital, Santo Domingo 5.3 Answers from teachers from Valverde about the types of heritage they consider to be present in their region 5.4 Answers from teachers from Montecristi about the types of heritage they consider to be present in their region 5.5 Identification of important components of indigenous heritage by teachers from Montecristi and Valverde provinces 5.6 Instructional strategies and resources used in the teaching of indigenous heritage (Valverde and Montecristi) 5.7 Frequency with which teachers carried out outdoor activities 5.8 Institutes for teacher training and continuing professional development 6.1 Workshop at the Salybia Primary School Kalinago Territory, Dominica, January 2016 (photo by author) 6.2 Map of Dominica highlighting the Kalinago Territory and, in red, the cities where field activities were conducted 6.3 Results from question 1 of the questionnaire 6.4 Teachers’ opinions on the presence of indigenous heritage from the pre-Columbian era (left) and present-day Kalinago heritage (right) in the school curriculum 6.5 Strategies used by respondents to teach their students about

indigenous heritage 6.6 Examples of exhibitions of replicas of indigenous artifacts in the schools 6.7 Institutes with direct influence on the design and planning of teacher training programs in indigenous history and heritage 6.8 Educational resource material produced by members of the Kalinago community and used in their primary schools. Pictures were taken by the author at Atkinson Primary School, October 2015

Tables

3.1 Participation of teachers in the research activities in the three country cases 3.2 Categorization matrix with the list of categories or themes 3.3 Structure of the items in the questionnaire 3.4 Demographic data coding 3.5 Questionnaire items coding 4.1 Main aims social studies curriculum with respect to citizenship education 4.2a Unifying concepts in the Social Studies Syllabus for the CSEC 4.2b Content organization of the Caribbean History Syllabus for the CSEC 4.3 Teachers participating in the interviews 4.4 Practical activities organized with teachers in Saint Kitts, May 2014 4.5 Teachers’ input on the design of a class project on the subject of indigenous history and heritage 4.6 Summary of interviewed stakeholders and their institutions 4.7 Instructional strategies teachers most associated with teaching indigenous history and heritage 5.1 Competencies for the social science program at the primary- and secondary-school levels (adapted from the 2016 curricular design) 5.2 Schedule of research visits to the Dominican Republic in 2014 and 2015 5.3 Characteristics of the teachers from Valverde and Montecristi provinces participating in the workshop and questionnaires 5.4 Teachers interviewed in the province of Valverde, August 2015 5.5 (Non-teaching) Stakeholders interviewed during field visits to the Dominican Republic (2014–2015) 5.6 A summary of heritage activities and initiatives taking place at primary and secondary schools 6.1 Percentage distribution of total population by ethnic group in Dominica, 1991 and 2001 6.2 Subject strands and attainment targets for key stage 1 and key stage 2 of Dominican primary-school education 6.3 Interviews -Teachers Primary Schools Kalinago Territory 6.4 Primary schools outside the Kalinago Territory, Dominica that participated in interviews 6.5 Extracts from interviews with teachers from the Kalinago Territory in

January 2016 6.6 Students’ learning difficulties as identified from the teachers’ replies 6.7 Description of the schools’ ethnic demographics from the school principals in the Kalinago Territory 6.8 Local stakeholder interview list 6.9 Percentage of trained primary-school teachers (nationally) 6.10 Initiatives undertaken by various stakeholders to promote Kalinago history and heritage

Abstract

This doctoral study formed part of subproject 4 within the ERC-Synergy project Nexus 1492, which seeks to answer the question of how local communities interpret and engage with the past and what role the past plays in the construction of cultural identity and historical discourse in the present day. To approach this topic, this particular investigation focuses on the relationships that are constructed between individuals and the past in the context of the school environment. Without a doubt, Nexus 1492’s findings have highlighted that Caribbean heritages are under various forms of threat: Amerindian sites are rapidly disappearing due to climate change, which has spurred erosion processes that are washing out the remains of the material culture left by the Amerindians, as is the case on many of the islands, such as for example Guadeloupe, Grenada and Saint Kitts, where archaeological surveys and rescue research has recently taken place (Hofman and Hoogland 2016a). However, besides the natural threats that are continuously affecting the region, there is another major threat, one that consists in the way society engages with and understands the past: this research focuses on the latter issue, studying these relations as they appear in the school context. Today the world is being swept up in a global culture that is no longer tied to specific places (e.g., buildings and monuments); technological advances have facilitated unprecedented mobility, creating new modes of culture that are more dynamic than in the past. This poses new challenges for the education sector, but at the same time, it could represent new opportunities to reflect on the way education is conducted in contemporary society. This research navigated issues that affect macro-, meso- and micro-level processes in education; consequently, the discussion that follows frames the research findings within the larger debate on globalization and education in the Caribbean, since this is one of the recurring themes in education across the region. As a result, to shed light on how the school community interacts and engages with the past, it was first necessary to look at current discussions on education policy in the region, as well as how teachers deal with curricular reforms and education philosophy as concerns the subject of cultural identity. Thus the key topics that emerged from teacher interviews and conversations with stakeholders with respect to indigenous heritage and its representation in the school curriculum are addressed in the discussion section. Some of these key points concern two of the main research focuses of this study: the curriculum and teachers’ knowledge of the concept of indigenous heritage.

Acknowledgments

This research was possible thanks to the efforts of a valuable team of scholars who made the multidisciplinary research project ERC-Synergy Nexus 1492 possible: Prof. Corinne Hofman, Prof. Gareth R. Davies, Prof. Ulrik Brandes and the late Prof. Willems Willems. I had the opportunity to conduct my doctoral investigation within the framework of Project 4: A Future for Caribbean Heritages while being part of an international team of affiliated researchers. During these five years, I met colleagues and friends who are incredible both as people and professionals. I would like to thank my supervisors, Prof. Corinne Hofman and Dr. Monique van den Dries, for all their scholarly advice, guidance and support during these years. They provided me with all the resources to become familiar with the fields of Caribbean archaeology and archaeological heritage management. In these years I also met other knowledgeable professionals from the field of education who were a positive influence on my work: Dr. Jeanne Moe, Prof. Jan van Driel and Dr. Stephan Klein. I will always cherish the memories of my first year in the project, in particular, especially the kindness and professionalism of Prof. Dr. Willem Willems. I would especially like to thank all the Nexus 1492, HERA-CARIB and NWO Island Networks fellows for their feedback and support. Special thanks are due to the heritage team, of which I was a part, not least for supporting each other after the untimely loss of our supervisor, Prof. Willems. I treasure my experiences working with Dr. Amy Strecker, Dr. Mariana de Campos Françozo, Dr. Eloise Stancioff, Dr. Csilla Ariese and Amanda Byer during these years. My fieldwork activities were made possible thanks to the cooperation of Nexus’s affiliated researchers in the Caribbean. In the Dominican Republic, Arlene Álvarez supported me greatly in organizing workshops for the teachers in Santo Domingo, Valverde and Montecristi. I am also thankful for all her guidance in helping me to establish contact with key stakeholders. Special thanks go to Lenin Paulino for participating in the workshop in Valverde and providing ideas and valuable feedback on the activities of the workshops. I am also grateful to Ruady Lombert and Raymundo González for all their support during my research activities in the Dominican Republic. For the fieldwork in Saint Kitts I am thankful to Cameron Gill, Marcela Berkley, Victoria O’Flaherty and Mr. Michael Blake, who provided me with all the guidance, assistance and local resources needed to contact teachers, principals and education officers. For the fieldwork in Dominica, I am thankful to Cozier Frederick, Miranda Langleis, Gerard Langleis, Prosper Paris and the education officers who provided me with the required permits to conduct the workshops and interviews. I would especially like to thank my colleagues Jorge Ulloa Hung and Jimmy Mans for their valuable feedback on my case-study chapters on the Dominican Republic and Saint Kitts,

11 respectively. Last but not least, I am also grateful to my fellow teachers in the Caribbean for participating in the research activities along the way. I would especially like to thank St. Luke’s Primary School for granting me permission to use, for the cover of the forthcoming book of this dissertation, a picture of the school mural representing Kalinago life before the European colonization. This research has been proofread by Kristen, a dear friend who gave me great support in the last months of completing the dissertation. I would also like to thank my dear friends Judy, Niki and Lies for always cheering me on and reminding me how much I love doing research. I am also thankful to my loving partner Wouter, who has walked this road with me, for all his support. Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents, Antonio and Eldris, for all their support; they have always been my first readers, and their feedback and support have been invaluable to this research. This work is ultimately dedicated to them.