TAPASAM, January 2006

Kth-j-W-cwKw kvIdnbm k°-dnb Josy Joseph Ophira Gamliel Complementing the Books tcJm-tiJc-Øn¬\n∂v F≥. AP-b-Ip-am¿ kn. cmtP-{µ≥ APp \mcm-b-W≥ knÿ Zo] kn. hn. kp[o¿ K. G. Paulose Manoj Kuroor Edwin Seroussi Michael Glatzer Shalva Weil Ophira Gamliel Marcia Walerstein Barbara C. Johnson Albrecht Frenz Galia Hacco M. G. S. Narayanan Kesavan V TAP ASAM, KARIKKAMP in Malayalam - English A Quarterly Journal for eluthat THE Kerala S

V ol: 1 / Issue 3 January 2006/ Reg. No: M2 ASSOCIA tudies ALL Y TION FOR COMP , PERUNNA Muyirikk sIm®o-°mcn dq_n...... The Author(ity) of Experience The Jews of Kerala Fkv. tKm]m-e-Ir-jvW-]n-≈, ]n.kn. keow...... Iayq-Wnkw hcp∂p...... sslZ-c-enbpw...... IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Ønse Znim-]-cn-Wm-a-ßfpw ap≠-t»-cnbpw `mc-Xo-b-Im-hy-X-Øz-Nn-¥bpw...... tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m-´p-Ifpw...... PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m-´p-Ifpw {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ Localisation of National Traditions...... The Rythms of Kerala...... Jewish Musicians in the Lands of Islam Ledgers of the Jewish Community Karachi T The Vigil Night Song...... Namya Motta ...... Interpretation of Malayalam Jewish Biblical Songs... Ruby Daniel’s Legacy - Intertextuality in Her Oral Reflections on the Role of women The Parur Songs Jewish Women in Historical Perspective...... King of the Jews in Kodungallur (Kerala) ...... oday is Purim: Adn-bn-°m\pw Adn-bm\pw INDIA ºñ - 686 102, CHANGANASSER u - Its Identity and Situation...... Xm]kw TAP TAP TAP TAP TAP A Cochin Jewish Song in Hebrew ... ARA ...... TIVE STUDIES ASAM ASAM ASAM ASAM ASAM ...... 1257/ 05 ...... Y ...... , KERALA, ...... 707 696 685 682 677 671 664 653 637 627 621 610 596 589 575 548 535 518 513 504 494 473 W W

This issue of The Conference follows three recent publications on Jewish- About this I

e hope that this conference and the publication of relevant pa- e feel that the work done so far on Jewish heritage of

Oh, Lovely P liberations. hope that it will stimulate more research and academic de- ated a lot of enthusiasm in academic circles and the organisers Völker this valuable subject. pers will facilitate the exchange of ideas and knowledge on local knowledge,such as self perceptions of Kerala Jews, Kerala has not sufficiently taken into account the aspects of Scaria Zacharia and Ophira Gamliel (Ben Zvi Institute, 2005). edited with critical introductions, notes and translations by folksongs in Malayalam originals and 49 Hebrew translations lished under the title (by Albrecht Frenz and Scaria Zacharia) of 25 songs was pub- included in the CD. An anthology of German translations lations (by Barbara Johnson and Scaria Zacharia) of the songs 2005). This CD is accompanied by a booklet of English trans- (Jewish Music R compiled by Barbara C. Johnson and edited focus — of F Studies to be held in and around Kochi during the third week Conference organised by the Association for Comparative articles in this issue are to be presented an International Malayalam Folksongs. ebr (Schwabenverlag, 2002). These publications have cre- uar the Jewish Heritage of Kerala

TAP y. ar

ASAM rot! esearch Centre, The Hebrew ssue is

(V

a CD of Jewish-Malayalam folksongs In meinem Land leben verschiedene

ol. I.3, Januar

K

a

rku

8 ali-Yefefiah! y 2006 . Most of the comprises 51 ) has a special Edwin Seroussi University ,

Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn TAPASAM, January 2006 T oday and Kerala studies. W contributions from young and enthusiastic researchers in community (meshuhrarim) to denote a section of the Kerala Jewish example is the use of term ‘manumitted slaves’ according to the perception of researchers. The best paradigm. They labelled subgroups of each community plain many of the divisions in community local studies, folklore and historiography digms of contemporary cultural studies, modern religious and secondary literatures with greater emphasis on para- the self perception of Kerala Jews. researchers to denote a section of Kerala Jews much against new path for interdisciplinar so many insights from different disciplines and open up a as a local community Thekkumbhagom Jews etc. Each community identifies itself Jews of Kerala identify themselves as P local religious communities are proud of their identity in other parts of the world. It is important to note that which they should be redeemed by their fellow religionists of the Kerala Jews, Christians and Muslims as impurities It is part of the Eurocentrism which sees cultural specificities other ‘pure’ role models existing in parts of the world. Jews which consider them only as an appendage of some are prominent colonial anthropological narratives about Kerala communities. W standing of religious i dentification in a network local knowledge in Kerala society and contemporary under- everyday Jewish life in Kerala, conversationalisation of forthcoming issues. publish more articles on this topic or similar subjects in the

, we call for refle

TAP ASAM . This ter are happy that we able to bring together e feel that this is a major absence as there e, the Association for comparative Studies xivity in revisiting these source materials m was and is used by a section of . But colonial research could not e y studies. W

. F Editor Editor Editor Editor Editor Scaria Zacharia Scaria Zacharia Scaria Zacharia Scaria Zacharia Scaria Zacharia or this we need more e shall be happy to ar ur Jews, x- . India, whic to away from Mahºdayapuram or Makºtai, identified with the coastal Whatever the exact location of Muziris, it is certain that was not far coas Muyirikkºñu derives from Mu÷iri or Muziris, the port town of west Muyir pleased to offer Joseph Rabban when the former was gracing was parts of the country and world. sacred centre, much in the same way as some urban centres other context and tries to show how a trading centre got transformed into MUYIRIKK T Koñuïïallår had its antecedents in the ancient port town, known to a little backward in time order to realise this. Mahºdayapuram- K into a sacred site A study in the transformation of a trading centre one w centre as much it was a capital city. The factors responsible for the t att centuries from AD c. 800 over much of the present day State Kerala for a little three It he amil sour wn of moder esavan V s identity and Situt

em pr “ t celebr

the first emporium of India p er asàda ikk ts t It is well known that Mahºdayapuram-Koñuïïallår was a sacred The Jewish Copper Plates state that they contain the record of e t º o look at t hemsel ces as Mu÷ir ñu b h w whic at eluthat ed in t n K as t y his pr v h t es w o he capit ñuïïallår in t he King Bhàsk he situation of t Ä he classical T or i and t esence. king t òU 2 The present paper accepts this identification al city of t o Gr ow - - - - - 1 It is g ” ar eco-R he T for the Romans, ds t ar ation he t amil and Gr a R r he C¹r he o oman r ic ener o hur (T aviv wn wit t her all ar amàn ecor . It ma ç man (AD 962-1 y ag ÷÷år) dis hin its lar eco-r ds as Muzir

where the ships of P

r

y be necessar er

eed t umàë oman lit tr hat t g ict in K er his s who r is 3 020) w he w . Muzir er t y t or atur er uled o go ala, ical or as e. is d 473 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 474 TAPASAM, January 2006

on t converted him to Islam, it is not hard believe that Islam disembarked Alexandria published recently, speaks of trade in bulk goods between Muziris and through Muziris. Evidence from a papyrus in the Vienna Museum, accounts speak of the variety goods exported from and imported Coelobotros. The pepper came there from Cottonara. Greco-Roman be employed for taking the cargoes to coast. It was land of ships had to anchor at some distance with the result that boats desirability of the port because pirates from Nitrias and also emporium of India Y lat Muyirikkºñu, the way in which Muciri or Muziris came to be known the Indian coast in ships that came to Muziris. The presence of Jews Thomas as a precondition to imagine that Syrian Christians arrived on Semitic communities sprang up. One need not accept the tradition of St. also became sacred for the followers of these Semitic religions. and Gr us that Muziris abounded in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia no tr from Muziris and a trader Alexandria. The fabulous amount of pr Ho centur scale of the Indian trade with Greco-Roman world in second Vãr (AD 1 would fall documents like the Jewish Copper Plates of Bhàskara Ravi of trade, particularly with the western world. Into this latter category records dating from later times as well attest its continuity a centre considerable importance for Roman trade cannot be disputed. So also, memory. In any case, the fact of Muziris having been a port ear Christian era brought Muziris into contact with Judaism and Christianity t statements about considerable Roman settlements in Muziris. In fact, Muyirikkºñu he av ade whic oducts in e t Muslim sc er Mala

w

a Ràghav l P ana y on. It is onl he W

ev euting 000) and ev y t er eek ships fr This e s ar , t hat passed t es y h t

4 his t er alam, g t Coas r . This record is a trade agreement between - Its Identity and Situation

iv a Cakr

xt ian T xc his sing holar ed in lar ensiv hang em

y natur ” ables om Egyp t in K ple has no en t e , was also the place where earliest settlements of e tr ts an e av s had w e of gold. le document t hr ar he so-called Syr ade wit al t ev ough Muzir g ttik er e number xplanation in t en speak of a t hat t ala at t t. Plin on one of t aë (AD 1 t come do

h W his The P y

es entr , ho he por es s and t

is. It did continue, as sugg t Asia fr 225) er

tif epo w

he iplus of t ies t ian Chr ev wn t he same w em

6

P t of t er . of W

ook bac er o under ple of A om t , has r

o us in ar umàë

K

es

is he Er he ear o tian Copper Plat ñuïïallår t Asian tr eser s in disput ay k pepper and o ugus lines t

. A yt l v y centur

c hr

g ations about t vaõikar tus in t haeology or in

ain, whe he subs aean Sea ade, .

The centr ations and he t ies of t “ (trader) es t he f t t t her or antial ed b o es of t t wn ells her ir he he st e 5. y t the Ernakulam districts of modern Kerala, in centre which was basin, in the southern parts of Thrissur and northern r Bràhmaõa settlements formed clusters in the more fertile regions of was also linked with the rise of Bràhmaõa settlements. In fact, river valleys. It is seen from the records that this agrarian expansion the phenomenal expansion of agriculture, particularly in major the major developments that took place in intervening period was under totally different conditions. been this line which got revived in the period after eighth century trade, this line as well the port town suffered an eclipse. It may have the residing in Muciri even the early historical period and that, following t a class of intermediaries placed above the cultivating peasantry and of agriculture, the rise Bràhmaõa settlements as corporations Bhakti saints of the respective canons. The mutual support that been sugg evidence of the later C¹ras is available from Mahºdayapuram. It has able patr Literature his happened to the C¹ras in period between close of early T town with the early C¹ras, who had their seat in Karår (in modern by the the new formation. That it was a seat of sacral monarchy is brought out context eminently suited the elements that had acquired importance in convincing manner monarchy of Mahºdayapuram on the other has been brought out in a the Bràhmaõa settlements on one side and rise of C¹ra centr and political formation, Mahºdayapuram-Koñuïïallår remained a and V ano he t he dev iv ir er v t uc or “ t o her lev decline and fall e wit wn of K hir aiùõav ical per

alle fact that temples sacred to the Bhakti tradition of both øaiva It is these conditions that are important in this context. One of Mahºdayapuram-Koñuïïallår was acquiring importance at elopment of t appalli dis onag h consider ” es ys and Greco-Roman accounts are clear in linking this port el as w a per 7 t ed t o . The t iod ( e fr ñuïïallår hat a collat suasions e om t “ 8 ell. Ear able sacr t . Thus, even in an entirely different socio-economic hic ” he he Sang tr of the Roman empire and drying up ict of T

he r

k ag . The causal connection be

es amaic t of suc l oy y T xis ed c am P alty er t amilnadu). One does no amil lit al line of t t har her ; t em er h clus act he r e. These t iod ples whic er er ” oy t . The sacr ) and AD nint atur er al patr s w he C¹r e kno em h w as on t ples enjo er ons w edness in t as might hav tw wn as t e also t een t he lo h centur er t kno y Kesavan V he e e t he ed consider w he nuclei of he c er P hemsel “ xpansion Saïg w what y when hang e been er eluthat iy v am ed ar es - 475 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

476 TAPASAM, January 2006

N temples, associated with Bhakti saints. Muyirikkºñu unsuppor Settlement) as the relic of their having been in that town. There are also Incidentally, it is significant that two of these nearly every religious persuasion. It is our primary purpose in this paper In any case, Koñuïïallår has been a sacred centre for the followers of time of t Islam but also had the first mosque in India built there during life- Sundar was ruled in literature and popular tradition as a political centre from where Kerala disappe y has been brought out by historical studies Movement and the new monarchies in South India had is a point that t Ko Ko Koñuïïallår is so much a sacred centre that the Dravidian place name, T custodian of the to the temple of Kàëi who, in her fierce form, is supposed be w for the of t of t Tç pilg temple of Tiruva£cikkuëam or Tiruva£caikkaëam, which forms part the that are less than acceptable to a decent audience. The celebrated øiva activities place swearing not to spend another night in the vicinity of town t C¹r the town as sacred, it is claimed that Muslim scholars won last The em he atr

ear

amil Bhakti saints suc as t alu T kk ñuïïallår en million ñuïïallår is eq he tw ples in t amàn r y hav , when people fr ula÷¹khar imag her

ocities of t Bharaõi amår ali ared from the scene, town was still nostalgically remembered he Pr e t el 12 Ev t e, ho 10 e cir

br ed claims linking t P v . The Jews had a considerable settlement there; but, following hat S

e â× . But the town is known today more as a sacred centre. In fact, er he t en af - Its Identity and Situation , is f tti Nà

ings out t

ophe liïg umàë apur cuit of øaiv w festival in the solar month of v o t. Thomas, t ancifull àr

ev

wn suc “ as seeds t y he P t himself s of t er t er am in disput anàr ” om all o , lef . T

t or he las o t uall ” em he T h as øç he Br y der , mak of smallpox. The temple is famous or notorious t behind tuguese in t his da a dev ple, possibl 1 1 y hol amil Bhakti tr he apos h as C¹r . The Chr he place wit iv v ations and no es it sacr àhmaõical c t of er K ed fr ïg y ot , it attr apur ees because of its association wit er y f om Sanskr he place name tle, landed and beg he C¹r ala t he sixt am and Kã×tt is y built b ed f amàn acts pilg or t tians, in t h Jainism and ev hr adition. The Muslims, t or t har ong t amàn t onl

9

eent Mãnam . So also, the institution of he V he øaiv it

act y K P

“

r Kº er her four temples ims fr h centur y go heir tur er of t

ula÷¹khar

ali. Mahºda umàë ñiliïg P aiùõav

e c

(March-April) every Jåt er as. So do o t him con

om all o

hanting

an his missionar umàë

akk apur Nà his sacr n, believ en Buddhism y

, t aëam as for t a â×

s had long y a he ” , anàr and v are royal “ y “ er K y lef v t (Je pr apur t her øiv er v he t oo, hail e t edness. àr ay t ed t er hat it h t , one wish t o er am- ala wn he he he . s 13 14 o a ” y

. . P exquisite hymn devoted to the deity of Tiruva sixty social and political points of vie sacred place first and then look at the importance of from w The Nàyanàr does not fail to mention the location of town, on centr connections between the two with clarity. t sanctification of a place, transforming its character from the secular to second pur r sinister motives calculated to achieve secular ends through invoking the process of a place acquiring sacredness was deliberate action with attaching a religious aura to it. This is not, be sure, say that behind others in a region and how this centrality is sought to be retained by account of a combination circumstances, becomes more central than any centre becoming sanctified would show how a certain place, on ordinary place into a sacred centre. The complex processes leading to centre can clarify several issues related to the transformation of an town and the locality of which it is part. im it is part. Both the sacred character and economic political other in the complex development of town and locality which show how the one factor was as much cause, it effect, of the political and economic importance of centre on other t saint ar K associated with the temple that both are stated to have ascended namel gues says that Sundaramårtti had stayed in the town on two occasions as a later text cherishing the tradition continuing from an earlier period,

he sacr o br

eligion. N er alls of whic ailàsa, t

e, ho por iy -t t of his f

1

ing out t e is in t apur 6 t hr y . ance can be seen as a function of t , t In f ed. W w ee celebr The earliest clear indication of Koñuïïallår being a sacred In fact, a study of the development Koñuïïallår as sacred he

he abode of øiv àõam ev act, bo pose of t or ma

er he T â ello e

he link h t diyulà, P , cur , a tw x amil øaiv he ocean br w at amine t t y t h Sundar -dev ed øaiv iousl his paper her ag elf ot

es be on e be an t h centur ee, C¹r he his

a, fr y silent about T v a tr

a saints of t aõõatt amår tw eak adition. Sundar , t om t een t t or hus, is t amàn y ag tti and C¹r

w

s its w y hagiog antàdi ical evidence r . This pr her his sacr ency t e. The w

he T P er o demons and av

he g umàë es. r amil Bhakti Mo ocedur hat consciousl amàn aphic w edness on t ir ¤

amår

eog

T caikkaëam in Koóuïkºëår

uv P or

ir Nà er

k

a uv eg

r

P s of C¹r iy tr e ma

aphical situation of t

¤

er tti Nà

y àr

ar at or apur

caikk

anàr

umàë år Mummaõikk e t ding t k y br , does r

he pr he one hand and àõam y , t anàr aëam. But t amàn w v y does t he r ing out causal he centr Kesavan V ement, has an er ocess of t , a slightl e so closel , one of t

oy ef P er t

al øaiv er

his. A

e as a umàë

eluthat

o t ºv he

he he he he

15 ai a y y . , 477 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

478 TAPASAM, January 2006

P t to the royal residence, site of which is identified with what known attested by evidence from epigraphy and literature Muyirikkºñu Rà middle of the ninth century, immediately following period too recognised its immense possibilities and promoted it personally. commentary on the astronomical work called astronomical treatise composed in AD 869. This is a detailed known newly established monarchies in early medieval South India is well case, the big way in which Bhakti Movement acted as props to may indicate the øaivite bias of founder kingdom. In any invocation exception to the inscriptions from Kerala which begin usually with f idol is taken out in a ritual procession which forms part of the annual the traditional historical narrative of Kerala, states that one kingdom the C¹ra ministers persuaded him to shoulder responsibility of temple as the place where Nàyanàr was sitting in meditation when t immediately to the south of temple. Local tradition describes this C¹r C¹ramàns are unquestionable. On the whole, associations of temple with house with the invocation year and datable to the first quarter of ninth century, starts curiously plate recording the proceedings of this meeting, dated in his thirteenth prominent Bràhmaõa colonies in Kerala. An inscription on copper Và×appaëëi and TiruvàŸŸuvày in Tiruvalla, which was one of the more representatives of the temple-centred Bràhmaõa settlements Mahºdayapuram c.800-844), who was probably the first ruler of C¹ra kingdom

es em oda er

tiv ja÷¹khar umàës, ple as amàn y as al of t 24 . It is hardly surprising that the founder of C¹ra kingdom

17

That Tiruva The sacred associations of the city Mahºdayapuram in C¹r

C¹r

P . Ther C¹r

he t

K swasti ÷rã er a or C¹r - Its Identity and Situation

amàn ula÷¹khar

umàë amàn Kº em amàn P e ar ple t 22

and Sundar P .

e tw er amàn Ràja÷¹khara presided over a joint meeting of the ( ¤

o t nama÷÷ivaya

umàë

caikkaëam was the royal temple of C¹ras is

“ vil a, built t aŸ Hail! Prosperity!

o br

he sit ( ambu “

Nà P t onze s

he T er e of t y

( umàë amår anàr is identif he t em “ t he old palace in C¹r t atues in t he Com ( ple of t em Nà tti Nà “ obeisance to øiva ple of T y ” anàr he C¹r y ) 23 pound of t anàr he t . It is pointed out that this ied wit

, ar Laghubhàskarãya ir em . amàn uv e br ple, believ 18 a h Rà . It is located close ¤ caikk amàn P ought out b ” he C¹r ) 1 ja÷¹khar

9.

” ), a solitary K¹r aëam ed t

aŸ aëº amàn ambu 20 o be of

of the a (AD tpatti . The y an ” 2 ), 1

, .

P P t He describes the city of Mahºdayapura significantly as a in the court of C¹ra king Sthàõu Ravi Kula÷¹khara (AD 844-883). title of K t of astronomy. Bàlakrãó¹÷vara, the shrine Gaõapati, is identified on are only incidental to the work as its central concern is with problems in t wit to that temple as a dancing girl, and the shrine of C¹rakulanàcciyàr There is also the tradition that this C¹ra ruler dedicated his daughter roy alt temple complex. Gºtramall¹÷vara, too, survives, arguably in its slightly Bàlakrãó¹÷vara. This shrine is in the vicinity of Tiruva£caikkaëam the description, there is a reference to shrine of infant Gaõapati in t t colophon t described to have composed end of t K of India, have brought out pottery and other interesting details. of the erstwhile Cochin State and later by Archaeological Survey Excavations at the site, conducted by Department of Archaeology is located immediately to the south of Tiruva£caikkaëam temple. famous Bhàskaràcàrya by øaïkaranàràyaõa av successor t a de Bàlakr as Gºtramall¹÷vara where there was a shrine of Gaõapati called He refers to the royal residence situated in a quarter of city known place, it is sugg an interesting figure if we go by a couple of identifications. In the first

he C¹r he basis of a 1 he de o ør

er er ula÷¹khar ailable at leas er

hin t

al V umàë umàë T he t ed f t ãr ailed descr t aïg ails of whic ãó¹÷v o as of t aiùõav he t he elev or wn. P who r ula÷¹khar øaïkaranàràyaõa was patronised by Sthàõu Ravi

am is celebr ir m, Lok o cer o C¹r a em

ar umo×i 28 he W a saint who is s er a. Ho 4t ple com . This r ent uled in t es t haps t h centur ain editions of t ip amàn t fr amall¹÷v t h centur , evidence of t h w es ed t a. Apar tion of t w om AD 1 t Coas ev e shall tur at hat he w he r

ple uler he nint P er

ed ev er y

, t

x is believ

ar Maõipr ef t fr

y f , who in all pr umàë t he w he t 29 er am, whic

or ano Mukundamàlà . Ther er om 088 t ences t h centur as identical wit at y da o Nà n t

or

he r his w P

ed t

wn of Mahºda 30 av

k does no er o lat , should no e is no r

y y in t

t ed t àëam

ecit her C¹r umàë T o hav anàr or Rà o t h is wher or y as w er in t em o commemor k ation of whic he t t , it is s obability w e belong e ples t

eason wh xt, , a hymn in Sanskrit. In the ir t mention an o a 25

his paper

e will hav

wn of king K umo×i

h K Kºk P . øaïkaranàràyaõa lived

e t t be identif er ja÷¹khar t her y at he

apur

ula÷¹khar umàë asand¹÷am ed t ed t e, suc

in T C¹r y t at h at ør as t . In t am-K hat a pilg o t wit e her he aut e t

amil, he is also amàn P a, w y o h as t

he immediat Kesavan V

he dynas o w s¹nàmukha ula÷¹khar ied wit h a name or he cour a â× t o . It ma ãr her t as himself ñuïïallår ait till t hor of t 2 aïg 7

. It giv he aŸ v r àr imag

em

y ar h t am is ambu eluthat se of ty of y be , t a ple his he he he es 26 3 e, 1 e e . , . 479 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

480 TAPASAM, January 2006

parame÷vara Mahàbhàr T â÷caryama£jarã Subhadr da Muyirikkºñu t instructions of the author himself and for easy enactment plays on play known as Vyaïgya Vyàkhyà are stated to be prepared under of t have contributed much towards choreographing the plays stated to be a contemporary of the royal playwright, who is believed pr as theatre was one of the important means communication, useful in significance going beyond being one more jewel on the monarch the best of dramatic compositions available in Sanskrit. This has emphasis when it is recognised that Kula÷¹khara was not only a Kula÷¹kharavarman “ preside of t no emer Bhakti Movement in both the streams as an ideology of newly Obviously, this points to the realisation of vast potentials called Kula÷¹kharavarman, the author of Sanskrit plays acquires significance: he is also thought to be the royal playwright has no long also be mentioned that the Càkyàrs of Kerala believe when their art t somewhat unwarranted introduction of the Vàmana story in the for the inauguration of Sanskrit theatre in Kerala through patronising My whole verse from the dynas he s han one. His V

the overlord of Kerala apatãsam opag y tew

anmar he Bhakti Mo

, Càky he mo Kåñiyàññam t ging or ag ty of t or ating t This royal playwright is also believed to have been responsible It is interesting that the successor to royal øaiva saint of

33

e àdhana£ja th 3 . It is in this connection that another identity of Kula÷¹khara 7 v , r

àr

. So also, t at v ement in a y in t

er an he C¹r ar - Its Identity and Situation

s who a ef der o

,

and o aõa he ideology of er “ form of presenting Sanskrit plays. Commentaries on the supreme lord of Mahºdayapura y t aiùõavit r v his connection t ing t ement but he w a is no v 34

ak

t y er whic t P

her s . The author calls himself ’ ag am

her s plays in a big way spite of their being not exactly er er

Mukundamàlà o a mer consider

e Sanskr

s, t umàë t wit and ” e is t e leanings ar 36 t or he terms that are very meaningful in ways more h t ies, its patr hout signif y ar s of Mahºda

he s

T

bhakti apatãsam he C¹r c able manner it dr hant fr e t t as its g or o abandon t hat an inscr y of a leg amas in t t 32 a hr e unmis . onag

icance eit om Mahºda

v

ough t P

r

ar y

eat er

apur

aõam e b umàë

. This ar leader endar he f heir pr t y a r he popular am w ak ” s w ip and t 35 or her able in t uler meant patr tion fr and y cour . Incident m of as a V y er . gument g

of

apur Mahºdayapura- e called upon t

ession b

Keraëàdhinatha he Kåñiy t jes 38 om P aiùõav isation of t

am, q

he pla cam . Even to this all

t

e àññ er ’ påk y leaving ts added y s crown; ag , Tºlan,

uo , it ma

a saint. am

y patron

onag

s; t an in àvy t es a use

he he a o e y

, ,

gr Nàlu T C¹r V com not mention the temple may be because was built after their consecr the name of temple may point to his hand in its construction and identified with both Kula÷¹khara â×vàr and Kula÷¹kharavarman, would fall well within the regnal period of Sthàõu Ravi Kula÷¹khara, twelfth century of the temple has been assigned palaeographically to eleventh or ar An inscr as well the sacral character of C¹ra kingship. kùatriyas the land of Kerala and gifted it to Bràhmaõas who were settled in 64 t t t Mahºdayapuram, much less one built by him. But there does exist a plays of Kula÷¹kharavarman refer to a temple in the capital city, Tiruva their costumes on the branch of a banyan tree in front the governance of land as namel research into the history of Kerala was initiated on Mahºdayapuram is a matter of recent recognition by historians. When as br called of t f the government of C¹ra kingdom of t ounded b he f he tw em

aiùõav àma e dedicat inging out a ma “ he he ple in t amàn leg position. In an or

y

entie

s or P

Nàlu T mer - t

¤

endar aëi K¹r Apart from the Tiruva The r N , P er ation. That t caikkaëam temple. a dev ip eit ”

or er umàë y K

. The sixty-four

tion in t he t

P aëº “ t her t

ed t

h centur u villag er y nonsense ole of

¤

he “

aëi ot

ula÷¹khar

tpatti o

cellår The F umàë 39 s boas wn of K ee in Sout o øiv he T Kã×tt . Reckoning backwards, then, the date of its construction in t jor aspect of t es he t w Nà

y case, it f

, P ” Nàlu T our T he T amil h he polity of K y a. These f aëi , he in t , s ed of tw er em anniyår o and t a â× y ” t e dismissed, t ñuïïallår wit amil and t at anàr and t ple dat . The s

em

h India. gràmas

ements about t

ymns of K v aëi v es ples àr he Ciïg

o , P brahmakùatra t our t , t he sacr in t ed t or t ed in t or ¤ ” aŸ t he city of Mahºda ms par caikkaëam temple associated with her t and t elected four from among themselves, y goes t er he Sanskr avår and Ceïïannår as he go he donees wit em ala in t he T apur ula÷¹khar 40 h t ed g og he 1 em ples w . In fact, a discussion of the role he he name T et v t of ples bo am or Sr ç he er hat af y had a ma eog her wit 95t kk his per nment of t ,

it w

ula÷¹khar Nàlu T er “ h y r he pilg Bràhmaõas in the role of aph a â× e t t or t ear of t er P h t h in close pr og h o ç i y of Mahºda k ï kk v iod can be useful in he r

s of t

y aëi et g àr nor t ar apur t ula÷¹khar apur “ jor r r her kno her de modern imag a÷ur he apur ight t in t he cons he monar am in t

Kesavan V

ole t am T P

he nar

àma cr k

e cir er he Sanskr

am t

t a×ak o car ails t o wn as t

” umàë o pla y ximity t aëi. Bo apur lines in tr apur

cuit of ams he ag uction em r c eat r eluthat her ativ h do y on s of y in am. ple am t he ed th e, it o o e e 481 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

482 TAPASAM, January 2006

P P Literary texts of the fourteenth and fifteenth Muyirikkºñu gràmas attached to them houses whic away from the capital city, four new ot Airàõikkaëam by an inscription from Kã×ttaëi int T ones w t t council called The mee having taken important decisions in consultation with it. In one case, the st of a c t re T a seat in the capital city temple, namely, M¹lttaëi, Kã×ttaëi, Neñiya within close proximity to the capital. Each of these was also accorded representatives of the four Kariïïampaëëi and Eëamprakkºñ, survive to this day. of ano kùatriya caste elected for a period of twelve years, to be succeeded by function of kùatriyas. Thereupon they decided to have a ruler the that the work of government was not their cup tea, it being got corrupted in course of time and it was realised by the community r Iruïïàñikkåñal and M¹lttaëi to Må×ikkaëam may be assumed safely. A an mixed up. There is no trace of evidence in other sources to help us say t her he ear he Syr he names of N

ecor

aëi t aëi and Ciïïapur er er at her tw pr f

eres yt

iciating as t

umàë umàë t y t ements about t eaf ting is descr esent t her similar hing about t d of t o P hr og ting lier f er t ian Chr er o t onological or s. Ho s and w et e Må×ikk The narration in aŸ 42 l em her car he immediat y suppor . Ther hem. Eac our avår is br - Its Identity and Situation h used t ples t

w Nàlu T , t he is ev ibed as being held in N l o r tians in Mahºda y elect ambudir e ar er

er

he f T alam, Air r o t

epr aëi A e es ied out t am T t , as t o enjo he ed b

e inscr

h of t heir r aëi. der our ought out b esent t

e pos P

t ed k dhik ablished at Mahºda

y o

he er aëi r . Dif

A K¹raëºtpatti

i houses, y

y consider ” espectiv k

t leas

umàë hem sent an ag

as situated within the limits of town t

ip g

àõikk a×ak her sour gràmas

satr

he w

àr he Br t-C¹r r

espectiv tions whic f àmas

er ik

iy

er t a couple of ent la ams aë or y aëam, P a r àhmaõa community a per apur y lit e fr k of go or a in r continued to be the advisors of

ces fr g able ar in t

uler

gràmas

r om whic T el oung is necessarily confused and devoid

y àmas e er am, speak

er ñiy iod, g aëiy y h sugg . The nar atur . These r aŸ s of memor om t he pr elation t a T v

er member àtir avår and Ir is ent kno er , namel aëi. The af were elected, superseding t r e y he per nment. But t ocr h t es hem speak of t anting tr 43

apur

44 centuries, too, refer to is e- and t t . The affiliation of the

he

4 P atic pr s of 1 hat t . A

uler er r o t y Ciïïapur y hailed w wn as ativ am. The Br

iod and immediat umàë t leas y collapse and ar . The ne “

he Nàlu T hat of Kã×tt he s w s of whic f ade pr uïïàñikk e also mentions iliation of N

ivileg

P Nàlu T

er er

t tw r

he er ak e kno

he

umàë y pr wl aëi a. But t

er es, namel

ivileg ùàpur am T o of t

y elect e t P àhmaõa åñ

and t

aëi h w er om had a wn as oo f al, all aëi t

aëi t umàë

e es t

hese uùa p ñiy ar er el tl he he ed ar 45 o a o o e y y e y e

. .

mañhas øuk when t particularly when the seat of government was in that locality. Thus, this cluster should be representing the establishment in Kerala, greatest density. It is but natural that four Bràhmaõa settlements from Nàlu T cultiv P t the sacred character of city Koñuïïallår; it is equally crucial for - pr that the Bràhmaõa settlements in Kerala had come up immediate there is a concentration of Bràhmaõa settlements. It may be remembered parts of the Thrissur and northern Ernakulam districts, where above as Ràmavarma Kula÷¹khara had made for the wrong he done the Ràm¹÷varaswàmin temple at Kollam speaks of amends that king considerably in administrative and fiscal matters. An inscription from king played. Epigraphic evidence tells us that this body functioned as the Ir representatives of the four - an expression used to indicate the Bràhmaõas of the Bràhmaõical world Kerala in C¹ra capital. various reasons st of power that the Bràhmaõas had whereby they could force such an act he sacr er “ ating some

uïïàñikk

e-C¹r gràmàn ùaùñi

iy asande÷a ’ s council. It seems t àr and P ation he Br

attached to the temples are known have been seats of aëi a per al natur “ An under upon whose bidding the king is lord of earth. sciences and are paragons of acceptable manners, to Bhçgu in their command of the weapons and here. These leaders of the sixty-four What is mor Bràhmaõas who live in rows of This [capital city] shines forth on account of the great paragons of acceptable manners leading the sixty-four gràmas åñ 47 and t . Ev àhmaõas of t al and P t

iod, f

, hing whic

am

a

ü en t e of t 46 Sanskr

he pà r catura iha ye gràhyaceùñà nayanti : or st her anding of t

ming clus g aŸ

e im

iv

he C¹r r h w àmas e, it is t er avår it t s, in t he hat it inf por as w e

. These

xt of t Nàlu T whic a kingship as w t ant is t

t er gràmas he he P he tr ell kno

s ar Nàlu T he 1

luenced t

h t aëi

er act whic g

ound t he political r r

iy he wn. The àmas 5t of Må×ikkaëam, Airàõikkaëam, ar àr v

y r aëi h centur

e descr mañhas he lo ar epr alle he decisions of t is cr h is mos

ell. The gràmas

e situat Nàlu T esent y whic w 48 ucial in tr ibed in t er r y ole whic in the . This shows the extent , is w ed. A v eac ”

t hospit

are equal aëi

ed in t

h can boas -, our author was Nàlu T

or

hes of t he v sthalãs w h t ying t t Kesavan V as t h q he he monar he sout

er able t

er aëi he symbol uo

se in t se q Nàlu T he P¹r o look at “ and t ting f

t of àryas o r uo eluthat her

t ice aëi àr he he ed he ch or n ” ” , 483 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

484 TAPASAM, January 2006

brahmakùatra T T ÷àstre an oath of habitual allegiance from the ruler and that it was Muyirikkºñu P pr astronomer although all the terms used to describe object of c him! The s donated it to Bràhmaõas as rulers of this dynasty are described as seen in the case of C¹ra kings Mahºdayapuram as well. The by the verse quoted above: as the real power behind C¹ra throne. It is this fact that underlined lar role of the Bràhmaõas in polity. It may be remembered that at least in the case of Mahºdayapuram, was probably because and, naturally, the seat of that king becomes a sacred centre. Even this, divine claim or attribute is a pointer to the sacral character of kingship etc., in the epigraphic records Ràja÷¹khara clear opening verse of the commentary on f tr Kerala were even given training in the use of arms for this purpose, a protect the land which they so got r of atonement on the ruler himself. That documents makes a specific when our author says that the Bràhmaõas of Kerala were India in this period is divinisation through various means Mahºdayapura monarchy. The claimed on account of it was a characteristic feature the the earth Bhçgu in their command of the weapons and sciences pla act, accounts in t

ef

har aëi ar aëi adition whic aise ar er g ywr a÷ur , and t es act t ence t ly hat w

’ t number of inscr pi ca bhçgunibhai . It pr ight, lik er àma himself, who cr It was not for nothing that Kerala described as This heavy Br ” is e also eq - he Br o pr as r t tic f - Its Identity and Situation or

“ deva

aises t Vàcà yeùàm bhavati nçpatir nàyako ràjyalakùmyà y goes t - a land where Bràhmaõas played the role of ksatriyas. h is ag esponsible f esence of t ed t eatur àhmaõa po , Kula÷¹khara he o call himself Mahºda he r uall

es of t ain att K¹r hat P àhmaõical inf

uler

ip

y applicable t þ aëº he ” tions or es w -, we have to see this historical allusion. he imag ar “

, S tpatti es Nàlu T eat

upon whose bidding the king is lord of er it r brahmakùatra a÷ur t t ed b

ed t hàõu R deva t of t ablishing t sa àma cr 53

epr double entendre aëi he land, had combined t y epig . Kula÷¹kharavarman, the royal e of r his per , Ràma 49 y t

luence and a cer Laghubhàskarãya esent . Several Bràhmaõa families of on t

avi, who w

hat t deva o øiv eat oy r he occasion is signif aph ed, hav iod in K he king on t

y

with the right to rule and deva he alty in t ed t (god) as witness the titles apur a

y and lit Nàlu T 5 1 he land of K , Manukulàdicca . In f a-

e been demons as t P er

he whole of sout employed in the

ar ala ar aëi he patr

act, one of t ame÷v he t er t brings this out ain sacr had e atur hr hese tw ” e fr

er one. -

e ar “ on of t 52 50 equal to icant. In

xtr

. ala and a

“ . Thus, om t

edness þ

This is . This ÷astre tr

”

deva act

Nàlu Nàlu . at o in he ed he ed he h , important for the worshipping devotees given to øiva in a technical sense but Kàëi herself remaining more post-Cera records, it was already a Bràhmaõical temple, with centrality there cannot be ruled out. By the time temple finds mention in of Mahºdayapuram, although the possibility temple having been there is no reference to this temple in the sources of C¹ra kingdom case; but eac Kàëi has been co-op brought out by the importance of Kàëi temple there, although even sacred for those who practised the non-Bràhmaõa cults as well. This is temples and other symbols of Bràhmaõical religion. author of f and is surrounded by goblins dancing in the blood of demons so the dark, tall and fierce goddess, who drinks blood of demons, r legitimacy in Kerala; Mahºdayapuram, the capital, naturally and more appropriate to use the Bràhmaõical idioms in politics its powerful class of non-Bràhmaõa landowners. Therefore, it was easier Of t as tr scared of her and thus she is helpful to Life. Her attendants are described describes Kàëi of the KuŸumpakkàvu shrine takes more than three verses ar while the (a mixture of Malayalam and Sanskrit) work anonymous authorship her on the in this context. In all the three, like other similar t are concerned with land and its use for rice cultivation. What is peculiar Bràhmaõa settlements centred on at t deity of destruction for whom the entire cosmos is not enough one gulp messag allen. But she is also t her epr e in Sanskr o giv hese 1 he time of t e, in contr esent ying t

e t Meghasande÷a

es de Kºkasand¹÷am Three At the same time, Mahºdayapuram-Koñuïïallår was equally ed and pr her as enshrined in a grove and very fierce. Even Death is

o sacr

o t 4t Kokilasande÷a øukasande÷a h-1 he her t ailed descr h has t it. The des as

5t sande÷akavyas if t he ultimat h centur ice t o t oject oine t t ed t o go he buf he r he benev with the separated and pining hero sending a , the fierce goddess in sacred grove is ed t o t has about 25 verses to describe the complex ip tination of t hr of Uddaõóa and

es

y t via tions of t he pant ough an unlik f t of sout e f his sacr alo whic e xts, t Mahºda lood from the post-C¹ra period, all modelled olent mo he heon of t temples and that the majority of them he r 5 edness t

h India, is t

h Y 7 . Uddaõóa in his Kºk he messeng out y ama, t apur t

54 her of t asand¹÷am el e t

. øukasande÷a he Br y messeng hr o be t am-K he god of Deat ough t he g he entir àhmaõas. Int er is dif ak o ñuïïallår en b ener

is a sande÷akàvyas he lar er , ar y t e w

of Lakùmãdàsa K al absence of a Maõipr

f okilasande÷a Kesavan V he messeng er g or e int h, r e number of ent in eac . ld. F eres ides on 56

eres av . She is ting or t

eluthat àëam , the ting er ly, he 58 55 h ! . . 485 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

486 TAPASAM, January 2006 Ko In fact, this is a faithful picture of the goddess in Kàëi temple is herself bloodthirsty and surrounded by goblins who play in blood. The deity there presides over the final dissolution of Universe. She the city of Mahºdayapuram, is where animal sacrifices were offered. Muyirikkºñu r significance. mythology and cosmology are made in these texts, which of great by animal sacrifice. At the same time, attempts to link her with Puràõic for the several other month-long austerities in March-April, go there groups kingdom. Pilgrims from all over Kerala, after fasting and observing for non-Bràhmaõa devotees in the period after decline of C¹ra of Mahºdayapura had a separate ( during the Bharaõi festival used to visit the temple of KuŸumpa in Koñuïïallår and worship there three important surmise, although nothing can be said definitely about this. w They offer turmeric and pepper to Kàëi. Till recently, cocks goats and ä×av and t The records of the Zamorins Calicut show that units under the C¹ras of Mahºdayapuram, participate in this festival. different parts of Kerala, which were recognised as separate political elder or a y of Kerala where it is claimed that the deity a close kin, mostly an of pilg Te Malabar house fr t mo øaïkaranàràyaõa, the commentator of overlord. One is reminded of the important statement made by It is t he pos “ ole t er The Thousand Less One yy ñuïïallår v e also sacr ement of soldier ams, t hat a Nà ook shape is har em

r Bharaõi t-C¹r ims. Ther a cas om N , c The Kàëi t The way in which this shrine the grove is described these p ting t he f her - Its Identity and Situation , who is a non-Br oung a per t es who had milit y or olk deities w ish t ar body of K if festival, shouting obscene songs as part of their worship.

o ask if t kàvyas t iced at t e ar h Malabar er sis iod, had in t em his tr s fr e a lar ple at K is significant. This place of worship, just outside d t t er om t adition he f , of t his annual pilg o sa 59 o g ” or , f . It is significant that members of the Nàyar e number of Kàëi shr ñuïïallår kno ) had in this festival would support he c es àhmaõical deity in a f o ar shipped b amed f his f y he goddess of t ñuïïallår became a centr tiv ; but it is int y pr 60 hief . The special r al. Ho es

et senàmukha tiv l or t ensions f y t al ar

y t Laghubhàskariya w and wh er heir milit r wn as t he non-Br r imag it e par or eres or his t ies t e w ( med t ticular “ ights t ting t he ines in dif Cantonment y t ar em o t

as a v

ier Onnu K

àhmaõas in N y ac ëºkar his f he lar ple. A number of he capit ce f hat people fr hat t l e of pilg y no hiev , that the city es or es (militiamen) g f

tiv uŸ er es tig m, pleased he T tew

ements in e â al beg ent par ” t number al of t e of t ) or r 62

accºëi

imag yir . The thy

or am om an he he th 6 ts 1 e

. believ So also, a strong Christian settlement exists there. In fact, Christians â P as the Villàrvaññam missionary activities. They boasted of a Christian royal house known V following the destruction of second temple at Jerusalem by Titus whic the memories of Synagogue at Kºtai or Makºtai, another name by wit a strong Islamic presence in the port town which had trade contacts of t Ev that this body may represent a continuation, in altered form, of the r the Tiruva the a medieval Sanskrit text, the converted to Islam and had one of the first mosques established there, w centur presented as dating from the beginning of Kollam era (AD ninth in the vicinity of Koñuïïallår V linking the town with Buddhists and Jains. pr Joseph Rabban, the Jewish merchant chief considerable aristocratic place-name there used to be a considerable Jewish settlement is attested by the Christians and Muslims. There are no Jews there any more, but that managing t of Honour t latter could be brought out with greater clarity. centre. If the process of former can be known in greater detail, significant for our understanding of the sacred character a political a major festival where non-Bràhmaõas had greater participation is wit

ights and pr

espasian. Ther or yir ar as believ ivileg en if t h milit h W he Je

man (AD 1

tuguese r “ am

h t paëëi e t y), t ( es he t es his ear w “ The As s hat it w t Asia in a big w of the shaven heads The Thousand 64 ar s in t hat being t ed t o he af ¤ . Je y and police functions go

wn of K caikkaëam temple Jåtakkaëam

ivileg azed t Onnu K t at wish tr o hav 000) w his t e is r he C¹r l y dat f ed ear air as t es in t o his se s of a t ic

o

swaråpam wn, kno e been con he dat uŸ e is an adition believ h f ñuïïallår w er her a

lier e â olklor

he Kàëi t e no

” . The Jewish Cooper Plates of Bhàskara Ravi P ) identif

ttlement and t

e t er

em , K yir e on whic

ay umàë

t onl wn t

hat S ple wit am Y e among t

x o Viñanidràbhàõam . Whe ” agg ñuïïallår is sacr , which is believed to have had its seat 68 66 ( em v o t

. y issued fr . So also, there is a mosque that muõóadhàriõaþ paëëi ied as t er s of Mahºda

as kno

There are also unsupported claims og t. Thomas, t er es t ple. M.G.S. N hem as Shing t h r

ed t

t am h t ation, it is possible t her or no hat t t tr he Je ights and pr he leg he Synagogue t wn. It w o Islam and gone t continues t he body ansf he f w om t s of Coc endar or ir y t apur he apos s ar med lar guar his t as in AD 1 , makes a reference to ly t per ed also f he las , dat ay ivileg y C¹r o hav am anan has pr hin, whic o ds or Com manent se wn but also g es fr ) to the south of 63 o t t g es t tle, beg amàn e consider . That a body el

Kesavan V hat t P or t

he g er 56 y as a body om AD 3 her

o Mecca umàë h pr 7 t

her he Je P e dur

r

ttlement panions er ound hat t oposed an his eser e w

eluthat umàë w able av w ing 70, he as as 65 ve 6 s, 7 e . . 487 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

488 TAPASAM, January 2006 t Muyirikkºñu continued its br evidence from Southeast Asia and also Mahºdayapuram itself. It as a centre of trade in the post-C¹ra period is brought out by epigraphic bic memor pilg sacredness. On the contrary, urban centre became a of of t well as the pilgrims who went there is interesting. The post-C¹ra period sacr to were themselves factors which contributed to the sacredness of Mahºdayapuram and the sacredness of institutions attached to it Ko a revival of trade by the second millennium. Mahºdayapuram too, continued to hold the town as important and sacred, for there was in whic institutions made the town sacred in period that followed. The way t of a sacral monarchy and the sacred institutions attached to it. In fact, centre in the midst of rich rice-producing plains, it becomes in sacr assor t Even after that early trade dried up, the religions which came with it an offering dear to the deity of Kàëi shrine is its own significance. dominated the merchandise of that trade. That pepper should also be religions of different descriptions. It is well known that pepper traders from different parts of the world who brought with them as location on the estuary of a river and potentials port, it attracted commanding allegiance fr body of Nà and got Bràhmaõised to a great extent. The martial character of the Bràhmaõa forms of worship and animal sacrifice, came into prominence temples continued to be important, the Kàëi temple, with its non- military character of the pilgrims to this shrine in he por hr he sacr wn. The f ñuïïallår r iv k he his r ed in c er ed. A imag tment in t ing among t y of t t wit ed g h t In the period following break-up of C¹ra kingdom, Thus, Mahºdayapuram-Koñuïïallår offers a good case study e. Ev t a lat al c t he Kàëi t or all of t har y - Its Identity and Situation h silt in AD 1 eog he t ar y of K et act en in t har s who manag he political g r isk tr er point in time, ag o aph ained its sacr wn as a capit er hat monar act em . The sacr er y he pr ade wit . Endo he per ala, it is sugg ple rose t er of t 34 incipalities t om all o iod f 1 and r h W w ch eog ed the t ed wit edness of r y did no he monar al city ling ed c es o pr r ollo aph t Asia, until a cat v ain on account of t ender er K ominence in t har wing t h g y of K em es t, ho t act ed, w eog ple and its er hat f ed it lit oy ala, is sugg er he f ch er er w r alty and t aphical peculiar ed. Ev ala. The Semitic r . While t ev y of t as a per or all of t er med a he er , lead t he pos all

acl en t Bhar he y high and dr hat monar he r es he location of t y iod of continual he Br

his memor Bharaõi smic f tiv o t

t-

aõi P

elics of r

P

e of t er t he loss of its

er er f

àhmaõical

’ umàë

lood f

s standing og umàë ities suc es eligions, festival his. The chy tiv eneous y w al as s of er illed y , t oy 69 he he as al . a, h 7 deposit of silt r 1 References: continued as, and remains, a sacred centre. 3 8 6 tr their turn, continued with renewed vigour in the context of revived is of particular interest in this connection. The Semitic religions, 4 5 2

ade t

Epig V P pp. 23-30; 51-53; 79-82. The expression Elamk Plates, M.G For a detailed discussion, with text and translation of the Jewish Copper Mala somewhat defensible history of that kingdom. Most his writings are in F Narayanan, Tr Cit Gur study is useful in this context. and Dic Mahºdayapuram. He also Kerala in the three centuries after AD c. 800 and locating its capital at the nail on forehead by both identifying existence of a kingdom recognition came about gradually. It was Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai who hit v The history of Kerala, written on p. 161. described as for “secular” grants in contradistinction with “religious” which are mos Mahºda important corrections and placed the kingdom of C¹ras M.G.S. Narayanan continued the good work of Elamkulam, offered many and published a lar times, despite the strong tradition to this effect. When epigraphists discovered Mahºdayapuram or Koñuïïallår was the capital of Kerala in historical Ar

ol. 1 or Muzir er elut ade hat t midale, NS

ed in R umals of K

t r kk r

hat,

y 4 (200 aphia Indica, ”, ecent att alam; but t al and Whitt ulam P he por k Whitt

y

Sout Br apur omila Thapar is as a centr .S. Narayanan,

1), pp. 333-350. ahman Se

ֈ op.cit.

ender h Asia .N.K

W er am on secur em ak sana t f

, A ala he mor acilit er p unjan Pillai, us ak t at its identif , ,

ed t s”. R.S. Sharma, , Calicut, 1 passim g IV “ (Jour tr e number of inscr er

In Sear ttlements in K , pp. 290-7 alia, N at , e of R

e im

, op.cit. he por “ ed. The f Blac Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala nal of t e f por . c ‘ identified oman T e h of Muzir oundations. F w Ser k Gold: Sout 996.

t S ant ones ar

ication wit

t lit . tudies in K ‘ lood of AD 1

he Sout modern er er ies, v Indian Feudalism

r ala ade in t all ip ’ is, it with Koñuïïallår and wrote a tions in t y high and dr , ol xv ”

pras hin K e av op.cit.

’ h Asia and t

h Asian S Jour er lines, had not recognised that

or de

he ear ala His

ailable in Eng , N à o

da nal of R ñuïïallår 34 , pp. 2 o. 2, Dec. 1 he tw t is significant: it used ails, M.G.S.N 1 and t

l

y centur t or , II Edn,. Delhi, 1980, tudies Association), 1-38 he R entie

,

oman Ar y

T , K y rivandrum, 1972, , R ; but t he conseq oman Mar

lish tr

Kesavan V t o

h centur a 992. Thapar

ies AD and a tt

jan Gur

ay c

ar

am, 1 haeology anslation. he t ay y eluthat anan, ukk itime

, t

uent

o 9 70. wn his al ’ s , 489 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

490 TAPASAM, January 2006

19 Muyirikkºñu 12 14 18 15 11 17 13 10 9 16

Ibid P op.cit. Ja 870, perhaps even beyond. This Vijayaràga has been identical with the after Sthàõu Ravi. Ravi is certainly known to have gone up AD There is one C¹ra ruler called Vijayaràga known to epigraphy, who ruled øukasand¹÷a Sun. An inscr 1 p. 1 Ko hailed from this town, uses the term C¹ramàn Kºvil for Tiruva£cikkuëam. In his tr Buddhist to remember it as no 1 of Ja (T too extensive to be cited; but for a sample, see See belo are sung as as folk memories of history contained in the in Sanskrit and of Kerala. This is true creative literature the classical variety contained balanced discussion of the present problem is available in Narayanan, There is considerable literature on the traditions of Christians in Kerala. A a r India tr One of the fancy explanations Bharaõi avoid staying in Koñuïïallår overnight, a travesty of observing an oath! The M. R F F centur This C¹ra kingdom had ceased to exist in the first quarter of AD twelfth M.G.S.N

900), v 95 er or an anal or a discussion of Je anslation of t ir y t de

eno

ñuïïallår K ar iy 1), pp. 78-82. Is 191 uv .

aghav y K apur ” àg ar t a wned sc , y ,

ailed, is signif okilasande÷a . This t

. Ho anslation of t op.cit. ¤ pp. 1 a of . 70, p. 32. The Sanskr w. àt - Its Identity and Situation

ar caikk

vihàra àõam, K e÷v ay a Aiy w

y Måùak ip sis of t ev

55-6 ,

anan and K “ ar Anantapuravarõana em holar am) as wher u prayers tion of Rà

his T er ¤¤ Maõipravàëam am in an which stood there! ang ple w , lit

1; 1 the

ikk

a×aŸ av he tr - amil w er ar poe he capital city of the kingdom C¹ramàns,

uññ

icant. a 86. , I, v

ar

Mahºda , ed., w

as pr ü ”

iŸ øuk an T , is that it was to drive away the nuns from

s in Mahoda

t of adition, see belo jasimha fr

÷ak y t

y w Ÿ

esav aŸ

e

or

asand¹÷a e t . 88 descr

obabl S.I.I.

xts pr àvy

am C¹r a iv he lat d y associat

an V

he f àr Nà

K

pur y

(a union of Malayalam and Sanskrit) as well a

av

it or apur o . N oduced in t

V

y one of t ñuïk om T ¹nt lags fr e nine elut àn, tr , N

, etc.

ar y

, K

iginal uses t

y am

anàr Pur O. 789, p. 3 ar Ce ay

apur ºëår hat, ir ibes t o ed wit ans., anan, (Mahà+uda t ñuïïallår K uv eent om r w. (k

am, see belo “

he cons a yyuñk he subseq

The Bhakti Mo

¤ R h/ear

o

cikk festival

h t Kºkilasand¹÷a oof-t he t

op.cit.

ñum+k K¹raëºtpatti àõam. aõñu Sand¹÷aïïaë,

he name of t ºv he w uëam AD 40

em l

tituents of t ops f ai y tw

u££ikk , pp. 26-7 ; T , V , where obscene songs ºë+år)? uent per ple of A£janakhaëa y or

a+pur entie .A w ol. II, (T an t d Ja

. The Je .S.

. The literature is c. uññ v he hor VI, II, N t ement in Sout 1 , his P h centur

y

iods continued a) a Sanskr Kºkasand¹÷a an T . Is t 036, alt ar he r àt

w iv Nàlu T

(Thr er am the he t e÷v se of t s used t andr umàë? o. 1 pur rulers y hough em ar issur , who

am. um, aëi 38, àn, ple he h it o , . ,

33 35 31 21 20 36 27 38 25 34 23 37 24 26 28 32 22 29 30

India, Sout S f Vy Subhadràdhana T Epig tamaham ÷irasà vande ràjàna Sout Ibid. Laghubhàskarãya T Bhakti K¹r K “ in 1 This compound is known by that name even to this day. The site was excavated there. foundations of a big house and temple other odd little things from Hermann Gundert, ed., Elamk K. Kunjunni Raja, P N 1977. 1 Simla, 1 M.G.S.N The commentary of this work, called alludes to him as a Sthàõu in the opening verse. that he was patronised by Ravivarma, who had the title Kula÷¹khara, and øaïkaranàràyaõa, is published along with it. øaïkaranàràyaõa says clearly 1 Narayanan, N br 19 India

or 1

ghuùyate yasya nagare raïgayàtrà dine 958, 1 apatãsa 868. The r tudy .K. N .A esav ar ar

ought t 72, p. 7 aïgy

.S. 94

ay aëºlpat

y

h Indian Inscr 94 r , pp. 2

anan,

” , T aphia Indica

an V , II, N

4-46 and t ar anan, , in S.C.Malik, ed., Administration Reports of the Archaeological Department Cochin

ulam P

”

980, pp. 1 4-45 and 45-46 avy , in t r

9

ay ü ar iv 78, pp. 33-66 esp. 43-5. 6, v

elut

v og

ana Pillai, ed., 1

andr hiyum MaŸ àkh

ay her

op.cit. ar

3-4.

o. 2, pp. 8-1 ef

op.cit. he op.cit.

et

anan and K .N.K .75.

aõa er

hat,

n Cir yà

her wit Pr

um, 1

ences belo he Ar ¤

1 , q jaya

, Pr

, pp 2

, The Contribution of Kerala to Sanskrit Literature oceedings of t unjan Pillai, ed., , 1

“

, VII, N

, pp. 2 ip , pp. 25-26. op. cit

The Socio-P uo cle f

8, 5 tions c 977 ologue.

, Prologue.

t haeological Sur Ÿ

ed b

and um

4-5; 2 h a pr or 1

4. 7

, p.2 K¹rëºlpatti (the Origin of Malabar)

1 Indian Movements: Aspects of Dissent and Protest esav . R

., Chapter III, p. 42. Laghubhàsk , III, pp. 1 o. 2 3-4. , K

w ar

y N Annua R 9

a 70-7 o 4. ja accep 1 an V

7

.P ü tt 2. ef , p.9 e t olitical Im

ay

.U kula÷ekharam he India His

at 1 o t

am, 1 elut

nni, .

or 7. Kºk

48-52. F epor he edition of eight w ull r

ts t y s

ar ve hat,

Sanskr

asand¹÷am 992, p. 1 ãy y in 1

he identif ts of t tudy b

epor

plications of K a of Bhàsk “

The Bhakti Mo t

969-70 and r or it Dr

ts ar he Ar Vivaraõa

|

|| y Cong y Scar 72. ”

ication, f

amas of K e a

, r

c

ar epr haeological Sur

w

a r ait

, T ia Zac ess ula÷¹khar int, K r ed. eco or by a certain v ir iv , Bhubanesw Kesavan V ement in Sout

s andr k ula÷¹khar v t pr , Mangalore, s of Gunder o er har tty ed po oposed b um, 1 , Madras, am, a â×

ia, ed., ve eluthat tt v

9 a: A

àr

er y of 49. ar ’ y, h y s t , , 491 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

492 TAPASAM, January 2006 51 Muyirikkºñu 48 45 49 47 40 55 57 4 41 39 54 42 44 56 46 53 52 50

3

W Sand¹÷aïïaë øuk Ibid T ÷astre ÷àstre Epig A S.I.I. Vyïgyavyàkhyà vipr Cong K gràmàn ùaùñimcatura iha ye gràhyaceùñà nayanti Se with its document giving many details of the town Makºtaiyar paññinam-Koñuïkºëår P Scar g F p. 32. Ko Narayanan, Ko ME (AD 1 Elamk Scar F Narayanan, Elamk t 55-79. “ Monar F F F

her

vàcà yeùàm bhavati nçpatirnàyako ràjyalakùmyàþ

.K.N .A eog

or t or a r or r or a discussion, K or t dminis

er

or ttlements

ñuïïallår K

ñuïïallår K

.S.

asande÷a ala:His

e, Sar endr ., vv ship of t ia Zac r ia Zac

, v he ar

r ef

r he identif aphia Indica, ar

, V aphical location, K ess ulam P ulam P c er ecent s

ol. V

hical P a×i

. 55-7 ay

tr - Its Identity and Situation , N ais ences, N , Hyder

ah Caldw 92 ation R ms-bear ana Pillai, ed., ,

har har

t

, t

o. 1

gºpura , N or air

he Goddess K 4-25), App. E., N op.cit.

op.cit. ’ op.cit. ,

.N.K , v

.N.K

. pi ca bhçgunibhai÷÷a÷vadubhàsate yà

tudy of t

op. cit ical S ia, ed., ia,

u

o. 790, p. 3 3, pp. 40-46. vipulamañ ow . . 7 ication of t

¤¤

u abad, 1 epor

ar

¤¤ unjan Pillai, ed., unjan Pillai, ed., K¹r 1 in K er in Sout ikk ing Br esav , pp. 1

, pp. 85-6. , pp. 85-6. and other details of the urban centre.

IV ell, y tudies ikk ., p. 33 anan,

, pp. 290-7 uññ aëºlpat

ts of t

he t K¹r Oh T an V uññ an T o

0

9 àhmaõas of K hav

ñuïïallår K

em aëºlpat Laghubhàsk 1-1

, Calicut U

78.

40; ali

an T

op.cit

he Br he Ar elut er

esav

am ar h India hiyum MaŸ ple of Kàëi at K

1 , N o. 36, p.2

r 5. T

ifying Mo y

hat, pur .A

am . Incident

e àv

c ., c hiyum MaŸ

an V w Delhi, 1

àhmaõical

.S. haeological Depar

alãùu s Kºk

pur àn, tr Kºk “ hap ” , VI, II, pp. 1 Roy niv u ,

1;

ar elut

¤¤

asand¹÷am àn, of Tºlan wit

Pr er asand¹÷am

t Ÿ er

alty and Divinity

er on

ans.,

ãy t t

Ibid.

um all

ikk

ala, V her oceedings of t halãùu

sity a of Bhàsk hat,

999. y uññ Ÿ , o

, t : V

um

op. cit.,

ñuïïallår and t g

, 1 , 1 R

“

his is an e an T r

elut

Chr àma

iolence, Se aõñu Sand¹÷aïïaë || Br 1 9 ,

03 ME (AD 1

78, pp. 2 93-4. ” op. cit., ,

|

ahman Se ,

hat, op.c it.

am øuk

onology of t

op.c it. s in K

tment of Coc ar p. 1

pur

asande÷a

a Br

xtr he Indian His , : Legitimisation of

h t

pp. 1

, pp. 82-3, v àn, tr op. cit.

ahman 1-38. 56. xuality and er emel , pp. 63-79, vv

he w he aut ala and t ttlements in 92 6 ans., y im he C¹r , I, v 1-2; 1 7-28), p.4. , v

or hin

, . 1 op. cit por ship hor of

. 69. in R , 1 . 8 .

as 66. aõñu t heir

t 1 or ant 4. 00 ” .

. ., y 60 61 66 64 62 58 68 59 67 69 63 65

“

Epigraphia Indica, K muõóadhàr ÷riràmavarma- paripàlitàyàþ mahodayapuryaþ ... ÷añhakopasya Sand¹÷aïïaë aho cårõãsaritkallolahastàliïgitamekhalàyàh keraëakularàjadhanyaþ M. R. R unpublished paper V Ther of the Jewish Synagogue Cochin. of Calicut ( ar history of Christianity in Kerala. Among the factors responsible for P Har the south of temple, that mosques in Malayalam are called to support the identification. Given fact that there is a Muslim mosque got converted to Islam and left for Mecca. Narayanan, n. 4 What is known as the was not the least. Ho plaque showing the date of its construction as AD 828. This is not acceptable. de theories contained in it notwithstanding, this book documents many important Ko up of Coc land mass known as Puduvaippu ( known as the Puduvaippu Era. This commemorated throwing up of Till recently, there was an era reckoned from this point onwards, which identification. Muslims in Kerala till recently used to shave their heads, I propose this N 3, p. 42. Chap I owe these details to the articles contained in 400 fact and a metaphor was widely used in the state of Cochin. era in the history of Cochin. So, Puduvaippu Era commemorated both a

.K.N .T ar okilasande÷a r t ñuïïallår w ails r .Induc iv 7 ay idas V . N ev e ar al of Chr t ar er 7 anan, er ar aghav ay eg e man , his ay hudan, hin, t . These r .V

ana Pillai, ed.,

ar

c anan, ho iõaþ paëëãmutt

., . The closing do op.cit. . AD 1 ding K t ,

or is

a V “ op. cit y claims, mos , v og King, Cour tianity in K ians ar

. 86 in K The Secr ar et ef , pp. 1 . her wit 200- 1 ier o II, pp. 68 ff. w er ., p. 43. ñuïïallår “ ev , C¹ramàn Mosque ences ar e in a mood t “ er The Sacr 22-4. o

76

e Laghubhàsk , t ar

h t

er t and Cultur ñuïïallår K t Chamber

ak

7) wn of t eõa ala, t t of he cr es t ” . e fr , Ph.D t ”. hem of a g he W he ed Geog Cit eation of t om t he por

o accep paëëi ‘ ed in N , T

u

es the New Deposit ar e in Mediev he 1 hesis, Mang ¤¤ r

” t Asian connections of K ãy f ic in Koñuïïallår exhibits a modern

t of K ikk

r or a Jain ins a of Bhàsk hur aph 7 t lor he Puduv th ar uññ he s centur , 1 ifying v y of T ay o an T 969, pp. 1 ñuïïallår and t anan, t or al K alor am e th y t

y. ar yy anniversary souvenir aippu, mar er titution, wit ar

hat t pur

a op.cit. op. cit. ams e U ’ ala: The Zamor iety ,

) to the south of op. cit. 17,11 àn, tr he las niv Kesavan V ”

, r paëëi An , pp. 64-70. er elat , Chap 8. F ans., he opening o sity k , Chap t P ñuïïallår h no , and that ed a ne ed t ant er

, 2003, R eluthat t t umàë

o t

as er V hing aõñu t ins tic er he w , 493 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 494 TAPASAM, January 2006 (Kodungallur Perumal. The time of their arrival in two batches at Cranganore coast from S dam Jews, reported that about 70,000 to 80,000 Jews had come the respectively Jewish and European cultures. reflect the fact that Kerala Jews had in them a mixture of Malabar bearing Malayalam, Hebrew and Roman numerals. These faces truly had also been constructed four centuries ago, and has three faces ous Jewish immigrant The clumsy-looking chalky clock tower medieval period, and identified as the White Jews by local people. of their glory and prosperity in the 17 Europe, and relics of their association with the tolerant Dutch in days St in the former native state. The town has a cobbled street, houses with Kochi (Old Cochin), adjacent to the so-called Dutch Palace of Raja serted synagogue at one end of the Jew The tourist arriving in Kerala today can see the splendid but de- M. G. S. Narayanan (Kerala) King of the Jews in Kodungallur ings and traditional oil lamp liers from Belgium, prayer books Israel, silk-embroidered hang- Pazhayannur Bhagavati, the family deity of Raja. ping centre. Only a compound wall separates it from the temple of Jews, is an important tourist attraction, but no longer a regular worship- gogue, known as Paradesi Synagogue i.e. the of foreign ar of David windows, four-poster beds, and other period furniture In 1685 The shrine has hand-painted tiles from China, shining chande- . p , 30 km. from Kochi) was calculated as 370 and 499 These are speculative numbers and dates, therefore anish Majorca, and found favor in the eyes of King Ceran AD . Moses Pereira De Paiva, deputed by the s from S s. All these were acquired by the prosper- p ain, coming in dif th , with it -18 T own at Matt th centuries s old tiles and windows, ferent batches in the anchery AD . The syna- , a p Amster- art of AD . , 'Black' Jews, it may be inferred that the Black Jews were earlier Paravur continued to live as before. From the fact that all these were and Kadavumbhagam in Ernakulam, Chendamangalam, Mala T faded into insignificance. Their counterparts in other nearby places like Kurdish and ritual music of the Cochin Jews brought out traces Babylonian, Sp tion more complicated. With the advent of prosperous Jews from about the ownership of copper plate grant makes whole ques- of migration. ristic tool, but again this cannot yield precise information about the dates claimed to be the descendant T Kerala scholars also relied on dubious linguistic evidence from the Old plates, which is a precious p synagogue authorities may show them a set of well-preserved copper not supported by any contemporary or near-contemporary evidence.' Arab countries. These traditions may or not be true, but they are King Solomon is believed to have sent ships the East, 70 unreliable. Benjamin J. Israel, author of the destruction of second temple in 70 supported the traditional belief that Jews came to Cranganore after when the Jews of Iran had to face persecution under Firuz. the second temple at Jerusalem was destroyed, or 457 - 484 S. Koder 1982) rightly doubted these figures and the theory of S disturbances in W scholarly attempts to relate their migration Kerala the known Jews with the Biblical tradition of King Solomon. There have been sess these plates. Mattanchery Synagogue, and we do not know how they came to pos- long before the advent of West European Jews, builders Diaspora. This is how they arrived at tentative dates like 1000 Legends and T plates. tradition of community songs on Joseph Rabban, the hero copper ekkumbhagam and Kadavumbhagam in Matt est ain in the 16 ament of the Bible. The dispute between the White Jews and Black of Cochin If the visitor is lucky - and many of us were, in yester years There are vague and unsupported legends connecting the Kerala 2 , a prominent leader of the Cochin Jews in 20 5 Y emenite p th century est raditions Ap art from the copper plates, Jews also have a Asia that provided the incentive for Jewish 4 atterns, permitting the use of music as a heu- Quite recently the analysis of influences on , the earlier settlers in Kochi appear to have art of their legacy s of Y emenite Jews and from other The Jews of India

AD . anchery . Many of the Cochinites They belong to a period p , anish origin too. M. G. S. Narayanan T ekkumbhagam , (New Delhi, BC th BC 3 century Some . when . when AD. , 495 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 496 TAPASAM, January 2006 deposited in the new synagogue. New Jewish immigrant shifted, along with other traders, and brought their copper plates, to be though many great scholars of the 19 For a long time the exact period and content of grant were not known, status of the Jews in Kodungallur and their political presence Kerala. the first time we get clear and concrete evidence of high social Importance of the Copper Plates trade. Jews, the Dutch were more tolerant and extended them privileges of or Kerala kingdom of Makotai (Mahodayapuram Kodungallur) that fix the date and political context of Plates. He identified Cera Elamkulam P tions of the grant remained obscure. edge about the pre-modern history of Kerala, context and implica- could not be deciphered properly Gundert and Logan had worked on them. The old script language guese in the 17 the Raja to a puppet in their hands. The Dutch took over from Portu- appear to have come Kochi in the 16 in 1341 Muciri (Muziris), identified with Kodungallur in medieval times. the plates were issued in Muyirikode, which is name of ancient from Kodungallur must have brought the copper plates. It is stated that allotted them place to build Jew inhabit King of the Jews in Kodungallur mained powerful during the whole of 16 1568 their capital to the new place. opened in Kochi or Kochazhi (Small Harbour) and the ruling family shifted harbour of Kodungallur almost useless. In course time a new thrown up there. The rise of the mud banks Narakkal rendered The backwaters around Kochi were formed, and new islands configuration of the river-mouth Periyar underwent drastic changes. The Paradesi synagogue at Matt palace in 1565, and the settlement assumed final shape two years. settlement to Kodungallur AD 8 The unique importance of the copper plates lies in fact that for Thanks to the cumulative results of early work, Professor A great upheaval at the bottom of sea, followed by a flood The Portuguese who were allowed to build a fort in Kochi re- ant . AD 7 s of Jew . was an epoch-making event in the history of Kerala. . N. Kunjan Pillai was able to present a reliable text and th and 18 T own in Matt th centuries. While the Portuguese harassed . Those ancestors of the Jews who came 6 lt is possible that the Jewish traders also anchery also. T anchery , and in the absence of clear knowl- own and a synagogue near his th century , a p th th century century They all trace their original art of Kochi, was built in , like Hult . , when they reduced The Raja of Kochi s from S sch, Burnell, p The ain The church authorities and the families handed over to them were and the warrior body called The Six Hundred (Arunurruvar) in district. Manigramam and and dues on behalf of the ruler were entrusted jointly to guilds called and measures, the protection of church, collection tolls S families of agricultural workers and skilled (V tian leader copper plates, now kept in the Bishop's house Kottayam, Chris- under the Cera king of Mahodaya (Kodungallur). there. Kollam was the headquarters of district V 38 issued by Bhaskara Ravi V and placed the story of Jews Kerala in historical perspective. Copper Plates of Cochin, which clarified the text and context grant, from maritime commerce. V have been the establishment of Cola authority in harbor towns like navy in this operation to attack from the sea. Their chief motive could the Cera king. It would appear that Colas were using their famous at Kandalur Salai, a great Brahmin educational centre maintained by Cera kingdom near the seacoast and usurped right of tax collection capital of Madurai. Their forces then moved into the southern part appointed the crown prince Rajendra as Cola Viceroy in Pandyan conquered the Pandyan kingdom that lay to south of his territory the Cola Empire. The Colas under Raja Great had already which the kingdom was being threatened by a powerful neighbor vassals and the commander of armed forces. This was a period in T established in Kollam, the southern harbor of Kerala, at time come into the picture. lzhavar existed in the 9 times. was also possible for me to present a detailed history of Kerala in those A few errors in chronology and socio political history were corrected. It kingdom with the help of several newly discovered or identified sources. dom, kingdom in outline. arsapp thanu Ravi V izhinjam, Kollam and Kodungallur th regnal year (1000 and it was left to me confirm the existence of this Cera or Kerala 10 It was established beyond reasonable doubt that the grant This is where the Jews and copper plates presented to them , V

alli copper plates of 849 As p annar) for the service of church. , Mar Sapir Iso, was granted land to build the church, several art of this work I had published a p arma to the Christian church founded by Mar Sapir Iso th - 12 9 Ancuvannam under the supervision of The present writer continued the work on this king- th centuries, and reconstructed the history of this 12 AD.) from his capit The Jews are already known to have been well- 1 1 arma (AD. 962-1020), king of Kerala, in his AD , so as to appropriate the revenue ., granted in the 5 al in the presence of his chief The maintenance of weight aper on the Jewish According to these enad, which was th M. G. S. Narayanan regnal year of elialar , T achar ficers , and , i.e. s , 497 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 498 TAPASAM, January 2006 joint responsibilities and equal import which the Christian chief was leader the guild called have existed earlier also. They are not mentioned directly as Jews, but when the Jews figure in records of this region, though they could also important in the history of Jews Kerala. This is first time Syrian Christians and Jews in Kerala leader the 72 privileges that are not enumerated. e King of the Jews in Kodungallur Kodungallur ( ers, governors etc. taxes and confirming the appointment titles of ministers, command- Zamorin of Calicut was to sign orders resume authority for collecting of them are listed in a slightly later charter the most important among them are listed in Jewish plates. Some privileges are not enumerated in the Syrian Christian plates also, but usually associated with the high aristocratic groups in state. The 72 and Jewish guilds were honored with titles privileges that cially in the Kerala kingdom, those times. The leaders of Christian background of all other information about society in India, and espe- medieval Kerala. These facts have to be interpreted against the entire insight into the character of sociopolitical system obtaining in early Jewish traders of the region. has the Hebrew/Persian title of of the guild Manigramam, and it is inferred that other guild, which Nagaram or trade centre. The Christian leader is identified as the chief ously these were the prominent traders of newly established ers with Muslim names have signed in Kufic (Old others with Jewish names have signed in Hebrew script, and ten oth- grant, possessing Christian names, have signed in Syriac script, ten immediately af functionaries in Kerala and elsewhere India. It is mentioned that references to similar titles and privileges granted native officers plates - Syrian Christian of Kollam ( dence. copper plates. It is also supported by other contemporary and later evi- Joseph Rabban, is mentioned as the chief of collapse of the Kerala kingdom Mahodaya. xempted from several taxes. The ruler also bestowed on the Christian This inference is confirmed by the fact that Jewish leader A comparative study of the evidence these two sets copper 15 The Syrian copper plates of 1000 ter the Anjuvannarn is mentioned along with Manigramam of AD. 17 Ariyittu V ) - reveal cert 14 Anjuvannam (Anjuman), belonged to the azcha (Coronation), the first act of T ain import arsapp ance. , and the two guilds are given 849 T , about a century af alli in Kollam ( en of the witnesses to 16 Anjuvannam in the Jewish AD. There are several other ant fact ) and Jewish plates of 13 Arabic) script. Obvi- s which provide 849 AD ter the .) are , and the background of civilized traditions W the country at that time. They also possessed discipline of their faith techniques and the knowledge of sea routes. These were absent in and the infrastructure of trade including shipbuilding navigational later date, they possessed independent resources in the form of gold Brahmins like Nayars, and patronize the military political power of India were constrained to recognize matrimonial alliances with non- mins who exhibited exclusiveness and isolationism in other parts of ant religious institution like the Papacy or Caliphate. Even Brah- were also not favorable for the growth of a rigid, monolithic and intoler- plus wealth and military formation. The religious traditions of the country vented the growth of centralized power Kerala side, the natural physical settings and climatic conditions pre- They had great demand for the natural hill products of Kerala. On Chief of Community as King by large-scale migrations or invasions from outside. and society other parts of India. Customary laws and precedents controlled polity interfere. This was the position in Kerala, and to a certain extent some resources and heredit They were little kings in effect, since they commanded independent community leaders or chieftains were quite powerful in their own sphere. like kingship in terms of territory and the control over people. These attached to the sovereign. " limited freedom, with all signs and paraphernalia of authority normally supremacy of the king at least in a nominal sense. It was kind munity and subject to the common social framework overall group had a chief or 'king', though he power only within his com- a federation of semi-autonomous communities. In other words, each central power or organization. That society can be described as culture of other groups, but were not always directly controlled by a and language. They were certainly influenced by the community life ticing their own faith and following customs, manners, dress sub-caste having it groups of people. Each group fitted into the native society as a caste or to have been a society that facilitated upward and downward mobility for of India. Contrary to the notions propagated in colonial India, it appears formed part of the sociopolitical practice in feudalistic caste society In the case of Jews, Syrian Christians and It was not kingship in the regular sense, but something that looked The system of granting hereditary rights, titles and privileges , unless great milit s own semi-autonomous st ary authority ary or political upheavals were produced , in which the political ruler could not , based on the generation of sur- atus under a leader est 19 Arab Muslims of a Asia and Europe. M. G. S. Narayanan , prac- 499 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 500 TAPASAM, January 2006 course of time became Rabbani and later Reubeni by the 16 adds that David belonged to the family of Joseph Rabban, which in reached the dist special status and powers of the chiefs respective communities Christians' in their traditions and literature. When the reports about Kerala were in a position to speak of the 'King Jews' and (Diary) of David Ruebeni from the Bodleian library in 19 view was generally accepted, especially after the discovery of "Sippur" was corroborated by the courtiers of Portuguese king in Europe. the Pope and king of Portugal to seek military alliance. His report Daniel, the Head of Reubeni family sent his brother David to meet tonomy of regions and communities in Kerala. t Asia and Europe. These factors accelerated the trend towards fragmen- monopoly over pepper and spices that were in great demand West of the monsoon, role Western Ghats and rivers, Kerala's highlight the importance of geo-political factors including course for this peculiar phenomenon. Further investigations enabled me to of earlier researches, though I had not found or offered an explanation cultural symbiosis, which the present writer had identified in course this in administrative practice. perceived requirements can be noticed in several innovative steps like tism of the Kerala Brahmin oligarchy in adapting prescribed laws to Nissim of Barcelona wrote in the 14 enjoying great freedom in matters of religion and culture. Thus Rabbi half of the rulers in harbor areas like Kollam and Kodungallur found the Jewish and Christian guild chiefs exercising powers on be- these leaders. That was all the more possible because travelers scope for exaggeration and over estimation regarding the position of of 'V not have found it difficult to accept the wealthy foreign traders in role conventional Brahmin oligarchy of Kerala in the kingdom could non-Kshatriyas like the Sudra Nayars. King of the Jews in Kodungallur ation of political and economic power aisyas' irrespective of their faith, nationality and race. This is how the Jewish and Syrian Christian communities of " I traveled from S Professor P Him I saw with my own eyes." I longed to see an Israel King. I had heard of the city Shingly; This combination of circumstances encouraged the process ant lands in W . M. Jussay quotes these lines and explains that this p ain, est Asia and Europe, there was natural th century: 20 , and the development of au- In this context the relatively un- 21 th The pragma- century th century , and . He 22 . sions like the Mamankam. also permitted to stand on the left side of king ceremonial occa- from different groups, right to levy tolls and punish offenders. He was Mohammadens residing in the Bazaar privileges and dignities of a Nayar chief, jurisdiction over all the the title of Shah Bandar Koya, Governor Port, and was given all kingdom of Kozhikode in north Kerala. The Kozhikkottu Koya, was given same type of political, economic and social privileges in the Zamorin's ministration of Malabar 1 Notes and References a 'King of the Jews' in Kerala. able to appreciate the significance and limitations of concept stand the characteristic traits of sociopolitical set up in order to be tural symbiosis in Kerala. Therefore it becomes necessary to under- patron and client, but that of partners in trade. the relationship between king and guild leader was not that of Godavari or Kaveri, forced the rulers to look for profits in trade. Therefore kingdoms of the Gangetic valley or other major river valleys like those grains in the small principalities of Kerala, when compared to great The relative backwardness of organized agricultural production food pendence of the rulers and chieftains on revenue from sea trade. years af ary 1987. There were only thirty-three Jews in Cochin at the time, nearly 40 Ketaki Sheth, 'The Jews of Cochin', hundred Jews in Kochi. The mass exodus of to the new Promised the presence of then Prime Minister celebrated the 400 him the title of king S in fact appoint one, by name Balearte (Viniyarvattom), and gave and desired, just as the Israelites of old, a king over them did nations of the country creased, it is said, in influence, power and number among the "These S last one came to die without offspring. " dants are also said to have succeeded him on the throne until at Adrian Moens, Dutch Governor In the later medieval period, Mappila Muslims enjoyed This mutual dependence of the parties paved way for cul- In all these cases, the common factor was excessive de- ter the est t. Thomas Christians, being favored with privileges, in- ablishment of the S th anniversary of the Mattanchery Synagogue in 1968 , 1781. st 24 , became bold through these advant ates: t. The India Magazine , in his Memorandum on the Thomas Christians. His descen- , Indira Gandhi, there were about one t ate of Israel in 1948. When Kerala , the right to receive present 23 , New Delhi, Febru- M. G. S. Narayanan ages Ad- s 501 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 502 TAPASAM, January 2006 18 16 17 15 14 7 9 12 11 8 13 4 6 5 10 3 2 King of the Jews in Kodungallur See Narayanan, Second Edition. 1999. pp.37-38. here. See also K.V Note No. 21. P Cochin', V 58. Narayanan, Narayanan, Ibid. T Commemoration Volume. 0p. Cit 1. pp. 215-27 & 325 Professor Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, and Jewish Civilization'. Narayanan, 'Jewish Copper Plates of Cochin', Cultural Ibid. the doctoral thesis, published for limited circulation). Dr Narayanan, 1972. pp. 23-30, 51-3 & 79-85. S. Koder W Dr M.G V three of these songs in his discussion the plates. See note No.12 below dozen songs are known to be in circulation. The present writer had included song (No.6. Mala Palli) mentions Joseph Rabban by name. included the songs about Joseph Rabban of copper plates. Only one Barbara Johnson etc. His selection of 5 1 songs being released now has not Dr in about 30 notebooks due to the ef 'Professor Scaria Zacharia states that about 300 songs have been copied write a poem to mourn their departure. See Land moved V Current Books, arsa', pp. 31-37, 54-59 & 86-94. enkayya, (ed.), 'The Syrian Christian Copper Plate of V olume, The Cochin Synagogue 400th illiam Logan, . W . Johanna S . Johanna S . S. Narayanan, Chapter V alter J. Fischel. 'The Contribution of the Cochin Jews to South Indian Epigraphia lndica , Perumals of Kerala, Op. Cit. Perumals of Kerala Symbiosis. 0p.Cit. Kerala and Her Jews ailoppilli Sreedhara Menon, the great poet of Modern Kerala, to pector pector Malabar .LXIX. . Cola Invasions and the Last Phase. pp. 50-56 T Perumals of Kerala richur . Krishna , , 'The Music of the Jews Cochin...’ Perumals of Kerala Op.Cit. , 2001, pp. 351-55. Ancient text 1.1887. p.158. Note 1; K.P Commemoration Volume Op.Cit. , V A ol. IV pp. 290-97 yyar . 'Mar Sapir Iso, Founder of the Church . Preface pp. vii -ix , Cochin, 1968. p. 7 Op. Cit. , s and inscriptional references are cited S The Zamorins of Calicut . tudies in Kerala History fort Op.Cit. Anniversary s of Shirly Isenburg, P Chapter X. Social System, pp. 155- , Calicut, 1996; (Printed version of Chapter VIII. Local Bodies. End Chapter VIII, Local Bodies. Valloppilli, Collected Works .P .Menon, History of Kerala , Cochin. pp. 177-85. Symbiosis pp. 19-39 ira Raghava from

, Kott Commemoration , Calicut, 1938. At least half a . Tirivandrum, . M. Jussey ayam, 1970 , . , 24 22 23 21 20 19 K.V Krishna Heritage of Kerala P Oommen, ed. T Indian History Congress, Madras, 1996. Section II. Medieval India. Narayanan, 'Gods and different from the rest of India. were not recognized as Brahmins. This was a unique situation in Kerala, throne. Thus all the rulers had Brahmin fathers, though they themselves Marumakkattayam (matriliny) order of inheritance and succession to the from Kshatriya, Samanta and Nayar families of rulers who followed In the medieval period, Kerala Brahmins or Nambudiris married women Ibid . K. Joseph, 'A .M. Jussay . , 'A A yyar Kerala's Development Experience Jewish Settlement in Medieval Kerala', Paper presented at the Christian Dynasty in Malabar', K. J. John, ed., , , Cochin, 1981. pp. 327-330. The Zamorins, Op. Cit. Ancestors in Development - pp. 99-100. I New Delhi. 1999. A S tudy of Kerala'. M M. G. S. Narayanan Christian A. 503 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 504 TAPASAM, January 2006 past in shaping alternative traditions. When women are excluded from critical thorough investigation may reveal evidence of women’ in the scientific, artistic and intellectual accomplishments past, a times, had the skills or authority to preserve their voices for posterity Jewish traditions and rituals. Moreover there has been little direct access to information about female oriented been written from the point of view male Jew relationship and leadership. survival, as opposed to public realms of prayer to be confined the private spheres of husband, children and economic appropriate to each sex. In this patriarchal system, female activities are male and female role the social religious status activities seemed in Jewish history dif Galia Hacco in Historical Perspective Jewish W the 20 from updated studies and researchs, published the eighties on, in nities around the world from 6 ism. (Rabbi means teacher and an authority in Jewish law). the Jewish and non societies – Rabbinic traditional Juda- epochs caught between rapid social, political and intellectual change in analysis, and some of them deal with Jewish women’ ferent eras and places through primary records secondary studies th While women have rarely played central roles in the pivotal events Most accounts of Jewish History and the history Judaism have Rabbinic Judaism is strict in the separations it ordains between Rabbinic Judaism was the only way of life in most Jewish commu-

century In this p . , culture, religion and society aper I introduce Jewish W These critical feminist studies use gender as criteria of omen th to 18 th , only few women, before modern centuries. omen and their activities in . I choose to bring here dat , study and communal s lives in transitional . So, until recently s active . a , spiritual leader or prophet, and no army commander dif service. for all his future. him from God. She vows that af came mother of a boy over the co-wife of her husband, as she had no children. barren woman for many years, suf Chapters 1-2, Samuel A. Hannah, one of the two wives Elkana was a changes, revisions and elaborations in the Bible. the Hebrew Bible. Until its codification or canonization there were many authors, sources, periods and cultural threads lie behind the work we call religiosity and of leadership qualities. and I consider her a prophet poet, woman of high spirituality Samuel. (Old First Example and continues to be. also redefine our very conceptions of what Jews and Judaism were about what we know about Jewish History and the experiences, future. Moreover encouraging further research and similar scholarly endeavors in the knowledge of the diversity and richness Jewish female past, while Jewish History places and forms of Judaism throughout the four thousand years life with seven examples, without bringing all the environments, eras, valuable in studying Jewish societies and cultures as well. public sphere. essentials of group cultural identity in both the domestic setting and cal turmoil, women frequently become cultural bearers, preserving the artifact the male religious activities and observances they often create their own ficult situation of Jewish people in those days: , she will bring her son to serve God at the High Priest Eli’ If we continue reading the chapters 1-8 as one unit, see Hannah prays for a child and God answers her prayer Here, let me remind you of Hannah’ Most of the scholars in Jewish Bible our era, agree that many From Biblical times, I present Hannah, a Jewish woman, mother of These examples collected here, it is my hope, do advance general My intention is to try highlight the diversity in Jewish women’ The insights gained by using gender as a category of analysis are s and rituals. Moreover T . est , exp As God lent her the boy ament, Samuel . Hannah names her boy Samuel as she borrowed anding our knowledge of Jewish women enlarges , in times of rapid social change and politi- ter the boy’ A, chapters 1- 8). I read these fering from the mocking and hurt by , she lends her boy to God’ s story as the Bible tells us in s breast-feeding years are There is no judge, . Jewish people were Galia Hacco . She be- s service s s , 505 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 506 TAPASAM, January 2006 att king of Israel. W ally their immoral behavior; so God did not see them fit for leading the people. is beautiful, rich glorious poetry accordingly from the beginning for future of her people. his people. Hannah, as a prophet, could visualize the right path and act boyhood to serve God prepared him for the role and enabled high priest’ and prepares himself for his role as the spiritual leader of Israel at old Jewish W Second Example for a better future her people. tion to her intentions and actions as a responsible clever thinking person chapters of Bible. slaves. vent from anyone to violate the tomb she had built for her slaves and free imity to the non-Jewish community prescribe a double penalty pre- household of slaves and former lives in suf ence to a father the synagogue, acts both autonomously and publicly without any refer- missions an inscription in Greek, calls herself “head” or “president” of (public) archives”. to the Jewish people. A copy of this inscription has been placed in to do (so) will pay 1500 denaria the sacred treasury and 1000 hold. No one else has the right to bury anyone (here). Anyone who dares the Synagogue, built this tomb for her freed slaves raised in house- following Greek inscription on a marble slab: “Rufina, Jewess head of coast of inscription on a tomb marble slab about the rights of her slaves. tury C.E., I present Rufina, a Jewish woman of acked by all neighbors. , to save them from their bad ways, and prep W Is Hannah a poet? Y I bring this example to show a dif From the Diaspora of Jewish W W Rufina’ In the second century C.E., in city of Smyrna on western es, Hannah may be viewed as a prophet. omen in Historical Perspective e see that Samuel was chosen to lead the Jewish people spiritu- e can see the woman’ Asia Minor s service from his childhood. Her dedication of Samuel s inscription seems surprising for many reasons: Rufina com- , husband, son, or male guardian. She oversees her own e realize that Hannah’ , a Jewish woman named Rufina commissioned the Y The old priest Eli’ es, we read in chapter 2 sentences 1-1 s role in a dif . orld of late antiquity ferent way of looking at the same s plan was that Samuel studies ferent context and p s two sons sinned to God by Asia Minor are Saul to be the first ficient social prox- , and her Greek , second Cen- ay atten- 1; here be able to restart her school, if husband disappears again. clientele over time, and if she gives up her teaching, would not easily undependable in the past. She said that she had built up her student take a second wife. besides he had no one to serve him. Otherwise, asked permission the school because it injured his dignity for wife to be a teacher some years her husband reappeared and demanded that she gives up herself independent by running a school, assisted her elder son. After Genizah documents tell about a deserted wife who was able to make neral for herself. well as to family members, in addition directions for an elaborate fu- bequests to numerous communal religious and charitable institutions, as will detailing her considerable assets and their disposition, ing), the broker ness woman Karima (the dear one) known as al-W to cowives. rule. There are Genizah texts containing agreements to grant equal rights nous households were common in the Jewish communities under Islam ing various social safeguards protecting the wife. Ketubah, as marriages were regarded economic agreements contain- Jewish life from 9 court proceedings, contracts and other legal records relevant mostly to writings such as of Islam rule. Cairo Genizah included a huge quantity of discarded secular information about medieval Jewish Society and institutions under (1 evidence for the lives and actions of Jewish women in late antiquity epigraph, inscriptions, papyri and less well-known literature, we have Shlomo Dov Goeitein’ 950-1250 C.E., I present two women from Cairo Genizah documents. Third Example rich t but also allow us to see that rabbinic Judaism is only one strand in the sources not only serve as an important corrective to the rabbinic model 135-1204) his ruling in a divorce case the Jewish Rabbinical Court. apestry of diverse Judaism in Greco-Roman antiquity The wife in return argued that her husband had been repeatedly In a Numerous documentary references deal with one specific busi- Genizah documents indicate that problems stemming from polygy- In the Cairo Genizah documents from 1890 C.E., scholars can find By focusing predominantly on non–rabbinic sources, especially In the Muslim world in Middle Eastern countries middle ages-

series of legal inquiries - responsa to Mimonides, the Cairo . Her marriage ended in divorce and she lef th to 13 ficial, business and private correspondences, Jewish s analysis of women and Mimonides’ th Century C.E. Also many marriage Contracts or uhsha (object of yearn-

which included t an extensive . responsa, Galia Hacco . These , and 507 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 508 TAPASAM, January 2006 living in Ramla Israel. Mr in 1936 to write and put it under the tomb-stone. was the reason for written announcement of Cochin Government locations at that time in our mutual history of Kerala. in Kerala from 1269 C.E., a clue to the Jewish communities and their (month) (year)”. “Here rests Sarah Bat Israel, who died and joined her creator on (day) time of death and who were her family brew date on a dead person’ additional slab saying that Cochin Government erected it in 1936. Chendamangalam, Kerala, was erected on a concrete column with an Israel, standing in front of my home village synagogue Fourth Example ters; most of them were probably dictated to professional scribes. Jewish Communities in Egypt and Middle Eastern Countries. and their involvement in Jewish communal religious life that period, with her husband, he has the right to forbid teach”. what she likes and do likes”, but Mimonides rules: “if stays Mimonides says: since these actions, too, would constitute grounds for divorce. After that band and to appeal for her marriage portion or Ketubah by law his memory to adolescent days and my father P Thiruvanant not fulfilled his legal obligation to support her her husband to divorce his independent wife on the grounds that he had in Chendamangalam. The Cochin Paradeshi Community understanding Bat Israel was found between the synagogue and river shore in 1935 Jewish W .M. Elias, of Pallivathukal family in Chendamangalam. My questions took I interviewed Mr I wanted to know when and where the stone was found what This marble tomb stone is an old physical evidence of Jewish life W It is a Jewish Custom to put Hebrew written stone with the He- The Hebrew tomb-stone inscription from 1269 C.E. of Sarah Bat The only documents in the Genizah attributed to women are let- This incident raises questions about Jewish W Moreover he advises the wife to refuse all relations with her hus- Mimonides’ remedy was that the Jewish Rabbinic court compels omen in Historical Perspective e do not know who Sarah Bat Israel was, what age she was in apuram University “ She will have disposition over herself. may teach . Elias . T s tomb. ifereth is a second cousin of my father . He told me that the tomb-stone of Sarah T ifereth of Chendamangalam, age 86, . The epigraph says in Hebrew . ’ s law school days in omen’ s education , Mr , . Chendamangalam. ied in her community’ 1269 C.E., when our Jewish woman Sarah Bat Israel died and was bur- ing constructed on top of the ruins an old one which was existing in Synagogue inauguration, 1614 C.E., indicates a new synagogue build- the Matt its historical value, wanted to take it and put in their cemetery the youngsters of Chendamangalam Community and the Kerala History researched, as they may illuminate unknown portions of local History antiquity of Chendamangalam Jewish History tory of Jews in Chendamangalam”. found in the synagogue compound it will reveal more details of his- etery to the new place. 28.3.2003, the following title ”T recent one. it was surmised that the present cemetery may not be very old but a gogue in a hillock Kotayil Kovilagam. were found. up by Archeological department, a few tomb stones written in Hebrew building. Recently while cleaning up the premises for repair work taken stall the column in front of synagogue. column saying “erected by the Cochin Government in 1936”, and to in- on a concrete column and put marble-slab the lower part of prevent any future dispute , the Court ordered to install tomb-stone pealed to the court. T family fore 9 pound in Chendamangalam”. The article said ‘’It is pointed out that be- ifereth consulted Mr

Cochin Paradeshi Community tried to take the tomb-stone by force, anchery . th The question is whether the Hebrew date of Chendamangalam This matter is equally important to Jewish History too. These newly found (2003) epigraphs are a valuable clue to the If you are able to decipher the Hebrew writing on tomb stones Since the tomb stones were found near synagogue compound, The present Jewish cemetery is situated a little away from the syna- T Cochin Court ruled in favor of Chendamangalam and order to Af Century wo years ago, I have read in Malayala Manorama daily I address this question to Kerala Historians. ter the dep . Chendamangalam Community didn’t agree to that. When This kot , a Jewish cemetery was located out arture of the king’ ayil Kovilagam area belonged to V . P . . M. Elias, the law student (my father) and ap- s cemetery near the synagogue, in omb-S s family tones found in Synagogue com- . , the Jews shif They must be studied and , including Mr side the synagogue illant ted the cem- att Galia Hacco am Kings . Elias , date 509 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 510 TAPASAM, January 2006 preserved by the author and children, as well business the synagogue. This work was her female voice that we hear with particular concerns household a woman who actively shaped her own destiny; and that of family exception to the pattern of female silence and is an engrossing record children to know their dead father and ancestries. This writing is an Gluckel of Hamelin, a woman, writes an autobiography Fifth Example History tion. It is an essential accomp a primary role in the lives of Jewish women. Marriage was inheritance, and the guardianship of minor children, have always played complications stemming from divorce, desertion, widowhood, remarriage, families, particularly their husbands. Marriage and its joys, as well the Sixth Example men. functioned as an enduring and meaningful bond for many women Jewish W an economic transaction in most periods of Jewish History ties that “Jewish survival depended on Zionist ef she appealed to Jewish women convince their families and communi- ism depended on Jewish repatriations to Israel. In numerous speeches shared with Szold the belief that perpetuation of both Jews and Juda- Hadassah defined themselves as not religious but cultural Jews. They N.C.J.W Szold, (1860-1945), the founder of National Council Jewish W habilit tions. These deeds may be seen as expressions of moral and social convic- worked for Jewish-Arab rapprochement. They practical change. Jewish philanthropic, educational, cultural and political activities. and in greater public expression. eth Century have sought to give their own understanding of being Jewish see here, significant numbers of Jewish W tional education for Jewish Communities throughout the world. As we ation through From Rabbinic Judaism in Eastern and Central Europe (1646-1724) The fundamental relationship for the Jewish women was with their From the first half of 20 Hadassah gave many Jewish W Hadassah’ Hadassah sent nurses to pre-state Israel, helped the poor and . omen in Historical Perspective . - cofounder and head of Hadassah from 1912. Members s another Organization, est T raining O.R.T ’ s family for several centuries before it animent to any study of Jewish women’ th . - to provide technological and voca- Century in omen the opportunity to engage in omen, throughout the twenti- ablished in 1927, was Re- American Jewry fort s”. , written for her

. S fundamentally till marriage , Henriett s publica- omen - . It is a s the future. Expanding our knowledge of Jewish women enlarges what we while encouraging further research and similar scholarly endeavors in eral knowledge of the diversity and richness Jewish female past, Conclusion mutual dependence. people with whom these women are connected in deeply concerning order to protect, provide good health, happiness and security certain feel belonging to the bigger Jewish circle. the same time, they declare their loyalty to traditional Judaism and process of domesticating the Jewish Religion by these elderly women. In world religions demonstrate. need for religion, which includes the close inter-relationship that many extended family members. These old ladies’ religious world reveal their protect the unknown future family members. ing these rituals, they protect their living and dead relatives also seen by many spontaneous, formal private and public rituals. By enact- acterized by sincere concern for the well-being of their extended families, when they are excluded from the “sanctional” male religious observances. active religious life, creating and shaping alternative traditions rituals a valuable insight in underst 1988, pp 506-521 (in English). Seventh Example ing them to Israel build a new life and future. cuing the Jewish Children of post-second-world-war-Europe and bring- ianship of Elderly Orient als. edly constructing their own female oriented religious traditions and ritu- of elderly illiterate middle-eastern Jewish women in Jerusalem, repeat- Services of Jewish In their female rituals, Judaism turns to be a personal setting in By the help of term: “Domestic Religion”, Sered describes These women feel that they have close relationship with all these What Sered’ I present this example as a demonstration of the process women’ The religious life of these elderly orient From our era – Susan Sered’ In her article: “The Domestication of Religion: The Spiritual Guard- Henriett These examples collected here, it is my hope, do advance gen- a Szold was social worker s two year in-depth field study in 1984-1985 reveals is Agency al Jewish W , she founded anding Jewish W s (1988) omen of Jerusalem”, published in Y Anthropological in-depth study outh . omen and their religiosity al Jewish W As the head of W Aliya movement for res- omen is char- Galia Hacco elfare . s 51

1 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 512 TAPASAM, January 2006 perpetual tension and there are also the ef mands of Rabbinic Laws. So, in Jewish Practice it is possible to have a live in. At the same time, maintaining loyalty to guidance and de- manners and customs, etc. of the bigger civil non Jewish societies they cess has only recently started. around the world. Fifty per cent of mankind is womankind, and pro- needed the analytical tools of feminist critical studies. their actions and contributions to own human societies. ish societies attempted each in its own way to fine our very conceptions of what Jews and Judaism are about. know about Jewish History and the Experiences also rede- Jewish Women in Historical Perspective gation and inner piety importance of Jewish peoplehood, spirituality as both moral obli- adapt the Jewishness and sense of Jewish Identity by conveying women, most of them expressing their spirituality W T Judaism is a constantly evolving religious and social system. Jew- In these examples, we have met dif Jewish women were my examples from History o be able to see these women and underst e need more works of studying women in every human society , and Jewish ethnicity fort . ferent active and creative

s to evaluate, change and adapt the language, dress . W and their activities we e have heard about . story of Jews who once lived in Kodungallur event. Looking closer it becomes clear that Parur song (A) narrates the are particularly good examples. hope for the future. Of collection, two Kili (parrot) songs of Parur and which contain the memories of past, present situation Kerala. Luckily they compiled songs which are sung by women till now This characteristic feature can be studied very well with the Jews in able to adopt cultural elements and the language of their host countries. came to the coast of Parur persecution of Jews in Spain and Portugal. They migrated finally seashore and settled in Parur persecuted them severely they had to flee and came a town near the in one row on trees a golden forest”. When the Portuguese came and dispersed people never gave up it people is confronted with settling-down and setting-of as a starting point. From the very beginning existence of Jewish a specific part of Jewish culture in Kerala and the surroundings is taken they often were almost the only survivors after persecution. In this paper accommodation. Within this frame women became decisive because persecuted, guests and hosts, refugees those who provided conquerors and defeated, oppressors oppressed, persecutors experience but as part of a complex social network. There were of a new beginning. People did not experience “Hour Zero” as an isolated since – despite its characteristic of hardship it also bears the potential situation of tot centuries many experienced collective catastrophes which resulted in a Albrecht F Reflections on the Role of W The Parur Songs At first sight the two songs seem to deal with one and same Studying the history of peoples we find that, throughout renz al desp air . W . e may call such a situation the “Hour Zero” . Parur song (B) gives us an account of the s identity . Nevertheless, Jews were . There, they “sat like birds f. Israel as a globally omen 513 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 514 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Parur Songs part of the Kerala Jewish culture in Israel. country and are now on their way to search for a new settlement in foreign with “Hour Zero”. Old folk songs sung by women, we first have to look into the history of within the majority of people. guilt as well the wish for reconciliation. A new reality took shape society changed. They stood behind the increasing consciousness of – transmit the songs into present times. Israel in the 1950s. Jewish women could – spite of burdened past influences are found. The songs survived the most recent migration to constitute links between Jewish and Kerala culture. Even European Jewish, the songs became deeply rooted in Kerala culture. They of landscape, behaviour and the liveliness performance. Although were performed show that they contain typical Kerala features in terms community in Kerala. W the songs constituted a decisive element in history of Jewish the songs women created an atmosphere of hope. The performance Jews, songs were composed and then sung by women. When singing community to envisage a brighter future. So, too, in the case of Indian generally note that it is especially the women who encourage afresh. In such a challenging – even despairing situation one can of Miriam as woman and contains the first credo Israel to Jahwe. It increasing influence in society constructing new homes. They nourished the families and got an great extent. They shouldered the burden of removing ruins and of the 1940s and beginning 1950s was carried out by women to a Rebuilding the destroyed cities and restructuring Germany by end and women who had to find a new home in unknown surroundings. war women who cleared away rubble”. Many men had not come home from was reshaped mainly by women, the so-called “T Old Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously’.” Most of the commentaries her with timbrels and dancing. And Miriam sang to them: ‘Sing the of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after song is handed down as follows: “Then Miriam, the prophetess, sister . Most of the refugee treks brought into Germany old people, children T T est est One is reminded of the situation af In both songs it is narrated that Jews have lost their family homes At first Miriam has to be mentioned. In Genesis 15,20 f. Miriam’ If we want to understand the force behind Jewish Malayalam . However ament and see how women behaved when they were confronted ament agree that Miriam’ , they had to get over “Hour Zero”. ords, expressions and the way how songs . W s song proves the out ithin a few years the basic thinking of T oday they constitute a significant ter W orld W rümmerfrauen” or “the ar II when Germany They had to st st anding position art s you, and whenever you will, can do good to them; but will not But Jesus justified her doing and said: “Y even accepted being anointed by a woman with dubious reputation. People grumbled at Jesus’ behaviour that he dined with a leper and (Mark 14,3) , and in another version she poured the nard on Jesus’ feet. the leper Magdalene came to Jesus when he was dining in the house of Simon T the Hour Zero af and then self content Hagar but also reflect Ziegler express dif heaven (cf. Genesis 16-21). The faces in the two pictures do not only grown in years with an embittered expression listening to the voice from beautiful with curious demanding eyes. The second picture shows Hagar shows an old settled down in the so-called S between 1933 and 1945. After the war he returned to Germany to flee into several countries due the persecution by German fascists overlap. He himself experienced life threatening situations when he had his p out of a situation in which the existence their people was danger most important Jewish women who represent persons found a way himself in the faces of Gütersloh 1978, p. 1 pictures by Richard Ziegler and published in his book “Biblische W mother of a great people. Hagar in her “Hour Zero” was painted two with god’ When she and her son almost died with thirst discovered a fountain reported to have been sent into the desert along with her son Ismael. but also a member of the genealogy king David. of her profession and position in society not only became a prophetess became true when Israelites entered the land Kanaan. Rahab, in spite above and on earth beneath” (Joshua 2,1 formulated the credo: “The Lord your God is he who in heaven her own risk saved their lives. In speaking to them she – like Miriam called Rahab. She was a harlot who hosted two Israelite spies and at interpreted as the hour of birth Israel people. cr est eated a new identity after the exodus from Egypt which is also ament. aintings Ziegler also demonstrates how the fate of dif Similar observations can be made by studying women in the New Another woman, Hagar The credo is repeated and confirmed by a non-Israelite woman . She poured ointment of pure nard over the head Jesus s help. She saved herself and her son’ ferent moods of a melancholic A woman of the same profession as Rahab called Maria Abraham and a young Hagar carrying her baby ter war 1 and 13. In this book Richard Ziegler p Abraham and Hagar . teinhaus in Calw , the Egyptian maiden of ou always have the poor with Abraham and a desp . In the first picture Ziegler 1). . Richard Ziegler portrayed This prophetic saying s life and became the ’ s own experience of ferent people Abraham, is Albrecht Frenz . She looks ainted the eiber”, aired . In 515 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 516 TAPASAM, January 2006 Maitreyi challenges her husband who stand at a new beginning India. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad love which could become an integral part of Sufism. a rigid sectarian movement Rabia al-Adawiyya created concept of Hamid Ghazzali (1058-1 his sentence Husain ibn Mansur al-Hallaj (852-922) who became famous because of tradition lastingly With her concept of love Rabia al-Adawiyya influenced not only the Sufi only as said in Quran: “He loves them and they love him” (Sura 5,59). she pushed aside the veils of heaven and hell lived in god’ 1992, p. 66). In this story Rabia’ of paradise” (A. Schimmel, Thus it will become obvious who prays to god out of fear hell or hope p and asked “what are you doing?” She replied: “I want to set aflame hand and a bucket of water in the other hand. People laughed at her Adawiyya, once walked through Basra carrying an enlit torch in one of a global movement. the Christian creed (Mark 16,1-8 par) which soon became fundament Thus women in a despairing situation became the first messengers of Christ at the entrance of grave and were told to spread news. and some other women were the first who met crucified risen Having studied this narration it is of no surprise that Maria Magdalena this deed opens the door for a future in which social justice prevails. conventions are broken by an unconventional woman. At the same time always have me” (Mark 14,7 par). The scene shows how communal reality 2,4; 4,5). the brahman attains highest knowledge” (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad their villages to look for work or business in towns, whereas women and The Parur Songs Maitreyi challenged and retires into the forest. Maitreyi remains in everyday life. The woman of women in Kerala as well Mithila society is dif communities follow the matrilineal system. Due to this system position North Bihar system. The matrilineal system can also be found in former Mithila, now manifestation of the ultimate truth. aradise and pour water into hell to make these two veils disappear . In the context of our topic we cannot leave out examples women A Muslim woman who died in Basra the year 801, Rabia al- During the severe draught in North Bihar 1960s men left A characteristic of Kerala has also to be mentioned: the matrilineal The dialogue ends with the saying: „He who becomes one T o reach this aim, . Not only Hindus but also a few Christian and Muslim anal-haqq, . Islamic theologians bear her visions, f. i., the martyr Y ajnavalkya and became responsible for the 11 “I am the truth”, or famous theologian Abu 1). Mystische Dimensionen des Islam, Y At the crucial time when Sufis had formed ajnavalkya abandons all his possession s love of god was regarded so pure that Y ajnavalkya to explain the ultimate ferent. s presence München . women st children had to stay back, many starved. In this devastating situation Portuguese. Finally they settled in Palur for Malanadu. On the way he and his crew were attacked by the synagogue form a unity and radiate into all community levels. structure, the rootedness in community a peaceful future. The core of this creativeness is threefold: family a spirit of realism in building new society as well creating in summer 2001, I noticed that the Jewish Malayalam Folk Songs carry there and become important ambassadors of Indian culture. at markets throughout India, travel to foreign countries, create pictures life. Nowadays Madhubani women even themselves sell their paintings emancipated themselves from the role as an indoor house wife into public decades Mithila women of Brahmin, Kayastha and Harijan castes alike the villages of North Bihar have a global market and are the basis for income of many families in of dealers, and earned their families’ They came out of their houses and sold the pictures, often with help present events and a prosperous future. Folk songs are a means to enrich life through vivid memories, joyful past, reconcile the present and create new perspectives for future. atmosphere of hope. They use songs which narrate and interpret the to new life and motivate anew the whole society by creating an catastrophes and existential menaces in spite of which women give birth the present. They guarantee that the past remains unforgotten, but is reconciled with fundament for all activities in the houses, families and community sung by women and the synagogue are closely related. They build Zero was that they built a synagogue in order to praise God. Songs In the song “Evarayi” it is described that Evarayi left Jerusalem When translating the Jewish Malayalam Folk Songs in Jerusalem From history we learn that peoples and individuals face arted to transfer the wall p . It is amazing to observe that within a few aintings of their houses on p livelihood. . The first activity in the Hour , and the spiritual centre at T oday their p Albrecht Frenz aintings aper . . 517 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 518 TAPASAM, January 2006 Ithaca College, USA Barbara C. Johnson of Malayalam Jewish Biblical Songs Intertextuality in Her Oral Interpretation Ruby Daniel’ Woman Remembers and cultural history of her community working in a collective women in Kerala, and she spent the second half of her life living attend college, she was a pioneer in government employment for birthday Israel in 1951, and died 2002 just a few months short of her 90 process. songs, with emphasis on intertextuality in her narrative and hermeneutic use of stories in explaining and translating the Malayalam Biblical conference “Jewish Heritage of Kerala 2006”. Its focus will be on her crucial role in the evolution of international project that inspired whose translations of Malayalam Jewish folksongs (MJFS) played a and life cycle rituals. In addition to transmitting them orally parties and other public occasions connected with Jewish holidays large body of Malayalam songs, which they traditionally performed at English. much of her last decade to translating about 100 more songs into from the cultural and folk history of Kerala Jews. She then devoted translations, along with numerous stories from her own family and This paper honors the legacy of late Ruby Daniel This remarkable woman was born in Kochi 1912, moved to

As is now well-documented, the Jewish women of Kerala had a to tell it. you know a tale, owe it not only to others but the tale itself Stories must be told, because they are crying out to told. If . The first young woman in the Kerala Jewish community to

A. K. Ramanujan (1995) s Legacy: kibbutz , which included 13 of her 25 early song in Israel. There she wrote the memoir (1991:46) , Ruby of Cochin: . An Indian Jewish (1912-2002) , they th , women in Fort Cochin the middle of 19 the Malayalam songs along with embroidery and lace-making to Jewish Grandmother told Ruby about her great aunt, who had taught from her grandmother Rachel (Docho) Japheth (1864-1944). learned Hebrew prayers, Malayalam songs and stories of all kinds was carrying on a long family tradition. In early childhood she had Ruby Daniel as song expert who told her stories she had heard from grandmother in the days when she learned these stories from her grandmother some way I was an echo of the curious child she had once been, back and nephews who were no longer a daily part of her life. Or perhaps in fortune to be that audience, perhaps as a stand-in for the Israeli niece storyteller with a strong need for an audience, and it was my good listen with fascination to her comments and stories. She was a notes as she puzzled over the translation, to ask questions, and was to organize and present her with variant texts of each song, take of information about the history and culture her community Working from my own limited knowledge of Malayalam, but with a wealth 1999) of intensive collaborative translation work with Ruby Daniel. recordings from almost 20 years of conversation and six (1993- The source for analysis in this paper is my collection of notes and tape stories in these songs and sometimes about the themselves. genre, perhaps because she had so many stories to tell about the translations, it became clear that the Biblical songs were her favorite their mostly anonymous composers. Malayalam classical and folk literature, from the imaginations of references to stories from Jewish about events or characters in the Hebrew Bible, interwoven with Jewish songs. also in her everyday interactions and explication of the Malayalam particular Ruby Daniel’s storytelling. the analysis of written texts but on intertextuality in performance, internationally opening the corpus for further study by other scholars in Kerala and of the written song texts (Zacharia 2003, Zacharia and Gamliel 2005), have made a superb beginning in the linguistic and literary interpretation (Johnson 2005). My colleagues Scaria Zacharia and Ophira Gamliel with them to the parties and passed on from generation preserved the song texts in hand-written notebooks, which they took In emerging as the MJFS expert of her generation, Ruby Daniel Ruby Daniel was a captivating storyteller – not just in writing, but . In contrast to their work, this p Almost a third of the MJFS collection are narrative songs As we worked together on song midrash, aper is focused not on th century 1 from non-Jewish Barbara C. Johnson , and whose . , my role , 519 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 520 TAPASAM, January 2006 other Jewish girls and boys were t Mattancheri. In addition to learning the Hebrew language, she and primary school, she studied in the Hebrew school held Jewtown, each morning and afternoon, before after attending the government environment and from more formal education. When she was a child, events? Her knowledge of the Hebrew Bible came both from her family seemingly endless repertoire of stories about Biblical characters and sufficient for understanding them. How did Ruby Daniel acquire her in the synagogue each week, both Hebrew and Malayalam. relationships in both and participated the song traditions of both. in different ways marginal to both communities, they had close close to the Kadavumbhagam Synagogue at southern end. Being northern end of Jewtown, Mattancheri, but lived in the neighborhood Japheth/Daniel family tunes for public performances – reflecting the “bridge” identity of of Kochi respected Grandmother Docho as a song leader who set the when they were older midrash, possible that their teacher may have included explanatory stories from Ruby Daniel’s Legacy at the Ben-Zvi Institute in Jerusalem. notebook is now preserved as the oldest in MJFS collection housed them formally midrash Japheth, a respected books came indirectly composers of the Biblical songs. Midrash he learned: self-educated in Hebrew and English. He brought home much of what However Women in both the Paradesi and Kadavumbhagam communities Research is needed to discover which books of how they learned, and talked among themselves. (6/93) Many of the women knew all stories because that. That’s all the women listened. It was going on for a long time like that. eat, and they asked somebody to come read for them, two houses they made some coffee and banana fried, things to afternoon…. and the women, they would go to hear… In one or it…. Some of the men used to read these stories on Shabbat When asked about her knowledge of so many stories from , in addition to the Bible, Ruby Daniel said she hadn’t learned were available in Kerala, as they may well have influenced the Many things I have not read anywhere. Nobody told me. heard found in written Hebrew texts that some boys would study . , performative knowledge of the songs was not always , who belonged to the Paradesi synagogue at . , p shohet artly through her learned grandfather Eliyahu (ritual slaughterer) and teacher who was 5 aught the Ruby Daniel’s knowledge of such 2 T orah portion to be recited T almud 4 It is and 3 century poet Ezhuthachan: able to set them in a larger literary context, telling me about the 16 worked on translations of Jewish parrot songs, for example, she was and of course it is all wisdom.” (Daniel & Johnson 1995:xxi) difficult. The poetry is written eight hundred or a thousand years ago, beautiful, and always some parables,” she told me. “The literature is their poetry and cleverness. “Malayalam has comparisons, very sayings which she would translate and explain with obvious delight in she spoke to me in English, spicing her conversation with Malayalam college. Her deep love for her mother tongue was apparent even as choosing Malayalam language and literature as an optional subject in challenging variety of linguistic forms (See Zacharia 2003). was important in deciphering the MJFS, which contain such a Kerala to attend high school and then a year of college, at S English at an early age, she was the first young Jewish woman in and Malayalam. Encouraged by her mother Jewish songs. Ruby Daniel also acquired a solid knowledge of English stories was still not enough to enable her translate the Malayalam other Jews. the colloquial Jewish Malayalam that she spoke at home and with acquaintance with classical and academic Malayalam, in addition to great enjoyment of reading. Indian Navy and in the law courts of Kochi Ernakulam, by her in English was enhanced by her years of service as a clerk the when her father and grandfather both died in the same year in Ernakulam – though she had to leave college support her family Jews took these songs about the parrot. (7/19/95) he wrote it in poetry He was a poet from lower caste. Everything he wanted to say Ruby Daniel was unusual among educated Kerala Jews in Whether direct or indirect, knowledge of the Biblical and what my mother said. (7/19/95) So when he heard something from that house, we it that room. … so he read all the books and heard news. The other critical ingredient in Ruby Daniel’s education was her there is nobody to bother them. always in that house… a big house with an upstairs [where] And my grandfather was the one who read all these. He Joseph Hallegua always bought books from all over the world. Y ou see, my grandfather had no money to buy books. His friend An underst anding of these dif , addressing it to a bird. Maybe from that the And the books were up ferent versions of Malayalam , who began teaching her Barbara C. Johnson . Her fluency t. midrashic Theresa’ st As we airs in th s , 521 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 522 TAPASAM, January 2006 Israel he traveled to the songs by referring to Ruby Daniel’s translations; and on his first visit I met in Kerala 1999, he began his first readings of the Jewish this!” Scaria Zacharia was the answer to that request. When he and texts, she would say: “Please go to Kerala and find a professor do linguist to work on the Jewish songs. When faced with inscrutable limitations in Malayalam that pushed me to search for a words and concepts that are sprinkled throughout the MJFS corpus. substitution of “t” for “zh”. In addition she was familiar with the Hebrew transformation which explained such spelling variations as the frequent elements in the song texts, identifying patterns of linguistic grammar and spelling, she could recognize variant Jewish colloquial had brought with her from India in 1951. With knowledge of standard Ruby Daniel’s Legacy intertextual interpret or didn’t choose to sing them, she followed an individual process of pondered their meanings. But even when she didn’t know the songs performed them privately rusty long before the formation of this group. concerts for mixed audiences, but Ruby’s singing voice had grown different parts of Israel who perform Malayalam songs in staged the Nirit Singers, a new group of about 30 “Kochini” women from and their second cousin V conference. almost forgotten until the recent revival of interest marked by this events with their own Hebrew songs. The old Malayalam songs were the early 1950s), they celebrated their holidays and public life-cycle the Kerala Jews had migrated as a community to Israel (beginning in Malayalam Jewish songs in public. Hardly anyone did. Once most of Chendamangalam and Parur representing six of the eight Jewish communities in Kochi, Ernakulam, others I brought to her from the ever-growing collection of manuscripts notebooks, first the notebooks from her own family and eventually a likely and comprehensible version out of different texts in Zacharia today T extualization as performance Finally it was Ruby Daniel’s realistic awareness of her own She frequently consulted the Malayalam/English dictionary she During the years that I knew her While translating the MJFS into English, Ruby Daniel sometimes T . It was a process of “textualizing” each song by creating oday Ruby Daniel’ ation, like P kibbutz , singing them to herself or me as she enus (Ziphora) Lane are active members of . to ask for her blessing. s younger sister Royal (Rahel) Kala .M. Jussay , Ruby Daniel did not sing 6 before her and Scaria family the songs they are practicing. It also continues within Ruby Daniel’s of the Nirit Singers debate pronunciation or meaning words in the melodies that they would sing. other and with several different notebooks, to arrive at the words needed to practice, and their practice involved consulting with each apartment. world of Kerala along with the oral and written texts, there in her about rowdy celebrations of Purim in Kerala, keeping alive the cultural sequence of verses and p written text to consult, their memory-based disagreement over the sister Royal and their second cousins V and three of her neighbors would perform for the t of V Our Bride” (II-16b)– from a piece of paper discovered in the belongings struggled to reconstruct a dimly remembered song – “Our Bridegroom, knew explaining elements in all three songs by referring to other stories she melody with which the scroll of Esther is chanted each year chanted parts of this Hebrew text under her breath, using the Kerala the Book of Esther where basic story is written. She occasionally While translating three songs about the holiday of Purim, she turned to notebooks that were spread out on the dining table where we worked. Daniel sometimes consulted the Bible in addition to different compact disk when I went to Kochi record some of the songs that are heard on memory or learning the song for first time. song written in their separate notebooks and others were singing from complex process when some women had competing versions of the to agree on the text and melody or melodies for each song – a they were to sing in public. In order together it was necessary families with different notebooks, to plan in advance the songs that practice sessions in Kerala brought together women from different Like the monthly gatherings of Nirit Singers in Israel, traditional the collective practice sessions preceding public song performances. individual preferences and judgment, it can be usefully compared to enus and Honey’ , most of which can be traced to . One af The process continues in contemporary Israel when members In earlier years while she was textualizing and translating, Ruby I first saw this inherently intertextual process at work in 1977, While this process of textualization calls for the exercise Oh, Lovely Parrot! ternoon in the summer of 2001 I sat with her younger s recently deceased mother attern of repetition was extremely lively (Johnson 2004). midrash enus and Honey . She also reminisced

Before Sarah Cohen ape recorder . W Barbara C. Johnson ithout another , as well , as they kibbutz , they . 523 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 524 TAPASAM, January 2006 Ruby Daniel’s Legacy grandmother in Indian storytelling: Intertextuality in hermeneutic performance Ruby Daniel used her stories and comment crucial explanations: brightening up, and proceeded to translate each line, with just a few “Y to me what would otherwise be unclear to me new perspectives on important religious figures and explaining suddenly this one appealed to her repeatedly rejected my suggestions of songs to translate that day her voice lacks the energy of our earlier years together continue the translation project. Throughout most of that taped session, last intensive work sessions before she fell ill and could no longer Moshe Received Knowledge” (III-15). This was in May 1999, one of our pedagogical skills is found in our conversation about the song “When A more elaborate example of Ruby Daniel’s hermeneutic and personally were spared the pain of death. This theme was important to her adult: she had to tell a story explain what happened when Moses was an childhood of Moses (III-65): example, when she translated these two lines from a song about the ou know what that means?” she would ask, and of of [the] family editing them to support the primary moral and ethical principles can function as a cultural gatekeeper by selecting stories and the grandmother as primary storyteller family structure gives special responsibilities and privileges to living and introduce them to important religious figures… The Through stories, adults teach children basic principles for moral Folklorist Lee-Ellen Marvin considers the central role of As if fitting into the prototypical role of such an Indian grandmother Then she proceeded to tell me stories about other people who dying. Her name is Batya. she is still alive with the ten others who went to Paradise without hand and threw her into the air her Egypt, she [Pharaoh’s Daughter] didn’t know what will happen to God gave her heaven Because Pharaoh’s daughter brought up the child, When Moses was taking all the Jews and going away from . She said, “Son, what will happen to me?” So he took her , and she returned to it later in relation several other songs. . (2003:69) 7

(10/22/96) , and she went to Paradise, where . She did want me to underst . “It’ s not dif s pedagogically , which means that she ficult,” she said, ten I didn’t. For . She had , revealing , but and. , she complained: word just dropped them because they suddenly became heavy actions, stating that he didn’t intentionally throw and break the tablets, said ‘T the following lines: [this].” She then summarized a story from and he dropped them. worshipping the golden calf, whereupon letters flew off tablets them made light in weight – but only until he saw his people stone tablets down the mountain because holy letters written on without an expert to decode and explain it. Moshe was able carry the central focus of the narrative, but which could easily have been lost T word embedded in the Malayalam text: She quickly explained that Moshe told “The trouble with characteristically pronounced and written as “b”), noting in an aside usually called by the Hebrew title “ stop to discuss its unusual application in this song Moses, who is one of her ancestors Shelomi Mutaliyar (Solomon Hallegua). We didn’t Jews had sometimes applied the term to their own leaders, including Mut Sinai, and then continued translating. Later in the song, Here she paused briefly to note that Seir is another name for Mount eacher). But I must have indicated uncert aliyar kabeda Ahhhh! It became “One word there will be to spoil the whole thing…. Then she p He spoke to his brother worshipping idols. Here in just a few words, Ruby Daniel first identified the Hebrew That’s how it fell down….. It’s not because [Moshe] threw down.”\ “Oh Moshe, receive it - into your hands.” She knew that I was already familiar with the Malayalam term Mutaliyar And On Sinai Mount And with that knowledge he gave praises to God. The Lord Who is the First gave all knowledge to Moshe, On Seir Mountain, there the fire was burning. ake it.’” , a title given to the leader of community Mutaliyar , not recognizable as Malayalam. Moshe went and spoke about it. aused two lines later goyim Moshe went up the mountain, ain God appeared in royal splendor And finally Ruby personally defended Moshe’ heavy All the words flew away and it became heavy [non-Jews] is they try but won’t know , ! It became heavy when they saw people Aaron Hacohen. Aaron about the , puzzling for some time over the Moshe Rabbenu kaved midrash ainty about the meaning of or heavy (with the “v” “Kabeda… kabeda? which provides the 8 , and that Kerala T Barbara C. Johnson orah and ” (Moses Our . , Kabeda kabeda. Aaron … 9 s ” . 525 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 526 TAPASAM, January 2006 the Jewish school of her Kerala childhood, she recalled: credit: “The king was decision to spare Mordecai and punish Haman, Ruby gave him a bit of Document Box” (III-12), when the king finally made commendable day and night,” she proclaimed. But in another Purim song “The was he called “red-faced”? “Because a drunkard who boozed better Isaac’s blessing from his brother Esau (III-3), Ruby Daniel commented: didn’t disagree. “like you and Royal”, referring to her much younger sister – she Assuming a connection to her own family experience I responded, “The eldest child feels a special bond with the youngest,” she declared. a pit, she reminded me that Reuben had tried to save him from death. Joseph and his brothers. In discussing how was thrown into characters in all her stories, whether tales of own ancestors or she did, given the timeless connection seemed to feel with characters, it was as if she knew them personally — which in a way Ruby Daniel’s Legacy imp (III-75): “ What an idiot the father was to send him!” she exclaimed brothers, who would then throw him into a pit and sell as slave as when she read that Jacob told Joseph to go the fields meet his of quick evaluative comments. Some her judgments were negative, Commentary as personal evaluation atiently . p Rosh Hashanah and my old Hebrew teacher was there. The sixty or more years later I went to a synagogue here in Israel for portion, I made an excuse and did not go to the [school]. Some Everybody made fun of me. So every time we had to study that where it is told about When we learned the translation of Apparently she had always a special soft spot for Isaac. In song.” As for King him as if he didn’t know showed him Gehenna [hell], so he was afraid. So blessed understood the situation… He wanted to curse Jacob, but God I feel sorry for Itzhak When translating the song about how Jacob stole his father Some of her remarks showed such sympathy to the Biblical In addition to her long explanations, Ruby also taught me by way arashah . (10/22/96) (6/28/95) of that day was (7/19/95) Ahashverosh in one of the Purim songs (III-69), why Obviously the Patriarch Jacob should have known not drunk at that time, I think.” Abraham sacrificing Isaac, I used to cry Abinu [our father Isaac]. It seems he . 10

This is what I heard, it’ Abraham sacrificing Isaac. parashah (10/22/96) [weekly portion] s not in the Though . through a trial by fire (III-27): including these lines about how he proved his faith in the one God while the two sisters worked together to translate a song about enjoyable discussion about their knowledge of other Kerala folksongs. involved frying a fish, and so led us to several days of significant them of another Malayalam folksong – not a Jewish one which also the everyday act of cooking fish in a Kerala kitchen. This reminded lines create an image of the giant Leviathan being fried in a pan, like was the wording of these lines: feast involving the giant fish called Leviathan (II-42). What set them off song about the messianic days to come, when there will be a great day in July 1997 the two of them dissolved into laughter together over a the same when they included her younger sister Royal (Rahel Kala), who lived in In fact some of our work sessions became quite hilarious, especially cries, I will be sorry her it is the ashes of son. She can smell it. wasn’t in the song. “Isaac said ‘T son at that time, you will cry son Isaac’s death. “If you read what happens between the father and upper window and died when she heard Satan’s false report of her Umma” (Mother Sarah, III-14), which recounts how Sarah fell from an emerged also as we worked on the Malayalam song entitled “Sarah- Entertainment through stories about songs “Ask whatever sign you want for this belief.” And told him: He went quickly to the Raja Another very entertaining conversation unfolded in October 1996 Between contagious bursts of laughing they explained that these For the forsaken nation to eat. Will cook the big fish Y Not all of Ruby Daniel’s commentary on the songs was serious. Ruby’ and Johnson 1995:40) motions for cutting the throat and shedding tears. (Daniel saw me, he started showing me signs with his hand, making so many years had passed, when my teacher Eliyahu Meyer our servant Jacob and his children kibbutz s emotional connection to the story of and often dropped by while we were working One .’” 1 1 (July 1993) ,” Ruby said to me, adding a story that ake my ashes to mother and tell Ask her not to cry Abraham and Isaac Barbara C. Johnson Abraham, . If she 527 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 528 TAPASAM, January 2006 have heard other good storytellers in the community do: They moved into entertainment mode with a narrative dialogue, as I who dramatically recounted it in detail before translating the song. story of Nimrod’s daughter was very familiar to both Ruby and Royal, folklore. Ruby Daniel identified her as Hagar in the fire is not mentioned Jewish versions, but appears Islamic portrayed in Indian-style fire ditch rather than being thrown into the furnace that is as Nimrod) makes him undergo the trial of fire-walking in a South Abraham’s faith (not named in the song but identified by Ruby Daniel incorporation of both Hindu and Muslim themes. The king who tests Ruby Daniel’s Legacy see! Come and see!” So he also came looked. two angels on both sides, so she called her father every day… maybe she loved him, you know window Royal: Though they didn’t seem acquainted with the song itself, This is a particularly fascinating Malayalam Jewish song in its “No, I don’t need all these things.” “Y The Raja gave him his daughter And all kinds of nice smells. All were smelling of good musk and camphor All the coverings, shirt he was wearing and his prayer shawl, And [Avraham] was free. Then he believed in one God. While he was touching her and looking, could see. “Then come and touch me look.” But he cannot see. “ The king’s daughter saw with her eyes. Michael and Gabriel became [Avraham’s] friends. There came an umbrella and shade. ……. T And all the people of city came They invited all the people of city ……. And put a fire in it. So [the Raja] made a ditch of 40 Vava o witness the belief that there is only one God ou can have my kingdom.” - [Father], come and see the belief.” midrash. . She was always looking into that fire ditch. Because The king’s daughter Hagar… was looking from the And she saw that

The king’ s daughter who sees A vraham is walking in the fire, with , so she was looking all the time, , kol , length and breadth . 12 Abraham walking , “Come and in their own family remarks made in public by Israeli soldiers about beautiful young women present was also included, as they described outrageous but amusing Pramukh, he was a good-looking man.” With this story their Israeli women in his kingdom – Royal mentioning with a chuckle “The Raj the traditional Travancore custom of raja’s right to sleep with young world of the Biblical ancestors were intertwined as they told me about when they see a beautiful woman.” involved puns, mutual teasing and laughter about how “people go crazy discovered. Ruby and Royal’s commentary on this development forcibly into the palace of Pharaoh, when her great beauty was Abraham and his wife Sarah’s move to Egypt. There she was taken adventures of but she was praised as a similar woman of courage and strength. 1995:45). Nimrod’s daughter may have lived “even years before us”, had to travel on her own Ernakulam every day (Daniel & Johnson grandfather) in order to enroll Ruby secondary school, for which she repertoire – a story about how their mother defied her own father (their help thinking of one the central stories in her sister’s personal shoulder and look.” Ruby: But he can’t see! She said, “Y called, “A Ruby: So he came out. The angels disappeared. Royal: smell of smoke. As the sisters’ lively and very female-centered session about Ruby: “It is better to be Royal: there. Listening on t a strong woman! father Royal: She loved him, did you see?… went against her Ruby: He was asked to go out of the country Royal: daughter . Even years before us, she went against her father And Hagar went with him. Y Abraham continued, the song text moved to story of That I don’t know .” es, she went away with him. vraham, 13 “Y . ape to Royal’ our God is the biggest God. Come out, come out.” That’ A A vraham, come up! strong woman she was. And then he saw s the story… . But even his clothes didn’t have the s praise of Nimrod’ A vraham’ Again their Kerala p And then he went away from Y s slave instead of your our God is….” ou put your hand on my A vraham walking. He s daughter . Barbara C. Johnson ast and the , I cannot . What 529 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 530 TAPASAM, January 2006 Serah Bat A song, the girl sings sweetly: old man, singing it to him in a song. Kerala from the front in W quoted by a Jewish soldier from Kochi named Ellis, writing back to members of her community a story about how the refrain was cleverly Serah Bat her role in singing the blessed news to Jacob. (10/22/96) all the listeners were expected to know — was granted eternal life for Serah bat Perhaps this is because it implicitly carries a blessing of long life from bless a bridegroom or bride child who is being circumcised. This short refrain migrates from song to song, as women use it p to tell their father Jacob that he is still alive and bring the elderly then sends his brothers back to the land of Canaan, instructing them his brothers at Pharaoh’ Righteous” (III-30), a narrative that culminates when Joseph meets seems to originate from the lengthy ballad called “Joseph short refrain that is found at the conclusion of many different songs. It of that song. a short song about song, and story that is often told the use Ruby Daniel’s Legacy in the story and act of narrating those event as “doubly anchored in human events” – the events that are recounted Multiple layers of songs and stories song in a letter home: avoid the censors and communicate his whereabouts by quoting and no one knew for sure where he was posted, until managed to event seen, Ruby Daniel’s commentaries deal not just with doubly anchored atriarch to him in Egypt. yisotte s but with multiple layers of stories and songs. T Joseph is alive and well in Egypt! Because of the dream he was praised. Efraim and Manasseh are with him. Joseph is alive and well in Egypt! One of the best-known elements in MJFS repertoire is a Folklorist Richard Bauman writes about narrative or storytelling (Ellis is alive and well in Egypt!) Ayissote Ellis, Misriluntu o add another layer to this fragment of a song about the Asher Asher Asher Y osef, Misriluntu , who is not even mentioned in the refrain, but – as , who gently broke the good news about Joseph to , I have heard from Ruby Daniel and several other s court in Egypt. orld W According to ar II. He was serving in the British 14 In the Malayalam song about this As in the Biblical story midrash s (1986:2). , it was a young girl, T ake for example As we have , Joseph Army further from the land of Kerala and Malayalam than did Benaya Benjamin when almost her entire community migrated to Israel – moving much role she was able to play in the project of saving MJFS from extinction woman. Indeed she was unique in many ways, not least the pivotal t her stories are “pervaded with the presence of … people death had connects Urmila with the people from whom she learned them – how Urmila Devi Sood. Narayan notes how the very telling of stories by another Indian woman, a Hindu from the Himalayan foothills named of the story Perhaps she was simply giving her own assessment of the meaning grandmother clear whether she was quoting her great uncle Benaya, or When Ruby Daniel concluded, “they know more than the men!” it wasn’t and for each [generation verse] one person.” about exactly which events were commemorated in the ten songs. song with ten verses called “the It’s a story about song ten songs, the Malayalam clapping was p often referred to in King Solomon’s “ten songs” about different Biblical personages are which includes a verse about Hannah HaNeviyah [the prophetess]. these were having a scholarly discussion and came to disagreement about learned men who traveled to India from the land of Israel. One day they Bombay before Ruby was born. There he kept a lodging house for ancestor Benaya Benjamin, her grandmother’s uncle, who moved to aken away assed down in Ruby Daniel’ At the beginning of this paper I called Ruby Daniel a remarkable Folklorist Kirin Narayan has written a book about the stories told these songs.... learned person? said “It is Hannah HaNeviyah.” They asked, “How uncle said “Let me ask my wife.” He called her and at once she Hannah or Dvorah]. They had to look into a book see. So my HaNeviyah, and these people didn’t know which [came first, So the sixth was Hannah and after comes Dvorah I There are ten songs,” Ruby pointed out to me. “T Ruby Daniel’s story about this song concerns a respected midrashic n conclusion, let me recount another multi-layered story that , but I think other voices can be heard in the telling. .” , who very likely told her the story about Benaya’ (1997:21) songs of King Solomon. midrashic And they know more than the men! And he explained how [the women] learned all literature, but the rabbis did not agree T en Songs of King Solomon” (III-1), s family from the mid-19 Barbara C. Johnson en generations (10/21/96) she th century such a s wife. 15 . 531 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 532 TAPASAM, January 2006 3 2 Ruby Daniel’s Legacy city of Bombay and his wife a century earlier when they left Fort Cochin for the bustling mythical world of Bible and through the intertextuality of their songs and stories that timeless aunties of Jewish families in all the communities Kerala. It was Cochin (who was also Benaya’s aunt) and the grandmothers grandmother and Benaya’s wife the great aunt in Fort generations of Kerala Jewish song experts and storytellers - her 4 6 5 1 Notes : Kerala’s multicultural folk literature. written text (represented here in footnotes), to become a living part of Rokem 2000 for discussion of folkloric elements in hosted one of these p Paradesi women and girls came to watch but didn’t dance. In fact they Hanukkah dance parties hosted by Kadavumbhagam women, where other For example, women of the Japheth/Daniel family participated in 1995:3,25,31, 174-5 for more on Rachel Japheth. use of an older style Malayalam script. See Daniel & Johnson Labeled BZM9, this notebook is notable not only for its age, but also Some as Kerala Jews and their songs (e.g. Jussay 1986), established a collected up to then. In addition writing a number of articles about the all those that the late Israeli anthropologist Shirley Isenberg and I had late 1970s and early 1980s. He also worked with multiple texts, including English who was actively involved in translating and analyzing MJFS the educated in Hebrew and Jewish communities throughout the world – until recently girls were not communities they were taught in separate classes, and most traditional In Kochi the boys and girls studied together P Israel. those remaining with the Hallegua family in Kochi, and other families away or sold with emigration to Israel, it would be helpful catalogue Y in Kerala, and there are early records of Hebrew books being brought from Sassoon’s in appreciating its well-educated Jewish women. literacy in general (Jeffrey 1992) should be considered an important factor the Bible, which were composed between 3rd and 12 on Biblical texts, including additional stories about people and events from Midrash .M. Jussay of Ernakulam is a retired newsp emen and T Ruby Daniel must also be seen as a representative of many almud, midrash is the Hebrew term for a vast compilation of rabbinic commentaries and some is collected edited in sep Ohel David . Amsterdam. is included in the collection of rabbinic writing known arties every year on Ruby Daniel’ (1932) lists many Hebrew books and texts collected Though many of the old books were lost, given midrash T orah at all. Kerala’ was set free from the pages of , whereas in other Kerala Jewish aper editor and professor of s long history of female arate books. See Hasan- midrash. s birthday th centuries,. . Hasan-Rokem, Galit Ginzberg, Louis Barbara C. Johnson Daniel, Ruby Bauman, Richard. Sources Cited 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 Ginzberg VI:10. Ginzberg II:1 midrash Here Ruby Daniel has Hagar speaking a version of the words attributed in Kerala may be able to shed light on this motif. not yet located a textual source. I hope that scholars of Muslim folklore in who gave her as a slave to Sarah or and the fire in furnace. In one version Nimrod gives Ginzberg (I,198-203,216-217;V Ginzberg I:280. Ginzberg I::337-378. indicates that Moshe actively broke the tablets. that they just slipped out of his hands. His summary the story (III: 129) about Moshe’s motivations in breaking them, but does not cite any argument story of the letters flying off tablets and indicates rabbinical speculation Ginzberg VI:54, n.279 identifies a number of midrashic sources for the in 1999, finalized consultation with Scaria Zacharia. (Johnson 2004:60-61) This translation is a more recent version of the one Ruby Daniel worked out Ginzberg II:270. is continually revised as more notebooks are discovered. cross-index for all the songs, creating framework an index which ( description of the sacred pool recalling her memory in Sanliurfa Turkey identical to that in the Malayalam song — is summarized a travel guide’s (Lowin, personal communication 1/24/06). sources which finds no mention of Nimrod’s daughter in the classical texts Eliezer Lowin 2003, an authorit http://www Hagar is identified in A story of Nimrod’ , but none mention Nimrod’ , and to her father the Egyptian Pharaoh. Ginzberg I:223. .guide-martine.com/southeastern2.asp#sanliurfa 15-1 16 2000. 1968. 1995. 1986. ative study on s daughter and Midrash Press. and Midrash. Web of Life: Folklore in Rabbinic Literature Publication Society Szold. 7 vols. Philadephia: The Jewish The Legends of the Jews Publication Society Remembers. Ruby of Cochin: An Indian Jewish Woman S NY Studies of Oral Narrative. tory ,212-213) gives many stories of : Cambridge University Press. , Performance, and Event: Contextual as the daughter of Egyptian Pharaoh, s daughter Abraham stories in Islamic and Jewish Abraham’ Abraham. Ginzberg I:223, V Philadelphia: The Jewish St anford: S . For Islamic versions see . . s trial by fire – though not , transl. Henrietta Cambridge and t anford University A Barbara C. Johnson vraham his slave ), but I have Abraham :231. 533 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 534 TAPASAM, January 2006 ..... Johnson, Barbara C. Jef Ruby Daniel’s Legacy Jussay Marvin, Lee-Ellen Lowin, Shari L. Narayan, Kirin, Ramanujan, with Urmila Devi Sood in collaboration Sassoon, Zacharia, Scaria David Solomon ed. and transl. Ophira Gamliel, Zacharia, Scaria and frey , Robin , P .M. A. K. 2005. 2004. 1986. 1992. 2003. 2002. 1997. 1991. 1932 2003. 2005 No. 18, Edwin Seroussi, ed. In “Afterword: The Songs and the Project”. Israel. Jewish Music Research Center Scaria Zacharia and Barbara C. Johnson. The notes. English translations of 42 songs by from Kerala. Oh Lovely Parrot: Jewish Women’s Songs T Women’s Songs in Malayalam with Hebrew Institute Press. O. Gamliel, ed. & transl. Jerusalem: Ben Zvi “The Song of Evarayi.” In Became ‘a Model’. Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala Thomas Once, T Ph.D.dissertation, Islamic and Jewish Exegetical Narratives The Making of a forefather: Abraham in The University of Pennsylvania. and Their Storytelling. Mondays on the Dark Night of Moon NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press. “T in Expressive T Press. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Korom and M. Mills,eds., pp. 33-55. University Press. Sassoon Library Hebrew and Samaritan Manuscripts in the Ohel David: Descriptive Catalogue of the T Women’s Songs in Malayalam with Hebrew Institute Press. O. Gamliel, ed. & transl. Jerusalem: Ben Zvi Judaic Studies, Malayalam Folksongs.” “Possibilities of Understanding Jewish Karkulali ranslations ranslations oward a Counter-System: W Gender Karkulali Anthology of Music wice, Thrice: Gujarati Immigrant A. Y , Genre, and Power in South

T efefiyah , pp. 224-225. S. Zacharia and , pp. 224-225. S. Zacharia and Y imberg. New raditions. efefiyah Selections, introduction and 6:29-47. , London

The University ofChicago. - London: Macmillan Press Gorgeous! : Jewish - Eds. Gorgeous! : Jewish Ph.D. dissertation, The Journal of Indo-

Y . London: Oxford T ork: Jews in India raditions in Israel A.

Advent Books. omen’ , Jerusalem, App adurai, F s T Asian , ed. ales” . s . . Cochin community reverence to a great spiritual leader derplay his role as miracle worker and instead reveal an attitude of beliefs, and feelings of the Cochini toward Namya Mott NAMY now that most of the Jews have dep Cochin is still considered a source of miracles by many Christians, the Jews, affix a cheap oil lamp to large gravestone. His grave in and written descriptions. The Syrian Christians, with the permission of Hindus and Christians” (Rabinowitz, 1952:125), according to both oral ered a source of miracles. revered in such a manner him, is the only past spiritual leader within community to be in India and Israel, Rav Nehemiah Motta, or Namya, as the Cochinis call pilgrimage to the grave of this revered man. month Kislev grave with a Hebrew inscription translated as follows: Marcia W This grave is described as “a mecca not only for Jews, but For the Malabar Cochin Jews twenty-fifth day of Hebrew May his soul rest in peace. the dear Rabbi and Sage God-fearing Nehemiah the son of The perfect sage, the Chassid and Shines throughout the country The influence of the light whose learning The famous cabbalists, Here rests the remains of In the old Jewish cemetery of Cochin is a large whitewashed Sunday Our Master departed this life on A MOTT , which also is the first day of Hanukkah, became a alerstein , the 25 , a th t saddik of Kislev A . His grave is the only place which consid- or righteous man. , 5736 (1615) Abraham Mott (L. Rabinowitz, 1952:126). , a mediator between God and the arted. An analysis of the customs, Among the Jews of Cochin a a, however , un- 535 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 536 TAPASAM, January 2006 Namya Motta with his life were conspicuous almost by their tot life of Namya Motta, that descriptions supernatural events associated noticed, while attempting to collect the oral traditions connected with revered, honored, remembered, and called upon for spiritual help, I Hassidic Jewish communities (Ben-Ami 1981, Ben-Jacob 1973, Deshen not unusual in India (Mandelbaum 1970:41 holy men and their graves as places sources of miracles are ritual and belief in Namya Motta as performed beliefs and relations, both in India Israel. and its validation in Jewish mysticism, (4) between interethnic rounding the power of grave, (3) between folk belief this type belief surrounding the individual, (2) between legend and sur- ships between various aspects of the cult: (1) legend and community expressed and continues to express the following relation- customs and belief which accompany it reveal how the Cochin ing already received benevolence. world in combating disease, increasing fertility other gifts to the community in order receive ‘help’ from spiritual popular custom which requires one to swear donate food, money and ceremony India by Malabar Jews before their immigration. My thesis is that this during the 1970s in comparison to patterns of such practices Malayalam, THE POPULAR IMAGE OF NAMY the supernatural. by parallel customs among neighboring ethnic groups which do stress ments attributed to him, on the other hand it is also being strengthened is considered a great and pious man without specific supernatural ele- while on the one hand customs continue precisely because Namya nity in Cochin, continues to have an important function within the commu- ing to their (Johnson 1985:184-5). It is Malabar Jews who claim Namya as belong- present period, to visit his grave, offer prayers, and tend the gravesite day although individuals, particularly women, are known even in the nity . Particularly in times of crisis. I see a p . Members of the Paradesi community do not celebrate his memorial Although narratives and rituals showed that Namya was is The name of Namya’s memorial ceremony ( In addition, this essay will explore persistence and change in The celebration of the memorial day for Namya Motta and Namya Motta is the patron saint of Malabar Jewish commu- , although diminishing in import jati neder , or communal division of the Cochin Jews. in Hebrew , or oath in English) implies that it is a A MOTT ance and simpler in ritual than aradox in the continuity that, 1-412), in Middle Eastern, or A , or in response for hav- al absence. moshavim choruda in Israel T ales of in supplications at his grave not they was the Christians who were most fervent believers in power of however asking that benevolence be shown to the child. It is important note, completely in white, with the inscription still intact. the researcher Barbara Johnson showed that it had been repainted whitewashed in white and blue. ently continues to be so. When I observed it in 1980, was neatly seem ‘cold’ winter when it was about 75 degrees F it is ‘cold’ all the time, summer or winter (although I was there in who tried to construct was struck down and died (interview 10.27.75). attempt was made to destroy the cemetery and build there, anyone including one for the period of blowing (1970 4:452) attributes six of the hymns in Cochin liturgy to Motta, name are used as the first letters of each line hymn. Davidson common acrostic style of signature, in which the letters author’s ca. 1960). Motta’s authorship of these prayers is evidenced by the communities include in their service and have been reprinted (Y have attributed to him certain additional High Holiday prayers which the (interview 10.16.84). Other informants have been more specific and community book they call ‘kolas’. In fact, according to one member of the White poet, and the author of many hymns Cochinis sing in their mants described Namya Motta to me mainly as a great rabbi, religious element. Rather than stressing his miraculous nature, Cochini infor- desecrate the site have related to me more graphically what happens those who dare dares touch Rav Namya Motta’s grave. Members of the community ish and Indian sources. Ben Eliahu, for example, claims that no one more characteristic of folk narratives and beliefs found in other Jew- drunk, however lyzed in that position and died (see also Johnson 1985:214). He was 344).[1] miracles attributed to the graves of holy rabbis (see Ben-Ami 1981:283- 1974, V the High Holidays (Davidson 3:245). However oinot 1948). Particularly in Morocco, legends abound about , that almost all the Jews I spoke to hastened mention it Another custom was to pray Namya after the birth of a child, The most common description of the power grave is that Legends of power emanating from Mott , the term ‘kolas’ to me at all). It was, however , the other informant , few legends of Mott – one man bent down near the grave and was para- was given to the songs by Mott A slide shown to me a few years later by . s assured me. Similarly a’ . out s life cont , carefully tended, and app side, and the grave did not shofar a’ s grave, however ain any supernatural (ram’s horn) during Marcia Walerstein , when an a himself ehoshua , are ar- 537 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 538 TAPASAM, January 2006 in quantities of twenty-one, such as twenty-one pieces chicken or the some food, and others who had also made an oath would supply food who had made an oath on Namya’s name would supply the place and home in the settlement of gins on this date. The first ceremony I attended was held in a private about special customs for the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah, which be- fif THE RITUAL CHORUDA IN ISRAEL AND INDIA LEGENDS ON THE LIFE OF NAMY Namya Motta the following legend: descendants (interview 10.12.74). The lack of progeny is justified through t V Mott Motta passed much of his life in Parur where wife had resided. Once Another informant from Parur related that he had been told Namya other legends about Namya Motta’s life have supernatural elements. another instantaneously (Johnson 1985:214: interview 10.27.75). No (interview 1.27.75).[2] or forty-five at the time of his death; none refuted this legend, however on Rosh Hashanah and that were attributed to him. These included the additional prayers used at night. It was during this period in jail that he wrote many of the hymns larger versions of by the narrator of these incidents since they had not been included in aught at Ernakulam, and married a woman from Parur arious members listening argued whether Namya’ th of the Hebrew month Kislev a was jailed for some minor infringement of the law {Patai 1983:65}) his wife had not prepared herself at the belief, the holiest and most meritorious time for martial relations (though the period of Sabbath eve is according to kabbalistic the area, sometimes for a day Namya Motta was a great genius, who travelled far throughout he died at an early age. {ritual bath}. So the relations did not take place. Shortly after this fulfill the pectedly on Sabbath eve. When he returned did not want to ried, but one time he came back just before the Sabbath, unex- The memorial day for Namya Motta, as stated, is the twenty- According to one source, Namya came from another country Namya was also reputed to be able get from one place mitsvah kolas printed in Israel (Y or deed of having sexual relations with his wife, Y om Kippur T a’oz in 1974. It was explained to me that one . I discovered this custom by asking , and which were privately printed , sometimes longer A MOTT ehoshua, ca . 1960). A s age was thirty-five , but was let out . He was mar- , but had no mikveh , rice and coconut juice pancakes, wavering between heaven and earth). when it is believed that the soul still has not yet been judged and rial of one who recently died, given during the seven mourning days me this was “incorrect” as a custom dead, was on the t his memory in home ceremonies. Rav Namyah was blessed with a special prayer man‘ ( women st in the synagogue, instead of a home. 1973, so many members wanted child received a blessing in the name of Namya Mott sures the donor having fulfilled his duty choruda or oath. Partaking of the food one who makes an oath, en- food from those who had brought it, as this was part of the concept distributed. Everyone was expected to partake of at least one item alcoholic beverages, which are common at Cochini ceremonies, were t the village whose grandson, a young boy of six or seven was congeni- at Nevatim, was similar except that it given by one of the eldest in death and the memorial day in this manner he died, asked the people not to be sad, and so they celebrated his sing songs believed to have been written by Motta. I was told that when Deshen and Shokeid 1974) who have exhibit a psychic, social or reli- private homes. Unlike the Moroccan immigrants (see Ben-Ami 1981; In Parur pated (although the Jewish community barely numbered two thousand). grimages to the grave in Cochin, where I was told ‘thousands’ partici- only part of what occurred there, since in Israel there could be no pil- entail taking time off from work. afternoon, and for those who worked outside the settlement it would over-forty generation who attended. The ceremony was held in the early was visited by younger members, although for the most part it another ceremony took place in house the settlement, which preceding year ally ill. tov After the blessing, In the event I observed, men were in main room, while Hymns were sung, although the celebrants told me they did not In comparison to the ritual in Cochin, these home rituals were Another memorial ceremony Again, people brought food in set , the event was held in courtyard of synagogue, not

ayed in the back room and ate later shem . This is the general memorial Jewish prayer for a ‘great , which was two months af ). A able; (however glass of sugar water kalapomb to participate in the rite that it was held , another leader of the community told kalapomb (rice pancakes), chicken and strong , which I attended a few years later – sugar water was for the memo- . s of twenty-one pieces and the , which I was told for the . I was also told that on the ter the . , as was the usual custom Y a. om Kippur W At the same time, Marcia Walerstein ar in 539 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 540 TAPASAM, January 2006 in North stood as messages from a holy man are typical of the validation system before. [4] relatively young and according to her had never made such an oath It is noteworthy that the one who hosted ceremony at his home was died out: continued the memorial for some time in their settlement but then it had Parur and in her moshav Israel. She related that Israel they had supernatural in his narration), I asked how they celebrated day me of the legend Namya’s stay in jail (which had no element to me, as having occurred in 1981. community wards life, there are presently other cultural actors which influence the related to their transition a so-called modern, rational approach to- their reluctance in the past to discuss belief miracles may be reputed grave of Shimon Bar The Cochini usually do not participate in the pilgrimage to Meron, gration, but I have not heard this matter seriously discussed by others. former emissaries from Israel who helped arrange their Cochini immi- grave to the Holy Land. This attempt was also attributed one of writer and publisher Ben Eliahu has made an appeal to bring Namya’s place in Israel to the grave Cochin as a pilgrimage destination. The destinations in Israel, the gious ‘need’ to replace their pilgrimages graves in Morocco with new Namya Motta they do perform a memorial oath ritual in their own community that night. thousands on the holiday of Lag B’omer has had some influence on the Cochini communities, however can immigrant communities in Israel the mid-seventies and eighties Motifs such as an old man with a white beard and dreams under- ceremony or something bad would happen (interview 2.18.1982). settlement to ask who he was. So we felt had do this heard of Nehemiah Motta”, the rabbi said, so he came to this He asked why the people here don’t honor him? “In my life I never long white beard came to him and said he was Nehemia Motta. to us and said he had a dream. In the dream man with Then, however While interviewing the wife of informant from Parur who told The revival cult of cans from the Berber speaking High {from a neighboring settlement which is inhabited my Moroc- African Jewish folk belief (Ben-Ami 1981: 283). Since the two . This is evident by the following episode which was narrated , something happened. hilullot Cochini have not developed an alternative Y which was happening all over Moroc- ochai which usually attract , which they call ‘Lag’. However Atlas Mount That year the local rabbi ain region} came s tens of . Although , Y Italian derivative, I was also informed that there were Motta families in T by informants that he was from Babylonia, the Land of Israel (Palestine), according to the thesaurus of Hebrew hymns (Davidson 1970 4:452). name Nehemiah, son of he came from some other country greatness of his life and to the supernatural element. Legends claim seventeenth centuries), the element of strangeness adds to Judaism (which the above communities were in sixteenth and described as a kabbalist, would be from one of the larger centers name in Cochin among the Malabari Jews. common name for Jews from the Iraqi region, and a very and some informant is no mention of his birthplace, yet one author (Rabinowitz 1952:126) according to a local tradition, the IN NAMY have noted that the hero comes as a stranger characteristics of legendary heroes (Raglan 1956). Raglan and others Narrations as T exile. Nehemiah and Ezra because they did not return to Zion after the first ANAL not have their own rabbi certified by the Israel religious authorities. the High beliefs of their neighbors, regardless the latter’s status. People from and more successful (h less western than the Cochini. The Cochini are seen as more educated and of powerful Israeli influence of modernism and rationalism on one hand, plify the manner in which Cochini are influenced not only by a feeling of guilt in those who did not continue the rituals. narration validated the belief in power of these holy men and left is highly questionable that he had never heard of Nehemiah Motta. This would have had occasion to visit the Cochini settlement frequently communities had been neighbors for over twenty years and the rabbi urkey and Morocco. emen. YSIS OF THE CONTINUING ROLE HONOR Therefore, they do not use these names. Conversely ficial Rabbinic orthodoxy on the other The surname Nehemiah is very rare in Although it is quite probable that a rabbi-poet, particularly one The legends about Namya Motta reveal certain universal This narration and the revitalization of a dying custom, exem- Atlas Mount A MOTT raditional Legendary Configurations A s claimed that he was from ains of Morocco are generally less educated and AMONG COCHINI JEWS IN ISRAEL Although the name, Mott a -Sachnut h Abraham only in the Cochin Hymn books, Y emenites were cursed by the prophet , but his poetry is printed under the a -Y ehudit 1984) however , but also by the popular a, may have a S . On Mott Y emen. I was also told Y emen, however; a’ Marcia Walerstein AND BELIEF s grave there p , they do anish or , it is a , it s 541 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 542 TAPASAM, January 2006 within cert of intercourse with his wife on Sabbath eve should be understood of the death Namya as a result not performing commandment redemption and this is like a wedding or concept of a holy man’s memorial brings on the emergence Jewish Mystical Beliefs: Their Relation to Legend Namya Motta of Judaism. and the abstract God offers a respite from more stringent aspects individual in time of stress. The belief a mediator between this world reducing. The people who participate in the ritual offer support to ever revealed anyone who claimed him as an ancestor the family name “Motta” in Cochin, nor have known records or interviews explanation for the seeming lack of progeny this rabbi. No one has lization for Motta’s untimely death. to have dire consequences. This belief then, could provide a rationa- 1983:65). and Matronite, which gives birth to angels human souls (Patai night, this, it was taught, brings about a joyous union between the King a great deed. at midnight, or on Sabbath eve, when, it was explained, is considered king and Matronite have a marriage which is consummated every night incest,” (Patai 1983:64). Matronite symbolizes the people of Israel. The have kabbalistic interpret wedding festivity (Deshen 1974:96), and the tale of Motta’s death may sister marriage between the king Metatron and Matronite who was his 67), the prepare the through illness in the family are anxiety-reducing to the community functionalist thesis of Malinowsky (1948 71-71, 79-82) that such rituals Anxiety-Enhancing The Memorial as Anxiety-Reducing or of the sexual commandment. progeny of this great man may be “explained” by legend violation . This is not an incestuous union, since “up above there no Both the concept of a memorial Another interpretation of this legend is that it offered an Thus, the omission of such a custom could indeed be believed When the pious of Israel copulate with their wives on Friday The occurrence of these memorial celebrations supports the Zohar ain Jewish mystical concept choruda According to the , or kabbalistic Book of S (oath), it would seem that the ritual is anxiety- ations. , anxiety over sons in the army Zohar According to Deshen, the kabbalistic , . Since it is those who are troubled s. According to R. Pat hillulah plendor expresses a mythic hillulah , which actually means . Similarly the legend . ai (1983:64- The lack of , etc., who visitors to the reputed grave of Shimon Bar the holiday of Lag Ba’omer annually draws about one hundred thousand North common in the Jewish environment Middle East, particularly Interethnic Support of the Belief consequences if the ritual were not carried out. to be the author of name of Shimon Bar week.[4] They may also make an oath annually at Lag Ba’omer in the havdalah prophet. Elijah the prophet is called upon to usher in week at an oath which is enacted on Saturday night in the name of Elijah tradition. The Cochinis, like many other Jewish groups, also may make Performing an Oath nature. believed this blessing passes through the food. any supernatural aid. Eating is a way of intaking the blessing; it person who made his vow cannot fulfill it, and therefore may not get that food, in a form of “communitas” (Turner 1974:201). Otherwise the distribute food, and thus is obligatory for the participants to partake of performances of these customs, so that conversely frequent war years in Israel. Cross-cultural contact also influenced the performed, the practice gains support in times of stress, such as tradition – there were years when I could not find the ritual being is, however of the dead which is unusual, but low-keyed tone event. This their parallel custom. Within this context. It is not the belief in powers eighties, the Moroccan Jews were encouraging Cochinis to continue buttress the ritual and belief. In Israel, by late seventies early related in Cochin, the Christians and other religious groups helped iconographic sites are also common (Mandelbaum 1982:228). which is inherent in the custom of that it should be performed. These narratives reflect the concept of duty Cochini settlement’s Moroccan rabbi neighbor offered a strong hint that it would be detrimental if the ritual were not performed after one consequences to those who desecrated his grave, and the statement This thesis is supported by an examination of both the legends dire performance or respect given to the holy man was anxiety-enhancing. Africa, and also among Hassidim in Europe. Near Safed, Israel, Belief in miraculous powers from the grave of a holy man was The concept of an oath, Although the general trend seems to show a lapse in this ceremony which divides the Sabbath from rest of , characteristic of the Cochini’ Y Zohar ochai. In each case a promise is made to . In India, pilgrimages to holy graves and neder choruda , is not unusual in Jewish folk Y ochai, erroneously believed s general quiet, reserved , and the fear of negative , the lack of it Marcia Walerstein s ritual As 543 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 544 TAPASAM, January 2006 the individuals and community partaking in it. many other communal customs, provide immediate, local comfort for Eliahu 1978). grave found on a small pamphlet about the synagogues of India (Ben and Simchat primarily designed for outsiders grated into the more reflexive ceremonies of Cochin community seventies (Ben-Ami 1981). The memorial customs were also not inte- one for object Namya Motta considered lucky numbers. ‘lucky’ (EJ 1971:7, vi, 369-372). interpreting Hebrew words according to the numerical value of its letters explanation of the number in terms gematria or Jewish custom 1926:81). In addition, one of the Cochini spiritual leaders gave me an restricted solely to the Jews in area of Cochin. are distributed to priest in India.[5] In a Syrian Christian wedding were evident in the Moroccan for synagogues or community buildings, although both these patterns in the community; nor did it become focus of a fund-raising event a focus of continuing artistic creativity in the form music, poetry conservative or even static. I did not notice that this ceremony became herit poet and a learned man, they validate their own religious cultural honoring one of their own, and remembering him as a great religious The Memorial as an Ethnic cultural event Ernakulam residing in Israel to be their rabbi.[6] ever gives the number twenty-one significant spiritual meaning, was, how- I will be) (Exodus 3:14). This emic explanation through gematria, which for a sign. The reply from God is Ehyeh asher (I will be that which answer God gives to Moses from the burning bush, when asks saved from troubles”. This future form of the verb “to be” is used in men of the community explained to me that this word meant “Y ern Hebrew this simply means, “I will be”, one of the traditionally learned , of age. In Israel, however number fered to me only by the one person considered people of The legends and rituals surrounding Namya Motta, like so A significant marker in the ceremony is use of sum twenty- T The older generation of Cochini are highly orthodox Jews. By wenty-one or even forty-two are common symbolic numbers T s distributed. , made up of multiples seven and three, both traditionally orah. The only exception to this is a print of photo the T s by the bridegroom (Anant wenty-one in Hebrew is Ehyeh. While Mod- , the event seems to be relatively culturally T wenty-one may be seen as simply a large App hilullot arently the use of twenty-one is not – as were elements of the wedding revivals I witnessed in the early T wenty-one pieces of bread In Cochin this akrishna ou will be A , etc., ritual yyar – 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Notes place of Cochin. of communal life and cultural patterns in their distant former dwelling symbols now reflect the memories of Cochini’s own local traditions vidual in a manner similar to the way it did India, but cultural Jews still use. In Israel the ceremony continues to function for indi- heavenly world, but who also left them a cultural legacy the Malabar the kabbalistic teachings of a holy man believed to have powers in symbolized their connections with the Jewish world beyond seas, mate forgiveness on the holiday Hoshana Rabba. There is a midrash or legendary explanation concerning the custom of ulti- I thank M. Helstien for this information. generation from Israel (W residing in the Konkon and Bombay areas of India this has continued Elijah the Prophet has a special cultural configuration to Bene Israel Jews letters which add up to twenty-one. that God said, “One of many names is Ehyeh, the numerical value about the narration. When I was in Cochin, asked the head of Cochin Jewish community since it was published in a book by the then Chief Rabbi of South was only an impotent hermaphrodite. identify Joffe’s wife, stating she knew of marks on his body which only a wife could legends of interdictions to those who violated the sacred space grave informants hearing me speak at a community event which I related the The something ‘bad’ that would happen, it turned out, was based on my (this interpretation was offered to me by Prof. David Shulman). reflects an Indian concept of a hermaphrodite as whole, complete person he offered no information as to its meaning. It is possible that the legend sexual aspect around the turn of twentieth century (1952:128) about a memorable Polish rabbi named Joffe who came to Cochin It is noteworthy to compare this with another legend printed by Rabinowitz 74). Moroccan (Jewish) holy men, under the direction of Prof. I. Ben-Ami (1973- pating in the Israel Folklore Research Project on ritual and belief of This evaluation is also based on observations during the period I was partici- Why was that promise given p This legend seemed somewhat incongruous and puzzling, even more . He was willing to be examined, at which time they discovered he eil 1977). s of his life. Adam. I will designate the twenty-first day of month This configuration did not exist in Cochin, however Although he claimed that had narrated it to Rabinowitz, According to Rabinowitz, a woman claimed be articularly to Y ou, . This legend also deals with the Abraham are the twenty-first Abraham: The rabbis reply Marcia Walerstein Africa. . . 545 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 546 TAPASAM, January 2006 Davidson, Israel. Mandelbaum, David. Malinowsky Chill, abraham. Johnson, Barbara Cottle. Moshe Shokeid. Deshen, shlomo,and 1974. Ben Anant Bibliography Ben Eliahu, Eliya. Namya Motta Ami, Issachar given by the traditional elder twenty-one objects, it is, I believe, relevant to understanding the explanation Y T akrishna eshua 1 ishri as a day of forgiveness (from Sefer ha While this midrash may seem irrelevant to explaining the custom of , Brownislaw 12, quoted in Chill 1967:234-235). A yyar (Iyer), L. K. 1926 . . . 1970 1970 1980 1985 1948 1978 1981 The Minhagim: Customs and of reshit tekufat ha-haskalah zeman hatimat kitve (reprint). Jewish University of California Press. Society in India University of Massachusett Hermon Press. and Rationale Ceremonies of Judaism. Their Origin Israel.” PhD diss. Dept. of Cochin Paradesi Jews in India and “‘Our Community’ Essays Magic, Science and Religion, Other Mass. New Jerusalem: Rav Kook Institute. (Hebrew). bebavel Abraham. 1973. Israel: Eliahu Publications. Ben-Jacob, The Synagogues of India Cornell University Press. African Immigrants in Israel The Cultural and Social Life of North The Predicament of Homecoming: I. and Islam Moroccan Jews.” In “Folk V Jerusalem: Magnes Press. Ernakulam: Cochin Government Press. Anthropology of the Syrian Christians Ben

Medieval Hebrew Poetry). New Y Ami and Norman S ork: Kt eneration of saint . Boston: Beacon Press. Theological Seminary (Holy Graves in Babylonia). Ozar ha-shira veha-piyut mi- , edited by shlomo Morag, T od’a’ah: V av . New . 2 vols. Berkeley: . Kevarim kedoshim in T Studies in Judaism

Y ol. 1:121, Minhage hakodesh ‘ad wo W ork: Sepher- tillman, 283-344. . Kiryat Mozkin, s among the Anthropology . (Thesaurus orlds: s, . Ithaca: , Amherst., 1924-1933. The Y ork: . , Y Mandelbaum, David. Raglan, Lord. Rabinowitz, Louis. Patai, Raphael. V Weil, Shalva. T ehoshua, Elyas, comp. urner oinot, L. , V ictor . 1948 1960 1981 1956 1952 1983 1974 1977 Maroc Pèlerinages Judèo-musulmans du n.p.: E. Particularly for the Parur Synagogue). Cochin S Le-Y Drama T of Cochin in Inda and Israel.” In “A Case History of Judaism. The Jews The Hero: Press. Far East Mission University Press. On Jewish Folklore Judah Magnes Museom. Mishael Caspi. 21 Cornell University Press. Dramas, Fields and Metaphors Sussex. England. and Ethnic Identity a S “Bene Israel Indian Jews in Lod, Israel: radition in the Diaspora tudy of the Persistence Ethnicity amim Nora’im . Paris: Larose. . New Y tyle for the High Holidays, ehoshua, A S Y tudy in T ork: V . Johannesburg: Eagle 1- .” Phd diss. U. of . (Prayers in the . Detroit: Wayne n.d. (Hebrew). 230. Berkeley: int radition, Myth and age. Marcia Walerstein , edited by . Ithaca: Jewish 547 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

548 TAPASAM, January 2006

2005:97-98). K concerning the bestowing blessings upon the bridal couple. The secondary literature engagement ceremony, a design for warding off the evil eye and had there not been found in notebook B9 the songs to be sung during occasion. Sometimes a title would specify this or that song as marks the ending of each verse most Vigil Night songs. marker inherent in the songs themselves; word listed in B9, with some variation selection. There is also a textual order of songs in some notebooks, which contain most the the event on pages 80-81. The list corresponds more or less to Sunday, that is two days before the wedding itself, a celebration called as in S14, B9, S11, B11, B30 and T1. None of these is from the Parade In many of the notebooks, songs appear in one running sequence, Parade for the event itself. There are some differences in customs of two weeks, during which several rituals were designed in preparation Ophira Gamliel The Vigil Night Songs the Parade Malabari custom to celebrate the wedding on Tuesday as opposed custom. Some Vigil Night songs do appear occasionally in Parade community, and understandably so, as the Vigil Night is a Malabari them as a tool in my efforts to textualize and make sense of the songs. notebooks, apparently for other performative functions, and I was using

a ppu R It would have been difficult to identify the Vigil Night songs, Kerala Jews used to celebrate weddings in a grand manner for s

i and Malabari Jews (Jussay, 2005:93-104). For example, the

a tri s is celebrating it on Sunday. The Malabaris would have , “The Vigil Night” (Walerstein, 1987:99-100; Jussay, 1

I believe that the Vigil Night is an elaboration upon

K

a

ppu R

a tri is rather limited, 3 a list of songs to be sung for 2

so I shall mainly discuss

k

a6 K

a avv

ppu R f , 4

“Behold!”

a tri song. s s

i i

song: (1) Narrative contents, mainly concerned with events regarding varies from five to ten. There are at least three content layers in this a exclusive categories. shifters peculiar to Malayalam such as honorifics and inclusive/ essential for a more comprehensive research. use them in a limited way and for definite aims. They are nevertheless parameters only as far it concerns the present discussion, I shall relation to each other. Let me emphasize that the latter are minor themselves, as is indeed evident upon examining the variants and their for the outsider researcher but also transcribers of notebooks for making a sense out of ostensibly mere chain syllables, not only different variants, and a general sense of deciphering process required phrases), internal glossing and editing represented by in the Malayalam words, Tamilisims, archaisms, obscure forms or (f.i. metre, rhyme, alliteration), lexemes Hebrew words, Ancient layer shift. There are some minor parameters such as poetical effects sometimes a linguistic marker would be the only hint for content- invocational and dramatic respectively. reported direct speech of a character, which would then be defined as layer defined as narratival, opposed to, say, an invocation to God, or lines or a verse spell out narrative unit, these might form content song or verse very difficult to understand. When, for example, a few involving different content layers, intertwined so as to render a specific defining “content layers”. Many songs have a complex thematic structure tense), first and second person pronouns ( functions such as deictics (f.i. below. One is the presence of linguistic markers betraying performative the analysis and consequent hypothesis, which I wish to present introduce two major points of reference, or parameters, essential for verses that might contribute to understanding of the Vigil Night. I shall set aside this issue for the time being in favor of reading selected selection of and giving titles to songs is interesting important, yet The relationship between the notebooks in matters of sequence,

nn u ), certain modus and tense categories (f.i. the imperative, present The first song The two parameters presented above are intimately related, as Before turning to some readings and analysis, I would like 6 5 in the Vigil Night is II-61.

The second parameter is based on isolating and i

,

i

nn u

), tempo-spatial adverbs (f.i.

ñ

a n

, n 7

The number of verses am

,

ni

nn

a l Ophira Gamliel

) and other

ippo l , 549 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

550 TAPASAM, January 2006

k ve a4 For gathering in perfect beauty. Behold! marked by the form The last line is a reference to the immediate context (3), which Attentively we should all do it, Separately we should all know it. both repeated twice in 2b-2c: religious duties, here defined as a4 Let us look at the third verse, which is relatively tangible: extent also by the purposive infinitive form The injunctional content layer (2) is marked by the polite imperative Others are said to be “don’ts”. Some of these are “do’s”, These six hundred and thirteen is the work. with the following injunctional: A gnomic statement in 1c-2a correlates the narrative content layer The wondrous God descended. Rivers, oceans and mountains shook. represented by the past tense markers: Mount Sinai ( event in the life of Jewish nation; receiving Torah on The narrative content layer (1) is a capsule condensed form of founding the performance (e.g. pre-wedding festivity called in regard of the Jewish law. (3) Reference to immediate context the Jewish nation (such as Biblical allusions). (2) Injunctions to any Jew The Vigil Night Songs

u4

un u

4

e cilat u

m i

tt

u44

ka

k

u n

q6ta

i patim

t

a alu

m itu cc

6t

lu

m

u cc

m

matan torah

malaka u

and the first person plural inclusive pronoun

nn u

f

f yyalla

ytatu kk

k

ll

a6

l ava vel

kulu

avv

f nn

). This is inferred by the reference to 613

q6ta f

nn

, “Behold!”, at the end, and to some x a

9 /c/ i /a/

/a/

lu

atin

ve

m

albhutam imbatti k

/c/

4 vela

i

tt a k

y cilat u ku

ut u n

, “work”. The narrative is

uv

44

a

m it

ñ a c am a

a

n 4 f

a

iññu k

y oru

ytu k

ut

, “for gathering”: yan

6t

a

t

uv

10 u

f4

a

q6ta

n k

q6ta a

nn

a6

lu

K

i

lu

//b//

avv a m

8

ppu R m

//d//1

f n //b//

//d//2

am a

, tri

).

m ann u R f q Note the poetic qualities of this verse, present also in other And join in goodness without leaving. Behold! Be fixed in harmony called “Rest” For pious people to gather together, non-finite verb forms: by the purposive infinitive sealing it, which in turn governs a chain of 2b-d form one syntactical unit subordinated to the previous statement That day is of eating, drinking and praising, 2a is again a gnomic statement of expositional injunctional character: By making one substance [He] did many. concluding manner, thus condensing Genesis 1 into two metrical lines: 1d shifts back to the narrative content layer (1), in a somewhat [He] said: “that small virtue is good for me.” on the repeated formula in Genesis 1, “God saw it was good”: 1c frames a dramatic content layer (4), which seems to be paraphrase The One did the required work, world. From one till the sixth day 1a and 1b frame the narratival content layer (1): ( speech marked by a verb ( There is though an addition of dramatic content layer (4) that reported intertwined content layers similar to those in the third verse above. verse is also structured according to a Dravidian metre scheme. phoneme, and there is a second syllable rhyme in all four lines. The

f

nnu kuññu

nne mutal

a nnikk

f

tri nnuko

songs: the first and second halves of each line begin with same

llq

x ru tinnu Let us have a look also at the fifth verse of II-16, which displays ):

14

f

a

nnu pp m

yik

gu

x

m

6

a4

ku

a

q

m un

runnal

t

nallat

iyu

al

o

m

l

a

stutiyu

q4 m

f

nnikk

iccu /a/

f

nnu

q

/c/

m

nn a k a a al

x

6t nn

ut ) and first person singular pronoun

aru palar /c/ /a/

pok

a uv

u c

m nn

ayimbu

f

a

c ka k

f a n k u ve

t f yy

f

ytu

nayimayil

a6

a a

6t

l palat q ryam

avv 13

tta k

44 u k

//b//

am

f a

//d//2

ut ryam

a

kki i //b// 15 //d//1 12

Ophira Gamliel K

11

a ppu 551 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

552 TAPASAM, January 2006

m m Sky, water and all the directions - changelessly [He] had created them. Reading B: With so much of pride and fear unaltered, [it] has been composed. Reading A: u6 marked by a polite imperative (non-finite + verse appearing only in S14, S11, and T1), the invitation is plainly alluded to in 2a. By the time we reach last line of song (tenth invitation for the “pious people” gathered to stay and enjoy feasting Reading B: Reading A: song, which appear as two different reconstructed readings. transcribing the songs. A good example is first two lines of were struggling to produce intelligible lines during the process of it is apparent that the transcribers, and indeed performers as well, speculated contextual meaning. Upon comparing the different variants, scholar who faces the need to textualize such songs according possible complementation of subject and object. It is not only the modern interpretations of the verb results in two different readings, which depend on possible multi-layered thematic structure. Comparison of the different variants good example for the “liquid” state of whole song, owing to the first, and problematic, verse. The first two lines of this verse are a Please get into the dining room and be seated there. negative participle verse. There is also some semantic evidence for that conveyed by the with the infinitive of purpose and form from content layer (1) narratival to (3) immediate context, faintly marked verses, as the third exemplified above, that we might sense progress content layer (3) of immediate context. It is on basis the previous 2a-d has no clear linguistic marker to support the claim that it frames The Vigil Night Songs

a a

a

navu navu

4

ayil kk

m m

Before we turn to the next song in sequence, let us examine

bhayyavu mayyavu

q6t

a poyi irinnu k

m

m

pok

dikk u

mikk

a

t

camakkuka f

17

ll

, “without going”, which suggests an

u qlla

at

ll

f at

vu

ll

am

f ccamapputu ccamapputu

.

ll am

, and subsequently on different /a/

/a/

m

a4a k

m

k

a6

qllam

a4a

t

avv

f m m

ka

t

c c

f

f

ka f f 6t ):

sealing the whole

ytu ytu 16

u 6t

//b//1 //b//1 u

18

mayya bh of it is indeed tempting to embrace reading B, we have yet look into the to creation, it is the subject that governs negative participle. Though performance). On the other hand, if we take this two line unit as alluding in the attempt to produce a good literary composition (and successful back to the list of emotions, accompanying poet (and performers) subsequently each performer thereof), the negative participle must refer interpret the two lines unit; if we take subject to be poet (and noun list preceding it or to the subject, depending on way we of / direction). The negative participle the past tense does give more weight to latter. markers that might help us to judge in favor of reading A or B, though the two different ways given above. In this case, we have no linguistic are taken into account, the nouns listed in first line might be read to start a wedding song by referring creation? Once these two options event in the world’s history, i.e. creation. Isn’t it an auspicious way would then render the line fitting into content layer (1), a founding 2005:120), and so the completion of a subject might be God, He, which might also mean “creating the world” in Jewish Malayalam (Jussay, for example a literary composition, as in from an alliteration pattern of repeated labials by giving and fitting for the song as a whole. Reading B, though, slightly deviates to the translation. The result is two different content layers, both possible of a subject hidden beneath the context surface, and added in brackets of the syntactic relations nouns and verbs, as well completion slightly altered in reading B. This change affects both the understanding while 1a, listing the nouns as direct objects for following verbs, is fluidity of their meaning - suits the metre as well alliteration scheme, and this enables song as a whole. The lexical items listed in the first line of each reading readings are a result of the interwoven content layers governing be of the poet and composition respectively. However, of metapoetic statement, and the completion subject object might sense the above verse might refer to context content layer (3) in way

bikku a gavatam

The meaning of the verb As is evident, 1b in Malayalam the same both readings, m

or

(fear / mikku

, “Vedavy mayyim . a san has composed the Bh , 21

Hebrew for “water”),

m

a

na

camakkuka m

/

v m

a

a4a na

m

t

is generally “to prepare”,

veda-vy f (pride / sky), might refer either to the

20 mikk a These two different

gavatam”.

a san … camaccu

/

dikk

dikku

camakkuka Ophira Gamliel bhaya (so much 19 instead

In this m / 553 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

554 TAPASAM, January 2006

appanm tapp ippa tu eppo represented by frame for the text, that is asking God to protect bride, deictically ippa usual address to God in all Indian languages), Next comes a series of imperatives in the familiar form (which is (3) of the Vigil Night: with linguistic markers directed at the immediate context, content layer I take it as an integral part of the series. This one single verse is abundant III-52. of one single verse, and is taken in some notebooks as a prologue for relevant of the two. Joseph [He] did thus unfailingly according to the scriptures. one”, i.e. Joseph (whose story is about to unfold in the following verses): think it has a kind of representational function marked by the adverb exactly narratival, and not directed to the immediate context. I (3), the immediate context. the familiar imperative form and intimately connected to content layer encounter a new content layer (5) of invocational character marked by immediate situation is referred to by the temporal adverb, The first word leaves no room for any other interpretation; the Protecting her when she is alone. Always help this very girl, Listen delightfully and remember! Now it is done, once and for all. next The Vigil Night Songs

6

aya

t llf a

K

8 i

t um , “in this manner”, and by the mention of

The next song we shall read, IV-16, is not listed in B9. It consists With the next line, we move on to another content layer, not f

a , “listen and be attentive” “help”, which set a functional c 22 27

c

ppu

a Since it is marked by himself had acquired dexterity. f

a r m

i ytat

ttrattil maka

R

u

v

q a

f tri rikkale u

i

l ru

, “this”, and emphasized by 23 tanne tu

song, to see that reading A

ippa

m

c

f

t ytu savv

i cc

ll

u 6

ay /a/ f

ytu

a

imbam

k

/c/

q a6

/a/

t

ek

a avv

/c/

s

a

a

nta-nerattu k

f

tikkiyu aru a

as the other Vigil Night songs,

y ke

la

tt

l

f

u ku

m

tann a

ke might still be the more

kka

tanna camatt

s

tt

a

4

u ku tikki ikk

m f a

, “itself”. Thus we

valu

p

k tannu k

ql

26 f

4

a6 q6t

, “the righteous

r

ik v

25

m

q

avv

ql

ippo

u r f

ll

v //d//1 //b// a

f q

ka

am

a

//d//2 r

y l , “now”.

//b//

24 a ka

and

ka u f q6t the protagonist of III-52, and phrase of its invocational content layer (5), the fleeting reference to Joseph, I believe that this verse is a prologue for the next song, III-52 because By [Your] blessing all are contented. The three fathers habitual tense. marked as relating to the immediate content layer (3) by future/ the hearers/spectators to performance about take place. 1a-d is prelude teasing the audience by describing different reactions of linguistic markers to allow examination and analysis. I take it as a This whole verse is not too clear, but it certainly contains enough Everyone is watching the play. Behold! “What can I do all alone? [They] have [all] joined together.” [Joseph] came with nothing, and got it all. That they got that day having sold [Joseph]. Some will only think of the cash money Some might pay attention to the woman actress. Some will keep it in mind. Some will eat and enjoy the play. clearer: however, have five more, which will amount to ten verses. an expectation for a story to unfold. speech marked by an interrogative and abilitative, his brothers are at the center of this scene. 2c seems to be reported is to be told in the coming verses, I have conjectured that Joseph and previous song has just announced the beginning of Joseph’s story, which day”, and hence progresses to narrative content layer (1). Since the reading the first verse repetition of

ntu c

6t

6t

u kka annu vi

u kka

f yy

Song III-52 consists of five verses in most notebooks. Some, l

icc a

am

l

ivastr

44

t

u kayyil

a nn

2a shifts to the past tense further marked by num

i

u irikku ka 28

cheered.

33 6tam

q a

kki vaccu nn

m

cilarkku

a

cilaru yi ninnu 29 /a/ /a/

/c/

/c/ qtt u

30

kayyivila na

ll Behold!

um ill

k attil k

f

ll a6

ippa

a

avv r vi

a

a

t

t

rpp l i c f

f ay

, “Behold!”, becomes

34 q6t f

att

66

ytu

a

n na

a

i v

a

avv cilarkku vaccu cilaru

m , which builds up

kkiyu

it

k

t

um

akku entu c f a6 //d//2 31

//b//

Ophira Gamliel annu //b//

unn m

a

Upon

n m

//d//1

32

f

a

yy , “that r am , 555 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

556 TAPASAM, January 2006

Mu space (Nair, 1971:56-7). That is true for the classical has a close affinity to the stage, and stage in turn is also ritual the past ten centuries, if not longer than that. literature in many genres, and fact more than one language, for literary milieu of Kerala, which has produced an impressive body be more to the point) of Jewish life in Kerala. Let us consider story, and from what we know (or perhaps do not would avv century L This generic definition is recognized and analyzed already in the 14 that the production of performance. It is further marked by the present tense, all the variants, to indicate that song is taken as a dramatic might be deduced by its name, the most of the songs in corpus) originated also a ritual space. As introduces in length the part of this drama is marked by the form layer (3). Thus, any verse in the following songs that is to be taken as watching”, indicating its reference to the immediate context, content those we are about to read. which prevail all through the verses we were examining, as well 1971:93; Freeman, 1998:54ff.), which we have witnessed above, and type in terms of rhyme, alliteration and metrical patterns (Nair, selection variations in the other notebooks, are all titled as (Menon, 1993:207ff.). The songs in the list found B9, with its above, incorporating different thematic contents, ideologies and aims multi-layered with contents in a similar way to what I was demonstrating include a text classified as companions for each performance. Some of these theatrical genres performers worship the performance ground and drums, faithful pacification of Goddesses and Gods are sought after. One can see the arena in which merit is obtained, purification, magical protection and the (relatively late) reported speech. “ The Vigil Night Songs

what can I do?” dramatic content layer (4), which take as Joseph’s

f

t iye , as in the verse above.

While keeping this in mind I would like to suggest the hypothesis 44x Let us for a moment take step away from the text, i and l a

tilaka Teyy 35 2d, however, is clear enough and consistent through m

, which defines a

Kathaka

att

a T

m

p

f

att

38 yy

possession performances. The stage is an

K

u

att

l a

i

, “song”, such as the ppu R

, the “folk”

a m

performance. Such

a

tri K

p

a k att

songs (and perhaps even of

ppu R

a6

u

Tu avv of the “classical” poetic 36

This body of literature

ll f a

, or its abbreviation to al tri

, as well for the to

might have been

44

Ku

a

p

k

m

att

a6

t

p iy

us unn

att att

are often

u p

a

a

att , which m r , “are

, and us . 37 th Portuguese invasion in the beginning of 16 and customs of the community were radically altered after perhaps more likely so) that the self image and consequent practices for following such “un-Jewish” practices. reluctant to describe it as such, lest the Malabari community be devalued witnessed the songs as part of a play, he or she might very well be and pendant ( would start with presenting the silver and gold for wedding ring their family members, were present at the occasion. The ceremony continuous event. He describes how both bride and groom, along with during the day and festivities following it night are one day. According to Jussay (2005:97-8), however, the engagement rituals an event following the engagement ceremony held earlier on same as reported by Walerstein (1987:99-100), who takes the Vigil Night play for its axis, and not merely a fish dinner sing-a-song gathering the latter term in fn. 34 above), I believe that event had indeed a a play, spectators and an actress (but see my reservations in regard of to the Kerala standards and tastes. formed to imbibe elaborated poetical and aesthetic creation according created around life-cycle events, so that new ritual space might be of the synagogue. By 10 community. Also Hebrew poetry owes its creation to ritual space, that couple about to start a new family, house, in very small originally designed for guaranteeing protection and prosperity a had such prayer books as well. which received the famous copper plates (Narayanan 1972 and 2002), 1975 and Elizur, 1999:14ff.). It is quite likely that the Jewish community, tastes and aesthetical needs of each praying community (see Fleischer, in liturgical “niches”. Their selection and appreciation was left to the of famous and anonymous poets specifically composed to be inserted the Diaspora had prayer books, with obligatory prayers as well poems informants for describing the conclude the event. Both Walerstein and Jussay were depending on sung after some ceremonial procedures. Feasting and partying would that for this reason new events such as the many year-cycle events scheduled in the Jewish calendar. It might be the length and elaboration of Hebrew prayer liturgy during

On basis of the first verse III-52, which specifically mentions

t

a li ) respectively. The songs for the occasion would be th and 11 39

Any Jew is very well acquainted with

K

a ppu th century Jewish communities in

R a

40 tri

It is also possible (and K

. If anybody had ever

a ppu R th

century, when the

a tri had to be Ophira Gamliel 557 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

558 TAPASAM, January 2006

nercca private concerns through the narratives and symbols of their Great women, like their homeland fellow women folk, “chose to portray Vigil night. As Walerstein convincingly argues, the Kerala Jewish nercca “Malayalam songs are sung during the serious religious occasion of a saint. Interestingly some other informants were quick to deny that any based on the interpretation of verb first two lines of the whole series, discussing possible readings as I have shown above. For this reason presented at length the immediate performative context usually indicated by linguistic shifters, must not ignore the more difficult lines and verses that relate to their retellings of Biblical events or historical narratives. Yet one layers in the songs, as they do portray a fascinating world view through folk songs corpus. It is very tempting to highlight the narrative content many of the songs, especially longer ones, in Jewish Malayalam also important to keep in mind the complex content layer structure of see Walerstein, 1987:155ff., and also in this TAPASAM issue). It is told by an informant to be performed on the occasion of taking a vow, 2005:32-33, 144), which is classified in the index as “historical”, but Take for example song I-12 (Zacharia, 2005:40-41, 141; Gamliel, affiliated with ritual space was shown also in Johnson (2005:215-216). evidence supporting my hypothesis. That more songs in the corpus are celebration with fish dinner and a sing-a-song gathering as its focus. have been altered during that time to eventually take the form of a than shifters, as in the case of word motif or a detail in the story, where semantics play role more important context content layer might be merely hinted by a subtle emphasis on performance, to the recitation of text. However, an immediate towards reading A, which relates to the immediate context of Parade The Vigil Night Songs a dramatic performance at the core of 1987:41ff.; Narayanan, 2002:6, Jussay, 2005:33ff.). If there was indeed (Johnson, 1975:24-25, 84ff.; Mandelbaum, 1986:67ff.; Walerstein, the attention of later colonial rulers and Jews from other countries dominance over Jewish prestige and pedigree erupted attracted Let us conclude this paper with some more verses sung for the I believe that further philological study might yield more textual , on the grave of Namya Mutta, 16 .” (Johnson, 2005:216; for Namya Mutta as a saint and poet, s

i community was founded, and the bitter struggles for

camakkuka

nercca

K

th a ppu R century Malabari Jewish in I-12.

. I do have inclination

a tri

event, it might

ittar c cattu poy c following verse: this point follows more or less Genesis 37:1-14, and it continues in the preparation of the wedding ring (Jussay, 2005:97). The narrative up to earlier that same evening of marking a silver coin destined for the selling of Joseph for twenty pieces silver with a ceremony conducted notebooks, obliquely deals with the dowry system and connotes Vigil Night songs. The fifth verse of III-52, and the last in most is worthy to be examined. Let us briefly examine two more verses of the sing-a-song gathering, and its implication to the performative context unfolding during the Vigil Night, whether in a full fledged drama or Jacob […]” (Walerstein, 1987:20). And so we have Joseph’s story Egypt, and finally revealing himself to his brothers eventually women [… t]hey sang [wedding songs] about Joseph being sold in Tradition”, and for that reason, unlike “Kurdish […] Yemeni on the occasion. It is not accidental that most notebooks have this verse coin given by the groom to bride in a ceremonious manner earlier hinted as it were by two markers, one linguistic, the deictic is embedded. But also the immediate context content layer (3) present, which dramatic content layer (4) represented by reported speech (1b-c) By and large this verse is focused on the narrative content layer (1), in They sold him for twenty silver. Behold! They set this much of price. They brought up Joseph and displayed him. [They] called those travelers. [They] carefully divided two [silver for each] sandals. If he dies - what shall we gain out of it?” “We hit the younger brother. [They] saw travelers arriving. much”, and one semantic,

a a

tt tt

f f

f

ra-va ra pp

f

nnu vilayu

a

q6f

8

l namakk

i pokk

yavaru

a

m

r vannatu kka

pa

f

43

nt or anubha

avara vi

4

aññu v

/c/ fll

44

l iccu

All turned out well.

i irumbatu v 6t

, “silver”, which alludes to the silver

u m /a/ /a/

41

y /c/

tambor a

q

s caraticcu vaccu c

f

vin

fll

vi karayil k f f

ll ru

ikku 44a

f

am

kk

m

t

iccu n ru k

42 m q6t

//d//1

q

a6 att

ttu

u poyi

a

avv

i m it //b// //b//

45

f

f ittar Ophira Gamliel rippino

//d//2 f

, “this t 559 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

560 TAPASAM, January 2006

tambir imbam p Jacob, still grieving for his lost son, listening to a young girl singing indeed of the whole song. One can almost imagine old dejected blessing from God. It is brought up as the opening line of verse and Note the emphasis in this verse on Jacob’s addressing girl as a [You] shall not die.” There [Jacob] blessed [her]. Behold! “You have come by God’s blessing! “Come here!” [he] called the daughter. Listening again and in delight [Jacob] was rising. Calmly she said that Joseph has awaken. You listened to the song a girl child sang. You alone listened to the child. “You have come by God’s blessing!” tambir 2005:164-5). speaking to Jacob soothe his spirit (Zacharia, 2005:169; Gamliel, good news. One source adds that she was playing the violin while scene, narrating that it was Jacob’s granddaughter who delivered the still alive and is ruling Egypt. Later Hebrew sources elaborate on this the news that his son Joseph, thought to be dead for so many years, is It is a small Biblical scene (Genesis 45:25-28), where Jacob receives and II-10 (Zacharia 2005:65, 92, 94, 95; Gamliel 2005:66, 97). for example, serving as the last verse of four songs, III-30, II-9, II-11 re-sung again and in different textual ritual contexts. It is, most popular fragments in the corpus of Jewish Malayalam songs is yet another marker, which might serve as an analytical tool. One of the in the Hebrew poetry recited synagogue. This fragmentation is ritualistic purposes is a common practice both on the Kerala stage, and stopping it at this point. fit the ritual and performative context. That is reason for for neither informative nor didactic reasons. It is fragmented so as to for concluding the whole song. The story is not retold entertainment, The Vigil Night Songs

f

mbu

a a ll

a

n tann aru n tann aru

a p

y ke

Fragmenting well known stories for aesthetic as

at

ttx

iya p

ke

att

la la

ttx

l l

in

f f

n n f

f

kann

ke i i

46 c c

f f

tt

nnu nnu

u x

/c/ 47 irunnu

/c/ /a/

p

fs

s t

a a

ak

k ne tanicc

f

/a/ a

l

t

a f

48

yosepp

i

nn

f

nn a

v

u v

f

parasina ke

nn a

x

a f

stin

u nnu maka q6

c vi

arnnu

f

a

l

lli

r avv iccu

//d//1 tt

//b//

u

f

l a

//d//2 //b// They have conducted all business K Most of the five boys For the beloved relatives [Joseph] had taken high measures. Because of hunger [they] had settled [there]. Therefore all have settled [here].” “For five more years there will be famine here. c ayyv occasion for singing this verse. recollecting Jacob blessing his granddaughter, and consequently, an occasion for elders to bless youngsters might be an fitting touch the feet of elders blessing him or her. If that is indeed so, any given by holding the hands, and youngster might also bow down to or bridegroom before they take off to the wedding hall. The blessing is observed the lengthy parade of elder family members blessing bride Anybody who had ever witnessed a wedding in Kerala might have solid pragmatic reason behind the emphasis on Jacob’s direct speech. necessarily connected with Joseph’s story. But there might further be a all around the corpus attaching itself to many other songs, not partially explain its tendency to disengage from the song and wander c, give the impression that this whole verse is a chorus, which might the performers in immediate context layer (3). These two lines, 1b- through actual direct speech addressed to Jacob in the narrator’s voice, layer (4) dominant in reporting Jacob’s speech. But it is also such unimaginably good news. The small scene has the dramatic content payy ayy Joseph and his brothers, settled in Egypt conducted business there: has the fifth verse as its last, concluding with two lines how they all, 47). This song too has short and long versions. them while famine was tormenting Canaan and Egypt (Genesis 42-45, to his brothers and got them live with him in Egypt for sustaining

f a

yyu ppu R a6t f a ru m l f a k

t m q

This verse also stands at the beginning of next song in q8 a

ru sittiti v q6t mikk tri il series, III-55, which retells how Joseph revealed himself f i ll nn am qll uv illutakkam a paita c f 56 f pputu yputu have migrated in this manner and joined together. nn m m a c l c

f f 50 f ll ytu/c/ pa ytu/c/ c

am f 57 ll a kk ta am they were doing. /a/ nn nn q6t /a/atinnu k u irunn a f a va 44 mm l u kku t iya 52 66 p sittiti f am q irunn a f6t rnn r 49 54 f The shorter version 51 q6t ku a k a m vaccu//b// a6 m t

ft a f f avv 53 ll uttu//d//1 am //b// f //d// Ophira Gamliel

q 55 ru 561 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

562 TAPASAM, January 2006

mantara pattu peru t f q Joseph and the brothers before Joseph’s identity is revealed. ancestors. now” of the community than with shepherds’ milieu Biblical community in a foreign land, seems to be appropriate for the occasion self revelation leading to reunion and the founding of a business self, weeping in solitude (elaborated the third verse) and eventual strangers getting married. So the themes of alienation, hiding childhood, as the community is indeed too small to have complete the rest of their lives. They might very well know each other from between two people about to start intimate relations destined last for addressed to both bride and groom in an attempt ease the tension paper. However, I would just like to give my impression that it is Probing in detail into this song as well is beyond the scope of Each had been forgiven. And because of great remorse “[He] fails remembering [me],” [Joseph thought]. Both had the same strength. They came because of their father’s command. There was a pungent animosity between them. Judah had approached Joseph. Ten people begged with the king. justification for them doing so. After all, the word used in Malayalam, whole community leaves in, away from the “Promised Land”, and extended family. There are also connotations of the exile in which leaving her house only to end up with a prosperous reunion of It seems that the story serves in song as an allegory of bride They have settled there comfortably. The Vigil Night Songs

q8

trayu

ttu balam il

, “business”, has much more to do with the immediate “here and

m

mana m

The second verse of the song focuses on animosity between

59 m

a

tammil a

tambir

y irinnu iriv

m

t

a

tam

a

no nn

60

t

e

62 a

f f

yi k

4 ru rannu

um

m

q6t a4

/a/

/a/

u a

yi /c/ ormmayil irunnu palam

61

/c/ parkk ve 58

Behold! v

4f

a

v

a

avar

n y at

u c illa p c

q f

f4

yt sevino

q

f

am

ru sattiya

f nnu

a

nnu

r k

a

natt

a6

//b// t

u yevud

avv

a

l

m

f f //d//1

//d//2 a //b// Notes celebrated communal event. especially for their performance, by designing the Vigil Night as a performance, occupied a ritual space that was opened up, possibly as a drama. The songs, whether in theatrical form or vocal beyond the memory of contemporary community members) performed reveal the possibility that they were (at some time in past perhaps along with complex thematic structure as subject to linguistic analysis are many more songs associated with the performance of these songs. I am also obliged to emphasize that there and assuring prosperity success for the bridal couple through the possibility that event has had function of providing protection identified these songs as performed during the Vigil Night, and raised verse of the series, other, and even marked as such by a lexeme repeated at the end of each traditional occupation was trade (see Narayanan, 2002:7-11). of a pre-marriage ritual performance among Kerala Jews, whose these songs display generic characteristics of classical discussing all the songs in list. Lastly, it is important to repeat that all through the different notebooks, I shall avoid for time being title or by being listed in B9. As the selection of songs is not consistent 1

to the word Walerstein could not establish a clear etymological derivation nor meaning rite of passage, about to change one’s life drastically. tations of expectation, an emotion familiar to anybody on the verge a preceding the wedding. The etymology of word suggests also conno- a sign of betrothal, for basically the occasion is an engagement ceremony sense of “protection”, it might also be suggestive the silver coin given as cially one designed for a bridal couple (Gundert, 1872:230-1). In this the meaning of an amulet or charm, that is magical protection, espe- to wait, expect. As a verbal noun derived from the above root, it has also root ritual bath earlier that day. The word justifying it by referring to the custom of accompanying bride a gested a Hebrew derivation for this word, served to the participants in event. Some informants further sug- She was told

k

In this paper we dealt with a series of songs integral to each

a

kkuka

k

a

, which has two major meanings: to keep, defend, watch, or

k ppu

a

ppu k

. She suggests two possibilities, which do not satisfy her. a6

meant “fish” signifying the traditional fish dinner

avv f

(sometimes abbreviated to

k

K

a

ppu

a

ppu

is derived from the verbal h ofef

R

a , “washing the hair”, tri

, whether by their

p

avv att

Ophira Gamliel

us f ). I have , which 563 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 564 TAPASAM, January 2006

The Vigil Night Songs

10 11 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

c = ku ’al ta‘aseh. k The majority of the Vigil Night songs follow a metrical pattern, where egories in the 613 observances, translating from Hebrew: mi but in this context they are appellations referring to the two major cat- other songs in the corpus and Malayalam compositions. verses of these songs are yet to be analyzed and scrutinized in relation any mistakes or inaccuracies are my own. Further more, some lines I have incorporated many of his insights and understandings. However guidance he gave me in translating this song, as well IV-16 and III-52. I am most grateful to MGS Narayanan for the precious consultation and V=miscellaneous. thematic categories: I=historical, II-occasional, III=Biblical, IV=devotional, The songs have been indexed by Jussay and Johnson according to five ent results. Vigil Night songs for the time being, until further research yields differ- sequence were not performed for the Vigil Night. I shall treat it as S13, S11, B11, B30 and T1. This is not to say that other songs or song I follow hereby the song sequence as given in B9, reflected also S14, For shifters and their performative functions, see Silverstein, 1976. tioned above. expectation, which might be connoted also to the word metrically and syntactically. It might be some colloquial representation of It is ostensibly a “while-” form, durative, which doesn’t really fit in lation “Behold!” is adequate. Moreover “Behold!”. T1 and T2. in the possession of a private collector, Joseph Turjeman from Jerusalem, latter begin with serial number 29. There are two incomplete notebooks Xeroxing, cataloguing and keeping original notebooks copies. The numbered B after the Ben Zvi Institute, which have been in charge of S=Shirley Isenberg). The notebooks collected from 2003 onwards are name and a serial number (B=Barbara Johnson, J=P. M. Jussay, The notebooks are numbered with an initial signifying the collector’s to three paragraphs. describe the Vigil Night and some of its customs. Altogether they amount As far as I am aware of, the two sources cited above are only ones to suggests, of

f a6

ytu k vin 44 am ill

, the II pr. pl. imperative (“please watch!”), or, as MGS Narayanan q6ta

lu k

a

k

a6

t

m a6am f

.

avv

and f , the hortative (“let us watch!”). In any case trans-

is an obscure derivation of the root c

f yyalla

literally mean “please do”, and don’t”,

k

a6

avv f

conveys the sense of

k

K

a6

a

uka ppu w vot ‘aseh v- , “to see”. , as men- 17 15 23 22 21 14 18 16 25 24 19 13 12 20

Other variants give also I follow here the glossing in B9, which seems to be most reasonable. Malayalam works dated 13 Note B11 which replaces < In S14 it is considered as the first verse of III-52. 2005:40, 206 and Gamliel, 2005:145. For the use of this Hebrew word in another song (I-12), see Zacharia, combination of syllables amounting to five metrical units, each half line is divided into four sections. The first three sections have a H: m ants drop the nasal, which might give a participial noun derived from is also a shift in meaning of the case in three variants, B5, J2 and T1, all from Cochi. As a result there The main difference is in reading netically from Jussay, the engagement to bride waiting in an inner room at house (see might be an address to the bridegroom take silver coin signifying asked to take something into the dining hall, and it is unclear what is. It cult. The translation here leaves out something, as the addressees are As most variants stop at the sixth verse, it makes things even more diffi- was destroyed in 70 AD). be composed of three a combination of two long and one short syllables), the last section is to An obscure word, perhaps from Tamil < Bh Ayyar, 1983:117, where this construction is said to be common in the alternately forsaken, after collecting and analyzing enough data. See also stands for narrative past in the songs. This hunch might be established, or From the opening verses of 15 B9: All variants spell “fear”, and S cipial noun + particle - I am under the impression that this specific past construction, i.e. a parti- 1872:347.

s

sa r

a

i

stratti a mah marthya gavata q nnino f

nu op cit. a

bh l h m ah, “rest”.

a dikku t m

Bh gavata q )

nn mikku awa

x karim , “direction” instead of poyi -gadya m

(Tuñcatt

.

u m .

q

m

nnil a

m vikku

+ past tense of tras nayimayil

th , Keral m century.

q

(f.i. one long & short syllable). a

f8 riccu. na and

uttacchan 2005:17). See also Gundert, m

o mayya lpatti and Brahm th

, “sky” instead of “pride”.

bikku with

century Malayalam composition

a

kka

c mikku

m

mikad

f , which might be derived pho-

yyuka m , “water” instead of , “contentment”. Many vari-

, “the bigger part”. This is as

(i.e. il (H the temple, which

a6t camapputu

a-pur

m a6 a

Ophira Gamliel tras

a

bhayya

m m (usually

, all Old

c

f

ytu m ) , 565 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 566 TAPASAM, January 2006

The Vigil Night Songs

31 30 36 29 28 35 33 27 26 32 34

k t was found in the a Parade S14, B3, S2, S11 and T1 are all from Cochi. One of them is the This translation is conjectural. See fn. 25 above. alcoholic beverages (Barbara Johnson, personal communication). Community members use it as a synonym for “cheers!” when drinking and Arabic (for Syrian Christians Muslims), Hebrew Jews). and Prakrit (for the now extinct Buddhist Jain communities), Aramaic and Tamil. Other community languages were present too, such as Pali before that, there was a well spread literary production in both Sanskrit The beginnings of Malayalam are traced to the tenth century. But also gradually shows up. Reconstruction of be serving as an aspectual verb modifying the non-finite associate this word with H s Literally: did “ Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, who are the ancestors of Jewish nation. further supports this assumption as many Kadavumbh that community. The location, in which it was in This verse somewhat functions as a verbal screen, like the actual one used Kadavumbh the number of verses, titles for and selection songs with Meyer…”) and an address in Cochi. Since it shares many features, such as there is the name of owner (“this notebook belongs to Benjamin “s it is his doings that are about to be narrated in the following verses. I thought it is better to understand this line as subordinated Joseph, for taken as another non-final action relating back to the immediate context. The syntax is not transparent, and it clear whether this line to be I take migrated to Israel settled in that area. word this line is reconstructed according to the best of my judgement. The playing the whole array of characters in song. Note, however, that This might be a referrence to an actual actress, or dancer, who

a

kkuka

q6ta

ne a Kath tikki”, H

, “alone”

n

str vi

s , which does not make much sense to me. , perhaps as a finite verb relating to

a

t i community (B3), and the others are from Kadavumbh

ka

um i

appears only in B5. Others have

l

i a a

“zadik”

and n ga

as an archaic future form, see Ayyar, 1983:92. It seems to savoti

m

Mu

notebooks, I assume it used to belong a member from

genizah

k q6tam

, the righteous one

t ”, i.e. health. See Jussay, 2005:58, note 63. Others

iy f44

is also somewhat doubtful, as most variants have

of a synagogue in Israel. On one its pages u and the like, behind which first character e

`udah, meal. See Zacaria, 2005:186, 207.

appanm sar found, near Beth Shemesh,

,

sa

a

4

r u a , “the fathers”.

, ga

s

ar m na

members who and even

66 i a . ga m

. T1

s

r i . 45 41 40 39 38 37 44 43 42

their crimes, for they have sold silver a righteous man, and poor man “Thus said God: I shall not give clemency to Israel for three and four of comment that this story is the source for Biblical verse in Amos 2:6: the brothers used two silver (coins) to buy footwear, and they further story given in two Midrashic sources. According to these sources each of I have translated this somewhat obscure and elliptical line according to a Yiddish There is of course nothing “un-Jewish” in watching or producing a play, they might very well be the founders of Jewish community in Kerala. might surface. I firmly believe they also took prayer books with them, and Zvi Institute) of the letters from and to these India traders more data Goitein, 177ff. With the publication of India Book (forthcoming, Ben East wheat, wine, paper and other substances required for their ritual. See stay for many years overseas, and request in their letters to the Middle with the Malabar coast from Genizah records. Some of them would There are some 1000 Jewish traders known to have travelled or traded some modifications occurred during the process of transmission. eration schemes in the above verses are not pedantic. It might be that well as thematically complex. Note that the metrical, rhyming and allit- tions, as the literary scene in Kerala is ever changing and renovated, But see also Freeman, 2003:465-468, for genre variations and innova- as Excluding some stray verses, like IV-16, which are either untitled or titled yet to be dealt with. see Walerstein in this TAPASAM issue). Its extent and appreciation are being the most eminent recognized indegeneous poet is Namya Mutta, and preserved by the Kerala Jews for at least four centuries (for time evident in the collections of Hebrew poems, which were produced among As for the latter, there was indigeneous literary production in Hebrew and B30. Most other variants would render this line varies greatly in the notebooks. This textualization is based on B9 involved in a play. The textualization too is not certain, as the first part of eye!”, or perhaps it has something to do with the performative aspects the drum”, perhaps for a metaphoric expression, something like “bull’s The meaning here is unclear. An alternative translation might be “we hit

m

t

appu nambar , “passage” (S14) or as m

might stand for

nambiyar

ku

4 ukkan , “actors”.

, “briefing” (f.i. T1).

nambar a

6 iccu n

Ophira Gamliel am . The 567 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 568 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Vigil Night Songs

54 53 52 61 55 46 62 60 59 58 57 56 49 48 47 50 51

i So according to B9, whereas the other variants read more or less:

rku u p a i-k runnuka

ytta q

q6t

8 t q

ru ali-Yefefiah

s

f6t n irinn i which give the long version. m a m

pa u = immigrated. kast

? See Genesis 45:6: “For another five years there will be no

a m m

in the sense of high measures provisions. See Genesis ?

a

ri S r im`oni . . Perhaps the reference is to (Zachariah, 2005:56-61, and Gamliel, 53-61) m , torah, vayi t a8 tta m a n here is in the sense of “king” rather than ? s

ev, 247, 142 (Hebrew).

sthirata sthiti , in the sense of security in the sense of exist- a

ga c .

h

f m mm orev,

and f Gamliel –––––– Mandelbaum, David G. 1986 Goitein, S. D. Jussay, P. M. Johnson, Barbara Freeman, Rich Fleischer, Ezra Elizur, Shlomit ––––––– Ayyar, L.V. Ramaswami 1983 List of Sources: Gundert, Herman

2005 2003 1973 2005 1975 1998 1975 1999 2005 1872

Ages South Asia tures in History: Reconstructions from geous: Jewish women’s India Hebrew Translations Jewish women’s songs in Malayalam with ditions of the ings as Reflected in the Piyyutim The Jews of Kerala Shingly or Jewish Cranganore in the Tra- Malayalam-English Dictionary Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders Hebrew Liturgical Poetry in the A Poem for Every Parasha: Torah Read- The Evolution of Malayalam Morphology Malayalam with Hebrew Translations trans. of Premodern Kerala”. “Genre and Society: The Literary Culture New Delhi: Oxford University Press Asian Studies 57, no. 1:38-65. of Language in Kerala”. In: The journal “Rubies and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting Cochin in India and Israel.” In: “Social stratification among the Jews of Calicut University Publication Institute Vikas Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute. pp. 208-226. “Afterword”. In D.C. Books Jerusalem: Ben Zvi Institute. (Hebrew) Princeton: Princeton Thrissur: Kerala Sahitya Akademy Thesis . Jerusalem: Keter (Hebrew)

, ed. Thomas Timberg. New Delhi:

K

a rku

, ed. Sheldon Polock.

8

ali-Yefefiah-Gorgeous:

Cochin Jews of India

K a

. Calicut: rku

. Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi

8

ali-Yefefiah-Gor-

songs In: University Press Literary Cul-

Ophira Gamliel in . Kottayam:

. Middle Jews in . M.A. . . . 569 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 570 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Vigil Night Songs ––––– Narayanan, M.G.S. Marcia Shoshana Menon, Dilip M. Tuñcatt Zacharia, Scaria Silverstein, Michael Nair, K. Ramachandran Walerstein, f8 uttacchan

2002 1972 1993 (2005) 2005 1976 1971 1987

Ethnic Identity Cochin, India, in Israel: Expressions of Public Rituals among the Jews from Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala Early Manipravalam: A Study pology in Malayalam with Hebrew Translations Yefefiah-Gorgeous: Jewish women’s songs Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute. S Kerala Historical Society Trivandrum: Anjali New Mexico Press for Hebrew and Jewish Studies Indo-Judaic Studies at the Oxford Centre International Research Conference for Plates of Cochin”. Paper presented in the “Further Studies in The Jewish Copper In: Studies in History vol. 9. no. 2 Popular Culture in Late Colonial Malabar”. “The Moral Community of the Teyyattam: Kurukkshetra Prakashan ed., comm. and introduction, University of tural Description”. In: “Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cul-

r

i mah

. Albuquerque: University of

a

bh

a gavata California

. PhD Thesis, m

. Kochi: Meaning in Anthro-

. Trivandrum: K

.

a

rku

8 ali- . X߃ a\- n¬ sXfn-ap-ddn-bn-cp-∂p. Xs∂Xpw ]nsºXpw \mf-∂n-cp-∂p. knßw Xpd-∂m¬ `b-s∏-´n-cp-∂p. knßtXm thsd-Øn-cn™vp hen-™p. 6 sa∂ptIm F∂p-s∏m-cp-∂¬ Hdn-®p. t]mIm-sX -\-bn-a-bn¬ IqSp-hm≥ ImW-s∆. A∂p-s≈mcp Xn∂pw-Ip-Snbpw F∂pv Ip™pw KpWw \√-sX-∂n-°v. FI-Im-cy-aßpv sNøm≥ ]eXpv B°n. Hs∂ apXembnIv Bdp-\m-tfm-fw. H∂ßp th≠p Icn-a≠w 5 NnØ-Øn¬ Fs∏mgpw Nn¥n-®n-cn-°pw. Nocnsb hmgp-s]-sc√mw ImW-s∆. kØn-b-sa∂v hnfn-t∏mcp Xm¶ƒ. Nm¿t∂mcmw Ibn-t°m-c-S-bmfw Im´n. hm CØsc sNt∂m-cp-a-°-{]-∏p-dmhvp 4 Iqdn-´p-\m-an-Xp-s®- thsd Nne-Xp-≠p-s®-ø√ F∂vp. thdn´p \manXp Adn-™p-sIm-≠m-epw. Bdp-\q-‰n-]-Xn-aq∂p D≈-h- th-e. AXn-\mbv NneXp≠p Bdpw ISepw ae-Iƒ Ipep-ßn. A¬`p-X-am-tbmcp Rmb≥ Fd-ßn. 3 t\Sp∂ \bn-sa-bn¬\n∂p t\Sp∂ \ndp-ame tIƒ°psºm R߃. tIƒ°mw HmSpw arKhpw ]mepw ]X-°n-bpw 2 Zo\-am-bp-≈-°p-e-tØsbm F√mw. koan-bm-th-sd-°-fn-∏pXpw sN am\hpw `øhpw an°p-≈-sX-√mw. amdm-sX-I-≠p-®-a-∏pXpw sN 1 IqSn am\-kp-sIm≠p AhÆw sN Du\-ambv tXmg-abn \n∂p ]mh-sØ. Du°-Ωm Rmb-am-bp≈ HmcpNmsØ-c-X-∂p. \mw C∂p k X n-b-Øm≥ ap∂n sNm√n-b- h-N-\w. ]m¿Ømse b X -Xp-s°m-≠m-epw. Ip‰-am-Xn-º-Øn-Iq-Sp-hm≥ ImW-s∆. Im∏pcm-{Xnse ]m´pv 4 ]mh-sØ. \n›bw \man-Xm-dn-™p-sIm-≠m-epw. APPENDIX k X pXnbpw. Abn-ºp-‰-am-fcvp ]e-scm-Ø-Iq-Sn. 2 5 . H∏n-√-a-‰-Øn-cn-i-ß-s°-√mw. b . F´p-\mƒ sNt∂mcm-S-bmfw Im´n. X p. Iqdp≈ \∑-bn¬ \aƒs°m∂p sNøm≥ \ea. \n߃ Bdn-tIbpw shWw. AXp ]mSn-Iq-Sp-hm≥ ImW-s∆. - II-61 ]pØn-Øn-cnbpw \Ωƒ°pv. sN IqSp-hm≥ ImW-s∆. b v b 1 X psIm≠m-epw. 7 sN b Ophira Gamliel X p. 3 b X b X p. p. 8 6 571 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 572 TAPASAM, January 2006 s]Sn-sb∂n sN∂p AW-bm-am-bn-sIm-≠p. ]ni-Im-sX- s∏mØn H∏-∑m¿ aqshcpw Bshmep th 1 FÆnb HØp Rm≥ sIm∂Xp Gdbpw th≠. Hmcp-an-®m¿ \man \n∂-®-sX-√m-‰nepw aq∏p . Rm≥ CXn-sem∂p ]nsg-∏n-s∏≥ F∂p. sIm∂p-°f-∏m≥ XpWn-™m¿ Nne-cvp. sIm√√ F∂vp XS-™p at‰Xp. 4 BSp- ta-bn-∏m≥ t]mbn kmX°p FtSm. Bdm- 3 hmhm-bn-cp∂vp sZiØvp t]mbn ]p°vp. a°-f- I- 2 F¥psNømw Xm∂pw H∂m-bn-\n-∂p. F√m¿ hn-f-bm´w ImWp-∂m-c-s∆. H≠∂p hnddvp Iøn-em-°n- h-®p. H´p-an-√msX H≠m-°n-bpw- I≠p-°-fn-h-kv{Xo- sIm≠mw Nne¿°vp. Iøn-hn-e- \Æn hoSp-am≥ Nne¿°pv D≠p-°-fn-®ßvp Ccn°pw Nnecpv. D≈-Øn¬ Im¿∏m≥ \S°pw C∏sf sN apßnb Dd-bn¬ Ifn-®-ßvp- \n-hn¿∂p. apse∂vp Acpƒ ]msßm≈ \mfpw sXmS-®p-s]m-cp-∂n. ]‰nb Xß°pv Xebpw ]nSn-®p. The Vigil Night Songs ImSßp NqX¿ \S-∏pXpw sN X∏msX Nm{Ø-Øn¬ Gt∏m-gpao aIƒXs∂ XpW-bm. GIm-¥-t\-cØvp Imhepw X∂p.v IpSn-]-dn™p \mw ao \m_mH sKme-Ωn\ sZi-hp≠p sbmsk-hn-s\m-Svp- hm-hm-bn-°v. XßsƒS a°ƒ F√m-hcpw Im´n 18 XÆnb In\-d-dn-ep≈p . C´ßp ssI]≠w Ccp-∂m¿ ImW-s∆. b X -sXm-cn-°se D≈p. Cº-ambv tI´vp Ipdn-s°mƒs]m-cm-I. g a

H≠mbh¿°vp F√mw. A∂p ]md-tIm-\ sN 13 - g D≠p-I-fn-®-∏m´p ˛ N I≠m-e-dn-bmw. \S-°p- \o- t]mcpv kmX-°°pv sN√n. b 9 F√mw Hm¿Øp. Iqs¿abm sIm∂p-If ]pcw X C∏-Sns® p ks∆m-Xm ISm∏p ˛ b X p. I≠s°\mhvp Hs° b X vp. kmXn-°nbpw 12 . Acp-fmse B°w-s]¿ IV -16 III-52 Na-Øm-bv s]m´-In-W-d-dn¬ CSp-hm≥. ]nSn-®m¿ Im-Ws∆ ]nSn-®m¿ ImW-s∆. s]ddp-hm-gp-hm≥ ImW-s∆. sbmsk-hn-t\m-tSIn g N e ] sN∂ßp n-s®mcp BSp- ta-bn-∏m≥. 10 X∂ 15 F√mw ImW-s∆. ZqcsΩ h®p. 14 11 sIm-≠p. 17 16 \Æn. t]mc hnfn-®-ß-W-bm-am-bvsIm-≠p. s]mcpØw Xs∂ Adn-hn-®m-c-s∆. Bsc s]d-Imcw Hmtcm∂p FÆn. Ah¿ Ifhn-´ßp hmX¬ AS-®p. NmsØ-c-s∏m-sW-b-hcp ho´n¬ Ccn∂p F∂ -sIm-≈q-am-dp-≈p. hocn-I-s\-∂-t∏≥ sX≠nsI In\-d-dn-¶¬ I≠p atddh≥. sNsΩ-h-cpw-s]-d-Imcw hnSpº. Rm\s√ tbmtk]v \n߃ s]Xm-° 4 s]g-hm° sN√p∂ Iot 3 a¥cw ]Øp-t]cpw Xºn-cm-t\msSc-∂p. ]m¿°m≥ sbmtk-hn-t\mSp tbhp-Zm. 2 Cº-ambv tI´vp FI∂v s]ºp≈ Xºn-cm≥ X∂-cp-fmse \o sN∂p. Xmt\ X\ns® ]c-kn\ tI´p. 1 ]≠p Rm≥ t]mcpƒ ]mSn-t∏m-cpamsd. ]c-in\m I≠ sI\m-hn\ sNm√p-hn≥ \n߃. I¿Ømhp Xs‚ s]mcpfp NØp-t]m-bm¬ \a-s°-t¥m-c-\p-`w NmsØ-c-h-gn-t]m-°m¿ h∂-Xp-°-≠p. Xtºm-c-Sn®p \man-sX-√mw-samØp 5 F{Xbpw a\wXmX-ambn HØp _e-ambncn∂p Ccn-sh-cpw. Hm¿Ω-bn¬ Ccp∂p ]e-an√m F∂p. CØsc F∂p hnebpw ]d-™p. Ccp-ºXp sh≈n°p hnd-dmcp ImW-s∆. Bdp-Ω-dn-bmsX sIƒhpXpw sN Xºn-cm≥ X∂-cp-fmse \o sN∂p. kmsIem 27 XΩn¬ Atß-cp-am-dm-bn. hmhmSp sN∂p s]d-am-\-Øm-se. 24 ]mSnb ]m´ns\ tI´p. s]i-ImsX tbmtk∏v HW¿∂p sN√n. Xºp-cm≥ X∂-cp-fmse ˛ 22 28 g Ahc hnfn-®p. sbmsk-hn-s\-s°m-≠p-t]mbn a sIm≠p. thsd Ah¿ e I≠p. s]g-∏n-s®-gp-s\-d-dIw ]p°-Sn-®p. ISm∏p ˛ 25 Ccp-∂p. Cßphm F∂p aIf hnfn-®p. b X p. A∏sf X¶m-Xn-en-°n 19 . Nc-Xn®p Hcp kØnbw sN 30 III-83 . \Sp-ßmsX tIƒhn≥ 26 20 Ic-bn¬ Im´n. sNm√p∂ hm¿Ø. F∂ßp hm h®p sNcn-∏n-t\m-sS-cpw 23 III-55 I≠m¬ b X F∂m¿ ImW-s∆. AXn-\m¬ Hcn-hw. Adn-hn-∏m¿. m¿ Im-W-s∆. 29 -{]-∏n-´p. k X Ophira Gamliel n-\m-c-s∆. 21 . 573 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 574 TAPASAM, January 2006 3. 16. 14. ]ømse Hcp knØnXn sh∏pXpw sN 9. 1. Notes : sNøpw sXmgn-se√mw sNb Aøvshcpw ans°m-≈-ss]-X-ß-sf-√mw. Bh-Æsa Aøm-≠-sIm-≠n-ßp-hn-√p-X-°-sa- 5 Du\w hcp-Øs√ F∂p-≈n-hm¿Ø. Ducn-se - The Vigil Night Songs 5. 18. 11. 7. hm\-ap-sS-b-h≥ X∂-cp-fmse . amf-hsc Zo\-am-bp-≈sXm F∂p \n\-bmsX . Xncn-sh≈w s]‰msd h∂-Xp-I-≠p. 23. 22. t]mIp-∂-h¿ 21. 20. {i≤n®p 24. 13. 26. 28. 30. 35. 34. 32. 36. S2 and B30 B9 Z¿i-\-߃°v ]q¿∆w ? Pharo (H. Par’o). imkv{X-Øn¬ ]pd-∏n-dmhv ? kma¿∞yw Imcyw ]c-kn-\, ]c-in\ the money to buy a pair of shoes each them. Possibly this is a refrence to Midrashic story narrating how the brothers divided s]¨]n≈ Perhaps from H : prophetic dream NmIn√ a\-Xm]w ? ]ngm- Compare with II-61 verse 6 second half of 3 ÿnXn < amfqI ? So according to B9. Most variants read :

: ZpxJ-ambv b I : F\nsI B4 : amS-{]mhv = child. Derivation is unknown h - pXpw sN 33 2. dream (halom). 4. 17. 15. 10. 6. 19. 12. 8. 25. 27. 29. 31. 33. : √mw. AXn∂vp sIms≠√mw \m_n b ]£nbpw B9 B9 \∑-bn¬\n∂v ]pØn < _p≤n Hebrew tzaddik, i.e. the righteous one See footnote 21 A\p-`hw Portuguese : health ? Hebrew Meal Db¿∂p a¬kcw X¶ƒ AXn-te°v ? hym]cn-Iƒ°v C√mbvØw, X bm-hm-en-Isƒs° b X p. sNsΩ Ccp-∂ßp : H∂n-t\m-sSm∂p t]mbn H∂n¬ Hdn®p : Is≠ s]g-s]m-°¿ sNsΩ Cßp s]m\n-cn-∂m¿. p. ]‰nb X߃°vp 32 = prophet (Navi’), s]g∏n-®m¿ ImW-s∆. rd line. Ccp-∂m¿ Hcp knØnXn IpS-s°m-≠p-s]m¿∂m-sa. sX≠w FSpØpv See Genesis 45:6 31 36 ∂ hnd-dp. ImW-s∆.

sKmeav 35 34 h®p. = Shalva W Shalva W of which there are literally hundreds, in order to bring the attention intended to redress the balance by focusing on a single Hebrew song, repertoire of Cochin Jewish liturgical songs. This conference paper is been diverted somewhat from the study of Hebrew songs and wide Shalva W A Cochin Jewish Song in Hebrew “T years. Research into Kerala Jewry an era, the Cochin Paradesi community and vertical. On the one hand, research, which traditionally focused upon and cultural preservation. Research has followed two paths: horizontal and Hindus, but also among this unique community of Jews. nence of women in South Indian society amination of women’ gendered community and performative tradition. The recording ex- have recently attracted international attention, the focus being on Malabar Jewish communities and thereby reaching out horizont earlier by trade with Kerala in ancient times and the Middle Ages, the other hand, extant research has deepened vertically to include and social represent Songs and poetry can often epitomize the relation between community search from and Portuguese period, international ef comp Shalva W Shalva W oday is Purim”: arative study of song, and p 1 Research into Kerala Jewry has taken unexpected turns in recent In the focus on Malayalam women’ The field that has appeared to progress more than any other is the 2 Whereas some years ago, observers predicted the end of the past few years has been witness to an upsurge in research A. I. Simon eil eileileileil fort s of a group scholars, scholarship has flourished. ation. s songs in Malayalam has emphasized the promi- 10 and then in the 1980’ The repertoires of Cochin Jewry , articularly women’ 3 is finally including the study of other 6 and material culture. s songs, however , not just among the Christians s by Jussay s songs. , attention has 11 , documented 5 7 8 and W archival re- Due to the ally . 4 eil, On 12 9 575 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 576 TAPASAM, January 2006 Cochin Jewish herit Cochin Jews, in general, and then analyse Purim songs use of the Hebrew language and frequency poetry among synagogue at the end of Jew ish community is the clock tower erected in 1760 above Paradesi which I have selected as the object of this p carnival-like Jewish festival of Purim. In the p The Use of Hebrew among Cochin Jews literary style and sociological/anthropological meaning. of community poem, as an example of a genre cultural creativity transmission of songs, we demonstrate here how a local song and national) language of the Jews. Instead focusing on gendered enous” song in Hebrew presenting a song or songs in Malayalam, we examine here an “indig- in Cochin Jewish songs composed Kerala. However of Cochin. The paper thus takes its lead from the insurgence interest and semi-liturgical calendrical events rites of passage the Jews (liturgical compositions) and folk songs, which enriched the liturgical scholars to the rich repertoire of Cochin Jewish Hebrew songs, ‘T lating prices in the bazaar vendors in Ernakulam, the Jews used to have a secret method of calcu- members of the Jewish community and interviews with local market bhagam - used Hebrew in commerce. Hindu and Muslim calendars (David Rahabi, 1785). compiled a Hebrew treatise on the calendar Cochin in Hebrew letters. It should be noted that his son, David Rahabi, which Weinstein found in Holland, Rahabi signed a pepper deal Indians, signed his name in Hebrew East India Comp familiar with Hebrew letters on high for all local inhabitants and visitors to see in the area. concealing Hebrew; on the contrary (except a brief spell under the Portuguese), they had nothing to hide by of its four faces. oday is Purim’ Further evidence of the prominence Hebrew in Cochin Jew- The short song that is the object of this paper sung on Both Ernakulam communities – All eight Cochin Jewish communities ( Ezekiel Rahabi (1694-1771), the principal merchant of Dutch , which V any 15 Since Cochin Jewry never suffered anti-Semitism age. Finally , who acted as a broker between the Dutch and , which was used both in commerce, and liturgy eena Das defines as a shared culture. , composed in Cochin the liturgical (and today , which they negotiated in Hebrew T own, which has Hebrew numbers on one , I shall analyse the specific Purim song, , they proudly displayed the Hebrew . For example, in a 1733 contract T According to report ekkumbhagam and Kadavum aper , comp aper , from the point of view j uthap , I shall discuss the , promoted a sense 14 aring the Jewish, alli-Y ogam , instead of s both from . 13 piyyutim ) were . T opened the first Hebrew publishing house in Parur the Shingli rite bears close resemblance to brew printing press in Bombay both in structure and rhythm. and every festival, on Purim night, Sabbaths in the middle of Passover peculiar to the Shingli texts. They are employed in services at end of tion is Mesopotamian strengthened by an analysis of the melodies Segal writes: “The hypothesis that the source of Shingli pronuncia- pray unto this day according to the Shingli incant wave), the Jews of Cranganore moved to Cochin, but they continued 1341, after the harbour of Cranganore silted up (in a tsunami-like tidal Crangagnore town which goes by the name of Kottapuram today”. had their seat of Government in ancient Kerala) is that part kingdom of Shingly (a corruption Tiruvancikulam where the Perumals year but prayed according to the “Shingli rite.” were translated into Malayalam. Hebrew Paradesi community to this day read for them or to lead their services in Hebrew; the same is true of the early 1950’s, Malabar Jews never needed to hire outsiders ies, including Pune and synagogues among the Bene Israel of Bombay Jews officiated as produced any Rabbis. From 1826 until the twentieth century 1769 and in Livorno 1849. prayers according to the Shingli rite, was published in Eliezer ben India. The first Hebrew press in Calcutta was established 1840 by a selected few acted as cantors ( turgical language. brew prayers. Men took p Malabar communities, knew how to read Hebrew and follow the He- bers of the Paradesi community had a high literacy rate (as did their non-Jewish counterparts). Mem- isha b’Ab , another Cochin Jew Sukkot , although from the nineteenth century on, a few prayer books The Hebrew liturgical book The Cochin Jews were the forerunners of Hebrew printing in As with other Jewish communities, Hebrew was the major li- As is well-known, the Jews of Kerala, men and women alike, it , Aron self” (1969:98). Hanukkah Arakie, a Cochin Jew of All the prayer books and hazanim , on the Sabbath after Ahmedabad, art in reading the , Solomon ben Salem Sharabi set up the He- 18

According to the ethnomusicologist S (cantors) and 20 19 . hazanim The Jews followed the Sefardi liturgy . , as well some members of the 23 In 1877, Joseph David Hacohen Huppat Hatanim 22 . Until their mass emigration in Y ), although Cochin Jewry never 16 emenite descent. In the same baalei koreh

T T According to P orah in the synagogue and orah scrolls were written in Tisha b’Ab , 21 and other Indian cit- Y ation and text , Cochin. emenite cantillation , a collection of (readers) in the Amsterdam in and in part on .T . Nair Shalva W , Cochin pector s. , “The 17 As In eil , , a 577 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 578 TAPASAM, January 2006 Cochin Jewish communities produced religious singers ( Cochin Jewish ‘T lyricists. They also wrote their own unique as (Elijah) sions, on Sabbaths and festivals. composed hundreds of Hebrew songs that they sang on festive occa- piyyutim in 1757. “The Book of Poetry for Shabbat and Festivals”, published in of the Law) (which falls on eight day Jews as part of the prayers, or in home. either sung as part of the synagogue service or at end formal are dozens of different songs recited on the festival. These were included of members of the agricultural settlement Nevatim published a collection lection entitled Ernakulam, Chennamangalam and Mala communities. In 1980, a col- Hai members of the Parur community more than his other wives and concubines, crowned Esther Queen. Persia, to become p beautiful young Jewess, was t ties read the Book of Esther adversaries (Book of Esther 9:1). On this festival, all Jewish communi- Persia were saved from extermination and they prevailed over their month even carnival, which falls on the thirteenth day of twelfth Jewish Ahaseurus’ kingdom stretching from “India to Kush”. The festival, or some geographic proximity to the original events of festival, King annual ritual cycle for the Jews of Cochin, possibly because they felt Purim in Cochin Songs for Sabbaths and Festive Occasions”. in Rishon le-Zion and Ramat Eliahu entitled “The Prayer Order oday is Purim’ kollas Seder T iferet, who settled in Israel 1955. Adar 24 Adeni, which was published in in Hebrew and Malayalam five years until 1882. under the name “Book of Songs and Praises”, which also In addition to the religious texts and original prayers, all of Over the centuries, eight Jewish communities in Cochin In Israel, several collections of what are known by the Cochin The ludic festival of Purim was one the favourite days in Hacohen’s printing press at Parur printed six prayer books and Azharot, Huppat Hatanim kollas , commemorates the time when Jewish people living in Areshet Sefateinu 26 written by have been collated among Cochin Jews. In 1963, Piyyutim art of his harem. King . This book was used by members of the , in which the Purim story unfolds: Esther Adenese-Cochini song-writer ( aken to the house of , Meir bar Menahem and the late Eliahu was published in 25 On Amsterdam in 1688 (1684?), and A Simhat T Succot further book was published piyyutim Ahaseuerus loved Esther (T Ahaseuerus, King of orah Ashdod by two ex- abernacles)), there and prayers, such (The Rejoicing paytanim p Amsterdam ayt an ) and ) Elia , a and during the festival. The sang by Cochin Jews on ritual and life-cycle occasions, are sung before Purim Songs One entitled “Ahashverosh Song” (M23, H20) recounts some of the ture, which adorned the liturgy of festival. the set versions of prayers, but represented embellished poetic litera- Malayalam are recorded in the book “Karkulali-Y lies and friends sing Purim songs enjoy the revelry enthusiastically been reduced to drinks and snacks “although everyone participated Purim they observed was subdued and the communal festive meal had these joys have passed into memory”, they wistfully wrote. In 1987, the and the silver rupees children would receive from adults. “All of reminiscent of the Hindu celebration Holi at same time year larly describe the Purim banquet, social reversals on holiday distinguish between Haman and Mordechai”. for one day in the year reminiscent of the royal feast mentioned in Book Esther beauty contests in fancy dress. Religious Jews organize a Purim feast, celebrations on Purim, perform plays and parodies, even hold nities, with the Indian community being no exception, hold carnival-like on the gallows that had been prepared for Mordechai. Jewish commu- Haman’s plot. The Jewish people was saved, and Haman hanged Esther to intervene on behalf of the Jews, and she told Haman plotted to destroy the entire Jewish people. Mordechai persuaded favourite, who hated Mordechai for refusing to bow down him, so reveal her identity uncle who had raised her as if she were his daughter The king was unaware that Esther a Jew p cal poor”. Chendamangalam Book of Esther was the thrill of making an effigy cruel Haman, enemy in neighbours, and relatives; t busy carrying the full plates of tasty homemade pastries to friends, Jewish children were given shiny coins by the adults. They kept tends the synagogue to hear reading of scroll Esther… Cochin describes the festival thus: “In evening, after fast, everyone at- arty , a fancy-dress competition, and traditional charity-giving to the lo- Purim songs, which are just some of the hundreds songs In a rare description of Purim among the Malabar Jews, Hacco 28 Among the Paradesi community , and a jovial spirit prevailed”. , and burning it in a bonfire. In my community of . 27 The villain of the story is Haman, King in the early 1950’s, there was also a community , Jews are allowed to get drunk “until they cannot piyyutim asting them as well. Moreover were in no way intended to replace , Katz and Goldberg simi- 29 , because Mordechai, her At these banquet T efefiah-Gorgeous!” wo Purim songs in , told her not to . Ahaseurus of Ahaseurus’ , in which, Shalva W s, fami- , there eil 30 , a 579 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 580 TAPASAM, January 2006 6 5 Purim story of ‘T in Malayalam. This song is based on a story from the Cochin Jew Daniel Haim (d. 1935) and sung by the women (and men) designated “The Certificate Box” (M24,H21, CD26) is composed by the 4 3 2 nounce Mordechai’ dered Haman to bring Mordechai on horseback the palace an- Jewish legends) about Haman’ 1 are recorded. window and died. emptied a chamber pot on her own father’s head. She then fell from leading the horse with Mordechai riding on top of it, for Mordechai, and copy for my interest. Hallegua, head of the Paradesi community in Cochin today my attention on last visit to Cochin in January 2005 when Samuel is written the name of translator title is written the name of author – I.E. Hallegua (d.1941) and below translation, as it was published in Katz and Goldberg 1993; next to the in Hebrew (see mention of the identity composer Order and Songs for Sabbaths Festive Occasions” (n.d.), with no lished by Malabar Jews in Israel once only the collection “The Prayer The Poem in Translation “T its sociological context, without referring to the musical notation. oday is Purim’ oday is Purim” He blocked the tyrant’s designs. The God of Israel took revenge on our behalf power) In the time of King Rejoice today Drink, My brothers, drink unto intoxication. T oday is Purim, our Purim. Today is Purim/ Purim Hayom I. E. Hallegua (d.1941) In the collections of The Purim song “T The Purim poem, which lies at the core of this p T o the best of my knowledge, “T Queen Esther and King Appendix 1). However . s brave deed, Haman’ The 31 In this p Almighty has wrought for us a miracle. Ahashverosh when Haman the oday is Purim, Purim for Us” was brought to kollas aper s daughter , several other Hebrew Purim songs , I shall focus on the actual poem and . 32 , it is reproduced here in English . Ahaseurus. s daughter mistook her father . When King oday is Purim” was pub- Midrash The second song T Ahaserurus or- errible rose (to aper , gave me a (corpus of , is written , and commerce. He was fluent in Malayalam, English Hebrew from the British University of Madras and afterwards worked in real estate above mentioned Samuel Hallegua. 1914) was the father of eight children and 16 grandchildren, including Esther (1870-1957), the heroine of festival. Isaac Hallegua (1868- poser felt special affinity to the Purim festival since his wife’s name was (1868-1941), probably in the year 1905. It could be argued that com- greatest Cochin Hebrew poets and The Composer ences between the Hebrew text and English translation. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out, there are several minor differ- of the Paradesi community The late Jacob Cohen, better known as Jackie, was a beloved member T 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 ranslated by Jacob E. Cohen Because on that day the sun shone forth with sevenfold brightness. So today let us enjoy and rejoice sevenfold (Esther). (All of Israel) sang and rejoiced around Mordechai Hadassah Like on the day Pharaoh was drowned. When they hanged Haman and his sons on own gallows, The never-widowed nation sang songs And they covered his face. From that moment on (Haman) couldn’t even raise his head The King’s lips hissed, “ Will he even insult my Queen?” “ I feel pity for you, indeed”. (Zeresh) said to Haman, But when she heard the Mordechai was a Jew And after that kill all his enemies (the Jews). He erected a scaffold so that he might hang Mordechai, In consultation with Zeresh (his wife) and friends, When all the others bent their knees (to him). When he saw Mordechai the The enemy (Haman) became enraged The song was almost undoubtedly composed by one of the , whose Hebrew knowledge was excellent. Y emenite spit contemptuously at him, 34 In 1886, I.E. Hallegua graduated paytanim, Isaac Elias Hallegua , 33 Shalva W and eil a 581 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 582 TAPASAM, January 2006 drowned in 1909 at a young age. unpublished Hebrew text on Dolly during my recent research on the composed ‘T she wrote a book on her memoirs of Cochin, dence (13.3.2005) that in a conversation with Ruby Daniel, whom marked that “the Paradesi always take all the credit”. thought that the composer was Isaac Elias Hallegua, she angrily re- composer ber of the Malabar (non-Paradesi) community as to identity the Holy Books, as well Jewish commentaries. The similar to other well-known conclude that the composer was well-versed in Proverbs, Psalms and the Prophets (Isaiah Jeremiah). One can the Book of Esther read by Jews on Purim, but also from ences to well-known Jewish texts, particularly from Purim such as Structure, Genre and Theme Isaac Hallegua. Purim song was written by I.S. Hallegua’s grandfather (father’s father), as her husband’ the Queen, and that Zeresh, Haman’s wife, receives unusual prominence comes. as Shulman phrases it, with liberation from stasis, unexpected out- south Indian poetry as the major players in poem act out a ludic drama. once in the Book of Esther). The poem keeps deity sidelines, rooted, the name of God does not appear once (as it drawn to the fact that although Purim song is liturgical and ritually- distressed people, and love betrayal. king and courtiers, wicked men good men, beautiful queen is one that would appeal to any Indian audience. So too are the recounted in the song of destroying one’s enemies and turning round fate poetry of the period, but it should be pointed out that Purim theme I guardedly state that it appears not to be too influenced by local Malayali south Indian state of Kerala, the country spirit. One could surmise that such a “feminist” theme resonated in the oday is Purim’ 38 It is significant that the heroine of this poem a female, Esther It is noteworthy that the authorship of song was challenged Nevertheless, Barbara Johnson reports in personal correspon- The song is 16 lines written in rhyming couplets with refer- , she told me that it was anonymous. When I remarked several songs and poems in Hebrew s advisor and subsequently , there is a fascination with “becoming more piyyutim 35 piyyut. , his youngest daughter Rivka, who from other Jewish communities. When I enquired with a mem- 36 , a woman of independent famous matrilineal Nayars. Ruby mentioned that the Attention should also be , including a hitherto T orah, As in medieval Midrash themes of piyyut alive”, and 37 is t Museum, road as the Paradesi synagogue and has been transferred to Israel Kadavumbhagum synagogue, which used to be located in the same Hadassah, the Queen). However “Purim, Purim for us” with similar references to the song, although they all knew other Purim songs in Hebrew (such as side some metres from the Paradesi synagogue, were unfamiliar with and even the Cochin the Mala and Parur congregations, Chennamangalam community if they knew the song. Past members of both Ernakulam communities, words off by heart. broke out into song; both the men and women knew tune munity cousins were visiting, past members of the once thriving Paradesi com- (Mr translated in the English version), and is also a pun on word “ word “ of the Hebrew version and line 15 translation, resonates with Paradesi community The Community yarak play on words in Hebrew an English p brew elsewhere, since it is difficult to convey the Jewish references and the previous line that Haman felt towards Mordechai. instead of bowing down to him and the anger (“Hema”) mentioned in author thus both referred to the fact that Mordecahi spat at Haman wards Miriam (Numbers 12:14) and to the direct word “to spit”. The the English) refers both to emotion “anger” expressed by God to- version (line 16 of the English). “ [melech] zifzfu initial consonant sounds in neighboring words For example, “ piyyutim Style aneously of .) referring to Zeresh’ ” (“S . When we mentioned the Purim song, everyone spont Hemar . Salient among these is the alliteration with repetition of I then asked many Malabar Jews, both in Kerala and Israel, The song is replete with dual meanings. For example, “ As mentioned, the song was given to me by a member of A literary analysis of the Hebrew song will be published in He- The composer utilizes several literary techniques familiar in 39 p knew the song well; again, men and women sang it spon- at contemptuously”) in line 6 of the Hebrew version (line 8 f by heart. However ” in the previous line 9 of original poem (which is not ” (“The king’ . During my 2004 visit in Jew Affiliation of the Song T ekkumbhagam congregations, who used to re- s wicked husband Haman. s lip , they did not know who composed the Mar li s hissed”). in line 1 , ex-members of the Cochin aper ” (“It is bitter for me”) in line 10 . T own, several Israeli 1 of the Hebrew Ahaseurus and Shalva W aneously Y Ziftei arok, Mar eil ” a 583 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 584 TAPASAM, January 2006 halacha synagogue, where traditionally women were forbidden according to the equally valued as masculine discourse in most contexts. Even the tively prestigious positions in society lient. In every Cochin Jewish synagogue, the women’s presence in ritual acts, including the synagogue, was sa- song. verting patriarchal relationships within the domain of kinship through standing study of women’s songs show that women succeed in sub- partriarchal conditions, as is in most societies. Raheja and Gold’s out- songs, artistic composition did not necessarily take place under song and simply said that ‘T erty” of one or other gender in community and familial contexts does not represent the ‘prop- songs. The Purim song is a written and sang in Hebrew; it mentary knowledge to research carried out so far on Cochin Jewish Conclusion was a Paradesi song! the Cochin Kadavumbhagam, banned song precisely because it to me by more than one Malabar Jew that all the Cochin Jews, except for with other Jewish communities. ary-markers of particular communities and demarcating the boundaries the loud voices. women’s gallery; and women participated in the services singing podium upstairs so that the women could hear perfectly from view munal worship with them. From a sociological/anthropological point of ship with the Paradesi, while still being excluded in past from com- Cochin Kadavumbhagam community nity (like the late Ruby Daniel mentioned above), and by members of meshuchrarim members of their community and influential Paradesi male, yet sung to this day almost exclusively by sents a boundary-marker defining who belongs to ‘shared culture’. oday is Purim’ piyyut , then, the simple Hebrew Purim song analysed in this p 40 In the case of Cochin Jewry (Jewish law) It is significant that in the context of Cochin Jewish women’s This paper has examined a Purim song, which provides supple- “T In the case of Purim song, and other similar compositions, and its expression are distinctly communal, acting as bound- oday is Purim” a Paradesi song, composed by learned (manumitted slaves), attached to the Paradesi commu-

from reading the th , although it is composed by a male. ey had known it for years. It was suggested . It is known by members of the , however , who enjoyed a special relation- , and feminine discourse was T orah or acting as cantors, , women occupied rela- T orah was read from a aper repre- Notes “T 1 2 oday is Purim” in the Hebrew original the Current S Malayalam Songs,” Cf. B.C. Johnson, “New Research, Discoveries and Paradigms: W in the cultural life of Cochin Jews Israel. See: Barbara C. Johnson, “Till Jewish Malayalam folksongs would not be preserved as a significant element 2001, Barbara Johnson predicted (incorrectly in Hindu India Nathan Katz and Ellen S. Goldberg Macmillan, 2006 (forthcoming). View from the Margin: State of Art Indo-Judaic Studies 22. omen Finish Singing: tudy of Kerala Jews”, in N. Katz, S. W , Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993. In The Journal of Indo-Judaic S An Historical Overview of Cochin Jewish W A PPENDIX , The Last Jews of Cochin: Jewish Identity , as it happened) that Cochin tudies eil and K. Ranabir eds. , V ol. 4, 2001, pp. 7- A Shalva W Report on , Palgrave omen’ eil A s a 585 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 586 TAPASAM, January 2006 10 9 3 ‘T 12 11 8 7 6 4 5 oday is Purim’ V tians and the Cochin Jews of Kerala,” S. Weil, “Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: the Cnanite Chris- Delhi: Vikas, 1986, pp. 145-160. P cance, A. I. Simon, Ostfildern: Schwabenverlag, 2002. Kulturen und Religionen, T In meinem Land leben verschiedene Volker: Baustein zu einem Dialog der A Jewish Music Research Centre, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,2005. nied by a disk: Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2005, pp. 208-226. The book is accompa- Malayalam with Hebrew T Judaic S view of Cochin Jewish Women’s Malayalam Songs,” Galmliel eds. B. Johnson, “After word: The Songs and the Project”, in S. Zecharia O. (Hebrew); B. C. Johnson, “T lar Jewish Songs from Cochin, South India,” B. C. Johnson, “They Carry Museum, 1995. A. eds., Montreal: Mediaspaul: 1996, pp. 67-81. Jerusalem: Center for Jewish ed Documenting an Endangered Legacy Perspectives, 1496-1996 la “nouvelle synagogue” de Cochin,” in Jose Journal of Indo-Judaic S turies: Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2002 (2 B. W tive,” in S. Weil, ed., G History of The Jews Cochin B. C. Johnson, “Our Community in Ancient M. Bar Ilan, “India and the Land of Israel: Between Jews Indians in India Katz and E. S. Goldberg India and Israel,” .M. Jussay ol. 16, No. 2, 1982, pp. 175-196. book in German was also published: . Hacco, “The Ritual Cycle of Cochin Jewish Holidays: a Malabari Perspec- ., The Jews of India: A Story Three Communities Amar and R. Jacoby einstein, “Jewish , Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993. J.B. Segal, Alberto Rodrigues da Silva A Cochin: Pangal Press 1946, pp. 43-44. T Review of Published Document tudies ime,” , “The Song of Evarayi,” in The Songs of the Jews Cochin and their Historical Signifi- Oh Lovely Parrot: Jewish Women’s Songs from Kerala. , V The Journal of Indo-Judaic S Karkulali-Y

ol. 4, 2001, pp. 7-22. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1985;..N. T India’s Jewish Heritage , raders in the Indian Ocean-T Ingathering of the Nations: T , The Last Jews of Cochin: Jewish Identity in Hindu tudies, , ranslations

exte alter judischer Lieder aus Kerala, Sudindien Aldina da Silva, efefiah-Gorgeous! ill the W Their Notebooks with Art, , London: V V T avim, “Une presence portugaise autour de ol. 4, 2001, pp. 79-94. T The Hebrew University omen Finish Singing: wo W nd Jews of India , , Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute and edition 2004), pp Andrew Lang and Michel Oren, trans., Albrecht Frenz and Scaria Zacharia, Les Juifs Portugais: Exil Heritage Contributions to Indian Sociology orlds: allentine Mitchell, 1993. s from the Cairo Genizah,” Andre Myre and tudies, Pe’amim - The Cochin Paradesi Jews in : Jewish Women’ Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, , Thomas Them: W V enth to reasures of Jewish , Jerusalem: The Israel ol. 4, 2001, pp. 39-77; 82, 2000, pp. 64-80. . The Journal of Indo- 68-77. An Historical Over- , 1998; O. Slap T omen’ imberg, ed., New Thirteenth Cen- T ereza Pinto, s Songs in s V ernacu- The The The Art: ak, A , , 30 26 25 24 21 16 14 28 27 31 29 22 19 20 23 18 17 13 15 tive,” in S. Weil, ed., G (sic). native spellings in English. Nair op. cit. spells the village Cennamangalam Chengamangalam and Chennamangalam (as spelled in this paper) are alter- Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2002 (2 p The purpose of the visit was to re-inspect Malabari synagogues and, in S. Zacharia and O. Gamliel eds. op. cit. N. Katz and E. S. Goldberg, op.cit. pp.195-197. (“quietly”), namely word is Hebrew and a corruption of two words: “Kol” (“voice”) “Hass” Cochin Jews. definitely part of the Jewish dialect known as Judeo-Malayalam, distinct to The etymology of this word is unknown. It not Malayalam, but the =23&y=13]. /www Some of these can be seen and heard on a wonderful new web-site [http:/ Singing of the Sephardi Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University For a detailed survey of Cochin Jewish p H.S Kehimkar The grandfather of Elias Madai Ramat Eliahu, Israel served as 1897. J. S Co. Ltd., 1993, p.98. I thank Samuel Hallegua for endowing me with a copy 23 – 28. Coast”, W Bene Israel J.B. Segal, P V count A. M. Lesley V 2002 (2 Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art, and Life-Cycle The Journal of Indo-Judaic S B. Weinstein, “Jewish Pepper Traders of the Malabar Coast: The Rahabis,” India, I.W articular .T .Das, ol. 2, Part 4, 1975, p. 487. . Hacco , “The Ritual Cycle of Cochin Jewish Holidays: a Malabari Perspec- . Fischel, “The Literary Creativity of the Jews Cochin on Malabar . Nair eil, “The Paradesi Cochin Synagogue pector s,” .piyut.org.il/cgi-binsearch.pl?Expression=%E4%E5%E3%E5&x New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995, p.13. Critical Event nd Jewish Book Annual , “Jews of Cennamangalam and Paravur”, The Journal of Indo-Judaic S , the newly renovated Chennamangalam synagogue in prep edition 2004), pp. 50-59. , . ‘Shingli A Ahmedabad synagogue. History of The Jews Cochin, , “Shingly in Cochin Jewish Memory and Eyewitness , According to Cochin Jewish informant History of the Bene Israel India , “the recit T s: an unes of the Cochin Jews’, India’s Jewish Heritage Piyyut Anthropological Perspective on Contemporary al of poetry quietly”. 28 , 1970/1, pp. 25-31. tudies in Cochin (India),” , 2001. , V nd edition 2004), pp.74. ol. 5, 2002, pp. 40-54. tudies, Architecture,” in S. W iyyutim London: V , Mumbai: Marg Publications, V : ol. 3, 2000, pp. 7-21. Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, , see: Edwin Seroussi, “The Piyyut in T Asian Music Journal of Kerala S . T s, the derivation of el . allentine Mitchell and A viv: Dayag Press, radition Series eil, ed. 3/2, 1972, pp. hazan Shalva W aration tudies, India’ of the Ac- , 2, eil s a 587 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 588 TAPASAM, January 2006 Appendix 40 36 3 ‘T 39 35 38 34 33 32 7 oday is Purim’ and Kinship in North India, G 28. Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2002 (2 A Iris Fishof, “Moving the Cochin Synagogue from India to Israel Museum: 2001. p. 8. and Haman, which would be obvious to any Hebrew reader Remembers D. Ruby and B. C. Johnson, S entire document. This research is supported by the Ben-Zvi Institute for I am currently working on the text Dolly D. Shulman, Cochin”, in S. Weil, ed. See: S.H. Hallegua, “The Marriage Customs of the Jewish Community number appear in the Hebrew original. Seven is both a Jewish and an Indian lucky fold’ mentioned twice in the last two lines, although ‘sevenfold’ does not hap piyyutim pointed out to me that the I thank Meir Buzaglo, of the Hebrew University Jerusalem, who has Hadassah is Esther the name Esther after Hadassah, since, according to Jewish tradition, audience to whom the Hebrew text refers. He thus places in parantheses translation it is 24. Secondly Firstly N. Katz and E. S. Goldberg, op. cit. pp.196. 2006. My thanks to the Koret Foundation for financing that trip. for the exhibition to be opened in Chennamangalam on Friday Curator tudy of Jewish Communities in the East. . Raheja and s most interestingly , in the Hebrew version poem is 16 lines, whereas English . in other Jewish communities. ’ s Perspective,” . Philadelphia, Jerusalem: Jewish Publication Society The Wisdom of Poets, A. Gold . Similarly , the translator concludes poem with ‘seven- Listen to the Heron’ India’s Jewish Heritage The Israel Museum Journal Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. , the translator explains to his English-speaking piyyut , he fills in the names Zeresh, Haman’ Ruby of Cochin: An Indian Jewish Woman also contains references to well-known nd New Delhi: Oxford University Press edition 2004), s World , with a view to publishing the : Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle,

pp. 61-67. , V : Reimagining Gender ol. 13, 1995, pp. 19- , February 24, . Thirdly , 1995. s wife, , per- , as a result of Zia’ order was carried out or perhaps the synagogue saved by chance was killed in a plane crash 1988 and they had not heard whether the given an order to knock down the synagogue in Karachi. However Zia They told her that rumor had it General Muhammad Zia ul Haq they had something important for her to investigate them in Karachi. staying overnight in Karachi, her acquaintances Bombay told that Embassy in Islamabad, but that she would be changing planes and traveling to Pakistan visit a friend who worked at the United States Bnei Israel community there. When she told them that would be various parts of the world, visited Bombay and met with members W I. Harriet Samuels Jews and others. community of Karachi, which was comprised Bnei Israel Jews, Cochin Jerusalem, what they contain and their use for the study of Jewish lem, where they are available for research. ledgers for safekeeping to the Library of Ben-Zvi Institute in Jerusa- ledgers covering the period of 1961 to 1976. In 2004 she presented through Karachi on the way to Islamabad in 1989 and came upon American Jewish tourist named Harriet Samuels who happened to pass covery of ledgers the Jewish Community Karachi by an intrepid Michael Glatzer Jewish Community of Karachi Ledgers of the She promised to look into it for them. where the synagogue was located and verify what had become of it? est Hart In 1989 Ms. Harriet Samuels, an American Jewish woman from I would like to describe how these ledgers from Karachi reached The purpose of this paper is to report on the serendipitous dis- ford, Connecticut, whose p s death. W ould she be willing to p astime is meeting with Jews in ass by the street 589 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 590 TAPASAM, January 2006 af and the inside it, only three ledgers containing the accounts of synagogue. where she found a case for after the synagogue was destroyed. He let her glance inside ark The man who lived there had been entrusted with these few artifacts the yard she saw first a she was left with little alternative than to do what the driver said. was Marathi, but English the common language among in longhand. It appears that the predominant language community II. The Ledgers the library of Institute. them with her on a visit to Israel in 2004 where she entrusted material on all the Jewish communities in Communities in the East, a research institute Jerusalem that collects decided to donate them the Ben-Zvi Institute for S he was t fact that she wanted to photograph what was left of the synagogue, and knows where the things are that you want.” She was perplexed by saying “you see that man on the motorcycle, we’re gonna follow him he then after a few minutes the driver urged her to get back into taxi, the street sign. Ms. Samuels got out of car to take a few photos and Synagogue S address she was given and he took her there. morning for a driver to take her somewhere. She showed the would have to pass through customs and passport control. and manuscripts on an international flight out of Pakistan where she realized that it would be highly dangerous to try carry items of Judaica hotel and started to think how she could get them out of Pakistan. She rep her home in Connecticut via a postal service and friend Islamabad p experience, but she did arrive safely and entrusted her cumbersome and the ledgers as hand baggage. The flight was a harrowing Ledgers of the Jewish Community Karachi ackages to her friend from the embassy terwards an aired the She offered to buy them from him and he told just take He followed the cyclist to a house somewhere in Karachi, and There are three ledgers, 34 x 22 cm. They all written in English After consulting friends what to do with the ledgers, Ms. Samuels She arrived in Karachi, took a hotel and asked the following That af T aking her to see undefined “things”. orah case as well. Putting them in the t T treet, the name of which appeared in Urdu and English on ternoon she flew to Islamabad carrying the orah case and sent it out in the diplomatic mail. aron qodesh bima or heikhal (lectern for reading the T orah scroll. But there was no scroll (ark that holds . She had the ledgers sent to Asia and A foreigner in a hostile land, Af ter some time he found axi she returned to her Africa. She brought T tudy of Jewish orah scrolls). T T orah) and orah case few births are recorded in this period. Subscription, bids, Illumination of lights and donation. *Only four categories were frequently used during this period: (January 1, 1961 to September 9 1965) are: W given). a circumcision was held in the synagogue June 3, 1962 (no name is for Birth Certificates,” written in by hand. is when the category “shroud cloth account” replaced by “Charges September 1966 and January 1969. between January 1961 and June 1973, but with a gap donations and subscriptions to the synagogue during period synagogue in Cochi the 1980s. The three of them cover mainly communities as well. Nathan Katz refers to this practice in the writing is proscribed. This seems to have been the case in other clerk was hired to record the bids on Sabbath and festivals, when different ethnic groups. It is also not unlikely that a local non-Jewish akintker Remarks Use of Halls Shroud cloth account S Fees for wedding Changes of marriage certificate Fees for V Donation* Fees for Circumcision (payment to the the electric bills of synagogue)* Illumination of Lights (presumably this is a donation to help cover Oil Hash Kaba the ill Misheberakh Bids (for honors in the synagogue)* Subscription (membership)* Receipt no. Date The categories of donations, as described in t Another circumcision, this one in the family of Pinhas Shalome tones for graves This fact may reflect the age of congregants, since very There are some very interesting remarks, such as the fact that , was performed on September 22, 1963. ow Naming (i.e. naming of daughters) = memorial prayers = prayers on behalf of the living and A brighter moment in the ledger mohel ?) he first volume Michael Glatzer 591 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 592 TAPASAM, January 2006 made carrying all of the there is an elaborate celebration in the synagogue and circuits are family members]”, “ (the last p of these honors were “opening reciting the passage from Prophets ( member times, when the lighting was not subsidized by some generous of festival evenings, such as Hoshana Rabba (the last night of the feast electricity example, Bhorpher Notable also were the donations for “ the community were presumably prayers for the ill. These often made by women and particularly after the fifth reading, misheberakh a p here, is people who offered a certain amount for particular honor on edifying, since here the bids are listed by name. The meaning of bidder Cohen Ephraim (perhap Cochini or Bagdadi (Indian Jews of Iraqi extraction): Moses Samuel, could be from Cochin: Mashiya Ben Daniel. Some names on one hand, and Hindu customs the other “weight of hair”. This donation may remind us the case Nazarite the community and its origin needs to be clarified: Rahamim ben Matitya. import may indicate that the community had to draft qualified people fill this Gedin for “two young men blowing the shofar [the ram’s horn].” This Mhedekar family non-Indian, such as Ledgers of the Jewish Community Karachi T articular day abernacles) or Simhat ant function on the Jewish New Some of the notable contributions were for “full light” on important V From these lists we can reconstruct the ethnic composition of On March 3, 1964 a 14 Rupee donation was made, equivalent to This book enables us to identify the most honored members of A donation of 40 Rupees was made on October 6, 1963 by M. A number of weddings are mentioned, such as two in the olume 2 (October 2, 1961 – September 10, 1966) is p , the synagogue was only p . assage in the weekly donations were characterized as “special , or at least those who bought the greatest honors, such , such as opening the ark, being called to . , one in 1963 and the other 1964. The great majority of names are Bnei Israel: For , Kharvilker Haskaba A.M. Davidson. One name is p T s of orah scrolls. T [prayers for the deceased]. Some of orah (The Rejoicing of the Law), when Y , W emenite extraction). Other names are arulker T Ekhal orah portion), reading of artially lighted in order to save on Y This may indicate that at other Misheberakh Haftara ear [the ark]” reading of , Mhedeker . . ). The most prestigious articularly intriguing , Dighorker [the blessing of misheberakh articularly T Mashlim Haf orah, or . Other t ara ”. . there were no more donations to record. community in its last years. Karachi.” were only 15 subscribers, among them nine who are listed as “left Joel) with the remarks “resigned 1969.” Joseph, Benjamin Elijah, Naomi Reuben, Enoch R. Joel, Joseph 359.50 Rs.” “expired October 26, 1968, leaving her account in arrears by the sum of and the book Ruby of Cochin that tells her story known to us from Barbara Johnson’s extensive collaboration with her Notable among them Ruby M. Daniel, a namesake of the class in 1969: third 2 and the fourth 1 Rupee. Here is breakdown according to subscriptions. The first class paid 5 Rupees a month, the second 3, i.e. memberships. It is notable that there were four classes of (Jan. 1969-March 1976). This volume contains lists of subscriptions, was she asking that this prayer for the ill be made? misheberakh 1964 about 6 sets were sold. as opening the ark on Simhat on the Feast of (palm branch and presumably the other three species that were taken with the 50 Rupees appears as income for a and sold sets of the four species to members. Elsewhere sum Judging by the amount, it would appear that community prepared The third ledger has many blank pages, indicative perhaps that In this way the ledgers allow us to trace decline of 2.00 By contrast with 1969, in the period of January to June 1973 there In the list for 1969 we find names of some individuals (Hannah There were also 14 “non-members” whose donations are listed. 1.00 3.00 5.00 Rs. Some of the most interesting facts are found in third volume A Other interesting remarks in this ledger are the sale of lady name Mrs. W T A orah scroll that day community of six can hardly function and operate a synagogue. ” on T abernacles) for 325 Rupees on September 29, 1964. April 12, 1966. Where did she come from? For whom 41 10 2 13 subscriptions “ “ “ .J. Hertz donated 50 Rupees for a “special , such as Enoch M. Daniel Bhapuker T orah and t lulav . So we may presume that in aking p . This other Ruby Daniel art in the first circuit Michael Glatzer . lulav 593 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 594 TAPASAM, January 2006 graveyard. preservation of the Bnei Israel graveyard, a small part Cutchi synagogue. In the year 2000 Ms. Joseph went to court ensure Ms. Joseph in the new building along with a site for smaller The government never honored its promise to provide an apartment for which was demolished in the 80s to make way for a shopping plaza.” a synagogue on the site of Magen Shalom, Karachi’s last synagogue, woman named Rachel Joseph for “compensation and the right to build Bombay (December 17, 2000) describing the efforts an 82 year old memory of the Jews in Pakistan alive. or other countries. Iranian Jews, emigrating via Pakistan to India and from there Israel kept a very low profile. were only about seven Jews in Karachi at the time of her visit and they ceased to exist. a stepping stone to Israel and the UK. The community in Peshwar founding of the S and founding of Pakistan (1947) the partition Palestine 1893. main institution was the Magen Shalom Synagogue in Karachi built Musharraf and Israeli foreign ministers in Istanbul President Pervez now willing to reveal their true identity after the meeting of Pakistani Karachi. He claimed that they pose mostly as Parsis in public, but are that he is a member of one the 10 remaining Jewish families in himself as a Jewish doctor working in Karachi hospital. He claimed 2005 in which an individual named Ishaq Moosa both in late 2005. century Pakistan comprised about 2500 Jews at the beginning of 20 From other sources it is well known that the Jewish community in III. The Jews of Pakistan Ledgers of the Jewish Community Karachi The second is a letter to the The first is a report by Kamal Siddiqi in the However two interesting reports from 2000 and 2005, keep the It is also known that Pakistan has served as a transfer point for From the testimony of Harriet Samuels (1989) we learn that there By 1968 only 250 Jews were living in Karachi. There was also a community in Peshwar . Most of them were Marathi speaking, i.e. Bnei Israel. ’ s address to the t ate of Israel (1948), many Jews emigrated to India as American Jewish Congress in W Jerusalem Post . Af ter p Akheer introduced Indian Express from December artition of India ashington, Their th , where scholars in the future will be able to glean information from it. should give it to the libraries of research institutes and universities IV program. all the turmoil of 1970s and 1980s, time Zia’s Islamization information on the fate of few Jews who did remain in Karachi after and the writer is who he says is, then we have an additional bit of the history of a community and donations to a synagogue – can be of great value in reconstructing the most prosaic material and nearly worthless – records of receipts other emigration, where they live today and if are still in touch with each in the UK – and filling out stories of their lives Karachi, as tracking down the families mentioned in ledgers – Israel and could all be found in letter . Conclusion , and indeed the fact . Some doubts have been cast regarding the authenticity of this Most important is to say that even something appears be There is obviously more work to be done on this subject, such Encyclopedia Judaica s he gave about the history of community . Anyone who has access to such material , but if the letter is authentic Michael Glatzer 595 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 596 TAPASAM, January 2006 Jews and the peoples of Islam (Arabs, Persians, guages and literatures. It appears though that music is the field in which syntheses, such as the various Judeo-Arabic and Judeo-Persian lan- cont Arab and Persian, later Ottoman, Empires. This close physical until the 16 sp Edwin Seroussi of Islam: An Overview Jewish Musicians in the Lands and Islam are in conflict too. conflict spilled over the religious issue, creating a sense that Judaism generally perceived as being in collision (Seroussi 2000). This political Islam and until the recent present. and performers of generally urban musical genres since the inception mitters of the musical traditions lands Islam, i.e. as composers their closest and most fertile cultural exchange. sical materials (e.g. the same modal systems of external music occasions of performance does not necessarily imply dif This methodological division between internal and external spaces fessional Jewish musicians on behalf of the surrounding Islamic society music related to the synagogue liturgy and produced by pro- made by the Jews of Islamic lands for their internal needs, especially studies of this subject in the future. a general overview of this issue aiming to set the basis for more detailed Maghreb to Central Asia) are still be assessed. The present article is enon and particularly its wide scope geographical spread (from the ans throughout the 20 act led, in spite of religious dif Several authors have already observed the role of Jews as trans- At the out Recently I pointed out that due to the Israeli-Arab conflict th century set, one must make , the majority of Jewish people dwelled in th century Y et, since the inception of Islam and at least ferences, to diverse types of cultural Y , Jewish and et, the reasons behind this phenom-

a

dif ferentiation between the music T Arabic cultures are urks, etc.) achieved ferences in mu- . a person to praise human beauty for it in the whole world abstains from them” but “songs of love a person for hymns praising God are admitted and “no man from the People of Israel ish weddings. In his response Rabbi Hayya maintains that songs and who asked him whether it is permitted to perform to the members of Jewish community Gabes (today in Tunisia) legal opinion by a religious authority) of Rabbi Hayya Gaon (939-1038) Jewish writings on music. cially towards instrumental music and women’s song, can be found in ( “Epistle of Music” composed by members the Brotherhood Purity by Shem-T Maimonides (see Cohen 1934). most notable in the famous ciated with drinking are found in the opinions of later rabbis from S position against instrumental music, women’s song, and music asso- party of men, [then] they are totally prohibited”. Echoes this strict nothing worse than this and even [worse] if occurs in a drinking (‘songs of love’), and… women that play the drums and dance, there is heroism, etcetera, such as those called by the kabir debted to the terminology of ca. 1 Sp 901). Many more examples of this involvement can be found in Islamic in his (882-942) in Baghdad. Rabbi Saadyah’s passage on the rhythmic cycles and thought can be traced back to the times of Rabbi Saadyah Gaon sic of the external society The present article focuses only on the involvement of Jews in mu- noticeable in the music for external rather than internal consumption. A clear example is the role of instrumental music, which much more on the choices of musical genres and manners performance. s 1989). W theory and philosophy in the Islamic countries (for an overview opposed to their role in the development and transmission of music differentiation between the Jewish involvement in musical practice as Ikhwan al-Safa cene apply to internal repertoires). erner and Sonne 1941-1943; Shiloah 1993; for source text ain. . 141) famous p T Another methodological observation to be made pertains the Sefer emunot ve-de’ot Y The source of a p races of the austere attitude to music in Islamic orthodoxy The acquaint ehuda ibn ov ben ) sect (see Shiloah 1978). Y T ossef ibn Falaqera (1225-1295) appears to be the ibbon’ ance of Jewish thinkers with assage on singing in the assage on music in the . s Arabic translation of An import responsum Al-Farabi’ is app Y arently indebted to ant example is the et, it has an undeniable influence s beauty concerning music by the great s (873-951) , to laud the hero for it Y Sepher ha-mevaqqesh Sefer ha-kuzari ehuda Halevy’ Arabs Arabic music in Jew- Arabic music theory Kit ab al-musiqi al- ash’ar al-ghazl Al-Kindi (836- reponsum Edwin Seroussi s see s (1075- , espe- is in- , see Adler p ain, (a s 597 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 598 TAPASAM, January 2006 Jewish Muscians in the Lands of Islam of S he saves his life by intoning a song of the corresponding Jewish holiday faith. Sometimes the Jewish musician commits suicide; in order cases of whether to remain faithful and face the consequences, or betray his Jewish holiday against the religious precepts, thus creating dilemma ing to it, a Jewish musician is ordered play or sing in the midst of various versions and variant archs ordered it. This status is reflected in a Jewish folk tale found and King David. even related the musical practices of Sufis with those Levites believed that the Sufi kept traditions of Biblical Prophets, and ence. Rabbi century Egypt one finds even more tangible evidence of this Sufi influ- 111 had direct access to the teachings of Sufi masters such as Kabbalah and Sufism (Fenton 1977, 1981, 1984). It is known that Jews sic are also found in the mystical streams of both religions, i.e. Abraham However nominations active in Islamic courts, the Jews were generally not slaves. and the aristocracy general, the social contexts for such activities were palaces of rulers nities in the lands of Islam are documented since medieval period. In surrounding non-Jewish society Jewish musicians at the service of 1998). ample, the case of Syrian Jews in USA Kaufman Shelemay Jews from Islamic countries scattered around the world (see, for ex- is carried with extreme care until the present by descendants of of the non-Jewish majority the lands of Islam created a space for their dedication to music on behalf of music as a profession. Their status tolerated religious minority in Jew concerning music (see the articles in Shiloah 1993) cannot conceal that ciples of The book 1). p s were proportionately more active than Muslims in the development ain are recorded. For example, in the semi-mythological history of

Y Contacts between the Jewish and Islamic ideologies of mu- Professional Jewish musicians performing outside their commu- A Several names of Jewish musicians serving at the Muslim courts et, this ideological af not Abulafia includes a det , they were compelled to appear at the court Abulafia from S Sha’are tzedeq able example of this influence is found in the writings Rabbi Abraham ben Moses Maimon, son of . Unlike musicians of other religious and ethnic de- p written probably in Palestine by one of the dis- . For this reason, the Islamic musical herit ain (13 s throughout the Islamic countries. finity between Judaic and Islamic thought ailed description of the Sufi “p th century) and his disciples (Idel 1984). s whenever the mon- Al-Ghazali (d. Maimonides ath”. In 14 Accord- age th . Andalusian music traditions in Morocco, gentiles for Jews in North periods there is still evidence of instrumental music performances by and, more rarely communities and became performers of instrumental music in Jewish cases of Jewish women who crossed the barriers their traditional present context refers to male performers and composers, there are houses and private residences). (notably weddings) and for pure entertainment (e.g. playing in coffee- served both the Jewish and Muslim audiences in life cycle events the different parts of Islamic world. In most cases Jewish ensembles tar tiles that play bring to their houses in holidays, and sometimes on week days, gen- 1680 Tunis 1733) testifies: “I witnessed a scandal...[Jews from Tunis] tral Caucasus (Eliyahu 1999), Persian (Nettl and Shiloah 1978) Cen- North petuated the repertoires from various classic music traditions in ish musicians or accompanying Muslim male and female singers, per- considerably low S cause playing music was a source of income for underprivileged Jews. attitude was more lenient than their Muslim counterparts, perhaps be- Despite the rabbis’ predisposition against instrumental music, their against instrumental music may be one cause for this phenomenon. onwards, is particularly remarkable. The bias of Islamic orthodoxy sition in the urban centers of Islamic empires from 18 as singers” (Goldberg 1990:26). Libya Jewish men gained access to the palace “by virtue of their abilities served as the link of Jewish community to centers power quarter (Capsali 1976, vol. 1:91ff). Sometimes, Jewish musicians seraglio after the monarch in disguise heard him play at Jewish Sult cian, a refugee from S (1483-1555) from Constantinople relates the story of a Jewish musi- musician coming from the Easter Caliphate. Rabbi Eliyahu Capsali Abderrahman II in Córdoba, is sent to Mansur al-Y Zyriab, the founder of W till, the st ) and Asia (Slobin 1982), serving as agent an Bayazid II (1481-151 Africa (Ben Jewish musicians were active in the practice of The role of Jews in instrumental music performance and compo- h alil atus of Jewish instrument (wind instrument, perhaps the ahudi, who was active at the court of kinnor , non-Jewish event . Jewish ensembles, sometimes including non-Jew- Ami 1970), the Middle East, Iraq (W ( kamanja p ain, called Africa. Rabbi estern 1) to the highest musical position at ) and Arabic School, a Jewish musician, Although “Jewish musicians” in the s. nevel alist Abraham who was nominated by s of musical exchange between s in the Jewish community was Abraham Ibn Musa (T Algesiras to receive the great Algeria and ( ‘ ud ghaita ) and )... and men inter- tof T arkow 1987), the unisia. In earlier (drum, probably Alhakim I and Edwin Seroussi th etuán ca. century Arabo- . In Al- 599 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 600 TAPASAM, January 2006 Jewish Muscians in the Lands of Islam ensembles from Marrakech in the early 20 (Ben whose musicians were trained by the Muslim master Mahdi ben Sota nence, performers of 1908). The cities Marrakech and Mogador have a history of Jewish the Sultans towards Jewish musicians, e.g. ‘Abd el-’Aziz (ruled 1894- and the French painter Eugene Delacroix, as well by esteem of traditions. Edmond Nathan h since the 19 mingle with women...” (Ms. British Museum 440, fol. 164v). However each instrument: kbira ben Dahan. In Mogador the leading ensemble was that of the renaissance of school repertoire related to this music. Founder of the musical society and the early 20th century and published a landmark collection of literary and scholars, such as 86). He was assisted in this task by other Jewish talented musicians figure in the renaissance of (d 1908). 1928), who used to accompany the great Muslim singer Mohamed Sfindja the violin and rebab player Saul Durant, nicknamed Mouzino (1865- the 20 and Muslim ued to excel in the performance of local Constantine Sheikh Raymond Leyris and Sylvain Ghrenassia contin- Ka musician Prince Cantemir), Moshe Faro (known as Musi or Among them are classic music since the early 17th century (see Seroussi 1990, 2001). Edirne, Saloniki and Izmir were involved in the development of Ottoman Israel and in Morocco. Morocco, with mutual exchanges and performances being staged in renewal in the relations between Muslim and Jewish musicians from 1999). The peace process in the Middle East has allowed for a tentative the 1970s, as for example in Island of Jerba (in Tunisia; see Davis Y akham ako and s ,

and the composers Çelebiko (an instructor of famous Ottoman (lit. “large or double four”, because it included twice the number of Ami 1970). J Ottoman Jewish musicians from Constantinople (Istanbul), th as Al-Moutribia, ews were also active in the perpetuation of Mu century were Saud El Medioni, called Saoud l’Oranais. In testified by travelers such as the Italian Jew Samuel Romanelli t Among the Jewish instrument amburi t Arab musicians still shared performances in North s h ,e, d. 1776) a leading musician in the court of Sultan century the Jewish instrumentalists appear to attain promi- al-ala miskali ‘ud (player of the string instrument (Moroccan , Y rebab afil is considered until the present as a central Alfred Lebrati (b 1885). Arabo-Andalusian music of (player of , Western viola and Y Algerian art music (Bouzar-Kasbadji, 39- afil (1877-1928) was a leading figure in Andalusian music). miskal alist , an Ottoman p t Andalusian tradition. Jewish h century was the s of the Another major figure was tar t ) ambur Algeria (

Andalusian musical Among the famous headed by Samuel Algerian anpipe) ) Y Y gharnati ahudi Kara osef Zdidi, Arba’a al- nawba tamburi Africa in Y ahudi ) in in , Orchestra of the British-sponsored Palestinian Broadcasting eration with his equally successful brother Daud al-Kuweiti. member of the Iraqi Radio Orchestra in 1936 who worked close coop- that period was the violinist and composer Salah al-Kuweiti, a founding Egyptian) music to Iraq. (‘Azzuri Effendi) who was involved in the introduction of “modern” (i.e. accompanied by a activated by two wooden sticks), of modern Iraq for Palestine in 1934 to become a leading figure the development consisted of Jews. Arabic Music held in Cairo 1932 almost all the official Iraqi delegation W frame drum with cymbals). More modern ensembles incorporated the other remarkable Iraqi Jewish musicians expert on the local Later on he was joined by the (three or four string spike fiddle), called 1987). The instrumental ensemble established by Jewish musicians, mentioning the modernist Jewish composer Selim local Muslim and Christian Radio that included Jewish immigrants from Iraq and Egypt as well They founded the Oriental Music Orchestra of Kol Israel, Israeli scent whom some recordings have been preserved was Sult tional country Ibrahim, b. 1881) who was active in Istanbul. 20 sha”. She was probably the most renowned female Iraqi singer of Murad (1900-1972) who was honored with the prestigious title of “Pa- Iraqi Jewish female singers performed this repertoire as well, Selima his immigration to Israel as Shlomo Ziv-Li (b 1920). T cians and composers of more recent generations in Turkey are Shem name of Hajja Sult (1903-1981), who converted to Islam and later on appeared under the at the most prominent Jewish musician of the Ottoman Empire ever and Isaac Fresco Romano, known as Mahmud I, ov Shikiar (1840-1920) from Izmir and estern violin, th century al-maqam al-Iraqi Iraqi Jews were conversant in all musical genres practiced this court of sult al-chalgi al-Baghdadi . Interpreting of the Iraqi maqam was not a male privilege. Skilled They played a p Arab music in Palestine/Israel and the leader of “Orient Aharon Hamon (known as .

Another impressive female maqam singer of Jewish de- qanun an Selim III. ana santur They were headed by the famous , Y nay oussif (see V in the 19 articular role in the development of tradi- (a version of the Persian 72-string box zither Another prominent Iraqi Jewish musician of Arab musicians. In this context it is worth and , consisted of a singer ( Al-Kuweiti brothers, as well by many Among the distinguished Jewish musi- ‘ud dumbek th jawsa and 20 . an der Linden 1999). At the International Congress of tamburi Y Abraham Levy Hayyat (Missirli ahudi Harun, died af or (clay drum) and th al-kamana al-Baghdadiya centuries (Warkow 1986, Izak (1745-ca.1814), the Al-Nur ‘udi qari al-maqam , known af Ezra , who served Edwin Seroussi ana Aharon lef duff Authority ter 1721) maqam Aharon Y (small oussif ter al” ) t . . 601 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 602 TAPASAM, January 2006 Jewish Muscians in the Lands of Islam This phenomenon was p stantial role in the conception and transmission of art folk music. weddings and other family celebrations (Squires 1975). counterparts. This instrumental music accompanies group dancing in hanging on the shoulder and activated with sticks) their Muslim dastga-ha and census of 1903 counted sixty professional Jewish instrumentalists repertoire for name was Mort Persian classical music. In the 20 Thal virtuoso Musa-Khan Kashani (1856-1939) who served under Prince Qoli and Darwish-Khan, who recorded his ing of a tions of the of relatives. members of one family and therefore the Jewish ensembles consisted (Eliyahu 1999). The music profession was handed down among the ary for Muslims to engage Mountain Jewish musicians in their festivities of the Iranian government (Netzer 1984). were regularly played at weddings. Jewish musicians we can mention the guished mission of the Avdalimov and Izrailov ensembles from Derbent. virtuoso Shamil Navakhov (1920-1981) and the members of lute), (upright spike fiddle), Bobohonov Palestine in the 1930s and perpetuated their Barno Izhakova and the Eliezerov family of Uzbeki musicians reached sisting, in addition to the traditional instruments, of drum). Under Soviet influence, larger ensembles were constituted con- formed only by the Uzbeki The old Jewish style of Uzbekist 1982). singers in this community of 5000. Jewish experts on the Persian Al-Sult chang Persia was another Muslim country where Jews played a sub- In the Kurdish territories of Iraq, Jews shared instrumental In the Eastern Caucasus, from Baku to Nalchick, it was custom- Outstanding Jewish performers were also involved in the trans- mugham Af an and shash maqam are known by name since the late-19th century ter the collap , Gabriel Mullokandov an was considered one of the great creative geniuses Azeri and Daghest (hammered zither related to the Persian Among the musical genres performed by Jews are sec- zurna shash maqam aza Ney-Davud (b ca 1904), a disciple of T (improvised section), ajikist (double reed oboe) and nay an, who comprised a relatively large percent se of the Soviet Union, Jewish musicians from Jewish performers in the 20 articularly noticeable in Shiraz (Loeb 1972). (traverse flute) and clarinet. shash maqam tanbur tradition from Uzbekist ani , the accompanied by the mugham th T Among the out century the outstanding Jewish tasnif almasov brothers, Bert garmoshka was chamber-like, being per- radif repertoire. Suites consist- (“song”) and doira

in the 1970s on behalf tradition there (Slobin (Asiatic accordion) th st (large barrel drum an and doira Among the distin- century are Levi dutar anding Mount . santur The räng Aqa Huseyn- (large frame (two-string a Davidov kamancha T (“dance”) ajikist ), ghijak age an. ain A , which they are paid by the landlord; fifty-three out of sixty Jews, who get their livelihood by playing in the different coffee-houses, for from major cities of these areas. created for Jewish artists new opportunities in the musical life the 19 formances in the cof Jewish presence. Jews were also actively involved in live musical per- publishing houses, broadcasting and the film industry boosted this popular music of Islamic countries Jews in the modern art and not to socialize with the non-Jews, but sing for p attend the gentile’ inappropriate conduct. The women replied that while they did indeed moned the women to a meeting at which he warned them about their the others. The merchants reported incident to Rabbi who sum- were two Jewish women, who singing and rejoicing along with cial gathering playing drums and wind instrument who witnessed a group of non-Jewish men and women leaving so- (d 1782; see rabbinical responsum by Rabbi Moshe Israel from the Island of Rodhes ization processes affecting their communities during this period ern Sephardi women in the early 20 such as singing and dancing at celebrations” (1856). Playing string instruments to play “a guit women who met regularly at the fountain in main street and knew how Guerin witnessed in mid-nineteenth century Rhodes Sephardi girls and musical instruments, always in internal gatherings. The traveler Victor the 19 percussionists who accompanied ensembles of female singers. From Israel and in the New of the professional performers in their countries origin, resettled performing out in the Sephardi communities of Ottoman Empire. Jewish women audiences at weddings and parties. Similar to them are the daqqaqat T th unis in 1847 report European colonialism in North Jewish female instrumentalists in the Islamic world include chiefly Examples of semi-professional female ensembles are the th century granted the Jews a more secure status as citizens and century on there is evidence of Jewish women playing other ‘ud from Iraq, a group of four to five drum players who entertained , mandolin, and even the Moshe yedabber ar that resembled a S side their community was frowned upon phenomenon. s p arties, they did so solely in a professional cap Y feehouses. ork area where they continue to develop their art. s: “There are about sixty musicians in this city The development of the recording industry , fol. 57a) recalls two Jewish merchant An English Jewish witness writing qanun p th anish mandolin and accomp Africa and the Middle East since century , was customary among East- , as p ay art of the modern- . s. Among them Edwin Seroussi tañedoras . anied acity A s , , , 603 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 604 TAPASAM, January 2006 Jewish Muscians in the Lands of Islam was Rabbi David Buzaglo from Morocco. melodies of the most popular songs day rabbis allowed the composition of Hebrew sacred songs texts set to influence of the entertainment industry and coffeehouses, some the religious leadership during this period. signs of the weakening traditional Jewish life and authority ban culture of the Islamic countries in 20 from Const Reinette Sultana Daud, known as l’Orainase, Raymond Leyris lar and the movies. secular popular music styles stemming from the recording industry classical traditions as in the past, they also commanded emerging music entrepreneurs continued to be involved in the performance of (Margoliouth 1850, vol. II: 47-48). Thus, while Jewish musicians and and are distinguished from the minority by their superior skill of art” came known as Fayruz the Jewish singer and ‘ud player Rachel Smuha (1895-1955), who be- figures of the Syrian song in early 20 (see, Enrico Macias, son of Sylvain, who attained a great success in France including the T and singer Bishi Slama (Khaisa Salama, 1891-1958), Louisa Hbiba Msika (Salama c 1893-d 1930), composer century mostly by Jews, such as the sisters Shamama and Leila Qfez, the city of Tunis was composed and performed since early 20 Blond-Blond, René Perez and Lili Boniche. lar music of the Middle East. 2003), and the out prominent Moroccan Jewish singer communities of Moroccan Jews in France, Canada and Israel. Elmaghrebi. The latter became a prominent performer for the immigrant finds Zohara Shiloah 2003). from Jerusalem, and also recorded secular songs in unisiyya (1905-1966), Simon Algerian styles one may mention the blind singer and ‘ud player T That Jewish participation in the European influenced popular ur- These phenomena were prominent in the Maghreb. In popu- In Tunisia, the French- and Egyptian-influenced popular song of Less common was the participation of Jewish artists in popu- Among the performers of popular music genres in Morocco one eboul 1987; Shiloah 2002 and 2002a). On lighter musical styles, antine, the violinist Sylvain Ghrenassia, Edmond Al-Fasiyya, Ibrahim Suiri, Elma’alma Nejma and Sami Algerian-French st anding cantor Al-Halabiyya, was one of the most import Y Amiel (born in Egypt), Raoul Journo (d. et, there were exceptions. For example, chanson Asher Mizrahi (1980-1967), who came , Salim Halali, influenced him. th , excelled the Jewish artist century th century is one of the many As a means to avoid the . , ‘ud and violin player An expert in this craf . Arabic (T aieb 1989; Atlan, and Another ant Al- th s t Ben-Ami, Issachar ——. A Adler Abraham b. Moshe Maimon References quoted nowadays dispersed in the Western Hemisphere. countries (such as Iran, Turkey and Morocco) of their descendants the liturgical practices of small remnants Jews in Islamic for example, that venerable Islamic traditions of the past are kept alive in traditions within the walls of Jewish community itself. It is plausible, dedication of Jews to the music profession helped also develop rich or with other religious and ethnic minorities, such as the Christian Greeks attitude to music-making in Islamic thought and practice, Jews (together lasted for many centuries. Moreover tact between Jewish and Islamic musical cultures. sources may certainly expand our knowledge about other points of con- graphical provenance that deserve to be investigated. These new are certainly many sources from different historical periods and geo- that this neglected subject needs a much more detailed treatment. There Concluding statement grated in the early 1930s to South ghazel the case of cantor Isaac to this trend had sometimes no choice but leave. Such appears be great Egyptian Jewish singer Layla Murad. Those who refused to abide Islam as a means to reach the summit of success, for example of the mass media Islamic countries, forced them to convert ist venary s in the entert Armenians) were active carriers of Islamic musical traditions. , Israel At the present we can state that such contacts were intense and Our brief overview of Jewish musicians in Islamic lands shows There were cases in which the deep involvement of Jewish art- and a favorite singer of President Kamal , Hanoch ainment industry 1970 1984 1974 1975 Algazi (1889-1951), an expert on the T Jewish Musicians and Folk Bands in Morocco, Genizah Fragment Cambridge, Paradigm of Y Music, The Hebrew V up to 1800 scripts and Printed Books From Geonic Times Hebrew Writings Concerning Music in Manu- vol. 1 (New The High Ways to Perfection azlil uval , coupled with the nationalist policies 10, 54-8 [In Hebrew] America (Seroussi 1989). 4, 1 Yuval , it appears that due to the austere 1-28. . München. Y Arabic Musical Modes in the ork 1927), vol. 2 (Baltimore 1938). 3, 7-82. ersion of Abu l-Salt’ At atürk, who immi- , ed.S. Rosenblatt, T .S. N.S. 90, 4, Edwin Seroussi s T reatise on T urkish The 605 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 606 TAPASAM, January 2006 Capsali, Eliyahu Bouzar-Kasbadji, N Jewish Muscians in the Lands of Islam Cohen, Boaz Davis, Ruth Eilam-Amzallag, Abraham Eliyahu, Peretz Farmer —— —— Fenton, Paul Gerson Kiwi, Edith —— (ed.) Goldberg, Harvey Idel, Moshe Kaufman Shelemay Kojaman, Kay Loeb, Lawrence D , Henry G Y ehezqel , 1976 1988 1935 1999 1991 1999 1941 1943 1984 1977 1971 1981 1990 1984 1998 2001 1972 Hebrew] ish Kingdom. Spain and Venice siècle Seder Eliyahu Zuta L Music, The Responsum of Maimonides Concerning and V ed. Boston, Köln, 477-495 Hara Kebira, Jerba, Piyyut Miqqedem umiyyam Recent Change in Moroccan Jewish Music, Series V). Jerusalem The Music of the Mount Scotland Maimonides on Listening to Music London Sa’adyah Gaon on the Influence of Music tise of the Pool of their Musical S 4, 124-130. A Jewish Sufi on the Influence of Music, Jerusalem Seventh World Congress of Jewish Studies Attitudes to Music in the Later Qabbalah, The Music of the Kurdist Obadiah b. 150-169. tives Jewish Life in Muslim Libya: Rivals and Rela- Music and Prophetic Kabbalah, London: Chicago University Press, 1998. brance among Syrian Jews Let Jasmine Rain Down: Song and Remem- The Maqam Music T The Asian Music The Jewish Musician and the Music of Fars, ’Emergence Y Author . Chicago & London . K. S . enice and Chronicle of Israel in the T melodies as Mirrors of Social Change in Jewish Music Journal Alger tillman and N. Abraham Maimonides, 4/1, 3-13. Artistique . London tyles, , The History of the Ottomans From Iberia to Diaspora 4, 145-164 [In Hebrew] radition of Iraq Y A. S ain Jews Alg’erienne au XXe uval an Jews - , Chicago and tillman. Leiden, , 2/2, 3-7. 2, 59-72. . Jerusalem [In Yuval (Y . Beardsen, The T A . London: uval Music Synop 4, rea- Yuval . urk- sis . , —— —— —— —— —— Shiloah, —— —— —— Seroussi, Edwin Scholem, Gershon Amnon Shiloah Nettl, Bruno and Margoliouth, Moses Amnon, 2002a 2002 http://www 1997 1993 1984 1978 2001 2000 1990 1989 1946 1978 1850 91, pp. 51-64. Algerian Music and Related The Jérusalem) 9, 170-183. (Revue de l’Université Hébraïque et Musulmanes en Recontres et ententes musicales entre Juifs St terranean. On Muslim and Jewish musicians of the Medi Aldershot, article no.XII, 1–1 Music in Islamic and Jewish Culture. Religious The occidentale intercommunautés juives en mediterranée européens en Impressions musicales des voyageurs 373-377. Congress of Jewish Studies of the Seeker’, The Chapter on Music in Ibn Falaqera’s ‘Book Press, 2001, pp 81-96. Özdalga. Transactions vol. 10. Istanbul: Curzon Anders Hammarlund, Music, and Society in the Middle East Art Music and Hebrew Sacred Songs. From Court and of T Review of: Kay Kaufman Shelemay Israel Studies in Musicology the Ottoman Jews: Sources and Examples. The Turkish Makam in the Musical Culture of Isaac Mizimrat Qedem: The Life and Music of Rabbi Major T in Musicology Persian Classical Music in Israel, London: Richard Bentley A Pilgrimage to the Land of My Fathers mine Rain Down .research.umbc.edu/eol/3/shiloah/index.html ates], vol. 3. raditional Music Activity of Jewish Musicians in Classical Attitude towards Music of Jewish Algazi from T rends in Jewish Mysticism. Authorities, Ethnomusicology Online , ed. J.L. Miege. Paris, 275-280. Afrique du Nord, Proceedings of the Fourth World 1, 142-58. T . Chicago 1998. In: arikat urkey , vol. 32 (2000), 183-184. Algérie. T The Dimension of ord Olsson and Elisabeth to Synagogue: Ottoman . Jerusalem: Renanot . Jerusalem, vol. 2, 1. Perspectives Areas, 5, 43-68. Les relations Edwin Seroussi Israel Studies , Let the Jas- [United Pe’amim Y New earbook , ed. . 2 vols. Sufism, Y ork 607 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 608 TAPASAM, January 2006 —— Jewish Muscians in the Lands of Islam —— Slobin, Mark ——. La musique judéo-arabe 8401 Chants hébreux de la tradition des Juifs marocains Selected Discography W Isaiah Sonne. Werner Eric, and lem Squires, Pamela T T V aieb, J eboul, an der Linden, Neil arkow A , Esther 2003 2001 1982 1987. 1986 1941-1943 The Philosophy and Theory of Music in Judeo- 1975 1989 1987 1999 . V ol. 1: Algerie. Club du disque www December 12, 2005. 309-316. tion: Sonia Fellous. Paris: Somogy 2003, pp. Sorbonne…mars 1999. Directeur de publica- Actes du colloque international de Paris, mans en Tunisie; fraternité et déchirements. dans la musique tunisienne. Juifs et musul- Témoignages sur le rôle des musiciens juifs Asian Music in Cairo Press, 321-335. ed. Sherifa Zuhur Music and the Visual Arts of Middle East Colors of Enchantment: Theater The Classsical Iraqi Notes on Bukharan Music in Israel, tal Improvisation and Cultural Change sional Musicians in Iraq and Israel, Instrumen- The Urban Arabic Repertoire of Jewish Profes- Annual Arabic Literature, dissertation, The Hebrew University of Jerusa- T Revitalization of Iraqi-Jewish Instrumental 225-39. Jews in Israel Dance and Music of the Iraqi Kurdish T Y 205. T Les musiciens, Maqam Singing in Modern Iraq. extes extes raditions in Israel, a lil, ya lil..., .aramusic.com/maqam/ , ed. Jacques . Paris, 276-81. 16 (1941), 251-319;17 (1942-3), 51 17/2, 9-31. (M.A. thesis, UCLA, 1975) Les juifs de T Les juifs d’Algerie. Images et . Cairo: American University Hebrew Union College . Beth Hatefutzoth, BTR The Persistent Centrality Maqam Allali et alii. Paris, 200- Arabe, unisie. Images et and its Survival, . Accesed AAA062. http:// , Dance, Yuval . Ph.D. 1- 572. 4, , , Un siècle de chansons judéo-arabes T T Silver T T Silver T T T Silver T Silver T T Shba Moussali. Mélodies judéo-arabes d’autrefois: Maghreb & Moyen La musique judéo-arabe résor de la musique judéo-arabe: Lile Boniche résor de la musique judéo-arabe: Reinette l’oranaise résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: Reinette L résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: L. Monty résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: Raoul Journo résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: L. Cherki résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: Lili Boniche résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: El Kahlaoui T résors de la chanson judéo-arabe: Blond h . . . . ot: Iraqi-Jewish Song from the 1920s . V ol, 2 : La A. Fitoussi T . NFB World, 160899. unisie. Club du disque . Notes by Sarah Manasseh. . MELODIE 79103.2/Blue Silver . MELODIE 79108/Blue Silver ’oranaise . MELODIE 79105.2/Blue Silver . MELODIE 79102.2/Blue . MELODIE 79107/Blue Silver . Créon Music. . MELODIE 79104.2/Blue ounsi . Créon Music. . MELODIE 79109/Blue Orient. Notes: Bernard . MELODIE 79101/Blue Arabe Edwin Seroussi AAA 072. . . . . 609 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 610 TAPASAM, January 2006 the presence of numerous varieties rhythms ( perspective, it is important to note that these art forms are marked by Dufmuttu, Sanghakkali and every traditional art form. rhythm is the dominant factor among artistic devices used in each Mudiyettu, Classification of Rhythms about the formulation of most these art forms. real hazard that compels us to refrain from making objective statements devices used in these art forms. The lack of historical evidence is a This hybridity of cultures had its reflection in the literature and artistic to this land through several centuries for various historical reasons. and conflicts of various religions, castes races that have immigrated hundreds of traditional art forms. It may be the result convergence Manoj K Ekachuzhati Rhythms A Cultural Study with Special Reference to THE RHYTHMS OF KERALA genres i.e. Classical and folk. the classical art forms to remain ‘pure’ and elite. methods of stylization or standardization, themselves were derived from the same folk tradition through them from the classical tradition, even art forms existence and identity of some these art forms by differentiating classical/folk. Unless the adjective ‘folk’ helps to announce strongly denounce the conventional classification of rhythms into Krishnanattam In a conventional manner In spite of being a small geographical area, Kerala is enriched by

Poorakkali, Kanyarkali, Kummattikkali, Margamkali, uroor belong to the classical genre etc. are grouped as folk. A , these art forms are divided into two cultural study of these rhythms will Kathakali the classification will allow 1 while tala , Theyyam, Padayani, Koodiyattam s). In other words, 2 In a cultural and Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri by these rhythms for the eminent scholar-writers like Purandaradasa, tot Thryasram, Chaturasram, Khandam, Champ system consists of seven main talas. 35 talas are some examples. music, has been practising dance use these systems of rhythms. rhythms such as 120 to ‘human’ art forms demarcated as all the rhythms that were in practice, whether only used by practised in dif belonging to a p generally music - into two categories. They regarded the rhythms the criterion of classical music. systems of rhythm and defined some them, even though he employed century poet and exponent of the art form different regional cultures. lived in many parts of Kerala, we can see the rhythms belonging to and foot analyzing the techniques or devices - like rhythms, tunes, gestures arts are not so visible on the surface, it is possible to elucidate them by art forms. Though sometimes the cultural factors inherent in these while the regional culture is being nourished by presence of these musics and cultures very much in mind.” only one thing it is being constructed with non-western, non classical coherent or monolithic and that when it is talked about as if meant although at a later occasion perhaps I’d like to show that it is far from existence of a relatively distinct entity called ‘Western classical music,’ made by Edward W This statement offers the possibility of comparison with observation conversation: “There are no classical rhythms; all rhythms folk.” famous into classical/folk. of rhythm are practised in one art form despite the conventional division is used in various art forms and rhythms belonging to different systems al number of Carnatic music, the most dominant form of South Indian classical The ancient books on Indian music had divided the rhythms - Every art form flourishes in the cultural continuum of its own region As far as the presence of rhythm is concerned, same a, T Arjunanritham step riput s - used in them. In the works of Kunjan Nambiar Deva ferent regions as a, t ala At an-Indian tradition as s is 7x 5 = 35. s, the deities and . Said on W A a and scholar and practitioner of these rhythms, the tala artist, late Kurichi P s, 101 Eka 5 He used the rhythms that consist of various Suladi 8 . Each of them has five divisions ( Even the classical music and estern classical music: “. . I accept the 9 tala

Desi T All other ancient rhythms are replaced system since the 16th century

s, 108 Gandharva Misram Desi Dhruvam, Matyam, Roopakam, ala Thullal . S. Kumaran said in a private 4 ! So many Marga T s. tala and

6 classical or folk, belonged

But s, and s, the semi Gods. , who had traveled and Sankirnam Marga ala had written several Suladi Desi s and rhythms is divine and systems of system of . Then the Manoj Kuroor , the 18th Jaties . 7

This S till ): 3 61 1 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 612 TAPASAM, January 2006 to various systems such as 5 rhythms described in groups as well rhythm structures. The presence of rhythms belonging resisted for Kerala has been a land of diversity- the diversity social a cultural domination of any aesthetic ideas or ideologies must be their cultural context and the conventional approaches that could lead to ( The Rhythms of Kerala systems, have the same number of them. For example, some rhythms, even if they belong to different the dominant rhythm by means of some peripheral similarities between rhythm and determines the other rhythms as synonyms or parodies of but also a question of cultural power as well the rhythms belonging to ancient systems. system put aside other rhythms practised in several regional art forms scholars to measure all other rhythms by using the criterion of this and rhythms in the modern age tendency among traditional compositions in these talas. The wide acceptance of Chendamelam Chachatputam Dhruva T Chathurasra jathi dhruva t ( Garudanthukkam scholar of classical music may identify the Ekachuzhati system Roop and several rhythms that belong to none of these systems (e.g. Sastampattu appropriate for the aesthetic or cultural need of that art form. absorbed by an art form, it transforms its structure, so that could be performed in them. amount of orally rendered rhythms (used in the rhythm for Lakshmi, Kundanachi, Mutakkutalam two of them, Balyutbhavam Sitankan Thullal the relatively simple structure of the complicated realm of these rhythms, it will be helpful to understand same poet has given the examples of Karika T riput Ekachuzhati The rhythms of every art form must be analyzed by placing them in The domination of a single system is not only technical fallacy am, Champ a used in used in Ekachuzhati ala irrespective of the dif ) is evident in the art forms of Kerala. In addition to them Ekam and etuthukalasam and Sastampattu Kathakali, Thullal, Koodiyatt rhythms (used in at and 10 ), 120 rhythms ( a, Karika, Panchari, Marmam When a rhythm belonging to particular system is Mallatala have the same duration of 14 system consists of seven main rhythms i.e. Shatpitaputrakam Roopam ala and practised in of of of Kunchan Nambiar refers to the first . Ekachuzhati 12 Vishnumurti Thullal ferences between them.

Suladi system Harineeswayamvaram Thullal Mudiyettu, Padayani, Theyyam ), various unnamed rhythms (e.g. . It gives a universal definition to Karika, Kumbham Vishamam ), 35 rhythms of Marma tala used in matra Koodiyattam in rhythms. am Poorakkali s or same duration. Theyyam and Krishnanatt used in and Arjunanritham matra as and Natyasastra Marma T Chathurasrajathi and ), 108 rhythms s. Suladi ) and a large Kumbham T ) are being A Ganap o enter into Marmam traditional Thekkan system of the Ekam, ala (e.g. and athy and am), . . of 13 1 1 , 6. 2 3. taking place between two beats. This rhythm is used almost in every one gap (unsounded action). When the rhythm repeats, is Eka Tala 7. 4. 5. 1 beat- so that. X-Gap (Digit Ekachuzhati Definitions and applications combinations. perplexed realm of various rhythms as well their formulations and action. In a way the time taken for a sounded action is similar to that of an unsounded rhythms by using two basic actions: sounded and unsounded. each form of them as unique entities. Here I am trying to define these subtle way of analysis, the differences may compel us to consider rhythm may be performed through these different devices, though, in a These devices are important for defining a particular rhythm. The same tonal variations made either on a percussion instrument or symbol. viz. actions by hand like slapping and fingering, oral rendering unsounding) actions.” a term indicating the time taken for each action. In measurement of time through the to raise some questions in relation with rhythm and culture. to the contemporary cultural scenario, will be helpful an eager student an order in position and they are unified a simple method, unknown same. But the fact that these rhythms used in different art forms have system, even though the names and structures of rhythms are almost various artistic contexts by the artists who are often unaware of this performances of Marma T Panchari T Roop Karika T Champ Kumbha T Eka T -Number of beats. a T Eka T Sangitachudamani The practice of ala at ala ala ala a T ala ala Rhythms ala ala is a simple rhythm of one beat (sounded action) and Arjunanritham Ekachuzhati ) 14 There are various methods to perform rhythm Ekachuzhati ‘1’ 12345x 1x 12x 123451/2x1231\2x1x1x12x 1x12x123x1234x 123x 1234x indicates first beat, defines rhythm ( rhythm system is a threshold to the nor matra rhythms is limited neither to the Thullal s produced by (sounding and . They are being used in tala Ekachuzhati ‘2’ ) as “ indicates second tala Manoj Kuroor signifies System, Matra is 613 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 614 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Rhythms of Kerala Ekachuzhati Definitions and applications their formulations and combinations. is a threshold to the perplexed realm of various rhythms as well to that of an unsounded action. In a way In unsounded. define these rhythms by using two basic actions: sounded and to consider each form of them as unique entities. Here I am trying though, in a subtle way of analysis, the differences may compel us The same rhythm may be performed through these different devices, symbol. These devices are important for defining a particular rhythm. and tonal variations made either on a percussion instrument or rhythm viz. actions by hand like slapping and fingering, oral rendering and unsounding) actions.” measurement of time through the Th the form mentioned above, some other patterns are used. though the name is same. For example, in There are so many different patterns used even in a single art form, Garudanthukkam, Arjunanritham, Mudiyettu Theyyam, Theeyattu, Padayani, Sastampattu, Maranpattu, Kathakali, Krishnanattam, Koodiyattam, Chendamelam, Thullal, gap. This is a popular rhythm for it used in several art forms like Krishnanattam Thayampaka, Theeyattu, Theyyam, Thitampunritham, Koodiyattam, art form of Kerala such as the Roopa Tala one Champata Tala Chaturasrajathi Rup contemporary Carnatic Music, this rhythm is practised instead of rhythm is used in Ekachuzhati e Eka T Lakhu Sangitachudamani Champata Roop ala . Matra of 108 rhythm system. Rhythms a T System, the time taken for a sounded action is similar and ala is a term indicating the time taken for each action. Garudanthukkam, Arjunanritham Kathakali aka T has a form of two beat is a pattern of three beats succeeded by one ala defines rhythm ( 14 , which has a form of one . This rhythm has some similarities with There are various methods to perform Arjunanritham, Garudan thukkam, matra Ekachuzhati s produced by (sounding s followed by a gap. Kathakali tala ) as “ and and Mudiyeduppu rhythm system , in addition to tala Drutham Theyyam signifies and This . In . The First tempo: other patterns are used. example, in patterns used even in a single art form, though the name is same. For Arjunanritham, Mudiyettu Theeyattu, Padayani, Sastampattu, Maranpattu, Garudanthukkam, Krishnanattam, Koodiyattam, Chendamelam, Thullal, Theyyam, This is a popular rhythm for it used in several art forms like Champata Tala one rhythm is used in the 6. Roopa Tala Chaturasrajathi Rup contemporary Carnatic Music, this rhythm is practised instead of 2 3. Krishnanattam Thayampaka, Theeyattu, Theyyam, Thitampunritham, Koodiyattam, art form of Kerala such as taking place between two beats. This rhythm is used almost in every one gap (unsounded action). When the rhythm repeats, is Eka Tala 7. 4. 5. 1 beat- so that. X-Gap (Digit Marma T Panchari T Roop Karika T Champ Kumbha T Eka T Eka T Lakhu -Number of beats. Champata Roop a T Eka T ala ala at . a T ala ala ala Kathakali a T of 108 rhythm system. ala ala ala ala and ala is a pattern of three beats succeeded by one gap. is a simple rhythm of one beat (sounded action) and has a form of two beat Garudanthukkam, Arjunanritham Kathakali aka T ) , in addition to the form mentioned above, some and ‘1’ ala 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 12345x 1x 12x 123451/2x1231\2x1x1x12x 1x12x123x1234x 123x 1234x indicates first beat, Mudiyeduppu , which has a form of one . This rhythm has some similarities with Arjunanritham, Garudan thukkam, 1 1 x x . There are so many different 1 1 s followed by a gap. x x 1 1 x x ‘2’ indicates second and Drutham Theyyam Manoj Kuroor Kathakali, and This . In 615x Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 616 TAPASAM, January 2006 Second tempo: The Rhythms of Kerala Third tempo: Fourth tempo: Fifth tempo: Marma Tala to keep the rhythm patterns and tempo represent stifled beats on a Valanthala, percussion instrument used Padayani, Arjunanritham, Garudan thukkam more complicated in their structure. This rhythm is used some notions about the formulation of rhythm system which becomes from the above mentioned rhythms in form and order: therefore it gives Kumbha T Sastampattu rhythms. This rhythm is used in rhythms themselves are as well the units of creating new a new idea about the combination of rhythms; hence and four beats, one gap. The exclusive structure of this rhythm gives us rhythm is one beat, gap; two beats, three and Karika T Marma T Kumbha T he bold digits indicate the open beats and normal , the first four rhythms of this system. The pattern ala and Theyyam. ala ala is a combination of , the last one of x 1 x 1 x 1 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x x 1 x 1 x 1 1 x 1 x x x x 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x x x x Arjunanritham, Padayani, Thullal, 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x Ekachuzhati 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 1 1 1 Ekam, Roop 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x x x x x x x 1 1 1 1 and 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x x x x x x x x x x x x 1 system, is dif 1 1 Sastampattu am, Champ Ekachuzhati Thullal, ferent . The at a Kundanachi Tala thei x form as under: but it is rarely used in contemporary performances. It has a and Thullal, Arjunanritham, Ayyappantheeyattu, Koodiyattam, Sastampattu Lakshmi Tala in orally rendered form of this rhythm, which is used in Thitampunritham, Padayani Kathakali, Jeevithanritham, Chendamelam, Sastampattu, Theyyam, common name beat, one gap (1234x1234x1x1x). Different rhythms which share the four beats, one gap; beat, gap and Champa Tala Some other rhythms beat Chendamelam, Kathakali with various patterns in art forms. This rhythm is used Atantha Tala Matra (12345x123x). Each of these forms has the similarity in number rhythm in the form of five beats, one gap and three an art form performed in the far northern parts of Kerala employed this ( given below: pattern of this rhythm in gap; two beats, one gap and beat, (1234x12x1x). The V aithari Padayani Garudanthukkam s, one gap and four beat s i.e. ten. ) rhythms which are huge in number Kunchan Nambiar has given a definition to Thi thi thei x Lakshmi Despite of a common name At This rhythm offers a way to enter field of orally rendered Thi thi thithei x thei antha T . 18 Atantha is a ala is used in many art forms of Kerala, like . The form of this rhythm is shown below: thiki Vaithari like Padayani and tha thei x thi Valyatantha and s, one gap (1x12x1234) rhythm which is practised in Thullal Koodiyattam is different: one beat, gap; two in the form of four beats, one Champa and thiki Chattatantha . . One form of rhythm is thei , this rhythm is used thitheyitha 17 Kundanachi T . Sastampattu Y are practised akshaganam Manoj Kuroor Padayani,

Vaithari Thullal, thiki , is tha ala , 617 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 618 TAPASAM, January 2006 Chendamelam ritual for an unbroken conclusion since The Rhythms of Kerala name Ganapathy Tala especially in southern parts of Kerala. x tha dhim dha Ekachuzhati different art forms which may perhaps identified as the combination of units to create new rhythms. There are some rhythms performed in and Jeevithanritham Combined rhythms thi mmi thei x thim x tham Sastampattu Hindu mythology as the deity of impediment. The form this rhythm in 1. Notes conventional methodologies of aesthetics. the regions of their performance urges one to rethink about various rhythms. The awareness of the association rhythms with conventional classifications as well the interconnections between of the systems rhythms. Chendamelam 1x12x123x12345x1234) and in T Chendamelam rhythms with some other like the pattern 1x12x123x1234x12345x). The combination of ala and See, for example, Nat Champ Ganap ankalakal Many rhythms are used in various art forms under the common This rhythm is used for Tha dhim x tha As mentioned earlier Dhi x dhi dhim ga ne ka dan tham ki ta tha kkam Thei x thei ki ta tha ku thi ka The study of these rhythms arises some questions about the Panchari T rhythms. at is given below: athy a T (12345x1234x12x1x) and (12345x1234x1234x1x1x) are present in the vast area of southern Kerala. (1234x12345x12x1x) or (Kott . ala This is used in the beginning of a performance as A. K. Nambiar (12x123x) is used in ala ayam: National Book S Roop is practised in amchamp , Chendamelam Ekachuzhati , “Nat Jeevithanritham Marmampanchari anKalakalkku Oramukham”, at a , a combination of Panchari-Champa Panchari-Atantha Jeevithanritham Ganapathy t all, 1989):23. rhythms can be used as Sast Champa-Panchari of southern Kerala (in amp and , a blend of is considered in attu Chendamelam (in the form Ekachuzhati of Southern and in the of southern Roop Keralathile Marma a T ala of 1 9. 10. 7. 8. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Kasaragod Gopalakrishna Bhatt: Kanjangad Jayan: Bakel Sreerama Kandalloor Unnikrishnan: Kaviyoor Sadasivan: Balussery P V Keezhillam Gopalakrishna Marar: Harippad S. Sivadasan: Harippad K. Vishnu Nampoothiry: Cheruvathoor Rajan Panikkar: Kanathoor K. V Kannan Peruvannan: Kuroor V Kat Kuravilangad M. N. Bhaskaran Nair: Neelamperoor P A. K. Raveendranadh, Kurchi P The rhythms mentioned in this essay were collected from these artists: D. C. P Publishers, 1994): 59-60, M. R. Gaut The Arun Kumar Sen, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993): 35-37,221-22. Sarngadeva, (T See 1992): xiv Edward W (Unpublished audio Cassette). An Interview with Kurichi P 240, 224. Kerala Sangeetha Nat See azhapp richur: Kerala Sahithya ammanitt some other artists helped me to get a lucid idea about these rhythms. Adyar Library and Research Centre, 1992):17. Folk Kunchan Nambiarute Thullalkathakal Kumaran, an ., Govt. of Kerala, 2004): 56. . S. Kumaran: ally Krishna Pillai: asudevan Nampoothiry: Art . The primary notions of these rhythms are given by Kurichi P . Said, “Introduction”, am, . Janaki a V s Directory Samgitaratnakara Vol.I . Kannan V asudevan Pillai: . Ramakrishnan: Evolution of Raga and T Aggithaya: Arjunanritham Amma: Indian Concept of Rhythm aka Dakshinendian Sangeetham , ed. Kerala Sangeetha Nat Academi, 1976). Akademi, 1986): 1 aidyar: . S. Kumaran on 19. 06. 1995, Manoj Kuroor Musical Elaborations 1 artist. Interviews and performances of 15-19, 141-64. , ed. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Madras: ala in Indian Music , ed. P Y Poorakkali Mudiyeduppu Thekkan Chendamelam Thekkan Chendamelam Mudiyettu Thidampunritham Jeevithanritham Jeevithanritham Maranpattu Theyyam Theyyam Theyyam Kathakali Padayani Sastampattu Arjunanritham Garudanthukkam 13, 135,200,170, 42, 61, 196, akshaganam (New Delhi: Kanishka . K. Sivasankara Pillai (Thiruvananthapuram: aka percussion Percussion (London: V Akademi (T . (New Delhi: percussion percussion Manoj Kuroor int richur: age, .S. 619 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 620 TAPASAM, January 2006 14. 13. 16. 15. 12. The Rhythms of Kerala 17. 18. (Thiruvananthapuram: D. C. P M. R. Gaut Thullalkkadhakal Kunchan Nambiar Sreeramavilasam Press, 1958): 105. See P 77. K. Narayana pillai, Chepp (Thrissur: Kerala Sahitya Kunchan Nambiar Kunchan Nambiar (Thiruvananthapuram: S Kat Kat A. S. N. Nambisan, “Pancharimelam”, ammanitt ammanitt . S. W am, arrier a V a V Evolution of Raga and T asudevan Pillai, asudevan Pillai, , “Pancharimelam”, : 76-78. , “Balyutbhavam”, , “Harineeswayamvaram”, , “Harineeswayamvaram”, t ate Institute of Languages, 1997): 105. attu Academi, 2000): 155-56. ., Govt of Kerala, 1992): 45-99. Achyutha W Padeniyute Jeevathalam Padeniyute Jeevathalam Arup Keraleeyamelakala Thalangal Thalavadyangal ala in Indian Music athu Thullalkkadhakal arrier (Kollam: Arup Arup athu Thullalkkadhakal athu : 107-13. : 228 , ed. P . : this technique and developed it. There it is called he begins to act his textual role. Later the kutiyattam theatre adopted connecting the present to past. Only after establishing character first appearance narrates his/her past up to the present point, thus presentation of Sanskrit dramas. Every character at the time his/her to the end. I. i. Retrospection ( up under three heads. marked the first deviation from national stream, can be summed The other materials are drawn from the indigenous tradition of Kerala. Kulasekhara, prepared under the instruction of dramatist himself. this study is the Vyangyavyakhya, stage script for two dramas of Kerala and the process of its localisation. Primary source relied for autonomous art-form in Kerala. National theatre regionalized the national trend and grew up as an life. Theatre was an exception. Kutiyattam, the only surviving relic of tradition could subjugate the local South Indian culture in all walks of pattern inherited from Natyasastra (2 c. B.C.). The pan-Indian Sanskrit introduced in the South Sanskrit theatre closely followed national came to the South rather late; perhaps by seventh c. CE. When K. G. P LOCALISA I to the Kutiyattam theatre of Kerala A case study with special reference This is a new device introduced by Kulasekhara for the The contribution of Kulasekhara to Sanskrit theatre, which This paper attempts to trace the evolution of this theatre in Sanskrit theatre originated and flourished in North India. It aulose TION OF NA purvasambandha TIONAL TRADITIONS: ) nirvahana – carrying 621 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 622 TAPASAM, January 2006 I. ii on him. imitator; Kulasekhara bestowed the functions of narrator and interpreter improvement assigned new roles to the actors. Bharata’s actor was stories from different sources including Mahabharata and on most interesting aspect of the elaboration is that smile sarcastic sage. The second clue is the use of word paramahamsa to qualify reveals that the one who saved Subhadra from demon was conclusion from the clue he has. One is smile of Lord Krishna. It the ascetic waiting is none other than anecdote in the dramatic text. The point there is to tell audience that freedom for imaginative acting ( roles adopted later by the kutiyattam stage. The actor thus is given Chamberlain I. ii. (a) Expressive: other suggestive. has two phases: thematic and psychic; the former is expressive of the much celebrated transformation/intermixture ( roles. What we see here is the earliest germs of process evolution to the different characters and presented by gestures their respective imitated character might have transformed himself, as in mono acting, sages as recollected by presented the role of Narada, Draupadi, Vidushaka, Gada and Now it will be interesting to enquire as how the actor would have The method is that of remembering ( far reaching consequences on the Kerala stage. imposing the roles of narrator and interpreter on actor turns out to be an interpreter too. Kulasekhara is responsible for super- call I. ii. (b) Suggestive: impersonated as the character The story here is told in the third person, though actor narrator and not an imit expression. In this context meanings. It comprehends by this term what ever is beyond the direct emotional st Localsation of National traditions Arjuna for disguising himself the sake of a woman.

Blend of suggestive sense ( dhvani The point to be noted here is that the theme expanded taking Expansion of meaning is a major innovation Kulasekhara. It No words are used for narration; everything is done by gestures. The Lord had used this epithet earlier to refer . ate of the character 1 Vyangyavyakhya . A theatrical situation is developed from an insignificant The other expression is deeper; it this that we ator Let us take for example the story of Arjuna. dhvani . In course of his narration, at times, he uses the word . . In other words, the actor here is a T o present a reflected character the is used to suggest the dhvaniyojana ityasmarat manodharmabhinaya Arjuna. Kanchuki draws this dhvani ) of the past incidents. ) pakarnnattam in a variety of . This too had Arjuna. puranas bhava, ). The Arjuna. the The ) of . developed in the direction of thematic expansion. Even first act one thing that strikes us most is the abundance of instances agreeable things. all the secrets and larger population to whom he conveys most He might have perhaps in his mind the inner cabinet wherein he shares with the larger audience is really an achievement of royal dramatist. intimate relation with an inner circle without disturbing the harmony the distinction of multiple levels enjoyment. Developing such an and for (external sense) for follow the intricacies of this kind acting. The meanings were through subtle ocular acting pre-supposes an audience equipped to extension of the second, since presentation suggestive sense the Kulasekhara recognises two meanings to be communicated. One is I. iii. contribution of Kulasekhara to the world theatre. and harmoniously blending the two in a single unit was greatest movements of Vidushaka. not going to succeed. This the V emotional meaning). V brother marriage is already being arranged with Duryodhana by her elder has a wedded wife waiting for him is running after Subhadra whose the ordinary man. What he conveys to learned is that taking it to be a lake. The running and pretension of thirst are please and there for water to quench his thirst. thematic expansion. Eg. This attachment to the inner self distinguishes this from ii i distinguishing these two senses. Eg. idushaka’ prekshaka kevalartha netrabhinaya

sees the heroine the character Now the suggested sense is expression of inner self From here onwards there is Spectator - actor interaction If we follow the evolution of theatre in post-Kulasekhara era Introducing different levels for acting as also appreciating This is the third contribution of Kulasekhara. In the first act of . He is not going to get her s action is only a device to warn . The mode of presentation is fourfold acting for the former (the primary meaning) and other is for the latter 3 . nanaloka 2 ery of . S ubhadradhananjaya the Vidushaka runs here ten we get instructions in . V and dhvani yangyavakhya preksaka ( sukshmartha . He is running af preksaka prayoktrsambandha in the words of hero till he At last he runs af learns through the ocular Arjuna that his ef is full of references to (suggested sense) Actually this is an V bhavartha yangyavyakhya ter a mirage ter a mirage Arjuna who K. G. Paulose bahyartha fort s are (the ) 4 . 623 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 624 TAPASAM, January 2006 sikhinisalabha Subhadradhananjaya three verses were taken for detailed acting - the hands of his successors. dramatic text. Preliminaries are comparable to the components - the preliminaries, retrospection and presentation of followed Kulasekhara. Kutiyattam in its present form has three kevalartha later in all the dramas. to note their acting potential. Many such situations were developed Vyangyavyakhya makes only a passing reference to these verses failing i performance of Sanskrit dramas can be summed up like this: The changes introduced by the Kerala actors in museum piece. and made it a live form. Otherwise would have turned out to be language is added to it. It this local strength that sustained Kutiyattam Vidushaka, by all accounts, hails from Kerala soil. Even in the matter of costume Vidushaka reveals Kerala traits. Natyasastra. Retrospection is the expansion of samanyabhinaya between hero and friend has a parallel in the teyyam, tira, patayani from the classical arts but unique folk tradition of the pendulum keeps moving and provides life energy to stage. boundaries. The hero is static like the face of a clock; Vidushaka Vidushaka knows no limits. He occupies limitless space with The hero is in the limited circle of three wicks lamp. II. i. The local tradition of Vidushaka transition. The inflation of the role Vidushaka is most notable feature in this Presentation of the drama part generally follows canons Bharata. Localsation of National traditions II III interpret endowed the actor with two more functions - narration and The actor according to Bharat Kutiyattam as we see today evolved in the two centuries that But the tragedy is that other pattern of expressing The drama portion of Kutiyattam is a classical tradition. Local The Meta theatre managed by Vidushaka acquired its wares not ation. In - , bhavartha chalakuvalaya - netrabhinaya , etc. It won’t be wrong to say that the relationship nirvahana 5 meanings respectively through the actor is a narrator mode of acting failed miserably in a is an imit and saundaryam sukumarata kali ator and . Kutiyatt purvasambhandha kuli purvaranga . of At times he am tradition mutiyettu mutiyettu, of . . . blood, etc. were added to the Sanskrit theatre. In spect N floating in the river was being enacted on a fixed loom of white yarn. In movement of Katyayani resembles that controlled the movement of Chakyar by tying 1001 ropes. The the beginning and Ravana in latter part that dominate stage. the major characters in Kutiyattam are anti-heroes - acknowledged this trend and developed it to something like a cult. deviation by going deep into the minds of those defeated. Kutiyattam IV indigenous influence. wherein the actor is dripped in blood. These additions are due to chopping of the nose and breast Surpanakha is a horrible scene by junior artist The epic heroes like Rama, Krishna, etc. have only minor roles donned IV provided space for such an act in his scheme of performance. the mode of presentation ordinary Sanskrit dramas. Bharata had not ii iii agananda . ii. . i. Indigenous spect IV transformation of roles. exhibit his histrionic talents indulging in imaginative acting and actor is free from the text. This gave him ample opportunities to text portion being an appendage. In the solo performance acting in the text portion. Prominence was given to former; in the Chakyar of early and definitely an adaptation from to change his roles very often. This is an improvement on Kerala actors developed a special skill in turns out to be an interpreter was divided into two - a solo acting in that it provided a multi-level acting technique. The performance The most fascinating contribution of Kerala to Sanskrit theatre is poetic by the blend of rhythmic movements. performance of Sanskrit drama. He also made the prosaic acting turned out to be the very soul of Kutiyattam. acular scenes like floating away Classics generally extol the winning heroes. Bhasa made a Anti-hero cult Influence on the external frame was more visible. It is this solo performance that distinguishes Kutiyattam from This means that the chakyar gave eyes and tongue to G aruda used to come down flying in the air s. In Abhishekanat acles sangham aka Rama is the hero; but it Bali in . T o fulfil these dif , flying, hanging, actor dripping in attam age. . This tradition has its roots K nirvahana ali in T netrabhinaya apatisamvarana the ferent roles he has R mutiyettu avana, Bali, etc. . The Nambiar and multiple A number of K. G. Paulose 6 . The which natya All 625 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 626 TAPASAM, January 2006 6 declare a theatrical form as an int disappeared from the world leaving no opportunity for UNESCO to lest the only surviving relic of ancient theatrical tradition would have theatre! that these aberrations are the real contribution of Kerala to Sanskrit are aberrations and hence have to be discarded. Little does he realize acting, transformation of roles, recapitulation and social criticism - all of Sanskrit theatre. He says that dance, local language, imaginative 1 Notes : to Kutiyattam. The tendency to discard the original heroes gives a real Kerala touch Localsation of National traditions 5 4 3 2 mental process leading to the situation, i.e. of a situation. Kulasekhara is concerned more with the delineation ancient Indian theatre. point was not been properly brought to the notice of students from the presentation of Sanskrit dramas in other states. This cardinal rapture in Kutiyattam. Use of these two devices distinguishes Kutiyattam made use of these two techniques which form the basis aesthetic Manodharmabhinaya actor presents through imaginative acting - Natyasastra tradition stresses the importance of regain the glory of subtle acting techniques past. should be directed towards reviving this lost tradition. Then only we can the eyes. The efforts of our actors for improvisation acting in Kutiyattam wonderful. But we have lost the real tradition of suggestive acting through like enacting of later period ignored this cardinal distinction. They used eyes for elaborations This meaning is closely related to the theme; hence thematic. acting is mainly intended to bring out a hidden meaning the audience. actors, as part of their attempt to communicate the bhava Kerala has made to the national theatre. In its later phase Ancient Theatre ‘Kanchukeeyam’ evolved from Vyngyavyakhya. See leads him to the technique of transformation roles, The point is this: eye gesture ( mirage. Alas! He is being attracted to Subhadra like a deer deceived by the marriage... Arjuna is trying to get Subhadra who decided given Suyodhana in Ibid. Subhadradhananjayadhvani (Mss.) Kutiyattam, Tripunithura 2003 Luckily for us, our actors did not heed to the advice of that puritan, What the author of ,

by Dr Sikhinisalabha . K.G Natankusa and . Paulose, Published by International Centre for pakarnnattam netrabhinaya , etc. Of course the skill used here is angible herit criticizes is this trend of are the two contributions that ) in Kulasekhara’s scheme of manodharma manasi avastha age of humanity rasa . It is the end-product Improvisations in . This naturally pakarnnattam Keralisation prekshaka which the Actors of . , . kn. -hn. kp[o¿ s]Æpw ]m´pw ae-bm-f-hpw P Xv, Hcp °p-∂tXm Bb \mtSm-Sn-I-emcq-]-߃ Is≠-Øm≥ km[n-°pw. Npcpßnb- l-Ønepw AXns\ \ne\n-dp-Øp-∂tXm \n¿h-Nn-°p-∂tXm km[q-I-cn- cq]w amdp-∂-Xn-\-\p-k-cn®p [¿a-Ønepw am‰w kw`hn-°pw. Hmtcm kaq- l-Øn¬/Ime-Øn¬ Nne [¿a-߃ A\p-jvTn-°m-\p-≠mIpw. Ah-bpsS ∂-Xv. ]T-\-hn-t[-b-am°n Ah-cpsS ae-bm-fn-ØsØ Is≠-Øm-\mWp {ian-°p- cn-I-hn-\n-a-bw, temI-ho-£-Ww, `mj XpS-ßnb Imcy-߃ khn-ti-j-ambn cpsS s]¨]m-´p-Ifn¬ IS-∂p-h-cp∂ s]◊, \mtSm-Sn-]m-c-º-cyw, kmwkvIm- PqXcpsS s]¨]m-´p-Isf°pdn®p ]Tn-°p-I-bmWv ChnsS sNøp-∂-Xv. PqX- ]m´p-I-sf-bmWv ChnsS s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ F∂p hnfn-°p-∂-Xv. Cu A¿Y- ‡m-°ƒ kv{XoI-fm-Wv. hml-Icpw {]tbm-‡m-°fpw kv{XoI-fm-Ip∂ Isf Xcw-Xn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. CXn¬ \s√mcp-`mKw Km\-ß-fp-sSbpw {]tbm- b-Km-\-߃, sX°≥]m-´p-Iƒ, ]e-hI ]m´p-Iƒ F∂n-ß-s\-bmWp ]m´p- Irjn-∏m-´p-Iƒ, HmW-∏m-´p-Iƒ, Ieym-W-∏m-´p-Iƒ, hoc-Km-Y-Iƒ, {InkvXo- (kºm-Z-I≥ : s{]m.hn.- B-\-µ-°p-´≥ \mb¿) aX-]-c-amb ]m´p-Iƒ, A°m-Zan {]kn-≤o-I-cn® tIc-f-`m-jm-Km-\-߃ c≠mw hmeyØn¬ b-am-°n hni-I-e\w sNøp-∂Xv C∂v Gsd {]k-‡-am-Wv. tIcf kmlnXy I¬∏n-®p-sIm≠v AhcpsS t^mIvtemdpIsf hnti-j-]-T-\-Øn\p hnt[- A[nIw ]T-\-߃ D≠m-bn-´n-√. kv{Xo, ]pcp-j≥ F∂p alm-hn-`mKw F∂m¬ ae-bm-f-Øn¬ Hcp t^mIvhn`m-K-am-Wv. Ah¿°pw Ah-cp-sS-Xmb t^mIvtem¿ D≠v. F∂p hnfn°mw F∂ hnim-e-amb t^mIv \n¿h-N-\-{]Imcw kv{XoIƒ qX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ

Im-cy-Øn GsXm-cp \mtSm-Sn-I-em-cq-]-Øn\pw AXp \ne-\n-¬°p∂ kaq- aebm-f-Ønse \mtSm-Sn-∏m-´p-h-g-°-ß-fpsS ]›m-Ø-e-Øn¬ -se-¶nepw kam-\X]pe¿Øp∂ Hcp kaq-lsØ t^mIv kv{XoI-fpsS t^mIvtem¿ cq]-ß-sf-°p-dn-®v 627 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 628 TAPASAM, January 2006 Pohn-Xw -\-bn-®-Xv anse s_≥kzn C≥Ãn-‰yq´v 2005˛¬ ]pd-Øn-d-°nb {KŸ-Ønepw sb-t^-^nø: PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-I-fn¬ {]Xy-£-s∏-Sp-∂-sX∂p ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ. ta¬∏-d™ LS-I-߃ Fß-s\-sb-√m-amWp \n¬°p∂, Aßs\ tIc-f-Øns‚ ]cn-t—-Z-am-Ip∂ H∂mWp PqX-cpsS cnIPohn-X-sØ- kmwkvIm-cn-I-N-cn-{X-Im-c≥ ImWp-∂n-√. km-\n-∏n-°p-I-bmWp sNøp-∂-Xv. Ah¿°n-hnsS D≠m-bn-cp∂ kmwkvIm- cn-I-N-cn{X Hfn™pw sXfn™pw ImWmw hnfn-°p∂ Cu ]pcm-Wm-hen PqX-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ ]pcm-hrØ ]cm-a¿i-ßfmbn Lovely Parrot! PqXØw Hebrew University of Jerusalem fn-bpsS Imcy-amb ]T-\-߃°p hnt[-b-am-bn-´n-√. ®p≈ ]cm-a¿iw Cs√-∂p-Xs∂ ]d-bmw. tIc-f-Ønse PqX¿Xs∂ ae-bm- t∂-bn-√. kmln-XyN-cn-{X-ß-fntem Ncn-{X-{K-Ÿ-ß-fntem AXns\°p-dn- ]T-\-ßfpw Kth-j-W-ß-fp-a-√msX AXp apJy-[m-c-bn-te°v FØn-bn-cp- s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ ae-bm-f-Øn¬ Imcy-ambn ]T-\-hn-t[-b-am-°n-bn-´n-√. H‰s∏´ s]¨]m-´p-I-fm-Ip-∂-Xv. Øn-emWp ae-bm-f-Ønse \mtSm-Sn-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ hen-sbm-cphn-`mKw PpXcpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ irwJ-e-bmbn PqX-]p-cm-W-߃ hf¿∂p. an{Zm-jv hnI-kn-®n-cn-°p-∂p. hymJym-\-cq-]-Øn-ep≈ BJym-\-ß-fpsS HSpßmØ ∂-Xv. AXv Cu ]T-\-Øns‚ ]cn-an-Xnbpw ]cn-[n-bp-am-Wv. hc-sam-gn-sbbpw hmsam-gn-sbbpw ASn-ÿm-\-am-°n-bmWp ]T\w \S-Øp- cwKm-h-X-c-W-kw-_-‘n-bm-Wv. ]T-\-ku-I-cym¿Yw cwK-]m-TsØ Hgnhm°n ]T\w A]q¿W-am-bn-cn-°pw. ChnsS ]T-\-hn-t[-b-am-°p∂ ]e ]m´p-Ifpw Sn-I-em-cq-]-sØbpw AXns‚ {]I-c-W-Øn¬\n∂v AS¿Øn-am-‰n-s°m≠p≈ ]m´p-Isf B[m-c-am-°n-bmWv ChnsS ]T\w \S-Øp-∂-Xv. GsXmcp \mtSm- DZzn-·X tIc-f-Ønse PqX-ØØns‚ A¥-cm-flm-hm-Wv. ]pkvX-I-Ønse fn¬ \nd-™p-\n¬°p∂p, DuSpw ]mhpw F∂ t]mse. 2005:12). an{Zmjn-eqsS hf¿∂p ]¥-en-°p∂ Hcp PqX-temIw Cu ]m´p-I- s]Æ-Øhpw PqX-Øhpw ae-bm-f-Øhpw \mtSm-Sn-Øhpw \nd-™p- ì s]¨]m´p-I-fn¬Øs∂ khn-ti-j-{i≤ A¿ln-°p∂ PqX-cpsS an° ]m´p-I-fnepw Fgp∂p\n¬°p∂ kz]v\-`q-an-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ ' Øn¬ì "" lo{_p ss__n-fns\ Np‰n-∏‰n hen-sbmcp ]pcm-W-temIw F∂ t]cn¬ "" ' ' F∂p ]n.-sI.- tKm-]m-e-Ir-jvW≥ (1991:299) ]d-™-h- ...hym]m-cn-Ifpw tbm≤m-°-fp-am-bn-´mWp PqX-∑m¿ ChnsS ' ' î (kvI-dnbm k°-dn-b, H^od Kwen-tb¬, Jewish Music Research Centre, The ]pd-Øn-d-°nb " tIc-f-Øns‚ kmwkvIm- F∂ t]cn¬ Pdp-k-e- (Midrash) Audio CD F∂p PqX¿ Im¿Ip-g-en-˛- bnepw D≈ Oh, am≥ Cu DZzn-·X Ah-X-cn-∏n-°-s∏-Sp-∂p-≠v. ]pkvX-I-Ønse 41˛mw ( fn¬...(43) F∂n-ßs\ XpS-ßp∂ ]m´p-I-fn¬ hfsc {]Xy-£-ambnØs∂ °p-I-bn√n\n \mw...(40), C{km-tb¬ ]Xm-tI...(42), temIw Ccp-`m-K-ß- `hn-®-dn™v Ah-X-cn-∏n-°p-∂p. sa√mw AXns‚ hnkvXr-Xn-bn¬Øs∂ s]¨]m-´p-I-fnse kv{XoIƒ A\p- PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-I-fpsS {]tXy-I-X. hnhm-lhpw {]k-h-hp- AXns‚ imco-cn-Ihpw am\-kn-I-hp-amb Xo{h-X-bn¬ Adn-bp∂p F∂-XmWp ÿm\-]-chpamb A¥-c-Øn¬\n∂p DS-se-Sp-°p∂ H∂m-Wv. A\p-`-h-ßsf kvX-am-Wv. Cu hyXy-kvXX ico-c-]-chpw A\p-`-h-]-chpw ho£-W-]-chpw s]Æ-Øw °p-Ibpw sNbvXn-´p-≠v. ÿm]n-s®-Sp-°m\pw km[n-°q. C°m-cy-Øn¬ Ah¿ Ipd-s®ms° hnP-bn- h{Io-I-c-W-Øn¬\n∂v Ah¿°p c£-s∏-Sm\pw Xß-fpsS AkvXnXzw F¶nte tIc-f-Ønse Xt±-io-b-cmb PqX-sc-°p-dn-®p≈ sImtfm-Wn-b¬ tIc-fob PqX-¿°p ]d-tb-≠Xp Xß-fpsS ]pXp-a-b√ adn®p ]g-a-bm-Wv. Sp-t°-≠Xp ]pXp-a-I-f-√, ]ga-bm-Wv. ]pXpXmbn FØ-s∏´ temIØp Sp°q F∂mWp enJnX ]mTw. F∂m¬ Ct∏mƒ hmsam-gn-bn¬, ]mSn-s°m- temI-Øn-te°p) t]mIp∂ ]d-¶n-tbmSp ]≈n-bnse ]pXpa ]mSn-s°m- ]≈ose F∂mbn amdp-∂p-≠v As√-¶n¬ am‰p-∂p≠v. PK-Øn-te-°p(]pdw C{km-tb¬ F∂ Ip‰n-bn¬\n∂p Id-ßp-∂-Xv. °p-∂-Xm-Wv F∂-Xn-\m-emWp PqX-a-\ v F¥p ]mSp-tºmgpw sNøp-tºmgpw Adn-tb-≠-Xv. B hm¿Ø-Iƒ Xß-fpsS Pohn-X-Øns‚ AP≠ \n›-bn- `q-an-bn¬\n∂p≈/kz]v\`qan-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ hm¿Ø-Iƒ F¥m-sW-∂mWv bncw h¿j-tØm-f-ambn ChnsS {]h-kn-°p∂ PqX¿°p Xß-fpsS kz]v\- jn-°p-∂Xv Aßv AIse\n∂p≈ hm¿Ø-Iƒ F¥mWv F∂m-Wv. c≠m- ambn _‘-s∏´ kµ¿`Øn-emWp ]mSp-∂-Xv. At∏mgpw Infn-tbmSp At\z- 42˛mw ]m´nse )]m´nse ]pXpa ]msSSn ]≈ose "" sN¿Ω-bn¬ Hs≈mcp Xmt°m¬ Iq´hpw Ac-bn¬ Ac-™mWw C´mXpw BbntX Ag-Ip≈ tNebpw sI´n-bp-Sp-ØpsX "" ]pcp-j≥ ImWp∂ temIhpw kv{Xo hyXy- Asß√mw Fs¥mcp hm¿Ø H≈p "" sNIØp s]mW ]d-¶n-sbmSp Ae-¶m-c-a-¶\ BX-cn®p Imt´Ww A¥mfn ]mSpw Infnsb sIfp ' ' îF∂ hcn-Iƒ ]mSp-tºmƒ ]ga ]msSSn ' ' F∂ hcnIƒ hnhm-l-hp- Audio CD bnse \in- kn. hn. kp[o¿ kcn- 629 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 630 TAPASAM, January 2006 apJhpw A\m-h-cWw sNøp-∂p. bv°m\pw D≈-Xm-sW∂pw Cu hcn-Iƒ hni-Zo-I-cn-°p-∂p. Xmt°m¬°q´w tIhew Ae-¶m-c-amb√ F∂pw amSw Xpd-°m\pw AS- ImWp-∂-Xv. AXm-bXv t\csØ aW-hm-´n-bpsS ssIhiw D≠m-bn-cp∂ ]e-]m-T-ß-fn-eqsS hf¿∂p-h∂ H∂m-Wv. Cu ]m´p ]mSp-tºmƒ tN¿Øp hmbn-t°-≠-Xm-Wv. Cu ]m´p lo{_p-hn¬\n∂p X¿P-a-sNbvXp kv{XoIƒ°n-S-bnte D≠m-bn-cp-∂p≈q F∂ kmam\y[mcW CtXm-sSm∏w {¥yw. C„]p-cp-js\ Xnc-s™-Sp-°m-\p≈ kzmX{¥yw tIc-f-Øn¬ \mb¿ s]menI s]menb kv{XobpsS t_m[-a-fi-e-Øn-ep-≠mb hyXymkw hy‡-am-°p-∂p. sh´n-\n-c-Øn-bn-cn-°p-∂p. Cu c≠p ]mT-ßfpw Ah D≠mb Ime-ß-fnse Fgp∂p\n¬°p∂ ssewKn-I-Xsb kmaq-ln-I ]p-\x-kr-„n-bn-eqsS C∂p F∂ hm°v Xcw XpS¿®-bmWp Cu ]m´p-I-fnse kv{XoI-fpsS khn-ti-j-X-bmbn ]d-bmw. CXns‚ Hcp- Øn¬ Xß-fpsS A[n-Im-csØ, Ah-Im-isØ hn´p-I-f-bp-∂n√ F∂Xpw Ae-¶m-c-ß-fpsS Iq´Øn¬ Xmt°m¬°q-´hpw D≠v. tamSn-I-fpsS {`a- \n¬°p∂ Cu ]m´nse aW-hm-´nsb ImWp-∂Xv Hcp kv{XoXs∂-bm-Wv. b-hhpw Fß-s\-sb√mw Ae-¶-cn-°mtam Aß-s\-sb√mw Ae-¶-cn-®p- F∂n-ßs\ F√m -X-c-Ønepw AWn-s™m-cp-ßn-\n¬°p∂, Hmtcm Ah- . PpXcpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ ]≠p D≈h¿s°ms°tbm ac-sØm-Øn-am-cn√m kmdm DΩm ImeØp amkw ]Øm-botX ]s≠m≈h¿s°ms° Ggose s]‰qsX "" kmdm DΩmsS ]m´n(-dn-_p-l)(12)-¬ kvss{XW-X-bpsS as‰mcp Bbncw Xmt°m-ep-ambn Xpd°pw Ah¿ amSw "" t\c-sØ -]-d™ A[n-Imc/Ah-ImiNn”-߃Xs∂-bmWp FØc Xc-Øn¬ Na-b-߃ Na-™q-sXî ...... Ig-Øn¬ A\-s¥mcp HØ Nh-Snbpw ImXn¬ Aen-IØv NXp-c-]qhp X∂ose InS∂p \n\°p ibn°mw "" ...-Xn-¶ƒ sXI-™n´p amkw Ggm-botX Bbncw Xmgp-ambn ]q´pw Ah¿ amSw IÆn¬ Cº-ap-≈-h¿ ]°¬ " Ddßmw F∂ ]pkvX-I-Ønse 44˛mw ]m´nse hb-en¬ hkn°pw kv{Xotb ' íF∂mbn amdn-bn-cn-°p-∂p. ibn°mw F∂ ]Z-Øn¬ ' ' F∂ hcn-I-fn¬ ImWp∂ kzmX- (]m´v 39, Ae-¶m-c-a¶) (29) F∂ ]m´nse ' ' F∂ hcn-I-fn¬ '' " ibn°mw ' °p-∂Xp kv{XoI-fm-Wv. t∏mgpw {Inb-Iƒ°p I¿Øm-hmbpw tlXp-hmbpw `qan-I-bmbpw h¿Øn- kv{Xo`m-h-߃ s]¨]m-´p-I-fn¬ \nd-™p-\n¬°p-∂p. AXn-ep-]cn an°- ∂-Xv. " Hcp AΩ-bpsS Nn{Xhpw PqX-∏m-´n-ep-≠v. Composition) BJym-\-hp-ambn _‘-s∏´ sI´p-ap-d-kn-≤m-¥ [n-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. an¬am≥]mcn kn≤m-¥-h-¬°-cn®, \mtSm-Sn-∏m-´p-I-fpsS s∏´pt]mIp-∂-XmWp PqX-∏m-´p-Ifpw. hmsamgn-cq-]-߃ CXn-\mbn ]cn-tim- s]mXp-i-ø-bn¬ tN¿∂n-cn-°p∂p F∂Xpw ChnsS {it≤-b-am-Wv. ߃ D≠m-Ip∂p F∂Xpw Ah-sb√mw \nc-∏p-tI-Sp-Iq-SmsX ]m´p-I-fpsS fpsS khn-ti-j-X-bm-Wv. PqX-]p-cm-hr-Ø-߃°p-Xs∂ [mcmfw ]mT-t`Z- Wv. [mcmfw ]mT-t`-Z-ßfpw ]pXnb ]mT-ß-fpsS km[pXzhpw PqX-∏m-´p-I- \mtSm-SnØw ]cm-a¿in® ep≈ ]m´p-I-fn-ep-amWv Cu kz`mhw Gsd {]I-S-am-Ip-∂-Xv. t\csØ cn-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. BJym-\-kz-`m-h-ap≈ ]m´p-I-fnepw tNmtZym-Øccq]-Øn- tNmtZym-Ø-c -cq-]-Øn-ep≈ (hm°v/adp-hm°v F∂ -cq-]-Øn-epw) ]m´p-I- Iƒ DZm-l-cn-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. t\mhpw-thhpw AΩ, `mcy, Imap-In, A[n-Imcn F∂n-ß-s\-bp≈ hyXykvX ]Øp-amkw K¿`w Npa∂p s\m¥p{]k-hn-°p∂ kv{XobpsS sIm≠ s]mbn sh®-´m-hs\ Ad-s°Ww ]ew C√mØ ac-Øns‚ sNmI-´ne "" s\m¥p hnfn®p s]‰m\ kmdm DΩm kmdm DΩm ImeØp t\mhpw shfnhpw D≠v ]≠p D≈-h¿s°m-s°sbm t\mhpw shfnhpw C√m kmdm DΩm-Im-eØv ac-sØm-Øn-amcv D≠v tIc-f-Ønse a‰p \mtSmSn ]m´p-]m-c-º-cy-hp-ambn ka-c-k- ]mT-t`-Z-߃, t^mIvtemdns\ Xncn-®-dn-bm-\p≈ Hcp D]m-[n-bm- \mtSm-Sn-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ ImWp∂ as‰mcp {]tXy-I-X-Iq-Sn-bp≠v CXn¬. ta\n HØ s]Æn\p Rm≥ Xncp-apSn sImSp-Øp "" Ch\ ]nSn-®n´ sIm√I shWs∑ ta\n HØ s]Æn≥ Rm≥ F¥ sImS-°Wv kmdm DΩmsS ]m´v(-dn-_p-l) Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ CXnse ]e ]m´p-Ifpw hni-Zo-I- ' Cu hcn-I-fn¬ \nd-bp-∂p. aIs\ sIm∂-hs\ i]n-°p∂ ZmhoZpw aÆm\pw (12), s]m∂-X-Wn ' ' ' ' F∂mWv AΩ ]d-bp- (Theory of Oral (18) F∂ ]m´n¬ (40) F∂o ]m´p- ' ' î(40) kn. hn. kp[o¿ 631 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 632 TAPASAM, January 2006 bn¬ sImXpIv F∂ t]cn¬ Hcp ]m´pXs∂-bp≠v(A-∏p-°p-´≥ F.-sI.). bn-te°p sImXp-Ins\ IS-Øn-hn-Sp-∂p. a[y-tI-c-f-Ønse kmw_-h¿°n-S- Snb sImXp-Im-Wv. Aßs\ tIc-f-Ønse PqX-kv{Xo-Iƒ ss__nƒ IY- Øn\p hgn-sbm-cp-°n-bXv Abm-fpsS intcm-I-h-N-Øn-\p-≈n¬ IS-∂p-Iq- am-Ip-∂p. ZmhoZpw sImXpIpw(17) F∂ ]m´n¬ tKmen-bm-Øns‚ ]X-\- Wv. PqX-∏m-´p-I-fnepw CS-\m-S≥]m-´p-I-fnepw sImXpIv kPoh IYm-]m-{X- am-°p-∂Xp PqX-∏m-´p-I-fnepw A]q¿h-amb ImgvN-b-√. Iƒ \o´¬, Ipdp-°¬, ]Ip°¬, hnS¿Ø¬ XpS-ßn-b-hbv°p hnt[-b- t®¿Øp c≠p `mK-am°n ]mSp-∂p-≠v. ]m´ns‚ Xmf-Øn-\-\p-k-cn®p hm°p- B[m-c-s∏-´n hyXy-kvX-a-√. hmIy-߃°nS-bn¬ hmbvØmcn {]tbm-Kn®p ImWp-∂p-≠v. Bh¿Øn-°p-∂Xn¬ (-]m-´v˛11) F√mw Cu ]m´p-Iƒ a‰p ]m´p-I-fn¬\n∂p hm°v Bh¿Øn-°p-∂Xn¬ (-]m-´v˛17), Xmfm-fl-I-ambn \nc¿Y-I-i-–-߃ W-Øn¬ \nc¿Y-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-I ]m´v˛43), ]mZ-Øns‚ Ah-km\ ImWp-∂p-≠v. G∏psamgn-Ifpw a‰pw [mcm-f-ambn PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-I-fnepw bp∂ hn[-Øn-ep≈ ]Zm-h¿Ø-\hpw ]mZm-h¿Ø-\hpw \nI-Øpsamgn-Ifpw ImWp-∂-Xm-Wv. F∂n-ßs\ a‰p ]m´p-I-fnepw ImWp∂ Cu LS\ tIc-f-Øn¬ ]cs° DØ-c-ambn Ht∂m ct≠m hm°p-Iƒ tN¿°pI F∂-XmWv AXv. fn¬ DØ-c-hm-Iy-߃ ta¬hm-Iy-ß-fn¬\n∂v Gdn-b`m-Khpw kzoI-cn®v PpXcpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ tIc-f-Ønse \mtSm-Sn-∏m-´p-I-fnse Hcp IYm-]m{Xw sImXp-Im- Xmss\ sNbvX-h-\m-sc∂v "" Xmss\ Agn®p Xpd-∂qsX "" Poh-\p-]-Imcw sNbvX-h-\m-sc∂v "" hmbvØm-cn-I-fp-]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xn¬ (km¿Y-I-amb H‰-∏Zw {]I-c- \n\-s°mØ ame Rm≥Xcmw Imtfy ]qhmSn ]qc-Øn\v G\n√ tImcm F\n-s°mØ ame \n\-s°mØ tNe Rm≥Xcmw Imtfy ]qhmSn ]qc-Øn\v G\n√ tImcm F\n-s°mØ tNe "" Poh-\p-]-Imcw Xmss\ B[m-c-s∏´n Xmss\ B[m-c-s∏´n Agn®p Xpd-∂qsXî sIm´p-tI-°Wv sImb-eqØv tI°Wv ]qhmSn Imtfy ]qc-Øn\v (24) F∂ ]m´n¬ hS-°≥ ]m´p-I-fpsS ]Wn-bm-e ' ' ' ' F∂n-ß-s\-bp≈ hcn-Iƒ F∂n-ßs\ hmbvØmcn Iq´n- ' ' î -bn¬ cmL-h-hm-cn-b¿ ]d- ' ' {]-tbm-K-ßfpw ∏mSv F∂ A¿Y- " ho-I-c-W-hpw-sIm≠v Hcp ae-bm-f]-ina ]m´p-I-fn¬ B¿°pw ImWmw. [mcm-fnØw ImWn-°p∂-Xv. {ZmhnU]Z-ßfpw kwkvIr-X-]-Z-ß-fpsS X¤- ¶n¬Ø-s∂bpw hnizm-k-Øns‚ Imcy-Ønse ASn-bp-d-∏n-s\-bmWv Cu ae-bm-f-tØmSp kz\-]-c-amb A\p-Iq-e\w sNdnb coXn-bn¬ ImWm-sa- ∂p-≠v. Ah-bn¬ `qcn-]-£hpw aX-hp-ambn _‘-s∏´ hm°p-I-fm-Wv. PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-I-fn¬ [mcmfw lo{_p-]-Z-߃ IS∂phcp- Xm\pw BZm\w sNø-s∏-´n-´p-≈-h-bn¬ `qcn-]£w ]Z-ßfpw kw⁄m-\m-a-ß-fmWp \m-a-߃ A[n-Ihpw lo{_p-hns\ ]n¥p-S-cp-∂p. lo{_p-hn¬\n∂v sS-bm-Wv ... ]gb\nb-a-Øns‚ kpdn-bm-\n, ae-bmfw X¿Pp-a-I-fn¬ kw⁄m- ߃ {]N-cn-®Xv blq-Z-cn-eq-sS-sb-∂-Xn-s\-°m-f-[nIw {InkvXym-\n-I-fn-eq- ´p-I-fn¬ lo{_p ]Z-߃ Ipd-hm-Wv. Ad-_n-]-Z-ß-fpsS [mcm-fn-Ø-hp-ambn Xmc-X-ay-s∏-Sp-Øp-tºmƒ PqX-∏m- Zo-I-cn-°mw.1) `mjm-]-c-ambn 2) kmw-kvIm-cn-I-am-bn. am∏n-f-∏m-´p-I-fnse ae-bm-fØw {]tbmKw PqX-∏m-´n¬ Xmc-X-tays\ Ipd-hm-Wv. °m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. F∂m¬, l-c-W-ambn \mS≥]m´p-hn-`m-K-ß-fn-se∂t]mse PqX-∏m-´nepw ImWp-∂p-≠v. CXn\v DZm- hmbncn '' F∂p ]n.- Fw. tPmk^v (1995:311) \nco-£n-°p-∂p-≠v. F∂m¬ ' (h-cq, Ccn-°q), P F∂- a-´n¬ hkvXp-hns\ hni-Zo-I-cn-°m-\m-bp-≈ -A-e-¶m-c-ß-fpsS hb-\m-S≥a-™ƒ apdn-®-t]mse "" Fs‚ tamfv Ip™n-∏-bn° hcWv≠v.î "" ]p≈n-a-]p≈n ]e-sXm≠ AS-b \n߃ apdn® am\n∂p Fs¥mcp AS-bmfw Rm≥ apdn-s∏≥, apdn-s∏≥ F∂p aW-hm´n am≥ apdn-∏m≥ Bscm-≈q,am≥ Bscm-≈q, ]p≈n-a-]p≈n ]e-sXm≠p AS-bmfw "" BJym-\-tI-{µ-ß-fn¬ am‰w- hc¬, Akw-_-‘X F∂n-hbpw a‰p ]´n-en-s‚-tS-t°msS Nqcy-\p-Zn-®-t]mse Ip∂Øp kqcy-\p-Zn®t]mseî \n߃ FbvX am\n\p Fs¥mcp AS-bmfw qX-∏m-´p-I-fpsS ae-bm-fØw c≠p Xc-Øn¬/ Xe-Øn¬ hni- " ]mscSn Øn¬ ' " XpS-ßnb {Zmhn-U-{]-tbm-K-ßfpw hnc-f-a-√. I„- hcpØw " BeXn ' ' F∂ hm°p PqX-a-e-bm-f-Øn¬ kpe- (B-h-em-Xn) F∂n-ß-s\-bp≈ tZiy- " " tIcfobkaqlØn¬ lo{_p]Z- ' ' mfw ' ' (]m-´v˛ 46) FSpØp ImWn- kn. hn. kp[o¿ 633 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 634 TAPASAM, January 2006 H^od Kwen-tb¬:167). `am-sW∂p kvI PpXcpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ 38) {Inb-Iƒ°p-aosX Øn¬am{Xw Bi-b-]q¿Øn-h-cp∂ hn[-Øn-ep≈ {]tbm-K-ßfpw( ]m´v˛ a√ Cw•ojpw X’-a-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p-≠v. kwkvIrX X’-a-ßfpw X¤-h-ßfpw ImWp-∂p. kwkvIrX]Z-߃ am{X- cWw, {]tXy-In®p kwkvIrX]Z-߃°p \S-°p-∂-Xv. Htc ]m´n¬ Øn¬ ImWp-∂p-≠v. Km-\-߃,- `mKw 2 :333) F∂p a‰p ]m´p-I-fnepw Cu hm°v Htc A¿Y- hp-∂-Xm-Wv. Xmf-kzo-I-cWw kmwkvIm-cnI kzmwio-I-c-W-Øns‚ `mK-ambn hmbn-°m- k-hn-ti-j-X (-t\m. kvIdnbm k°-dn-b, H^od Kwen-tb¬, 2005:130). hmbn-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. h¿W-]-cn-Wm-a-amWv FSpØp ]d-tb≠ as‰mcp `mjm- B‚WnbpsS h¿Ø-am-\-Im-e-{]-Xy-tbm¬∏Øn-hm-Z-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn Xo¿Øpw ]m›mXyNn”-am-Wv. ChnsS tIc-fobPqX¿ Xß-fpsS hnhm-l- Xmenbpw tIc-fo-b-amb Ae-¶m-c˛hnhml Nn”-ß-fm-sW-¶n¬ tamXncw kv{Xosb ImWm≥ km[n-°p-∂p. \n¬°p-∂-Xv. s]m∂n-´-ta-\n(- ∏qhpw ap√-∏qhpw ]n®-I-∏qhpw NqSn hfbpw tamXn-chpw AWn-™mWp \n¬°p∂ h[p-hns‚ kpµcNn{X-ap-≠v. Cu h[p Nµ\w ]qin Nº-I- \X-e-Ønse am‰hpw hfsc ]Xp-s°bpw {Ian-I-hp-amtb \S-°p-I-bp-≈q. kmh-[m-\ta \S°q F∂p ]d-bp-∂-Xp-t]mse kaq-l-Øns‚ A\p-jvTm- hfsc {]m[m-\y-ap-≈-h-bm-Wv. `mj-bn¬ hymI-c-W-Xe ]cn-Wmaw IS-∂p-h-cp-∂p-≠v. kn\n-am-∏m-´p-I-fp-sSbpw \mS-IKm-\-ß-fp-sSbpw ap{Zm-hm-Iy-ß-fp-sSbpw Xmfw 13) `mjm-]-c-amb {]tXy-I-X-I-fm-Wv. A\p-\m-kn-Im-Xn-{]-kcw hcmØ A]q¿hw Nne {]tbm-K-ßfpw( ]m´v˛ {]tbm-Khpw ]pcp-j-t`Z-{]-Xy-b-߃ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xnse Ahy-h-ÿbpw hcp-Ø-s∏-t´≥ Rms\mcp h≠mbv Na-t™-s\So "" I¿Øm-hn-√msX {Inbm-]-Z-ß-fp-]-tbm-Kn-®p-sIm≠p {]I-c-W- ]m´ns‚ Xmf-Øn\v A\p-k-cn-®mWp ]e-t∏mgpw X¤-h-cq-]o-I- H∏-\-∏m-´n-s‚bpw (]m-´v˛11) ssIs°m-´n-°-fn-∏m-´n-s‚-bpw(-]m-´v˛40) Nº-I-∏qhpw ap√-∏qhpw ]n®-I-∏qhpw Nµ\w ]qiepw hfbpw s]menI s]menb F∂ ]m´p-I-fn¬(44,45,46) k¿hm-ew-Ir-X-bmbn hnhmlw, ac-Ww, BtLmjw XpS-ßn-bh A\p-jvTm-\-]-c-ambn Idp-Ø-s]tÆ! \ns∂ ImWm-™n-s´m-cp-\m-fpt≠ Audio CD dnbm k°- bnse Ah-km-\-`m-K-Øp-h-cp∂ ]e ]m´p-I-fnepw " ˛DXp dnb \nco-£n-°p-∂p-≠v (kvIdnbm k°-dn-b, Xm-en ' F∂ \nc¿Y-cq-]-Øns‚ Bh¿Øn-®p≈ ) F∂ 37˛mw ]m´n¬ Xmen [cn® PqX- " ˛DXp ' íhns‚ {]tbm-KsØ kn.-F¬. ' ' î (tI-cf `mjm- APp \mcm-b-W≥ klm-b-I-{K-Ÿ-߃ B\-µ-°p-´≥ \mb¿(-k-ºm.) ImWn-®p-X-cp-∂Xv . Bt«-jn-®-Xns‚ Nn-{X-amWp PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ \ap°p cWw kzo-Icn®p, PqX¿ Xß-fpsS PqXØw hn´p-I-f-bmsX tIc-fo-b-Xsb ≠v tPmk^v ]n.-Fw. tKm]m-e-Ir-jvW≥ ]n.sI. 1991(1974) D]-kw-lmcw kqNn-∏n-°p-∂-Xm-Wv. Ønepw Dƒt®¿∂p tIc-fob PqX-cmbn, Aßs\ tIc-fo-b-cmbn F∂p Ønb PqX¿ tIc-f-Øns‚ ÿecm-in-bnepw kmwkvIm-cnI sshhn-≤y- sImSp-Øp-sX (-]m-´v˛3) F∂o hcn-Iƒ {i≤m¿l-am-Wv. CXp tIc-f-Øn-se- (-]m-´v˛43), \qen´ Xmen ]q≠p-sIm-≠v (-]m-´v˛37), ]´pw hf-bpwsa kΩm-\w Øn-te-°p≈ hgn-Iƒ Xpd-°p-∂-Xm-Wv. cpsSbpw A°me-sØbpw kmt¶-Xn-I-˛-km-º-Øn-I-˛kmwkvIm-cnI Pohn-X- I-fmb kv{XoI-fpw (-]m-´v˛39) hnhm-l-k-Zy-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ kqN-\-Ifpw PqX- sIm≠p-h∂p ka-\z-bn-∏n-®n-cn-°p-∂p. Øn-te°p tIc-fo-b-amb Xmen-sbbpw ]m›m-Xy-amb tamXn-c-sØbpw adn-bmΩ tPm¨(-B-th-Z-I) ' íH∏-\-∏m-´n-s‚bpw ssIs°m-´n-°-fn-∏m-´n-s‚-bpw Xmfw Bh-iym-\p-k- ë H∏-\ (-sh-sdmcp a¶ Hs∏\ Im´n sN∂p(-]m-´v˛43), aße the I∏¬ ]Wn-bp∂ Bim-cn-amcpw (]m-´v˛3) k¿hm-`c-W-hn-`q-jn-X- " tamXncw Cs´mcp hncepw \\-bmsX 2005 1980 1995 1998 tIc-f-Øns‚ kmwkvIm-cnINcn-{Xw Nß-\m-t»-cn. dn-hp-I-fn tIc-f-Ønse _p≤-aX]mc-ºcyw \m´- Xncp-h-\-¥-]p-cw. tIcf `mjm C≥Ãn-‰yq´v, tIcf kmlnXyA°m-Z-an,- Xr-»q¿. tIcf `mjm-Km-\-߃ Xncp-h-\-¥-]p-cw. tIcf`mjm C≥Ãn-‰yq-´v, ae-bm-f-Ønse ]c-Iob ]Z-߃

c-Ww,- N-ß-\mt»-cn. amWn°ws]Æ eq-sS '

" , Xmc-Xay ]T\ kwLw, \qen´ Xmen ]q≠p-sIm- v, am\pjw {]kn-≤o-I- `mKw 2, kn. hn. kp[o¿ , , 635 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 636 TAPASAM, January 2006 kt¥m-jv. FOv.-sI. H^od Kwen-tb¬ kPn-X.-sI.-B¿.(-F-Un.) kvIdnbm k°-dn-b, cmL-h≥ ]ø-\mSv (F-Un.) Scaria Zacharia cmL-h≥ ]ø-\mSv PpXcpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ CD ROM

Oh,Lovely Parrot! 2005 The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1997 1992(1986) 1998 FS-\m-S≥]m-´v 2005 1997 2005 Jewish Malayalam Folksongs: Text, Dis- Nß-\m-t»-cn. Im¿Ip-gen s_≥kzn C≥Ãn-‰yq-´v, Pdp-k-ew. Hm^v ae-_m¿ ({SÃv), ]ø∂q¿. tIc-f-t^mIvtem¿ ]ªn-t°-j≥kv, ]cn-bm-cw, IÆq¿. t^mIvtem¿ hgnbpw s]mcpfpw 2005. of Dravidian Linguistics courses and Identity, Xncp-h-\-¥-]p-cw. t^mIvtem¿ Jewish Music Research Centre. , Xmc-Xay ]T\kwLw, ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ, , tIcf `mjm C≥Ãn-‰yq´v, , t^mIvtem¿ s^temkv International Journal XXXIV No 2, June , kwkvIrXn ap≈ ae-bm-fn-bpsS a\- n¬ BZyw sXfn™phcp-∂Xp knÿ Zo] {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ tXmΩm `mc-X-Øn¬ kphn-tijw \¬In-sb∂ {]_-e-hn-izm-k-am 1. am¿tØm-Ωm≥ Ieym-W-∏m-´p-Iƒ i\w hnfw-_cw sNøp-I-bp-am-Wv Cu ]m-´p-Iƒ. ]m´pIq´m-bvabv°p kzXz-{]-Im- ep-≈-h-bmWp an° ]m´p-I-fpw. ]m´p-Iq-´m-bvasb kzbw \n¿∆-Nn-°p-Ibpw ´p-Ifpw hnhm-l-tØm-S-\p-_-‘n®p ]mSp-∂-h-bm-Wv. ]ga sImXn-°p∂ a´n- \nt∂m Ccpt∂m ]mSp-∂-h-bmWp s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ (196 s]¨]m´v F∂p Xcw-Xn-cn-®n-´p-≠v. NphSpw Xmfhpw IqSmsX kv{XoIƒ ]mSp-∂-h-bmWv BtLm-j-∏m-´p-Iƒ. ]mSp-∂-hsc ap≥\n¿Øn B¨]m-´v, Iv\m\mb {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS CS-bn¬ Ieym-W-Øn\pw a‰m-tLm-j-߃°pw Bdmbn h¿§o-I-cn-°mw. BtLm-j-∏m-´p-Iƒ AXn¬ Hcp hn`m-K-amWv k-]-cn-Wm-a-ßsf _‘n-∏n-°p-∂Xp IuXp-I-I-c-am-Wv. Wm-a-hp-ambn ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´p-I-fpsS hnhn[ A®-Sn-∏-Xn-∏p-I-fn-eq-sS-bp≈ hnIm- {]kn-≤o-I-cn-°p∂ {KŸ-am-Wn-Xv. Iƒ ItØm-en°m kap-Zm-b-am-Wv. ≠v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´p-I-fpsS {]km-[-I¿ tIm´bw tI{µ-am-°nbp≈ Iv\m\mb ]mW≥]m´v F∂n-ßs\ ]e KW-ß-fmbn Xncn-°m-hp∂ ]m´p-Iƒ CXn-ep- ®p. s]¨]m´pIƒ, B¨]m-´p-Iƒ, ]≈n-∏m-´p-Iƒ, am¿§wIfn-∏m´v ' F∂ ]pkvX-I-am-bn-cn-°pw. (identification) {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS \mtSm-Sn-∏m-´p-Iƒ F∂p tI´m¬ hmb-\m-io-e- tbip-{In-kvXp-hns‚ ac-W-sØ-Øp-S¿∂p tbip-in-jy-\mb am¿ \mS≥Ko-Xn-Ifpw IYm-Km-\-ßfpw Dƒs∏´ ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´p-Isf F∂ \ne-bn-emWp ]m´ns‚ {]m[m-\yw. 1 Ah-cpsS Bfl-Z¿i-\-Øn¬ D≠m-Ip∂ ]cn- 1910 2002 apX¬ tIm´-b-Øp-\n∂v A®-Sn®p -˛¬ ]Ømw ]Xn∏p {]kn-≤o-I-cn- 1 :35). an° s]¨]m- " ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´p- Wp 637 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 638 TAPASAM, January 2006 mbn, amdn F∂n-h¿ hgntbm \¬Inb kphn-ti-j-am- ]nXm-hm-Wv. _m_n-tem-Wn¬h®p tXmΩm-«olm t\cnt´m injy-cmb A±- KoX-am-Wn-Xv. ImcWw Iv\m\m-b-°m¿°p tXmΩm-«olm hnizm-k-Øns‚ [yw-sIm≠p NS-ßp-Iƒ `wKn-bm-°-W-sa∂p {]m¿∞n-°pIbpw sNøp∂ Hcp tXmΩmsb A\p-kva-cn-°p-Ibpw tbip-hns‚bpw am¿tXm-Ωm-bp-sSbpw km∂n- d®p\n∂p-sIm≠p Xß-fpsS hnhml®S-ßp-I-fpsS Bcw-`Øn¬ am¿ 1. ]m´ns‚ XpS°w Ah¿ A`n-am-\w-sIm-≈p-∂p. F∂v Ah¿ Icp-Xp-∂p. _m_n-tem-Wn-b≥ PqX˛ss{IkvXh ]mc-ºcyØn¬ {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ a Z¿i-\-ß-fpsS shfn-®-Øn¬ CXp hni-I-e\w sNøm-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. ¶-ev]-Ønse AXo-h- i-co-c-]-cX {it≤-b-am-Wv. ka-Im-enI s^an bpsS hf¿® Ah-b-h-ß-fpsS hf¿®-bmbn Nn{Xo-I-cn-°p-∂n-SØp kv{Xok- ∏n-°m\pw Du´n-bp-d-∏n-°m\pw CØcw `mK-߃ {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Spw. kv{Xo kv{XobpsS P∑-km-^eyw hnhm-l-Øn-em-sW∂ s]mXp-t_m[w {]Im-in- kwXr]vXn s]mXp-t_m-[-Øns‚ `mK-am-bn -thWw a\- n-em-°m≥. ∂p-≠t√m. Xs‚ A`n-emjw \nd-th-‰p-∂-Xn¬ AΩ A\p-`-hn-°p∂ °n-s°m-Sp-Ømte Bizm-k-amIq F∂p Imfn-Zm-k-im-Ip-¥-f-Øn¬ ImWp- ≠m-Ip∂ hnIm-c-am-Wn-Xv. I\yI ]W-b-h-kvXp-hm-Wv. AXv DS-abv°p aS- A\p-cq-]-\mb ]pcp-js‚ ssIbn¬ aIsf Gev]n-°p-tºmƒ AΩ-bv°p- s]‰p -h-f¿Ønb AΩ-bpsS hnIm-c-ssh-h-iy-am-Wv. hf¿Øn hep-Xm°n s∏-S-W-sa∂ {]m¿∞-\sb XpS¿∂p≈ hcn-I-fn¬ \nd-™p-\n-ev°p-∂Xv bm¿∂ D]-hn-`m-K-amb Iv\m\mb {InkvXym-\n-Iƒ m¿tØmΩm{InkvXym-\n-Iƒ°p-≈-Xv. am¿tØmΩm{InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS X\n- F∑-\t m ]X-dp∂p....' Fs‚ aIsf ]c-ta‰n hbvt]mfpw tbmK-Ømse ]cn-ip≠v tXmfpw XpSbpw apJhpw aWn-amdpw I∂n-a-Isf Rm≥ \ns∂ ssIIq-∏n- t\¿∂p Rm≥ s]‰p-h-f¿tØmcp I¿∏q-c-∏-¥-e-Ita I¥o-im-\m-b-s\-gp-∂≈n h∂n´p Ds◊-sb-gp-∂ƒI thWw DØ-a-\mb aninlm Xncp-hp≈w \∂mbv htc-W-ta-bn∂v " "am¿tØm-Ωm≥ \∑-bm-sem∂p XpS-ßp∂p Cu I¿∏q-c-∏¥¬ tbip-hns‚ km∂n-≤y-Øm¬ hnip-≤o-I-cn-°- ' (1998:1) 2 Cu hnizm-k-[m-c-bn-ep- Wp XßfpsS aXw -\nÃp a- ]¥-en¬sh®p ]mSp∂ ]m´m °p-∂Xpw Cu Znh-k-am-bn-cp-∂p. NS-ß-p-Iƒ \S-Øp-tºmƒ kv{XoIƒ ∂n-cp-∂-Xn-\m¬ hcs\ BZy-ambn £ucw sNøp-∂Xpw Iu]o-\-a-Wn-bn- °p∂ NS-ßmWv A¥w-Nm¿Øv. ]g-b-Im-eØp ssiihhnhmlw \ne-\n- 2. A¥w Nm¿Øp]m´v 3. ssaem-©n-∏m´v Nm¿Øp-Ibpw sNøp-∂p. ]oTØn¬ Ccn-°p∂ ]pcp-js\ tIm¬hn-f-°ns‚ AI-º-Sn-tbmsS A¥w °p∂ ]¥-en¬ hnhm-l-Ø-te∂p _me-I¿ ]mSn-°-fn-°p-∂p. Ae-¶-cn® A∏\pw AΩbpw _‘p-°fpw Ab¬hm-kn-Ifpw Bb Bfp-Iƒ Ccn- NSßv ]n∂oSv A¥w-Nm¿Ømbn amdn-b-Xm-h-hmw. Øn, \J-߃ F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn-em " ]m´n¬ hnh-cn-°p-∂p. °p∂ ka-b-ß-fn¬ am{Xta ssaem-©n-bn-Sm-hq. AXn-\p≈ Imc-Whpw ssaem-©n-bn-So¬ "" tIm¬hn-f°pw ]mhm-Sbpw A¥w \nd-tØm-sSm-Ø-ßn-cn°pw t\cw \mƒ Ipdn® Znh-k-a-Xn¬ apgp-s°-∏qin `wKn-tbmsS amdms\ ap≥\n¿Øn am¿§-hm\ \mƒ Ipdn®p tXdm\ [\-sØ-sbmØp thK-samsS X≥ ]nXm-°ƒ A∏-s\mSp AΩm-h-∑m-cm-b-emcpw _‘p-°fpw Iqdm\ _‘p-°fpw KpW-ap-Sb Adn-hp-t≈mcpw Im¬\Jw X∂n¬ s]mXn-bp∂p abn-em©n Imem¬ \S∂p I\n-Xn∂ ImcWw ssI∏pSw X∂n¬ s]mXn-bp∂p abn-em©n Iømse Imbpw ]dn-s®mcp ImcWw ]®ne abn-em-©n-sIm≠p s]mXn-tbWw A∂∂p I∂n-am¿ awKeyw hmgp-hm≥ l∆ a\-bmsf \mb≥ sImSp-Ø-t]m¬ " "]≠v ]d-s™m-tØm-cm-ZØpw `mcybmw amdm\otim ]Z-hn-bnse Ieym-W-Øns‚ Xte-Zn-hkw ]¥-en¬sh®p hcs\ kpµ-c-\m- hnhm-l-Ø-te∂p aW-hm-´n-bpsS ho´n¬ \S-Øp∂ NS-ßm ' aW¿t°m-e-∏p-Xpa Im◊m≥ . CXn-\p-≈-Xm- Wp N¥w Nm¿Øp-]m-´v. N¥w-Nm¿ØpI F∂ Wp Wp ssaem-©n-bn-Sp-∂-Xv. ]m´n¬ hnh-c ssaem-©n-∏m-´v. ssI∏-Øn, Im¬∏- ]mSn-°-fn°pw _me-I¿°v Nm¿Øn \ o cp-amSn. ' ' knÿ Zo] Wp n- v 639 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 640 TAPASAM, January 2006 F∂ t]cn¬ ImWmw. a‰p ]m´p-I-fp-ambn PqX-∏m-´p-Iƒ°p≈ ASp-∏-sØ- s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ' (kvIdnbm k°-dnb 2005) F∂ {KŸ-Øn¬ "hmgp-h∂' Ibpw sNøp-∂p. CXn\p kam-\-amb ]m´p "Im¿Ip-gen PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw t]m‰nb aIƒ°v sFizcyw D≠m-Ip-hm≥ ]c-ky-ambn A\p-{Klw \evIp- Cßs\ ]mSn Zo¿Lm-bp p t\cp-Ibpw ]mense shÆ-t]mse emfn®p FØp-tºmƒ ]mSp∂ ]m´m 4. hmgq-∏m´v ss__nƒ{]ta-b-hp-ambn _‘n-∏n®p NS-ßns\ ss{IkvX-h-am-°p-∂p. Ø©p hcn-I-fp-≠v. sh®v A\p-{K-ln-°p-tºmƒ kv{XoIƒ kwL-ambn ]mSp-∂p. ]m´n\p ap∏- he-Xp-Icw aW-hm-fs‚ Xe-bnepw CS-Xp-Icw aW-hm-´n-bpsS {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ ]m-Zn-®n-´p≈ hnh-c-W-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-Sp-Øn-bm ss__n-fnse D¬]Øn ]pkvX-I-Øn¬ c≠pw aq∂pw A[ym-b-ß-fn¬ {]Xn- ©n-bn-So-°pI F∂ NSßp a‰p tIc-fob kap-Zm-b-ß-fn-ep-ap-≠v. °nb ssaem-©n-∏m-´ns‚ tNcph khn-ti-j-]-T\w A¿ln-°p-∂p. ssaem- ssaem-©n-∏m-´v. ss__nƒ]mThpw Ac-ßnse ]mThpw Ie¿Øn D≠m- Xms\mcp \µn-bp-W¿®bpw sh®v..' [\-h-Xn-sb∂ {iosb-s°m-SpØv apSn NqSp-amdp s]cpa sImSpØv Xncp-hp-≈-am\ hgnsb \S-∏m≥ Acp-fm¬ s]cpa sImSp-∏Xpw Xmt\ ASnbm¿°-Sna sImSp-∏Xpw Xmt\ hnØm-en-c-´n-∏-sX√mw \n\°v hncn-hm\ hmgvhsX√mw \n\°v hogmsX si¬hhpw hncn-hp-a-sX√mw ]¶n´p \n≥a-°ƒ sIm≈-p-I-sb-t∂In hmgvhm\ `qaow ^e-am-I-Ø-t∂≥ Imew s]cp-Xmbv hmWn-´n-cn-°Ww \obpw \n≥ `¿Ømhpw a°fpw IqsS " ssI∏pSw X∂n¬ s]mXn-bp∂p abn-em©n' Aÿn-ta¬ aÆp s]mXn-t™mcp ImcWw "hmgvsh∂ hmgp \n\-°msI Xt∂≥ hnhm-l-∏-¥-en¬ h[q-h-c-∑msc A\p-{K-ln-°m≥ h[p-hns‚ AΩ Wp hmgq-∏m-´v. kZ- n-t\mSv A\p-hmZw hmßn '

(1998:3) ' Wp {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS 3 ChnsS Cß-s\-sbmcp NS-ßp-≈-Xmbn tUm. sh≈n-bm≥ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-´p-≠v. hnhm-l-k-Zybv°p apºmbn \S-Øp∂ NS-ßm-Wn-Xv. PqX-hn-hm-l-Ønepw bm{X-bm-Ip∂ Hcp a∂-s\-°p-dn-®p≈ Nn{Xhpw ChnsS e`n-°p-∂p-≠v. {]Xn-]m-Zn-°p-∂p. Hmtdm«w (P-dp-k-ew) \K-c-Øn¬\n∂p ae-\m-´n-te°p ∂-h-sc-°p-dn®pw Ah¿ sImSp-ß-√qcp I∏-en-d-ßp-∂-Xn-s\-°p-dn®pw ]m´n¬ Iƒ F∂n-h-bmWp ]m´ns‚ hnj-bw. IpSn-tb-‰-°m¿°p t\XrXzw \evIp- ]mSp-∂p. Iv\m\mb {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS Ncn-{Xw, Ah¿°p e`n® ]Z-hn- \S-Øp∂ hmgq-∏m-´ns\ XpS¿∂p \s√m-tcm-tdm«w F∂m-cw-`n-°p∂ ]m´p hcs‚ ho´n¬ k÷o-I-cn-®n-cn-°p∂ ]¥-en-te°p B\-bn-°p-∂p. AhnsS 6. \s√m-scm-tdm«w Ah¿ ho™mWv Htc ]m{X-Øn¬\n∂p IpSn-°p-∂-Xv. Ipdn∏v 2005 t\m°p-I) °p-dn®v tUm. kvIdnbm k°-dnb h[q-h-c-∑m¿°p ]mepw ]ghpw \evIp∂ NSßpw ]m´n¬ hnh-cn-°p-∂p. ßp-Iƒ°p ]≈n-bn-te°p t]mIp-∂Xpw NS-ß-p-Iƒ Ign™v Xncn-s®-Øp∂ ∏m´pw ]mSp-∂p. BS-bm-`c-W-ßfpw s]m≥ap-Snbpw NqSn- h[p hnhm-l-®-S- \nev°p∂ ka-bØv hmgq-∏m´pw XpS¿∂p kµ¿`a-\p-k-cn®p hmgq-h-´-°-fn- 5. hmgq-h-´-°fn kvIdnbm k°-dnb Nq≠n-°m-Wn-°p-∂p-ap-≠v. s{]m^. ]n. Fw. Pqs Iƒ C∂pw t\cnb hyXym-k-tØmsS c≠p Iq´cpw ]mSn-h-cp∂p F∂pw W-∏m-´p-Iƒ°pw kmZr-iy-ap-s≠∂pw hmgq-∏m-´v, s]m∂-Wn-¥oSpw F∂o ]m´p- ߃ IuXp-I-I-c-am-sW∂v ´p-≠v. ]mT-X-e-Øn¬ Ccp-Iq-´-cp-sSbpw hmgq-∏m-´p-Iƒ XΩn-ep≈ hymXym-k- C—-bn-sem∂pw icn-∏-d-hm-\n√.. C—n®p X∂ a[p-c-߃ sNm√p-hm≥ sIm≠p-sN-∂ßp sImSpØ a[p-c-߃ sh≈n-hn-f-ßp∂ In≠n-bn¬ sh≈hpw s]m∂pw Xfn-I-bn¬ ]mepw ]g-hp-ambv D◊-bn-sem∂p sImSp-°-W-sa-t∂m¿Øv "" Hma-\-bp≈ aI-s\-°-≠-Ωbpw hnhm-l®-S-ß-p-Iƒ Ign™p h[q-h-c-∑msc tLmj-bm-{Xbmbn ]¥-en¬ h[p-hns‚ AΩ h[q-h-c-∑msc A\p-{K-ln-®p-sIm≠p tIc-f-Ønse PqX-cp-sSbpw Iv\m\mb {InkvXym\nIfp-sSbpw Ieym- 4 . (A study in comparison " Im¿Ip-g-en- N¿®-sN-øp-∂p-≠v. (Im¿Ip-g-en-bpsS ap≥ ' ' ' bpsS hymJym-\-°p-dn-∏n¬ tUm.

1986:4 ) tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn- knÿ Zo] 5 641 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 642 TAPASAM, January 2006 Cßs\ h∂p Ah¿ sImSp-ß-√q-sc-Øp∂ cwKw hnh-cn-°p-∂Xp ImWp-I. {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ A≥]Xp hcn-I-fp≈ ]m´v Bcw-`n-°p-∂Xv C{]-Im-c-am-Wv. °p∂ NS-ßp-Iƒ°n-S-bn¬ ]mSp∂ ]m´m-Wn-Xv. Ncn-{X-t_m-[-ap- 7. C∂p \o Rßsf Zn-°p-∂Xv. ssI°p ]nSn®p Ic-bn-d°n. ImeØp \nß-f-hn-sS-s®∂v h∂p ISn-emkp hmßn-s°m≠v sXmΩ≥ In\m-\-h≥ IqsS-bp≠v IØ-߃ \me-c-cn-sI-bp≠v Ddlm am¿ butk-s∏-gp-∂-≈p∂p sh´-Øp-a-∂\pw IqsS-bp-≠v. sNº-I-t»-cnbpw IqsS-bp-≠v X≠n-\p-ao-sXbm cmP-h¿Ω≥ ]≈n-Ø-≠n-t∑¬ sImSnbpw IpØn _‘p-°-sfms° Xf-cp-∂tøm in∏m-bn-am-c-h¿ hnfn-sIm-≈p∂p shSn-h®p tKm]pcw tIdp-∂-t∏mƒ Cuscgp \mep- sh-Snbpw h®p sIm®n-e-gn-apJw I≠-hmsd sImSp-ß-√q-c-ßosX h∂n-dßn ae-\mSp t\m°n ]pd-s∏-´msd "" _mhm-bpsS Iev]-\-bmse ]pd-s∏´p.. ae-\mSp hmgp-hm≥ t]mIWw a∂\v ...... ]Ø-c-am-‰n\p \nd-ta\n sNm√mta abn-em-Spw-t]mse hnf-ßp∂ a∂≥ ac-X-I-apØp hnf-bp∂ \m´nev "" HØpXncn-®-h¿ I∏¬tIdn \s√m-tcm-tdm-«w X∂n¬ \K-cn-bn¬ Imtkm-en-°(-sa-{Xm≥)-bn¬\n∂pw A\p-hmZw hmßn ]pd-s∏´ hnhm-l-tijw hcs‚ ho´n¬ Aew-Ir-X-amb ]¥-en¬sh®p \S- " apSn-sh®p aq∂p h¿jw ' ' ' hmW-N-cn-{X-amWv CXn¬ ' ' W¿Øp∂ 6

{]Xn-]m- ImWmw. ]¥¬ kt¥m-j-Øns‚ A\p-`h-amWp \evIp-∂-Xv. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´p-I-fnse a‰p ]e ]m´p-I-fnepw ]¥-en-s\-°p-dn-®p≈ h¿Æ\ \n-°p-∂p. ]¥-ens‚ Ah-X-cWw: Ah¿ ]¥-en¬ {]th-in®p aW¿t°m-esØ kao-]n-°p-tºmƒ ]m´-h-km- hmXn-ev°-se-Øp-tºmƒ kv{XoIƒ kwL-ambn ]¥¬]m-´m-cw-`n-°p-∂p. 8. ]¥¬∏m´v I-S-°m-\p≈ Du¿÷-am-Wv. hm≥ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p-≠n-hn-sS. ChnsS Ncn{Xw h¿Ø-am-\-Im-esØ adn- K-ßfpw D¬°WvT-Ifpw s\mº-c-ßfpw Bfl-hn-izmkw D≠m-°n-sb-Sp-°p- a°ƒ ]dn®p \S-s∏-Sp-I-bm-Wv. IpSn-tb‰-°m-cmbn h∂ ]q¿∆n-I-cpsS \ntbm- Imtkm-en-°m(-sa-{Xm-t∏m-eo-Øm) \evIp∂ D]-tZiw {it≤-b-am-Wv b-dn-bm-Ø-Xns‚ s\mº-chpw CXn¬ Ae-b-Sn-°p-∂p. IpSn-tb-‰-°m¿°p hnZq-c-bm-{X-bvs°m-cp-ßp∂ P\-X-bpsS Bi-¶bpw sN√p∂ ÿeØv `mj- Cu ]m´n¬ th¿]m-Sns‚ thZ-\-bp-≠v. D‰-h-scbpw DS-b-h-scbpw ]ncn™v s]m∂pw Xfn-I-bn¬ sht®mcp sh‰ne "" Ce-I-fnSpw ]¥-enXv Io¿Øn-s∏´ ]¥-en-Xv... \√ aW-∏-¥-enXv \mcn-tahpw ]¥-enXv "" _‘-߃ th¿hn-Sm-tXm¿°-W-sa-t∏mgpw.. a°sf ImWptam lnµp-hn¬ t]mbmepw Xºp-cm-\-√msX Cs√mcp km£nbpw am¿hØp IÆp-\o¿ am¿∆w \\-bp∂p Xß-fn-Ø-ß-fn-e-tºmsS Xgp-Ip∂p D‰h-cp-S-b-h¿ _‘p-°-sf-√m-cpw ...... N´bpw ap-´m°pw sIm¥ Xe-ap≠v sh◊-bn¬ t]mbmepw a°sf \nßfv HsØm-cp-an-®ßp t]mIWw \nßfpw Ggn√-sa-gp-]-Øn-c≠p IpSn-bmcpw Ime-ao-cm-dn∂p aptº Rms\-Øn-t∏≥ "" Imtem-Nn-Xw-t]mse \√-bm-_q-∑msc F√mcpw ]¥-en¬ tamZm-en-cn-°p∂p IeymW-∏-¥-enXv ImX-ep≈ ]¥-enXv h[q-h-c-∑mcpw kwLhpw tLmj-bm-{X-bmbn hnhm-l∏-¥-ens‚ ' ' ' ' knÿ Zo] . 643 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 644 TAPASAM, January 2006 hnhm-l-®S-ßpw thj-`q-jm-Zn-Ifpw hnh-cn-°p∂ `mKw: hnhm-l-®S-ß-p-I-fpsS hni-Zmw-i-߃ ]e- ]m-´p-I-fn-ep-ap-≠v. Imcy-ß-sf-°p-dn-®p≈ {]Xn-]m-Z-\-Ønse Hcp `mKw: ]mSn-t°ƒ°mw. hnhm-l-\n›-bsØ XpS¿∂p ]≈n-bn¬ hnfn-®p-sNm-√p∂ bmbn h[q-h-c-∑m-cpsS kwLw ho´n-se-Øp-∂-Xp-h-sc-bp≈ Imcy-ß-sf√mw hnhm-l-°m-cy-Øn¬ amXm-]n-Xm-°-fpsS Btem-N\ apX¬ tLmj-bm-{X- 9. awKeyw h´-°fn ∏m-´p-I-fn¬ ]cm-a¿i-ap-≠v. ßnb ]e ]m´p-I-fn-embn ]{¥≠p XhW ]¥-en-s\-°p-dn®p ]pcm-X-\- sNdn-b -tXm-_n-bm-kns‚ ]m´v, F´p-Ønc h´-°-fn, awKeyw h´-°fn XpS- tLmj-bm-{Xsb kw_-‘n®pw hnh-c-W-ß-fp-≠v. {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ th¥≥ apSn-Iƒsh®pw Im¥n-I-e-cp-ºÆw ... Iq¥-e-gn®p Xe tIm¥n-sbm-Xp-°n-s°´n C´p-X-c-Øn¬ hf s]´∂p Zqj-W-߃ ]´p-a-Wn-™-hsc Itk-c-bn-en-cpØn Iømsebq∂n-b-h≥ Iømse sI´n-Xmen "" \mep Zni-b-dn™p tImem-l-e-tØm-Sßp ip≤amw ]qP-t\cw "" Fs¥¥p ImtW-≠p∂p Nn¥n®p ImWn-I-fpw.. Ip¥-sa-dn™p \√ ]¥m´w Im◊-\n∂v hmZy-ta-fhpw \√ sIm´pw Ipc-h-Ifpw GIm-¥-s∏¨sIm-Sn-am¿ hmbv°p-c-h-bp-an´p HØp \S-\-S-Iƒ sNm√n \S-∂p-Ss\ \√ sXmgp-Ω-°m-c≥ ap∂n-e-I-º-Snbpw "" sh≈n-Ø-fn-I-ta¬ sht®mcp sh‰ne .. IqSn-b-h-scms° hmßn®p sh‰ne th≠pw hN\w sNm√n Iøpw ]nSn-∏n-®n´p IØ≥ hnfn®p sNm√n sas√-bn-cp-h-scbpw B\-∏p-d-Øn-cpØn hnhm-l-kw-_-‘-amb NS-ßp-I-fpsS kw{Klw Cu ]m´n-ep-≠v. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' Ab-\n-∏m-´ns‚ XpS°w sNøpw. Cu NS-ßp \S-°p-tºmƒ ]mSp∂ ]m´m fs‚ ktlm-Zcn kv{XoIƒ°pam{Xw taev]d™ ]e-lmcw hnX-cWw ]≈n-bn¬ t]mIp∂ NS-ß-p≠m-bn-cp-∂p. hnhmlw \S-∂m-ep-Ss\ aW-hm- a{¥-tIm-Snbpw as‰mcp ]m{X-Øn¬ Ab-\n-b-∏-hp-ambn hmZy-tLm-j-ß-tfmsS 10. Ab-\n-∏m´v F∂p ß-√q¿ tZi-hm-kn-I-fn¬ Nne¿ Cu \m´n-te°p sa{X-∑msc e`n-°p- F∂p " KpW-hm\mw ]pcp-j-\mb am¿ tbml-∂m-\-_p-\m≥ amdms‚ A∏-a-Xn¬ Aºn-\m¬ Ipºn-t´‰w Ip¿_m-\-∏-c-ip-sIm≠p a\-sa-gp-∂-∏-sa√mw _K-Zm-cn¬\n∂pw ]p°p Ip¿_m\ sNbvX-hmsd h∂-Xn¬ amWn-Iyamw am¿ tbml-∂m-\-_p-\m≥ tZiamw Iqdp-sIm≠p \mecpw \mep-Zn-°n¬ A_p-\m-∑-ssc-h¿ IqSn tZiamw Iqdp-sIm≠v aninlm X∂-cp-fmse am¿ tbml-∂m-\-_p-\m≥ "" " FØn-\m¿ ]¥-en¬ sas√-sas√ sN∂p. ]m´pw Ipc-h-b-e-¶m-c-tØm-Smbn ]Øp-an-cp-]Xpw Xcp-Wn-I-f-I-ºSn ]mep-t]m¬ X¶w hnfßpw Xep-hhpw "" B¿Øp \S-\S sNm√n \S-∂p-S≥ Xmf-Øn¬ hoin®p tLmj-tØm-S-ßs\ am\n®p sh©m-a-c-bm-e-h-´hpw ]n∂n¬ apØp-°pS NqSn-®-X-t∂cw th≠p∂ hmZy-ß-sfms° apgp-°n®p ta\n°p \√ hnf°p ]nSn-∏n®p "" F´p-Ønc h´-°-fn- _mem-bp≈ h´-°-fn- amdmsX hmgp-S-tbm≥ amdm-\o-tim-an-inlm ]Øp-hn-cev°pw \nc∂ s]m≥tam-Xncw B\-°-gp-tØdn _me∏pcp-j\pw am¿ tbml-∂m-\-_p-\m≥ F∂ sa{X-ms\-°p-dn-®m hnhm-l-Zn\-Øn¬ aW-hm-fs‚ ktlm-Zcn Hcp ]m{X-Øn¬ an∂pw ' bnepw hni-Zmw-i-߃ ImWmw. ' bnepw ' ' Wp ' ' Ab-\n-∏m-´v. ' ' Wp ]m´v. sImSp- knÿ Zo] hm≥ 645 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 646 TAPASAM, January 2006 {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ h[q-h-c-∑m-cpsS kuµcy-h¿Æ-\-bmWv CXn¬ 11. s]m∂-Wn-¥oSpw Chsc kzoI-cn-®p. Ch¿ ChnsS {]Xn-jvTm-I¿Ω-߃ \S-Øn. Ch-cn¬ Hcm-fm kn-Isf \ma-I-cWw sNbvXp sa{Xm-∑m-cmbn hmgn-®v C¥y-bn-te°p hn´p. Ing-°ns‚ ]m{Xn-bm¿°o-kns\ kao-]n-®p. ]m{Xn-bm¿°okp c≠p k\ym- asØ ]m´mbn tN¿Øn-´p-≠v. AXn¬ Sn-∏m-´n¬ ÿm\w ]nSn-°p-∂p. s∏-Sm-dn-√. F¶nepw \mtSmSnhg-°-ß-fn-eqsS Ah {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS \mtSm- √. F∂m¬ icocw s]mXpth ss{IkvX-h-a-X-km-ln-Xy-Øn¬ sIm≠m-S- ∏m-´p-I-fn¬ hnc-f-am-Wv. CØcw ico-c-h¿Æ\ \mtSm-Sn-h-g-°-Øn¬ hnc-f-a- CØcw ]mZm-Zn-h¿Æ-\-Iƒ kmln-XyØn¬ kpe-`-am-sW-¶nepw ]pcm-X-\- F∂n-ßs\ aW-hm-f-s\bpw aW-hm-´n-sbbpw amdnamdn h¿Æn-°p-∂p. s]ºnf BSpw ]m´pw "" h´Iw hoip-aosX hf¿sImSn ap∂n apØWn \√ ]´mWn ]q≠pw sIm≠ a∂-h≥ GsI≥ s]mbn Xqbn-emSpw s]m∂p ]qimcn a∂¬ aosX s]ms∂mcp ame amdp-hnepw aßem she Imhm≥ "" Ben≥X-fn-cp-t]mse Cº-ap-Z-c-ap-t≈ms\ .. \oe-ØSw I≠-hs\ Fs∂ ad-t¥ms\ \o‰n¬ Ipfn-s®-SpØ apØn-s\m-fn-hmse hm I≠m¬ \√ XØ-Np≠p \ndw tXm∂pw "" ap∂mWn ]n∂m AI-º-Sn-\mse s]m∂m-W-¥oSpw X≠p Imscdn tImh¬]-gp-°m-\ndw sN√p-an-hƒ ta\n hnhm-l-I¿Ω-ß-fpsS Ahkm\w kv{XoIƒ ]mSp∂ ]m´m-Wn-Xv. CXn\p kZr-iamb PqX-∏m´v Wp am¿ tbml-∂m-\-_p-\m≥. C¥ybnse {InkvXym\n-Iƒ 2 1 " Im¿Ip-g-en- \√ \√ \√ \√ ' '' ' ' bn¬ \mev]-Øn-aq-∂m- \evIp∂ hmKvZm-\-߃ {i≤n-°p-I. ’eyw \nd™p \nev°p-∂p. aWn-hn-f°p ]nSn®p hmXn¬ ap´p∂ AΩ F∂n-hcpw hmXn¬ ap´p-∂-Xmbn ]m´n¬ ImWmw. Cu amXr-hm- sNøp∂ NS-ßm-Wn-Xv. AΩ-bpsS hc-hn-\p-apºp amhn, \mØq≥, tPyjvTØn X-cn-∏n-°p-∂p. aIƒ°p Krtlm-]-I-c-W-ßfpw kΩm-\-ßfpw hmKvZm\w aW-hm-f-t\mSp hmXn¬ Xpd-°m≥ Bh-iy-s∏-Sp∂ kµ¿`w ]m´n¬ Ah- F∂n-ß-s\-bmWp Ah-X-c-Ww. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´n¬ F∂p ImWmw. Ib‰n IX-I-S-bv°pw. ]n∂ ß-fp-ambn hcs‚ ho´n¬ hcpw. h[q-h-c-∑msc tXmg-cp-ambn aW-h-d-bn¬ Cu NS-ßn¬ ]mSp∂ ]m´mWv AS®pXpd-∏m-´v. h[p-hns‚ AΩ ]e-lm-c- 12. AS®p Xpd-∏m´v PqX-cpw hnhm-lm-h-k-c-Øn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ ]m´m-Wn-Xv. in-°p∂ h[q-h-c-∑m-cpsS kuµ-cy-h¿Æ-\-bm-bn-´mWp ]m´v. tIc-f-Ønse ≠v. kvIdnbm k°-dnbm {]kvXpX ]m´n\p hni-Z-amb hymJym\w \evIp-∂p- kv{XoI-fpsS kwLw ]m´p-Iƒ Bh¿Øn®p ]mSp-∂p. Cßs\ ]m{X-߃ 7 ]pcm-X-\-∏m´n¬ hnhm-l-tLm-j-bm-{XsbØpS¿∂p ]¥-en¬ {]th- Fs‚ aIs\ aW-hm-f, aW-h-d-bpsS hmXn¬ Xpd. HØ-hÆw Rm≥ Xcp-th≥ H∂n\pw Ipd-hn-√msX CjvS-sam-Ø-sc≥ hIbpw lnX-Øn-s\msS Rm≥ Xcp-th≥ ]´p-tNe Rm≥ Xcp-th≥ `wKn-sbmØ ta¬hn-Xm\w I´n¬ Xcmw saØ I≠n-cn-∏m≥ hnf°p "" \n≥ hnf-bm-´hpw ]m´pw... ]n∂Wn ap∂n-e-I-ºSn \mb¬ hm´hpw hoin sasø hf¿sImSn apºn¬ apØ-Wn-t¥ms\ awK-ey-the Im◊m≥ "" ...... h´-I- In-≠nbpw Xcmw X´-samØ Xmew s]m∂-Wn-¥oSpw X≠p Itcdn hnhmlw Ign™p aq∂mwZnhkw \S-°p∂ NS-ßmWv AS-®p-Xp-d. o Sp aWn-hn-f-°p-ambn h[p-hns‚ AΩ- h∂p " ' PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Ifn ' ' ' knÿ Zo] ' ¬ tUm. 647 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 648 TAPASAM, January 2006 CØcw h¿Æ-\-Iƒ hnc-f-am-sW-¶nepw ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´p-I-fpsS \mtSm-Sn-Øhpw kn-I-`m-h-ßfpw {]Im-in-∏n-°p-∂p. F∂n-ßs\ Ah-b-h-`wKn {]Im-in-∏n-°p∂ hcn-Iƒ ImWmw. IqSmsX am\- °p-∂p. Wyw, Ah-cnse am\-kn-I-`m-h-߃ F∂n-h-sb√mw ]m´n¬ ]cm-a¿in- 14 Ipfn-∏m´v Ipfn- I-gn-s™-Øp-tºmƒ s\√pw \ocpw shbv°p-∂-Xmbpw ]m´n¬ ImWmw. 13. FÆ-∏m´v Xpd∂p ]pd-Øp-h-cpw. cWw ]m´n¬ Xs∂-bp-≠v. kabw kv{XoIƒ ]mSp∂ ]m´mWv FÆ-∏m´v. NS-ßn-s\-°p-dn-®p≈ hnh- sbbpw ]¥-en¬ sIm≠phcpw. AΩmhn h∂p FÆ tX∏n°pw. Cu {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ " HØ ' tijw (hmKvZm\w sNbvX-ti-jw) h[q-h-c-∑m¿ aW-h-d-bpsS hmXn¬ Ah-fn-cn°pw amfn-I-ta¬ If-`߃ IkvXqcn. Ah-\n-cn°pw amfn-I-ta¬ sIm¶p-a-∏-\n-\ocv sh≈n-∏-eI \ncØn Ahƒ t]mIpw hgn-sb√mw s]m∂pw ]eI \nc-Øn-\n-cØn "" iwJp IS™ IgpØpw \\-™nsX ]pjv]-߃ NqSpw Xebpw \\-™nsX ]qhn´p Iq¥epw ]qhpw \\-™nsX aÆpa-dn® aWn-°n-Wdpw tXm∂nsX "" Np‰p-\n∂p s]¨sIm-Sn-am¿ hmbv°p-c-h-bn´p ... inev]-tamsS \ocp-amSn tNmebpw ]I¿∂p Nn°s\ apXn¿∂p h∂-Ωm-hn-sbÆ tX®p \oXn-tbmsS Ah¿ t]mbn ]¥-en-en-cp∂p ]mXn-sbmcp tNe sIms≠m-cp-ºm-S-bp-SpØv "" Ah≥ t]mIpw hgn-sb√mw Ip∂p Ipgn® Ipfn-°-Shpw tXm∂nsX A≥]p‰ aW-hm-f\pw s]¨sIm-Sn-bp-ambn h[q-h-c-∑m¿ \ocm-Sp∂ NS-ßm " AS®p Xpd ' F∂ NS-ßn-\p-tijw aW-hm-f-s\bpw aW-hm-´n- Wp ' ' v Ipfn-∏m-´n-ep-≈-Xv. ico-c-em-h- ' ' ' ' tºmƒ hnf°p sXm´p hµn-®m 15. hnf-°p-sXm-So¬ ]m´v I, Ae-¶m-c-a¶ XpS-ßn-bh \√ DZm-l-c-W-ß-fm-Wv. Whpw ico-c-]-c-Xbpw Imthym-Nn-X-ambn {]Im-in-∏n-®n-´p≈ ]m´p-Iƒ ˛ s]men- ∏m-´p-Ifpw h´-°-fn-∏m-´p-Ifpw kµ¿`m-\p-k-cWw D]-tbm-Kn-°m-hp-∂Xpw D]-tbm-Kn®phcp-∂-Xp-amb ]≈n- krXw ]mSp∂ ]Xn-\-©p- ]m-´p-I-fp-am-Wv apI-fn¬ kqNn-∏n-®-Xv. Ch IqSmsX bn-cp-∂-Xv. hnhm-l-tØm-S-\p-_-‘n-®p≈ HºXp NS-ßp-Ifpw kµ¿`m-\p- bm-Ip-∂p. {XnssXz-I-ssZ-h-Øns‚bpw kwc-£Ww bmNn-®p-sIm≠p h[q-h-c-∑m¿ bm{X- Cßs\ ]mSp∂ Kmb-I-kw-L-tØmSp tN¿∂p I\y-Im-a-dn-b-Øn-s‚bpw °p-∂p. fn-eqsS Hm¿Ω \ne-\n¿Øm\pw ]I-cm\pw \-∏m-´p-IfpsS ]n≥_-e-tØm-sS-bmWv BNm-c-߃ ]n¥p-S-cp-∂-Xv. \q‰m≠pI- Zm-b-am-Wn-h¿. BNm-cm-\p-jvTm-\-ß-fn¬ X\na ]pe¿Øp∂ Ch¿ ]pcm-X- B{K-ln-°p-∂-h-cm-Wv. GI-hw-ihn-hmlw am{Xw \S-Øp∂ Hcp h¿§-k-ap- PqX-]m-c-ºcyw Ah-Im-i-s∏-Sp∂ Ch¿ Xß-fpsS hwiip≤n \ne-\n¿Øm≥ Øn-bn-cn-°p-∂Xv Iv\mbn-sØm-Ω≥ sNt∏-Sn-em-Wv. tIcf ss{IkvX-h-cn¬ ]-Wn-sN-øm≥ ÿehpw H∏w ]Z-hn-Ifpw \evIn. C°m-cy-߃ tcJ-s∏-Sp- Ch¿°v A∂sØ tNc-am≥ s]cp-amƒ Xma-kn-°p-hm≥ ]´-Whpw ]≈n- ∂p. sXs° sak-s∏m-t´m-an-bm-bn¬\n∂p I∏¬am¿§w sImSp-ß-√q-sc-Ønb IpSn-tb-dn-b-h-cpsS ]n≥Km-an-I-fmWp X߃ F∂v B P\X hniz-kn-°p- 345- Xn-I-fp≈ Hcp hn`m-KamWp sX°pw`mK¿ AYhm Iv\m\m-b¿. F. -Un. ]m `mh-\m-k-ar-≤nbpw Ah-bn¬ {]I-S-amIp-∂p. PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨ -´p-I-fpsS kam-lm-c-amb ˛¬ I®hS{]am-Wn-bmb Iv\mbn-sØm-Ωs‚ t\Xr-Xz-Øn¬ tIc-f-Øn¬ `‡n-bm¬ ssIIq∏n Ipcnipw hc-®n-sX. hnf-°n\p aq∂p heØpw sh®m-Z-cm¬ A©pw \msem-ºXp Xncnbpw sXdp-Øn´v hnXm-\n® ]¥-en¬ hnf-°Xpw Xq°o´v aW-hm-´nbpw tXmgnbpw ]¥-eIw ]p°v "" Ieym-W-tLm-j-Øm¬ \ocm-Sn-h-∂n´v hnhm-l-®-S-ßp-I-sf√mw Ign™p h[p-hns‚ ho´n-te°p Xncn-°p- Ieym-W-∏m-´p-Iƒ ]¥-en¬sh®p kv{XoI-fpsS kwL-amWp ]mSn- tIc-f-Ønse {InkvXym-\n-Iƒ°n-S-bn¬ khn-ti-j-amb BNm-c-co- " Im¿Ip-g-en- " ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´n- Wp t]mIp-∂-Xv. B NS-ßns‚ hnh-cWw: ' bnepw BS-bm-`-c-W-ß-fpsS hnh-c- ]m´p-Ifpw NS-ßp-Ifpw D]-I-cn- ' epƒs∏-Spw. ' ' knÿ Zo] 649 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 650 TAPASAM, January 2006 {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ 2. 1. Ip-dn-∏p-Iƒ ∏m-T-ßfpw ]cn-K-Wn®p thWw CØcw ]T-\w. ∂p. hmsam-gn-h-g-°hpw ]Øp- ]-Xn-∏p-I-fn-embn ]S¿∂p InS-°p∂ A®-Sn- [w, s]¨a, \mtSm-SnØw F∂n-h-sb√mw kq£va-hn-i-I-e\w A¿ln-°p- {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS Ieym-W-∏m-´p-Iƒ. Ah-bn¬ {]I-S-am-Ip∂ kzXz-t_m- tºmƒ Cu _‘w Ipsd-°qSn sXfn™p In´pw. PqX-∑m-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ (Im¿Ip-g-en) tN¿Øp-sh®p ]Tn-°p- b-hbv°p PqXm-Nm-c-ß-fp-ambn _‘-ap-s≠∂p Iv\m\m-b-°m¿ Icp-Xp-∂p. Xøm-dm-°p-I, hmgvI ]n-Sn-°p-I, I®- X-gp-Ip-I, C√-∏Ww \evIpI XpS-ßn- 5. 4. 3. hnh-c-߃°v : kvIdnbm k°-dnb fm-Wv. G‰hpw ]g-°-ap≈ t]cv am¿tØmΩm\{km-Wn-Iƒ. IqSp-X¬ bm\n {InkvXym-\n-Iƒ F∂nh Htc kap-Zm-b-sØ-°p-dn-°p∂ t]cp-I- am¿tØmΩm {InkvXym-\n-Iƒ, sk‚ ]d-ºn¬ 1992. Iv\m\m-b-°m¿ Icp-Xp-∂p. IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-߃°v : tP°_v sIm√m- 72 PqX˛ ss{IkvXh IpSpw-_-ßfpsS ]n∑p-d-°m-cmWp X߃ F∂p h-S-{]-am-Wn-bpsS t\Xr-Xz-Øn¬ sImSp-ß-√q-cn¬ h∂p IpSn-]m¿Ø sak-s∏-t´m-an-bm-bn¬\n∂p F.-Un.345-˛¬ Iv\mbn sXmΩ≥ F∂ I®- Hcp hyXn-cn‡kap-Zm-b-ambn h¿Øn-°p-∂-h-cmWv Iv\m\m-b-°m¿. tIcf {InkvXym-\n-I-fn¬ ItØm-en-°, Hm¿Ø-tUmIvkv k`I-fn¬ 1971) drink from the glass (Jewish Christians of India diackonia: Newyork, ers as indicative of the inseparable unity couple. No one else glass is smashed underfoot. This ceremony interpreted among oth- bride and bridegroom drink from a single glass of wine later that The Jewish wedding contains a similar ceremony in which both the a-√mØ ASp-∏-ap-≠v. F∂n-h-bp-ambn `mj-bnepw kwKo-X-Ønepw PqX-∏m-´p-Iƒ°p \n m-c- \{km-Wn-∏m-´p-Iƒ, Xoc-tZ-isØ I¿-j-I-sØm-gn-em-fn-I-fpsS ]m´p-Iƒ Itfm, khn-ti-j-]-Z-ßtfm PqX-]m-´p-I-fn¬ ImWmw. am∏n-f-∏m-´p-Iƒ, tIcf-Ønse a‰p kaq-l-ß-fpsS ]m´p-I-fn-ep≈ hcn-Itfm, ]Zm-h-en- ´p≈Xv t\m°pI. kap-Zm-b-Øn¬ ssaem-©n-∏m´v ]mSp∂ kµ¿`hpw ]m´pw hnh-cn-®n- am∏n-f-∏m-´ns‚ temIw au-≠v, CS-a‰w ]mem. \-Iƒ IqSp-X¬ ]T-\-Øn\pw Xmc-X-ay-hn-i-I-e-\-Øn\pw hI-bp-≈-XmWv hnhm-l®-S-ßn¬ h[q-h-c-∑msc apSn-b-Wn-bn-∏n-°p-I, aW¿t°mew , 1994 C¥y≥ C≥Ãn-‰yq´v Hm^v {InkvXy≥ ÃUo-kv, Hmim-\- (hn.- Fw.- Ip´n 2000) F∂ {KŸ-Øn¬ ap…ow DZ-b-tº-cq¿ kq\-l-tZm-kns‚ It\m- v tXmakv {InkvXym\n-Iƒ kpdn- eqt°mkv ]n.- bp. ]ø-\mSv cmL-h≥ Zo] knÿ (tUm.) tXmakv ]n.-sP. (tUm.) 1961/1989 Nq≠¬ NpΩm¿ (tUm.) sIm√m-]-d-ºn¬ tP°_v Ip´n hn. Fw. D≈q¿ Fkv. ]c-ta-iz-c-ø¿ 1953/1974 B[m-c-{K-Ÿ-kqNn 7. 6. X-hpw _l-f-hp-sa√mw {]Xo-b-am-\-am-°p-∂-XmWv ]m´ns‚ ]Z-L-S-\bpw kwKo- `mh-߃ ]I¿∂p ImWp-∂p. hnhm-lm-tLmjbm{X-bpsS {]uVnbpw \n¬ ImWp-∂-Xv. a∂t\m amct\m F∂p tNmZn-°-Ø-°-hÆw hnhn[ {X-߃ Ie¿Øn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p. a∂s‚ DSp∏pw \S-∏p-amWv hc- "" {]I-S-\w. Wv. AXp `wKn-bmbn \n¿h-ln-°p∂ Xc-Øn-emWp s]¨]m-´p-I-fpsS bp∂ Cu ]m´ns‚ [¿Ωw C∂sØ \ne-bn¬ ]mcºcy ÿm]-\-am- s‚ [¿Ωhpw Ncn-{XØneqsS amdn-h-cpw. IpSn-tb-‰-Øns‚ IY ]d- ß-f√. ]mSn-∏-I¿∂p-h-cp-tºmƒ Ch hnh-c-W-Øn¬ IS-∂p-Iq-Spw. ]m´n shSn, sNº-I-t»-cn-cm-Pmhp XpS-ßn-b-h-sbm∂pw AXn-]q-cm-X\ Imcy- s\mØp Nn¥-Iƒ°pw Nn{X-߃°pw {]ta-b-߃°pw am‰-ap-≠m-Ipw. \mtSm-Sn`mj amdp-tºmƒ \mS≥]m-´p-I-fpsS `mjbpw amdpw. Ime-Øn- [mcW icn-b-√. `mjm-kz-cq-]-Øn¬Xs∂ [m-cmfw am‰-ß-fp-≠m-Ipw. \mS≥]m-´p-Iƒ Ign-™-Im-e-Øns‚ Ie¿∏‰ Ah-in-jvS-ß-fm-sW∂ X≠n-tedn Fgp-∂-≈p∂ cmPm-hn-s‚bpw aW-hm-f-s‚bpw hmMva-b-Nn- (^mZ¿) '' . Im¿Ip-gen 2005 1935 1910 1992 im-e, ImeSn. {ioi-¶-cm-Nmcy kwkvIrX k¿h-I-em- (A{]IminX Kth-j-W-{]-_-‘w), \{km-Wn-I-fpsS ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ 1985 1999 2000 . {] v, tIm´bw. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ ae-bm-f-a-t\m-ca {] v, tIm´bw. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ t^mIvtem¿ Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw. tIm´bw. -bn-Im-Nm-c-߃ Iv\m\mb {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS kmap-Zm Un.-kn.-_p-Ivkv, tIm´bw. ae-bmfkmln-Xyhpw {InkvXym-\n-Ifpw Øn¬ Iv\m\mb kap-Zmbw tIc-f-N-cn-{X- tImgn-t°m-Sv. am∏n-f-∏m-´ns‚ temIw tIc-f-bq-Wn-th-gvkn-‰n, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw tIc-f-km-ln-Xy-N-cn{Xw , tPymXn- _p°v lukv, tIm´bw , tIc-f-`m-jm-C≥Ãn-‰yq-´v, , tPymXn -_p°v lukv, , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , H∂mw ]Xn∏v , ]m∏n-tbm¨ H∂mw hmeyw , knÿ Zo] 651 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 652 TAPASAM, January 2006 k°-dnb kvIdnb (tUm.) sh≈n-bm≥ tP°_v k°-dnb kvIdnb (tUm.) Choondal, Chummar English eqt°mkv ]n.- bp. {InkvXym-\n-I-fpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ V Kollaparambil Jacob Jussey P ellian Jacob . M. 1989 1996 1991 2005 2002 1999 1996 1992 1985 1980 1966 1954 1983 2001 1992 1986 Zo]nI _p°p lukv, tIm´bw. Ieym-W-Øns‚ Im¬Nn-e-sºmen tPymXn _p°p lukv, tIm´bw. sX°pw`mKcpw tIm´bw cq]-Xbpw C≥Ãn-‰yq-´v, Pdp-kew. Im¿Ip-gen ˛ sb-t^-^nø {] v, tIm´bw, ]Ømw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, HºXmw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, F´mw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, Ggmw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, Bdmw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, A©mw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, \memw ]Xn∏v. ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ {] v, tIm´bw, aq∂mw ]Xn∏.v ]pcm-X-\-∏m-´pIƒ _pIvkv, tIm´bw. Xyhpw {InkvXym-\n-I-fpw Christian Folksongs " Academy Jyothi Book House, Kottayam. Knanite Community History and Culture orientalium, Rome. Pontifical Institutum S among the St. Thomas Christian The Babilonian orgin of the Southists Kottayam. on Knanites a study in Comparison’, and of the Knanite Christians Kerala, ‘The wedding song of the Cochin Jews N¿®bpw ]qc-W-hpw , Thrissur , Jyothi Book House, , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ , ImØ-enIv anj≥ . , Kerala Folklore ' tudiorum , ae-bmf kmln- Symposium , Un. kn. , s_≥kzn , , , Ibpw B¬_¿Sv _n. tem¿Uv hnI-kn-∏n-°p-Ibpw sNbvX sI´p-apd Nne LS-\m-hm-Zn-Iƒ Ah-X-cn-∏n-®n-´p-≠v. an¬ta≥ ]mcn Bhn-jv°-cn-°p- s]men-∏m-´ns‚ sI´p-apd I-fnse {][m\ {Inbm-]-Zhpw CXm-bn-cn°pw. "s]men' / "s]menI' "s]menbpI' F∂ i_vZw Bh¿Øn-®p-h-cpw. ]m´p- I-ev]-\bv°p {]m[m\y-aps≠∂mWvv. CØcw ]m´p-I-fn¬ km[m-c-W-bmbn kqNn-∏n®p hcp-∂Xv, \mS≥]m-´p-Iq-´mbva ]d-™p-h-cp∂ ]m´p-I-fpsS KW- ev]\ kzoI-cn-®p-]-tbm-Kn-t®-°m-\p≈ km[yX ChnsS hnkva-cn-°p-∂n-√.) ambpw h¿Ko-I-c-W-ß-fp-ambpw ]cn-N-b-s∏´ Hcp ]m´p-Im-c≥ s]mXp-K-W- "saXn]mt´m'íXncn-®-dn™p ]mSn-sb-∂n-cn-°pw. (\mS≥]m´p ]T-\-ß-fp- "Irjn-∏m´v' Xncn-®-dns™∂p hcn-√. F∂m¬ "Rm‰p-]mt´m'í"s]men∏mt´m' khn-ti-j-kz-`m-h-am-Wp-≈-Xv. Hcp \mS≥]m-´p-Im-c≥ / \mS≥]m-´p-Im-cn ´p-Iq-´mbva ]d-™p-h-cp∂ KW-\ma-߃°p kmam\ykz`m-h-sØ-°m-fp-]cn ®-Xm-Wv. CXp hfsc kmam\y KW-°p-dn-bp-amWv. ]c-º-cm-KX \mS≥]m- I-ev]\Iƒ \mS≥]m-´p-]-Tn-Xm-°-fpsS h¿Ko-I-c-W-bp-‡n-bn¬\n∂p P\n- ∂-Xm-Wv. Irjn-∏m-´v, A\p-jvTm-\-∏m-´v, hnt\m-Z-∏m´v XpS-ßnb s]mXpKW- ´pIfp-≠v.- tZ-h-Xm-kvXp-Xn-]-c-ß-fmb s]men-∏m-´pIfpw Ipd-h-√. A\p-jvTm-\-∏m-´v, hnt\m-Z-∏m´v XpS-ßnb kwh¿K-ß-fn-se-√mw s]men-∏m- \nd™p s]men™p hcm≥ th≠n ]mSp∂ ]m´p-I-fm-Wn-Xv. Irjn-∏m-´v, s]men-®p]m-´v, s]men-I-∏m-´v, s]men-hp]m-´v F∂o t]cp-IƒIqSn-bp-≠v. APp \mcm-b-W≥ tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m´pIfpw P qXcpsS s]men-∏m´pw \mS≥]m´p-Iƒ ]m´p-Im¿ ësI´n-bp-≠m-°p-Ibm-sW∂ Bibw "s]men-∏m-´v'- F∂ KW-I-ev]\ \mS≥]m-´p-Iq-´mbva ]d-™p-h-cp- tIc-f-Ønse \mS≥]m-´p-I-fn¬ Hcn-\-amWp s]men-∏m-´v. CXn\p 653 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 654 TAPASAM, January 2006 " ´mbn-cn°pw. AXm-b-Xv, F√m hcn-I-fnepw As√-¶n¬ CucSn-I-fnepw amXrI 1 s]mXp amXr-I-Iƒ Iev]n-°mw. ]m´p-Iƒ ]mSp-∂-Xv. s]men-∏m-´p-IfpsS cq]-a-\p-k-cn®v Ahbv°p aq∂p Ah-cp-tS-Xmb s]men-∏m-´p-Ifp-≠v. hyXykvX kµ¿`-ß-fn-em-bn-cn°pw Cu ´p-Iƒ sI´p-ap-d-bn-eqsS XnSw hbv°p-∂-h-bm-sW∂p ]d-bmw. s]men-∏m-´ns‚ ssZ¿Lyw Iq´p-∂p. Npcp-°-Øn¬, tIc-f-Ønse s]men-∏m- ]m´p-I-fn¬, kml-N-cy-_-≤-am-bn, CØcw hkvXpkqN-\-Iƒ tN¿Øpsh®v Dƒt®¿°p-∂p. hkvXphI-Iƒ \nd-™p-s]m-en-bm-\mbn At]-£n-°p∂ s]men-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ CjvS-tZ-h-X-I-fpsS t]cp-Iƒ Bh-iym-\p-k-cWw ]Z-߃ tN¿Øp-h-®m-WnXp km[y-am-°p-∂-Xv. tZhXmkvXpXn-]-c-ß-fmb Ifp≠mhpI km[m-c-W-am-Wv. ]m´ns‚ s]mXpkz`m-h-Øn-te°v At\Iw Ip-∂p-≠v. s]men∏m-´p-I-fn¬ ]m´-h-k-c-Øn¬ sI´n-bp-≠m-°p∂ hcn- cn-°p∂ Cu \nco-£Ww s]men-∏m-´p-I-fpsS \n¿an-Xn-bn-¬ A¿∞-h-Øm- h≥ ]ø-\m-Sv, 1999:26). henb IYm-Km-\-ßsf ASn-ÿm-\-am°n \S-Øn-bn- ßfpw h¿W-\-Ifpw krjvSn-s®-Sp-°p-I-bm-sW∂pw \nco-£n-°p∂p (cm-L- Iƒ Hm¿Øph®p ]mSp-∂-X√ F∂pw ]mSp∂ thf-bn¬ hcn-Ifpw JWvU- {]kvXpX Iq´mbva Cu ]m´p ]mSp-∂-Xv. Iq-Sn-bm-sW∂v Bth-Z-I≥ ]d-bp-∂p. kvXpXn∏v F∂ \ne-bn-emWp Xm\pƒs∏-Sp∂ Iq´mbva ]m´p-Iƒ ]mSn-Øp-S-ßp-∂Xv Cu s]men-∏m-t´mSp- kn≤m¥w PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m´pw tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m-´-p-Ifpw DZm: 1 DZm-l-c-W-߃ NphsS tN¿°p-∂p. s]men ' / Cu KW-Øn-epƒs∏-Sp-Ømhp∂ ]m´p-Iƒ BZy¥w s]men-∏m- tIc-f-Øns‚ hnhn-[-`m-K-ß-fnse an° \mS≥]m-´p-Iq-´mbva Iƒ°pw Ip´-\m-´nepw ]cn-k-c-{]-tZ-i-ß-fnepw ]mSp∂ s]men-∏m-´m-Wn-Xv. s]menI s]menI... ]¥¬ s]menI... ]Sn-hm-Xn¬ hoSp s]menI... ho´mcpw \mSp s]menI... \Kcw Ip∂p s]menI ... Ipfhpw s]menI... " s]menI s]menI... (theory of oral composition) " s]menI ' / " s]menbpI

Gtgm-en-°¬, amS-∏-≈n, Nß-\m-ti-cn ' F∂ i_vZw IS∂phcpw. GXm\pw

( , \mtSmSnKmb-I≥ \mS≥]m´p hcn- B-th-Z-I≥: G.-sI. A∏p-°p-´≥ (40) ' í ) ®p. Cu kµ¿`-Øn\p tij-amWp s]men XpS-ßp-∂-Xv. bmWp ]m´ns‚ BZy`mKw. Ip´n P\n-®-t∏mƒ ImWm≥ h∂ inh≥ {]kmZn- \mYs‚ P\\w hmgvØn kvXpXn-°p∂ eLpKm\-am-Wn-Xv. K¿`h¿-W-\- DZ-bm-kvX-abw IqØmbn \S-Øp-tºmƒ s]men-®p-]m´v ]mSm-dp-≠v. {io`qX hp-≠v. CXns\ ]q¿Øn-bm-°p-∂-Xv. F∂m-enXv Hcp Znhkw sIm≠p ]q¿Øn-bm-°p∂ ]Xn- IqØv. Aø-∏≥ Xobm´ns‚ IYm-`mKw ]{¥≠p Znhkw sIm≠mWp \S-Øn-h-cp-∂ A\p-jvTm\ Ie-bmWv Aø-∏≥ Xobm´v AYhm DZm: 1 Øn-e-[n-Ihpw. GXm\pw DZm-l-c-W-߃ Xmsg tN¿°p-∂p. bmbn ChnsS kzoI-cn-°p-∂p. CØ-c-Øn-ep≈ s]men-∏m-´p-IfmWv FÆ- Hcp {]tXyI ]m´ns‚ `mK-ambn hcp∂ s]men-∏m-´p-Isf c≠mw amXr-I- t∏mƒ ]m´ns‚ HSp-°-Øn-emhpw CXv. GsX-¶nepw Hcp P\p-kn¬s∏´ hcmdp≠v. Nne-t∏mƒ ]m´ns‚ XpS-°-Øn-emhpw amXrI 2 kam-]\L´-Øn-emWv CXp ]mSp-∂-Xv. km-\-ambn ]qcwIp-fn-®-S-ßn\p ]mSp∂ s]men-®p-]m-´m-Wn-Xv. ]qc-°-fn-bp-sS h-cp∂ A\p-jvTm\Iem-cq-]-amb ]qc-°-fn-bp-sSbpw ad-Øp-I-fn-bp-sSbpw Ah- DZm: 2 Aø-∏≥ Imhp-I-fnepw {_“m-e-b-ß-fnepw XobmSn \ºym-∑m¿ [mcmfw hcn-I-fp≈ ]m´p-I-fpsS `mK-ambn s]men-∏m-´p-Iƒ IS-∂p- DØ-c-tI-c-f-Ønse Imhp-I-fnepw `K-h-Xnt£{Xß-fnepw \S-Øn- `WvUm-c-tKlw s]men s]menI... _nw_-a-PnΩw s]men s]menI... Aw_-c-_nw_w t]mep-÷z-en°pw amap-\n-amcpw s]men s]menI... \mc-Z-\m-ZnIfv apºm-Inb ssiem-flP tZhnbpw s]men s]menI... ]memgn amXpw s]men s]menI... kΩ-X-am¿s∂∂pw s]men s]menI... A£c cq]nWn hmKvtZ-hnbpw s]men s]menI... Xn¶ƒ°e NqSp∂ Xºp-cm\pw " s]men i_vZw s]menI... " DZ-bm-kvX-abw IqØv amap\n hoSv, Xr°-cn-∏q¿, Imk¿tKmUv ( ' F∂p hnfn-°pw. Aø-∏≥ Xobm´v B-th-Z-I≥: cmPo-h≥ ]Wn-°¿ (33) ' í " s]men- ' `mKw. a‰p Nne- APp \mcm-b-W≥ ) 655 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 656 TAPASAM, January 2006 ∏m´m-Wv. Sn. _me-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, 1993 : 310). Ipdp-¥n-cn∏m´ns‚ BZy-`mKw s]men- Isf Hgn-∏n-°p-hm≥ \S-Øn-h- ßp-Ibpw K¿`-—n{Zw D≠m-hp-Ibpw sNøp-sa∂ hnizmk-ap-≠v. CØcw _m[- IfpsS _m[-bm¬ Xcp-Wn-am-cpsS Xe-apSn sImgn-bp-Ibpw ape-Iƒ Npcp- ßn\p Ipdp-¥n-cn∏m´v ]mSm-dp-≠v. Ipdp¿Øn-\nam¿ F∂ Ggp Zp¿aq¿Øn- DZm: 3 ØnemWv Cu ]m´p ]mSp-∂-Xv. ImWn° A¿∏n-°m\pw `‡¿°p t\¿®-Im-gvN-IfnSm-\p-ap≈ Ah-k-c- kw_-‘-amb F√m ]qP-Ifpw Ifw ]m´pw Ign™tijw If-Øn¬ DZm: 2 PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m´pw tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m-´-p-Ifpw `m\p-tem-In¬ {iobpw kºØpw s]cnIn \n¬t°Ww h¿≤n° hmsWmcp \mfpw h¿≤-\-hms\m Zo]w s]men-I ssZhta lcn\∑ hcnI "s]men-I≥ s]men-I≥ ssZhta lcnXn∑ t]mI DØ-c-tI-c-f-Ønse hÆm≥am¿ \S-Øp∂ _m[-sbm-gn-∏n-°¬ NS- (]n.-hn.-\m-cm-b-W-≥ D-Æn, hn.-kp-{_-“-Wy≥ i¿Ω, 2001 : 191˛-192) `K-hXnbpsS \√ If-Øn-\-IØv ...'í F√mcpw s]men-s®¶n¬ Xmw_qew s]men-t°Ww sXcp-sXsc s]men-t°Ww `K-hXn Ifw X∂n¬ ap≠pIƒ ]pS-h-Iƒ sXcp-sXsc ]W-ßfpw s]men-°m-\p-≈-h-sc√mw s]men-t°Ww Ifw X∂n¬ {io-Ir-jvWs‚ ]nd-∂mƒ°p ]mSptºmƒ apØp-c-Xv\-ßsf R߃ ]mSn-Sp-t∂≥ {ioIr-jvW≥ P\n-®-t∏mƒ `K-hXn s]men® ...... ap°p-S∂ \ocp-tImcn \ocmSn Ic Ibdn Xr∏qØv Ggmw Zn\w "taml-tamsS tamln-\n°v a[yXncp-hn-Xmw-Iq-dnse Xobm-´n\p ]mSp∂ ]m´m-Wn-Xv. Xobm´p s]menb tI´-h¿ s]menb..'í s]menb I¨h¿ s]menb.. s]menb t]c»n s]menb.. "s]menb s]menb Nn‰»n s]menb... -cp∂ NS-ßmWp Ipdp-¥n-cn∏m´v (Nnd-bv°¬ (Fw. -hn. hnjvWp \ºq-Xn-cn, 2000 : 59) Xn-bpsS tXm‰-Øns‚ XpS-°-Øn¬ s]men-∏m-´p≠v. ]mSp∂ tXm‰w-]m-´p-I-fn¬ s]men-∏m-´p IS∂phcm-dp-≠v. ap®n-tem´p `K-h- DZm: 4 hcn-Iƒ s]men-∏m-´m-Wv. jvW≥ \mb¿ tiJ-cn®p tN¿Øn-°p∂ Ipdp-¥n-cn-∏m-´nse BZysØ 23 ...... sN¥m-a-c-bn¬ ]qam-Wn-Ifpw s]men-Im-\msb A√n-b-s\∂ sN¥m-a-cbpw s]men-Im-\msb kl{k ^W-ap≈ {io A\-¥-\pw s]men-Im-\msb {io]memgn°S-ens‚-bvsXmcp a[y-Øoev {io]memgn°S-ep-sam∂p s]men-Im-\msb I{Zp s]‰ AjvS-\m-K-߃ s]men-Im-\msb hn\-X-bmfpw I{Zp-hmfpw s]men-Im-\msb \mK-tZhn s]‰ hnj-I-WvT\pw s]men-Im-\msb ht≠m¿ tIin aI≥ B¶m-c\pw s]men-Im-\msb Fcn-s]m-cn-bm-ΩeΩ¬ ht≠m¿ tIin s]men-Im-\msb ht≠m-cp-e-In¬ ht≠m-c-∏≥ s]men-Im-\msb ]cn-bn-°p-e-In¬ ]co-£nØp cmPmhp s]men-Im-\msb [¿Ω temIn¬ cmPmhp s]men-Im-\msb I\-I-a-e-Ω¬ I\I cmPmhp s]men-Im-\msb De-I-Øn-¶¬ DeI cmPmhp s]men-Im-\msb \mK-tem-Io¬ \mK-cm-Pmhp s]men-Im-\msb I≠m¿ h\-Øn¬ Ccp-jn-bmcpw s]men-Im-\msb I≠m¬ h\hpw IZfn s]men-Im-\msb ap®n-tem-S≥ s]cp hbepw s]men-I Xo°p-gn-®m¬ achpw s]men-I s]cn-©-√q¿ s]cpw Xrt°m-hnepw s]men-I \mtSm-Sn-S-hm-P∑ `qanbpw s]men-I FSw hmgpw I¿Øm-°≥amcpw s]men-I \mSp hmgpw kzman s]men-I \mSp s]menI `K-h-Xntb kzcq]w s]men-I Zo]w s]men-I shs®-cn-bp∂ \¥m¿ hnf°pw " DØ-c-tI-c-f-Ønse A\p-jvTm\Ie-bmb sXø-Øn\pth≠n tIcf `mjm-Km-\-߃ hmeyw H∂n¬ Nnd-bv°¬ Sn. _me-Ir- s]men-I `K-h-Xntb APp \mcm-b-W≥ ' í 657 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 658 TAPASAM, January 2006 Øn-ep-≈-Xv. IS∂p hcp-∂p≈q-sh-¶nepw s]men-∏m-´ns‚ {]Xo-Xn-bmWp CXn\p samØ- . bm-Sp-∂-Xv. CXn-\mbn \mKw s]men-®p-]m´v ]mSn-h-cp-∂p. °p∂ coXn DØ-c-tI-c-f-Øn-ep-≠v. hÆm≥am-cmWv \mK-t°m-e-߃ sI´n- DZm: 5 PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m´pw tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m-´-p-Ifpw Cu ]m´ns‚ BZy c≠p hcn-bn¬ am{Xta ës]mení i_vZw (Nnd-bv°¬ Sn. _me-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, 1993 : 78˛79) ...... tXm∂p-∂t√m Ag-In-Xb- sh-≈nam¶√v s]men-I \mK `K-h-Xntb "s]men-I `K-h-Xntb \mK \mK-Øn-s‚bpw \mK-°-∂n-bp-sSbpw tImew-sI-´n-bmSn Bcm-[n- (Nnd-bv°¬ Sn. _me-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, 1993 : 103-˛104) ...... tI´-cpƒIm ap®n-tem-´Ω tZh I\ymth s]men-Im-sb∂p s]men-Ip-W¿Øn Cg¬ ]mSp-tºmƒ DuXn-bmSpw s]m≥ tXmc-Whpw s]men-I sI´n-bmSpw sNdp-I-\-em-Snbpw s]men-I Id∂p IpSn-°p∂ Is∂mSp Imenbpw s]men-I s]mgp-Xp-Æp∂m ]p©`qanbpw s]menI GØ-°n-Wdpw ap√-∏-¥epw s]men-I Xb®p sh® Nms¥mSp Nµ\w s]men-I PeK‘]pjv]w tlma-Zo]w s]men-I ]dn®p sh® ]qshmSp ]pjv]w s]men-I IS™p sh® hmsfmSp t]SIw s]men-I aS-°n-bn´ ams‰men Xncp-h-SmS s]men-I FSpØp sh® sh≈n {io]o-Thpw s]men-I Icn-sh-≈qcv ]Sn-t™‰ Xs‚-b-IØv Icn-sh-≈qcv ]Sn-t™‰bpw s]men-I Zb-c-aw-Kew hSt°w `mKw s]men-I sh≈n-b-s\∂ Xob-°-cnº-\bpw s]men-I KwK-sb∂ aWn-°n-Wdpw s]men-I XW-en-b∂ ]Sn-∏p-cbpw s]men-I ' í ' í ∂p. ]d-™p-h-cp∂p. CØcw ]m´p-Isf aq∂mw amXr-I-bmbn ChnsS ]cn- s]mXp {]XoXn P\n-∏n-°p∂ ]m´p-I-sfbpw s]men-∏m-´mbn ]m´p-Iq-´mbva amXrI 3 Cu ]m´p-Isf s]men-∏m´v F∂ t]cn¬Øs∂ hyhl-cn®p hcm-dp-≠v. £n®v Cu ]m´p-Iƒ ]mSm-dp-an-√. AXp-sIm-≠m-hWw, Nne kµ¿`-ß-fn¬ ]m´p-Iƒ°v AXns‚ s]men-`mKw C√msX ]q¿W-X-bn-√. Dt]- tem´p `K-hXn tXm‰w, IpSn-ho-c≥ tXm‰w]m´v F∂n-ß-s\. F∂m¬ Cu ti-j-amb a‰p t]cp-IƒIq-Sn-bp-≠v. Aø-∏≥ Xobm-´v, Ipdp-¥n-cn-∏m-´v, ap®n- DZm: 7 ]≈n-∏mSp {Kma-Øn¬\n-∂mWv Cu ]m´p tiJ-cn-®-Xv. ´ns‚ s]mXp{]Xo-Xn- \evIp∂ as‰mcp ]m´m-Wn-Xv. Be-∏pg Pn√-bnse DZm: 6 Ggm-≠n¬ Xr°mXp IpØn IpWvU-e-an-´p... Aøm-≠n¬ Isø-gpXn sabv sXfn™p " "s]men'íi_vZw {]Xy-£-s∏-Sm-Ø, F∂m¬ s]men-∏m-´n-s‚ Cu hn`m-K-Øn-epƒs∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cn-°p∂ an° ]m´p-Iƒ°pw khn- " "s]men' i_vZw Hcp hcn-bn¬ am{XamWp-≈-sX-¶nepw s]men-∏m- ]nf¿∂p hf¿∂p aqhm-≠n¬ apSn s]men®p IpSn-ho-c≥ tXm‰-Øn¬ ( hoSp hmgpI hncpXw hmgpI....'í \mSp hmgpI \Kcw Imhn-etΩ I\n-bpI In\n-bpI \msSm-cp-ßm≥ s]men-bpI Acßp hmgpI ]¥epw ]m´p hmgpI CuWw ]qhp hmgpI aWhpw I√p hmgpI ]p√pw sh≈w hmgpI hmbphpw aÆp hmgpI achpw C√w \nd-bpI h√w ImSp hmgpI I≠w hoSp hmgpI hncpXw "\mSp hmgpI \Kcw B-th-Z-I≥: lcn-Zmkv (35) (Fw. -hn. hnjvWp\ºq-Xncn, 1990 : 325) ' apSn-s]m-en-°¬ Dƒt®-cp-∂p-≠v.

Ipc-bv°-emdv, ]≈n-∏m-Sv, lcn-∏mSv ' APp \mcm-b-W≥ KWn°p- ) 659 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 660 TAPASAM, January 2006 284). tXm‰w]m´p-I-fnepw s]mXpsh ImWp∂ Hcp LS-I-amWv s]men-®p-]m-´v. ≠p-≈ D]-Im-c-߃ ]mSn-∏p-I-gvØp-∂-XmWp ]ip-s]m-en-∏m-´v. F√m en-∏m-´n¬ At\Iw hnØp-I-fpsS t]cp-Iƒ ]d-bp-∂p-≠v. ]ip-hn-s\-s°m- ]qhv apX-em-b-h-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ s]men-®p-]m-´p-Iƒ ]mSm-dp-≠v. hnØp-s]m- ¶fn F∂n-h-bnepw s]men-®p-]m-´p-I-fp-≠v fn´v Ac-bv°p-tºmƒ kv{XoIƒ s]men-∏m´p ]mSpw. {_m“-Wn-∏m-´v, ]mt\- b¿ apX-emb kap-Zm-b-°m-cp-sS-bn-S-bn¬ hnhm-l-Øn\p ]¥-en¬ AΩn-I- hp-]m´p ]mSp-I-sb-∂Xp Nne kap-Zm-b-°m-cpsS BNm-c-am-Wv. Xob¿, ]pe- lmZn ASn-b-¥n-c-߃°p _‘pan{Xm-Zn-Iƒ ]Ww s]men-°p-tºmƒ s]men- Ieym-W-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ (aw-Kew ]m´p-Iƒ) s]men-®p-]m-´p-Ifpw Dƒs∏-Spw. "hnhm- "I‰-∏m-´n'¬ hnØpw hnfbpw s]men-bm≥ Bh-iy-s∏-Sp-∂p. °ƒ°p hnt\mZw \¬Ip-Ibpw sNøpw. ]p≈p-h-cpsS s]men®p ]m´mb bnse s]men-®p-]m-´p-Iƒ ]m´p-Im¿°p hcp-am-\-ap-≠m-°p-Ibpw t{imXm- Xncn tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp∂p (1989:283). Ifw ]m´v, sIt{¥m≥ ]m´v XpS-ßn-b-h- hm≥th≠n ]mSp∂ s]men-∏m-´p-I-fp-s≠∂p tUm. Fw.-hn. hnjvWp \ºq- Ωq-cn-bm-´-Øn\pw ]mSp∂ ]m´p-I-fn¬ Ieiw s]men-°p∂ ]m´p-Iƒ ImWmw. Ah¿ Cu s]men-∏m´p ]mSp-∂p. apØ-∏s‚ Xncp-shm-∏-\bv°pw tImXm- s]men-∏m´v'. sXøm-´-Øn\p Xte Znhkw tZh-Xm-k-t¶-X-Øn\p apºn¬ DZm: 1 PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m´pw tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m-´-p-Ifpw tImXm-Ωq-cn-bm-´-sa∂ Im¿jn-I-\r-Ø-Øn¬ aZyw, hnØv, ]ip, HmW-°m-eØp s]¨Ip-´n-Iƒë"]qs∏m-en-∏m-´p-I-ƒ' ]mSm-dp-≠v. ]mSp∂ Iem-Im-c≥am¿°p s\√pw ]Whpw hkv{Xhpw e`n-°p- DØ-c-tI-c-f-Ønse ]pe-b-cpsS A\p-jvTm-\-Km-\-amWp "Ieiw I≈s√ ap°pSw s]mgn-bp∂p tXmgm...'í ]n‰-∂mƒ t\cw ]pe-cp∂ Imew ]m\n Ian-®-h≥ IpØ\ Io™p Np≠p apdn-®-h-\m-Wnbpw taSn aq∂p InX-®-h≥ Ipe-tbm-S-SpØp c≠p InX-®-h≥ a-´tem-sSØn H≠bpw IØnbpw ]n´-ep-ambn X®≥ aI-s\mcp ]n´¬ sImSpØp "Icp-hm≥ aI-s\mcp IØn sImSpØp (Fw.- hn. hnjvWp\ºq-Xncn, 1990 : 316) (Fw.- hn. hnjvWp\ºq-Xncn, 1989 : kqN-\-bmWp \¬Ip-∂-Xv. ]mTt`-Z-ß-fmbn Ahsb ]cn-K-Wn-°mw. cp-∂n-cn-°-Ww. 45, 46 F∂o \º-cp-I-fn¬ tN¿Øn-cn-°p∂ ]m´p-Iƒ AXns‚ k°-dnb tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp∂p (2005:199). a‰p ÿe-ß-fnepw Cu ]m´p-≠m-bn- cn-®n-cp-∂-Xmbn Cu ]m´p-I-fpsS kºm-Z-I\pw ]Tn-Xm-hp-amb tUm. kvIdnbm F∂ Xe-s°-t´msS tN¿Øn-cn-°p∂ ]m´v sIm®n-bn¬ hym]-I-ambn {]N- DZm: 1 Iƒ/hmin-∏m-´p-Iƒ NphsS tN¿°p-∂p. kvIdnbm k°-dnb \nco-£n-°p-∂p(2005:199). PqX-cpsS c≠p s]men-∏m-´p- sh´n-sbm-Xp-°nb cq]-ß-fn-eqsS ]m´ns‚ ]cn-Wmaw XpS-cp-∂psh∂pw tUm. sX∂pw s]mXpkZ- ns‚ apºn-ep≈ Ah-X-c-W-Øn\pth≠n ]e-X-c-Øn¬ N-cy-ß-fn¬\n∂p th¿]n-cn™ \ne-bn-emWv Cu ]m´p-Iƒ ]cn-W-an-°p-∂- hmin-∏m´pIƒ ]mSp-∂-Xv. °p∂ s]mXp k¬°m-c-Øn¬ kv{XoIƒ c≠p KW-ambn Xncn-™mWp _‘-s∏-´mWp hmin-∏m´p ]mSp-∂-Xv. h[q-h-c≥am-cpsS km∂n-[y-Øn¬ \S- ∏m´v DZm: 2 gen ˛ sbt^-^nbv Iƒ (\-º¿ bYm-{Iaw 44,45,46) s]men-∏m-´p-I-fm-Wv. - PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m-´p-Iƒ ' íF∂ KW-Øn¬s∏-Sp-∂-h-bmWv Cu ]m´p-Iƒ. hnhm-lm-Nm-c-hp-ambn C{km-ben-te-°p≈ PqX-cpsS IpSn-tb-‰-Øn\ptijw ssPh kml- PqX-cpsS ae-bmfw s]¨]m-´p-Iƒ kam-l-cn-®n-cn-°p∂ ' ...... 'í ...... a\-t msS aW-hm´n a° s]mensISm a\-t msS aW-hm-f≥ a° s]mensISm a\- n¬ s]mensISm FÆ-Øn¬ s]mensISm Nncn-b-\-¥c Xm≥ s]menI Xm≥ s]menI t]mbn "s]menI s]men-sbSm IeymW ]¥-en¬ amSw s]mensbSm Nncn-N\w-Xm≥ Xm≥ s]menb Xm≥ s]menb Nncns∏menb IeymW ]¥-en¬ Xm≥ í-(2005) F∂ {KŸ-Øn¬ tN¿-Øn-cn-°p∂ aq∂p ]m´p- " s]menø s]men-søSm (tUm. kvIdnbm k°-dnb, 2005 : 117) " s]menI s]menb APp \mcm-b-W≥ " Im¿Ip- " hmin- ' 661 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 662 TAPASAM, January 2006 tZi]c-am-bp≠m-bn-cp∂ GIo-`m-h-ßsf Xncn-®-dn™p ]pXpXe-ap-dsb Pm{K- coXn-bnepw {]h¿Øn-°p-tºmƒ, \ΩpsS -\mS- c-W-tØmsS tIc-f-Øn¬ Bcw-`n® -hnL-S-\-hmZw C∂p ]e Xc-Ønepw ß-fpsams° {]mtZ-in-Im-\p-`-h-Øns‚ `mK-am-bn-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ tImf-\o-I- \ΩpsS \m´nse A\p-jvTm-\-ßfpw BNm-c-ßfpw D’-h-ßfpw Iem-cq-]- W-an-∏n®p ImWp-hm-\p≈ hy{KX s]men-∏m´p sa\-bp-∂-h¿°p-≠v. ]≠p aX-t`-Z-߃°Xo-X-amb kmwkvIm-cnI ss]Xr-I-Øn-te°p Imcy-ßsf ]cn- Ioba\ p {]Xn-tcm-[n-°p-∂p-sh-∂-Xns‚ kqN-\-bmWp s]men-∏m-´p-Iƒ. aX-]-c-amb hnS-hp-Ifpw I¿°-i-amb AXn¿Øn-Ifpw Hcp coXn-bn¬ P\- sNbvXp t]m∂n-cp-∂p-sh∂p hy‡w. tImf-\o-I-c-W-Øns‚ `mK-am-bp-≠mb cyØn¬ aX-t`-Z-߃°v AXo-X-ambn kmwkvIm-cnI cq]-ßsf ssIImcyw °m-e-ØmWv CØcw hyh-t—Zw DS-se-Sp-°p-∂-Xv. tIc-f-Øns‚ ]mc-º- W-sa∂ hmin ]≠p tIc-f-Øn¬ s]mXpth C√mbn-cp-∂p. tImf-\n-hm-gvN- (tUm. kvIdnbm k°-dnb, 2005 : 32). k¶-e-\-_-l-f-Øn‚ `mK-ambn thWw hni-Zo-I-cn-°m\pw hymJym-\n-°m\pw PqX-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ tIƒ°mw. CØcw ]mT-an-{iWw tIc-f-Ønse kwkvImc °≥ ]m´v F∂n-h-bnse Nne {]tbmKhnti-j-ßfpw CuW-ßfpw t]mepw Ønepw PqX-∏m-´p-Iƒ°p \n m-c-a-√mØ ASp-∏-ap-≠v. tXm‰w ]m´v, hS- I¿j-I-sØm-gn-em-fn-I-fpsS ]m´p-Iƒ F∂n-h-bp-ambn `mj-bnepw kwKo-X- PqX-∏m-´p-I-fn¬ ImWmw. am∏n-f-∏m-´p-Iƒ, \{km-Wn-∏m-´p-Iƒ, Xoc-tZ-isØ k-aq-l-ß-fpsS ]m´p-I-fn-ep≈ hcn-Itfm ]Zm-h-en-Itfm khn-tij ]Z-ßtfm Ifpw Cu s]mXp amXr-I-tbm-sSmØp t]mIp-∂-Xm-Wv. tIc-f-Ønse a‰p - bvs°√mw s]mXp-hmb Hcp tIc-fob amXr-I-bp-≠v. PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m-´p- °q-´m-bva-Iƒ°pw Ah-c-h-cp-tS-Xmb s]men-∏m-´p-I-fp-≠v. F∂m¬ Ch- amWp s]men-∏m-´v. hnhn[ tZi-°q-´m-bva-Iƒ°pw aX-°q-´m-bva-Iƒ°pw PmXn- s]men-∏m-´ns‚ tIc-fo-bX Xv. cn-°p∂ ]m´p-I-fpsS s]mXp-kz-`m-h-amWp PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m-´p-Iƒ°p-≈- PqX-cpsS s]men-∏m´pw tIc-f-Ønse a‰p s]men-∏m-´-p-Ifpw F√m-‰n-s\bpw aXw F∂ H‰ am\-ZWvUw sIm≠p hyh-t—-Zn-°- tIc-f-Ønse \mS≥]m-´p-I-fn¬ ImWp∂ khn-ti-j-amb Hcn-\- Cu teJ-\-Øn¬ s]men-∏m-´p-I-fpsS c≠mw amXr-I-bmbn tN¿Øn- ...... a\-skmsS aW-hm´n a°fpw hmWn-cn-∏m≥ a\-bnse Xm≥ sN√pº (tUm. kvIdnbm k°-dnb, 2005 : 118) -ns‚ kwkvIm-c-Øn-\p-≈n¬ ]ø-\mSv,cmL-h≥ tUm. kp{_-“Wyi¿Ω, hn k°-dnb, kvIdnbm, tUm. Handoo, Jawaharlal Bouman, Richad hnjvWp-\-ºq-Xncn,Fw.-hn., tUm. Nnd-bv°¬ _me-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿,Sn, `‡-h-’e sdÕn,F≥,tUm. \mcm-b-W-\p-Æn, ]n. hn {KÙ-kqNn : t®°pw. X-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ s]men-∏m´pt]mse-bp≈ t^mIvtem¿ cq]-߃ klm-bn- 2004 1998 1977 2005 2000 1990 1993 1999 2001 1989 tIm´bw _pIvkvv, tIm´bw Folklore in Modern India, House, Rowely Mass Verbal Art as Performance, s_³kzn C³Ìn-äyq«v, Pdp-ktew Im¿Ip-gen ˛ sbt^-^nb, Xobm´pw Aø-∏≥IqØpw, F≥.-_n.-F-kv, tIm´bw tXm‰w ]m´p-Iƒ Hcp ]T\w, C≥Ãn-‰yq-´v, Xncp-h-\-¥-]p-cw t^mIvtem¿ \nL≠p, Xriq¿ (k-ºm.) tIcf `mjm-Km-\-߃(hmeyw H∂v), Xncp-h-\-¥-]p-cw kuØv t^mIvtem¿ skmssk‰n Hm^v t^mIvtem¿ ]T\w kn≤m-¥-X-ew, ae-_m¿ {SÃv, ]ø-∂q¿ ß-fpw, t^mIvtem¿ k¶-ev]-ßfpw kt¶-X- Xobm´v Hcp ]T\w, t^mIvtem¿ s^temkv Hm^v tIcf kmlnXy A°m-Z-an, C≥Uy≥ emwtKz-P-kv, Id‚ tIcf `mjm APp \mcm-b-W≥ v _pIvkvv, CIIL, Mysore. Id‚ New Burg v 663 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 664 TAPASAM, January 2006 fpsS auenIXØz-߃ Fhn-sSbpw H∂m-hmt\ hgn-bp-≈p F∂ Xs‚ ImWmw. a\p-jys‚ DØ-a-cp-Nn-Isf {]oWn-∏n-t°≠ kmln-Xym-Zn-I-e-I- ]uc-kvXy-hp-amb Nn¥m-[m-c-I-tfmSv Htc B`n-apJyw Zo£n-®n-cp-∂-Xmbn cq]-tcJ krjvSn-°m≥ Imcy-ambn {ian-®n-´p-≈-Xv. At±lw ]m›m-Xyhpw Øz-Nn-¥-bpsS ÿm\-sa-s¥-∂m-cm-bm-\mWv C ®-Xv. ap≠-t»cnbpsS kmln-Xy-Z¿i-\-Øn¬ kwkvIr-X-Ønse Imhy-X- sIm≠v D ap≠-t»cn ]g-bXpw ]pXn-b-Xp-amb kmln-XobZ¿i-\-ßsf D]-Po-hn-®p- kmln-Xy-Øns‚ D]-cn-π-hX Xpd∂pIm´n-b-Xv. kmln-Xy-hn-a¿i-\-Ønepw ]cm-a¿in®psIm≠mWp kt¶-X-P-Sn-e-amb ka-Im-enI \ntbm-¢m-knIv In, Imfn-Zm-k≥, `mk≥ XpS-ßnb hntizmØcIhn-I-fpsS ¢mkn-°p-Iƒ kmlnXyw D≠m-bn-´p-s≠∂p ZrV-ambn hniz-kn® B \ncq-]-I≥ hmevao- X-Isf hotdmsS FXn¿Øp. GXp-Im-eØpw PohnXK‘n-bmb D¬IrjvS At±lw Pohn-X-_‘w \jvSs∏´ KXm-\p-K-XnIkmlnXy-Øns‚ Po¿Æ- kmln-Xy-Ønse ]pXp-{]-h-W-X-I-tfmSp s]mXp-hn¬ B`n-apJyw ImWn® Ihpw kuµ-cy-]-c-hp-amb aqey-ßsf ka-\z-bn-∏n-°m-\mWv Gsd {i≤n-®-Xv. t≠mfw \o≠p\n∂ hna¿i\{]h¿Ø\Øn¬ kmln-Xy-Øns‚ kmaq-ln- ‘m\w sNbvXp-sIm≠p kmln-Xy-Po-hn-X-am-cw-`n® At±lw \mep ]Xn-‰m- Øn¬ cq]-sa-SpØpXpS-ßnb {]h-W-X-Isf Znim-t_m-[-tØmsS A\p-k- {i≤m-ep-hm-bn-cp-∂p. Ccp-]Xmw\q‰m-≠nse ap∏-Xp-Ifn¬ ae-bmfkmln-Xy- [m-c-ambn Nne ssk≤m-¥nI ASn-Ø-d-Iƒ cq]-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn¬ F∂pw Htc XmXv]-cy-tØmsS hym]cn® ap≠-t»cn {]mtbm-KnIhna¿i-\-Øn-\m- kn. cmtP-{µ≥ `mc-Xob Imhy-X-Øz-Nn-¥bpw ap≠-t»cnbpw Imhy-]o-Tn-I-bn-emWp ap≠-t»cn ssk≤m-¥nIhna¿i-\-Øn-s\mcp ssk≤m-¥n-Ihpw {]mtbm-Kn-I-hp-amb kmln-Xy-hn-a¿i-\-Øn¬ u¿P-kz-e-am-sbmcp kmln-Xy-ho-£Ww Icp-∏n-Sn-∏n-°m-\mWv {ian- u {]_‘w DZy-an-°p-∂-Xv. ]mc-ºcy-\njvv-Wm-X-\mb Ip´n-°r-jvW-am-cm¿ ap≠-t»cnbpsS ≠mWp ap≠-t»cn `mc-Xob Imhy-X-Øz-Nn-¥sb hni-I-e\w sNbvX-Xv. sh∂pw At±lw hniz-kn-®p. Cusbmcp kao-]-\-Øn¬ Dd-®p-\n-∂p-sIm- °p∂ kmam-\y-X-Øz-߃ Fhn-sSbpw H∂p-X-s∂-bm-hmt\ \n¿∆m-l-ap-≈p- em-Zyp-]m-[n-Iƒ°\p-k-cn®p hyXym-k-ap-≠m-Ip-∂-sX∂pw Iesb Ie-bm- bn¬Xs∂ tcJs∏Sp-Øp-∂p-≠v. Ie-bpsS _mly-X-e-Øn-\mWp tZi-Im- t]m¬_-e-I-ambn "Z¿i\mZv h¿Æ-\m-ss®h temtI cqVm Ihn-{ipXn:' AwKo-I-cn-°p-∂p-sh∂p ap≠-t»cn kn≤m-¥n-°p-∂p-s≠-¶n-epw AXn-\p- _mly-kr-jvSnbpw XΩn-ep≈ hyXym-ksØ ]uc-kvXym-e-¶m-cn-I-∑m¿ Iem-kr-jvSn-bn-eqsS aq¿Ø-am-°p-Ibpw thWw. Cu A¥xkrjvSnbpw ∂p-sh∂p ap≠-t»cn A`n-{]m-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. XpS¿∂v Cu B¥-cnIkrjvSnsb kmln-Xy-sØbpw Nn{X-I-e-sbbpw kwKo-X-Øn¬\n∂p hne-£-W-am-°p- FØn-°p-hm-\p-X-Ipw-hn[w Pohn-XsØ B¥coIcn-°p-I-sb∂ IrXyw Iq´n-bn-W-°m-\-t±lw {ian-°p-∂p. jn-∏n-°p-∂-Xn-eqsS Xs‚ kmaq-lnI ]cn-t{]-£ysØ ck-Z¿i-\-hp-ambn ap≠-t»cn AwKo-I-cn-°p-∂p. X∑-bo-`m-hsØ PK-Xvkm-tlm-Z-cy-sa∂p hnti- a\pjys\ lrZ-b-kw-hm-Z-Øn-te°p \bn-°p-sa∂ ck-X-Xz-kn-≤m-¥sØ Ahsb hnti-jn-∏n-°p-∂p. Ch X∑-bo-`m-h-Øns‚ ]mc-ºcy-Øn¬ ImWp-∂-Xv. Pohn-X-hp-ambn kmXvayw h∂ hnIm-c-ß-fm-Wn-h-sb∂v At±lw s∂-bmWp ap≠-t»cnbpw Xs‚ kmln-Xy-k-¶-ev]-Øns‚ B[m-c-in-e-bmbn kn≤m-¥n-°p-∂p. Npcp-°-Øn¬,ë`c-Xm-Zn-I-fw-Ko-I-cn® ÿmbn-`m-h-ß-sf-Ø- Chsb ASn-ÿm-\-]-c-ambn Ft´m ]tØm B°n sh´n-®p-cp-°m-sa-∂-t±lw Im-bncw hnIm-c-ßfp-≠m-hm-sa∂v At±lw AwKo-I-cn-°p-∂p. F∂m¬ th¿Xn-cn-°p-∂p-s≠-¶nepw Du∂¬ hnIm-c-߃°p Xs∂. a\pjy\v At\- `m-h-ßsf hnIm-c-߃, A\p-`h-߃, Nn¥-Iƒ Fs∂√mw A-t±-lhpw kmlnXysØ t\m°n-°m-Wp-∂p. lUvks\ ]n¥p-S¿∂p-sIm≠v Cu A¥¿- ck-sØ-bm-Wv. Iem-Im-cs‚ A¥¿`m-h-Øns‚ Bhn-jvI-c-W-ambn At±lw Xv. Hcp]t£ kmln-Xy-I-e-bpsS a¿Ω-am-bn-Øs∂ At±lw k¶-ev]n-®Xv Xs‚ kmln-Xobkn≤m¥ ]cn-I-ev]-\-bn¬ G‰hpa[nIw D]-Po-hn-°p-∂- ]p\¿\n¿Æ-bn-°m-\mWp ap≠-t»cn bXv\n-®-Xv. ka-Im-enIkmln-Xy-hp-ambn CW-°n-t®¿Øp-sIm≠v Ah-bpsS {]k‡n Øz-Nn-¥-bpsS Nne ASn-ÿm\ ]cn-I-ev]-\-Isf ka-Im-enIhna¿i-\hpw lrZ-b-]q¿∆w kzmKXw sNbvXp-sh-∂Xp {it≤-b-am-Wv. `mc-Xob Imhy-X- ASn - ÿm\kao-]-\-XØzw At±lw hnIm-c-X-∑-bo-`m-h-Øn-\m¬ Bkzm-Z-Is\ lrZ-b-kw-hm-Z-Z-i-bn¬ `mc-Xob Imhy-Nn-¥-bn¬ ck-[z-\n-Z¿i-\-ß-sf-bmWp ap≠-t»cn Imhy-]o-Tn-I- b-psS {]kvXm-h-\- Imhy-]o-Tn-I kn. cmtP--{µ≥ sb 665 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 666 TAPASAM, January 2006 thdn´p \ndp-Øp-∂Xv Ah c≠n-s\-bp-am-Wv ( ]m›m-Xy¿ Po\n-b v sW-¶n¬ km[n-°p-∂Xv as‰m∂v ˛ c≠pw c≠m-sW∂p Xo¿Øp]dbmw. H∂v; hyp¬∏Øn ]cn-{i-a-߃°-I-º-Sn-bmbn shdpw {]⁄ \S-°p-I-bm- Im-cnIfmbn ss\]p-Wym-`ym-k-߃ IqSp-I-bm-sW-¶n¬ km[n-°p∂ Imcyw bp∂p: ZWvUn-bpsS hmZ-K-Xnsb At±lw X≈n-°-f-bp-∂p-ap-≠v. ap≠-t»cn ]d- `bn-s√-¶nepw hyp¬]-Øy-`ym-k-߃sIm≠p am{Xw anI-hp- t\-Sm-sa∂ I-c-W-ambn ap≠-t»cn Cu {Iao-I-c-WsØ t\m°n-°m-Wp-∂p-≠v. {]Xn- Wv. {]Xn-`-X-s∂-bmWv A\p-t]-£-Wobw F∂ Xs‚ \ne-]m-Sns‚ km[q- -t]m-j-I-am-bn-am{Xw hyp¬]-Øy-`ym-k-ßsf \n¿t±-in-®Xpw km¿∞-I-am- F∂ aΩ-Ss‚ Imcn-I-bn¬ i‡nsb H∂m-a-Xmbn∏d-™Xpw AXn-\p AZzn-Xo-b-am-Wv. A\n¿∆N\o-b-amb Iev]-\m-i-‡n-bm-Wn-Xv. hp-am-bp≈ _‘w hni-Zo-I-cn-°m≥ {ian-°p-∂n-√. cn-I-Isf {]Ir-X-Øn-e-t±lw D≤-cn-°p-∂p-sh-¶nepw Ahbv°v D±n-jvSm¿∞- "A]q¿∆ hkvXp-\n¿Ωm-W-£-am-{]-⁄m', "i‡n-¿\n-]p-WXm' CXym-Zn-Im- F∂ `´-Xu-Xs‚ hcn-Isf F¥p-sImt≠m At±lw D≤-cn-°p-∂n-√. ap≠-t»-cnbpw `mc-Xob Imhy-X-Øz-Nn-¥bpw At±lw hmbn-s®-Sp-°p-∂p. cw-`n®p ]Z-hmIy—µ p-I-fn-te-°p≈ {]bm-W-amWp Ihn-X-sb∂pw `-bn¬\n∂v A`ym-k-Øn-te°p apt∂-dp-I-bm-sW∂pw hkvXp-hn¬\n∂m- A¿∞-Øn-te°p apt∂-dm≥ {ian-°p-tºmƒ bYm¿∞-Øn¬ th≠Xv {]Xn- t»cn Icp-Xp-∂p. Ihn-bix {]m¿∞n-Iƒ ]Z-hmIy Oµ- p-I-fn¬\n∂p Ss‚ {Ia-Øn-\p-≈n¬ as‰mcp cl-kyhpw AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂p-sh∂p ap≠- \n¿∆n-i¶w {]Jym-]n-°p-∂p. i‡n ˛ \n]p-WX A`ymkw F∂ aΩ- °-emWv {]Xn`mhnem-k-sa∂p `c-X≥ ]d™psh®-Xmbn ap≠-t»cn `bpsS icn-bmb Ac-tß-‰w. Ihn-bpsS A¥¿K-X-`m-hsØ {]Im-in-∏n- am-sW-∂p Nq≠n-°m-Wn-°p-∂p. A]q¿∆ hkvXpIev]-\-bn-emWv {]Xn- `‡n-Zo-]n-I k\pw amL-\pw, Øp-]-d-bp∂ ap≠-t»cn tjIvkv]n-bdpw s_≥ tPm¨k-\pw, Imfn-Zm- " kmlnXy-kr-jvSn-bn¬ ap≠-t»cn {]Xn-`bv°p Iev]n-°p∂ ÿm\w {]⁄ km¿∆-{Xn-I-sa-¶nepw {]Xn` kpZp¿e-`-am-sW∂v FSp- "\h-\-thm-t√J imen-\n (?)bmb{]⁄-bpsS ˛ {]Xn-`bpsS kl- bpw XΩn-ep≈ hyXymkw Ch c≠pw hyXym-k- \f-N-cn-X- Imhyim-kv{Xm-Zy-t]-£-WmXv' " "i‡n-¿\n-]p-W-Xm -temI (Genius) hpw Zptcym-[\h[- F∂pw Sme‚ Im-hy-]o-TnI hpw, ' v (Talent) NWvUm-e-`n-£p-In- F∂pw ]d™p ]pdw 35). bpw, At±lw `c-X-t‚-sX-∂p- ]-d™v D≤-cn-°p∂ [\-RvP-bs‚ Hcp t«mIw amb BÀm-Z-{]-Xo-Xn-bp-ambn ap≠-t»cn Iq´n-°-e¿Øn-°m-Wp-∂p-≠v. ÿmbn-`m-h-{]-Xo-Xn-bm-bn. ∏n®v Ah-bn¬ A∏-t∏mƒ th≠ hnIm-c-Nn-”-߃ hcp-Øn-°m-Wn-®m¬ a¿Ω-߃. X° ]cn-tXm-h-ÿ-bn¬ X°-cq-]-Øn¬ ]m{X-ßsf Ah-X-cn- e-Øn¬- -kvYn-Xn-sN-øp-∂p. ÿmbn-`m-h-߃ Xs∂-bmWp Pohn-XØns‚ I-ft{X A\p-`m-h-߃. hy`n-Nm-cn-`m-h-ßfpw ÿmbn-`m-h-ßfpw kq£va-X- km-l-N-cy-ß-fmWv D±o-]-\-hn-`m-h-߃. A¥¿K-X-ßfpsS _ln¿kq-N-\- Bew-_\hn`mhw; Ahs‚ B¥-cn-I-`m-h-ßsf h¿[-am-\-am-°p∂ _mly- eqsS `c-X≥ hnh-cn-°p-∂-Xv. k¿∆-I¿Ω-£-a-X-tbm-Sp-Iq-Snb a\p-jy-\mWv kq£va-X-bn-te-°p≈ apt∂-‰-sØ-bmWp hn`m-hm-Zn-I-fpsS A]-{K-Y-\-Øn- Sp-Iƒ CXn¬\n∂p hyXy-kvX-a-√. PohnXNn{X-W-Øn¬ ÿqe-X-I-fn¬\n∂p s‚bpw "IrXn-Iƒ a\p-jy-I-Ym-\p-Km-bn-Iƒ' F∂ Bims‚bpw ImgvN-∏m- bmWv FSpØpIm´n-b-Xv. hnti-jn-∏n-°pIhgn \mS-I-I-ebv°pw Pohn-X-Øn\pw XΩn-ep≈ _‘-sØ- Øns‚ D]-⁄m-Xm-hmb `c-X≥ cq]-IsØ "I¿Ω-`m-hm-\p-Io¿Ø-\-' ambn \p-`q-Xn-ta-emWv B kn≤m¥w ]Sp-Øp-b¿Øn-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. ck-kn-≤m-¥- Py-s®-t¶m-te¥n' \nev°p-∂-sX∂v ap≠-t»cn A`n-{]m-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. lrZ-bm- a¿in®p ImWp-∂n-√. Ip-∂-sX∂ A`n-\-h-Kp-]vXm-Zn-I-fpsS A`n-{]mbw ChnsS At±lw ]cm- amWp IcpWw, _o`’w F∂nh t]mep≈ ck-߃t]mepw Bkzm-Zy-am- {Kkn-®n-cn-°p∂ A⁄m-\-Øns‚ Bh-cWw \oßn-t∏m-Ip-∂Xp \nan-Ø- ∂p-sh∂pw At±lw kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p. ckm-kzm-Z-\-th-f-bn¬ A\p-hm-N-Is\ Zr-jvSn-bn-e-kp-µ-c-amb hkvXp-°ƒ-t]mepw Ie-bn¬ lrZ-b-lm-cn-I-fmbnØocp- ap≠-t»cn A`n-{]m-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. Cu kwhn-[m\ sshNn{Xyw \nanØw _mly- em-h-Wy-an-hmw-K-\mkp' F∂ D]am{]tbm-K-Øn-eqsS kqNn-∏n-°p-∂-sX∂p sabpw AI-sa-bp-ap≈ Cu N-Xp-c-{i-tim-`n-X-sb-bmWv [z\n-Im-c≥ "hn`m-Xn- ≠m-hp∂ GIm-{K-taml-\-X-bm-bmWp kuµcyw {]Xy-£s∏Sp-∂-Xv. ]pd- k-ap-≠m-hmw. AwtKm-]mw-K-ß-fpsS bYm-ÿm\ hn\n-th-i-\-Øn¬ \n∂p- G‰-°p-d-®n-ep-Iƒ°-\p-k-cn®p kuµ-cy-tØm-Sp≈ {]Xn-I-c-W-Øn\pw hyXym- bp-∂p-sh∂pw At±lw A`n-{]m-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. \ΩpsS kuµ-cy-t_m-[-Øns‚ {]tbm-P-\m-t]£ hcp-tºmƒ BÀm-Z-Øn\pw kuµ-cy-Øn\pw ip≤n Ipd- Z-Øns‚ as‰mcp t]cmWv kuµ-cy-sa∂p ap≠-t»cn kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p-≠v. PK-∂m-Y-]-WvUn-Xs‚ A`n{]m-bsØ FSp-Øp-≤-cn-°p-∂n-s√-¶nepw BÀm- temtIm-Ø-cm-Àm-ZsØ Bhn-jvI-cn-°p∂ Iem-[¿Ω-amWp ca-Wo-b-X-sb∂ A\p-hm-N-I-\n-jvT-amb ck-{]-Xo-Xnsb Nnte-S-sØ√mw Ihn-\n-jvT- ck-kn-≤m¥w Xs∂-bmWp `mc-Xob Imhy-ao-amw-k-bn¬ "km{am- Poetry is the criticism of Life F∂ B¿t\mƒUn- kn. cmtP--{µ≥ 667 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 668 TAPASAM, January 2006 a-W-amWp kmlnXy-Øns‚ ]cae£yw. lrZ-b-\n¿hrXn B aqey-Øns‚ ckm-kzm-Z-\n¿hr-Xn-bp-≠m-hp-∂-Xv. Npcp-°-Øn¬, kmw-kvIm-cn-I- aqeykw{I- \njvI¿jWw sNbvsX-SpØp \evIp∂ kwkvImcw Bkz-Zn-°p-tºm-gmWp cW-am-hn-s√∂pw ap≠-t»cn ]d-™p-d-∏n-°p-∂p-≠v. Ihn- Po-hn-XsØ emWv. cp-∂Xp PohnXw IÆp-sIm≠p ImWmsX Cuc-Sn-I-sf-gp-Xn-°q-´p-∂-Xn-\m- Iyhpw D≈q-cns‚ arWm-fn\nbnse aZy-]m-\n-bp-sa√mw Atcm-N-I-am-bn-Øo- Xybpw Nß-ºp-g-bpsS {i≤n-t°-≠-Xv. h≈-tØm-fns‚ sIm®p koX-bnse \mbn-I-bpsS Bfl-l- ticn X≈n-°-f-bp-∂p. hmkvX-h-Øn¬ hn`m-hm-Zn-I-fpsS Iev]-\-bn-emWp t]mjn-∏n-t°-≠-Xv. X√ F∂-t±lw BW-bn-Sp-∂p. temIm-h-tem-I-\-Øn-eq-sS-bmWp `mh-\sb \ot´-≠-Xm-Wv; Kpcp-hns‚ Imev°¬ N{ºw ]Sn™ncn-°p-∂p-≠m-t°-≠- ≠-Xv. AXn\p `mh-\m-i‡n thWw; AXp ]q¿∆kwkvIm-c-Øn¬ sImSn cn-°p-∂p. hn`mhmZn-Isf X∑-bo-`m-h-aq∂n kzcq-]n-°p-∂-Xn-emWp XpS-tß- —-µ- p-I-fp-]-tbm-Kn-®m¬ ckw krjvSn-°m-sa∂ [mc-W-b-t±lw Xnc-kv°- FSpØp ]d-bp-∂p. imkv{X\n¿t±-i-a-\p-k-cn®p bm{¥n-I-ambn ]Z-hm-Iy- dn®m¿Uvkv XpS-ßn-b-h¿ ]q¿Æ-ambpw icn-sh-bv°p-∂p-s≠-∂-t±lw sf√mwXs∂-sb∂p≈ ë`c-X-a-XsØ kn. Sn. hns©-ÿ, sF.F. A\p-`q-Xn-bn¬ sNs∂Øpwhn[-am-bn-cn-°Ww PohnXNn{X-W-ß- ap≠-t»cn IrXy-ambn FSpØpIm´p-∂p-≠v. ]c-am-h[n sshIm-cn-I-amb \nI ]m›mXykmlnXyNn¥-bn-ep≈ Nne {]h-W-X-Ifp-am-bp≈ _‘w CØcw Nne {]am-Z-ß-ƒ ]nW-™n-´ps≠-¶nepw ck-Z¿i-\-Øn\v B[p- µn°pwt]mse Hcm-\-µn-°-et√ ckw' ≠m-°n-°-fn-°p-s∂mcp Ip´n A\p-I-c-W-Øn¬ Bflm-hn-jv°m-c-Øn¬ B\- t»cn C A\p-hm-N-I-\p-≠m-hp∂ BÀm-ZsØ Xpe\w sNøp-∂p. F∂m¬ ap≠- Iƒ°p-≠m-hp∂ BÀm-Z-tØmSv At±lw A¿÷p-\m-Zn-Isf ImWp-tºmƒ Z-sØ-bm-Wv. a¨I-fn-∏m-´-ßfmb B\-Ifpw a‰p-sa-SpØp Ifn-°p-tºmƒ Ip´n- Cu sX-‰n-≤m-c-W-bv°p-Zm-l-c-W-am-Wv. ap≠-t»-cnbpw `mc-Xob Imhy-X-Øz-Nn-¥bpw u hcn-Isf hymJym-\n-°p-∂Xv Cßs\-b-t{X: " ck-hmZw Ie -I-e-bv°p-th-≠n-sb∂ kn≤m-¥-Øn\p \ymbo-I- ]Z-hm-Iy-O-tµm-e-¶m-c-ß-fn¬ ck-`w-K-a-t\z-jn-°p∂ coXn ap≠- ChnsS [\-RvP-b≥ hnh-cn-°p-∂Xv A\p-hm-N-I-\n-jvTamb BÀm- t{imXrWma¿÷-p\mZn`nx' tkm’mlx kzZtX XZzXv _mem\mw Zznc-Zm-`n`n: " "{IoUXmw ap¨a-ssb-¿`msshx ca-W-\n se aq∂mw `mKsØ PqKp-]vk-bpsS B[n- ' F∂-t±lw tNmZn-°p∂p F∂mWv. ' "ay◊-b-cq-]-ß-fp- hp≠v D]-]m-{X-߃°v. hymk-I-Ym-]m-{Xßsfbpw Xz-ap-≈-h-cmWv ]m{X-߃. Imfn-Zm-k-Ir-Xn-I-fn¬ apJy-]m-{X-ß-tf-°mƒ angn- hmevao-In, `mk≥, Imfn-Zm-k≥ XpS-ßn-b-h-cpsS IrXn-I-fn¬ angnhp‰ hy‡n- bm-bn. ]m{X-krjvSn ssSt∏m-f-Pn-bm-bn-®p-cp-ßn-bXv CuhÆ-am-Wv. F∂m¬ am{XZrjvSn-I-fmb Ihn-Iƒ ]m{X-ß-fpsS khn-ti-j-X-I-fn¬ {i≤n-°m-sX- h¿Ø-\-co-Xn-Iƒ XΩn-em-sW∂pw ap≠-t»cn FSpØp]d-bp-∂p. ck- At±lw ]d-™p-d-∏n-°p-∂p. cssk-I-hn-{ip-X-sa-¶n¬ ]m›m-Xy-cp-tSXp ]mss{X-I-hn-{ip-X-am-sW∂v t»cn F¥p-sImt≠m ]cm-a¿in®p ImWp-∂n-√. ]uc-kvXy-cpsS kmlnXyw IrXn-I-fnse iIm-c-s\-t∏m-ep≈ ]m{X-ß-sfbpw Cu Ah-k-c-Øn¬ ap≠- ap≠-t»cn XpS-cp∂p: XmZr-tKh h¿Æ-\obw' F∂ [z\n-Im-cs‚ Xm°oXv Ah-K-Wn-°-s∏-´p. t∏m-sb-∂mWp ap≠-t»cn ]d-bp-∂-Xv. "b{X {]Xo-Xn-J-WvU-\m \ PmbtX ]m{X-]-cn-k-cm-Zn-I-fmb hn`mhm-Zn-I-fn¬\n∂v Bkzm-ZI{i≤ ]n≥hm-ßn- kwkvIr-Xm-e-¶m-cn-I-∑m¿ ck-Øns‚ ÀmssZ-I-a-b-X-bn-eq-∂n-bXp \nanØw Cu hyXym-ksØ kqNn-∏n°p-∂p. ]n¬°m-esØ Sn∏W-Im-c-∑m-cmb "Hcmƒ Imcy-Øn¬ ]nSn®p; at‰-bmƒ Imc-W-ß-fnepw' F∂p ap≠-ticn F∂m¬ Acn-tÃm-´n¬ ]m{X-kr-jvSn-°mWp ]c-a-{]-[m\yw \evIn-b-Xv. ‘n-®n-S-tØmfw \mS-I-Ønse GXp LS-Ihpw ctkm-∑p-J-am-h-Ww. taJ-e-bn-emWp kao-]-\-hy-Xymkw G‰hpw hep-Xm-hp-∂-Xv. `c-Xs\ kw_- hy-Xym-k-ß-fp-ap-s≠∂pw ap≠-t»cn kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p. ]m{X-kr-jvSn-bpsS XΩn¬ ASn-ÿm\]c-ambn ]e-Xcw kmay-ß-fp-s≠-¶nepw Nne auen-I- bmWp \mw FSp-Øp-Im-´p-∂-sX∂p ap≠-t»cn hy‡-am-°p-∂p. °p-tºmƒ AXp {]Xn-\n-[m\w sNøp∂ kmwkvIm-cnIaqey-ß-sf-Ø-s∂- ⁄m]Iw am{X-am-Wv. ctkm¬°¿jw ap≥\n¿Øn Hcp IrXnsb kao-]n- H∂n-S-™ -a-´m-bn' h∂-t∏mƒ ]uc-kvXy-s‚bpw ]m›m-Xy-s‚bpw ]m{X-hn-[m-\-coXnIƒ XΩn¬ ]y≥ \ncq-]-I-∑m¿ B {Iaw adn-®n-´p...... Xncn™p adn™v Cßs\ bn-cp-∂-Xv. ]m{X-hn-[m-\-Øn\p c≠mw-ÿm-\-hpw. A\-¥-c-Im-en-I-cmb bqtdm- I-bm-Wp-≠m-b-Xv. Acn-tÃm-´n¬ IYm-L-S-\-bv°m-sWm∂mw ÿm\w \evIn- Cßs\ AI-∂-I-∂p-t]m-b-t∏mƒ ]m›m-Xy≥ AXn-t\m-S-Sp-Ø-SpØp hcn- Ihn-I-fn-e-[nIwt]cp-sSbpw sXmgn¬. ]q¿∆-hn-h-£n-Øn¬\n∂p ]uc-kvXy≥ bn-Øo¿∂p "hmIyw ckm-flIw Imhyw' F∂p-cp-hn´p ]Tn® kpin-£nX hmkvX-h-Øn¬ ]nW-°-ap-≠m-bXp XØz-߃ XΩn-e-s√∂pw A\p- " ]m›m-Xy-km-lnXy-Nn-¥bpw `mc-Xob Imhy-XØz-Nn-¥bpw "`mjm-ssi-en-°-cnsI \s√mcp Dc-I-√p-am-bßn-cn-°pI ˛ AXm- ' ( Imhy-]o-TnI ]p. 70). ar—-I-SnIw kn. cmtP--{µ≥ t]mep≈ 669 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 670 TAPASAM, January 2006 \evIp-∂-Xn¬ ap≠-t»cn hen-sbm-c-f-hn¬ hnP-bn-®n-´p-s≠∂p TnI ®p-sIm≠ Øns‚ shfn-®-Øn¬ ]mc-ºcyhpw B[p-\n-I-Xbpw XΩn¬ ka-\z-bn-∏n- \n m-co-I-cn®p IqSm. ck-[z-\n-Z¿i-\-ß-fpsS ka-Im-en-I-am-sbmcp ]mcmbW- ImgvN-∏m-Sp-Iƒ s]mXpth Znim-t_m[w Ie¿∂-h-bm-bn-cp∂p F∂ hkvXpX ®-dn-hmWv C∂sØ hmb-\-°m-c-\p-≠m-hp-I. AtX-k-abw At±-l-Øns‚ At±-l-Øns‚ {]Xn-]m-Z\w Gsd ]cn-an-Xn-Iƒ Ie¿∂-Xm-sW-∂p≈ Xncn- {]am-Z-߃ ]nW-™n-´p-≠mhmw. hni-Zmw-i-ß-fn-te°p ZrjvSn- ]m-bn-°p-tºmƒ SpØp \n¿∆-ln-®-sX-∂p- Im-Wmw. Cu kwcw-`-Øn¬ At±-l-Øn\p [mcmfw Im-en-Io-I-cn-°p-I-sb∂ ZuXy-amWp ap≠-t»cn Imhy-]o-Tn-I-bn-eqsS Gs‰- ASp-∏hpw thW-sa∂p ap≠-t»cn FSpØp]d-bp-∂p. kn≤m-¥n-°p-∂p. hrØ-Øn\p `mhu-Nn-Xyhpw `mj-bpsS hmsam-gn-tbm-Sp≈ Øn\pw [z\n-Im-c≥ Iev]n® {]m[m-\yta \evtI-≠-Xp-≈-p-sh-∂-t±lw bpsS X\n-a-tbmfw At±-l-Øns‚ Dƒ°mgvN {]k-cn-°p-∂p-≠v. Ae-¶m-c- ÿnXmx F∂ \nco-£-W-sØbpw Ipdn®p ]cn-Nn¥\w sNøp-tºmƒ Ihn- ssieo-KpW N¿®-sbbpw "XZvt`-Zm-kvXp\ iIyt¥ h‡pw {]Xn-I-hn- "AkvXy-t\tIm Kncmw am¿§: kq£va-t`Zx ]c-kv]cw' F∂ ZWvUn- tºmgpw a‰pw At±lw hf-b-an-√msX NmSp-I-bm-sW∂p tXm∂pw. F∂m¬, cw-Ku-Nn-Xy-sØbpw Io‰vkns‚ kXy-ku-µ-cy-k-a-\z-b-hp-ambn _‘n-∏n-°p- kq£va-X°p-d-hn-\p-Zm-l-c-Ww. aln-a-`-´s‚ A¥-cw-Ku-Nn-Xy-sØbpw _ln- ssk≤m-¥n-I-\mbn At±lw ]cm-a¿in-°p-∂-sX∂ hkvXpXXs∂ Cu t]mcm. t£ta-{µ\p ]Icw aln-a-`-´-s\-bmWv HuNn-Xy-Z¿i-\-Øns‚ ambn hnh-cn-°p-∂p-s≠-¶nepw At±-l-Øns‚ {]Xn-]m-Z-\-Øn\p kq£vaX Øp-∂p-≠v. BsI \qdp hcn-Itf Ah-ti-jn-°p-∂p-≈q-sh∂p ap≠-t»cn km£y-s∏-Sp- cns‚ "arWmfn-\n-'bnse hrYm-ÿq-e-X-Iƒ Hgn-hm-°nb ]co-£-W-Øn¬ k-tµ-iw \yq\-X-bmbn At±lw FSpØp]d-bp-∂p-≠v. hrYm-ÿq-e-X-bm¿∂ t]cpw [z\nsb hkvXz-e-¶m-c-[z\n ]cy-h-kn-X-ß-fm-bn-°-≠Xv Hcp henb °p-∂p-≠v. "kwkvIr-X-ssi-ensb A\p-I-cn® ae-bmfIhn-I-fn¬ A[nIw KnI hna¿i-\-Øn¬ At±lw [z\n-Z¿i-\-Ønse kt¶-X-߃ D]-Po-hn- in Excess XØz-at{X CXn-e-S-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. [z\n-Z¿i-\sØ kao-]n-°p-∂-Xv. Aev]w-sIm-≠-[nIw ImWn-°-W-sa∂ Iem- ap≠-t»-cnbpw `mc-Xob Imhy-X-Øz-Nn-¥bpw sXfn-bn-°p-∂p. -t]m-ep≈ IrXn-IfpsS \yq\X ck-[z\nsb Ah-K-Wn-®Xm-Wv. D≈q- Npcp-°n-∏-d-™m¬ `mc-Xob Imhy-im-kv{X-]m-c-º-cy-Øns\ ka- HuNn-Xyw, coXn XpS-ßnb kt¶-X-ß-sfbpw ap≠-t»cn Zo¿L- kmlnXy-Øns‚ cq]-X-e-Øns‚ ]cy-th-£-W-am-bmWp ap≠-t»cn

p XpS-ßnb {]am-W-߃ At±lw ChnsS D≤-cn-°p-∂p. {]mtbm- Xs‚ {]mtbm-KnI \ncq-]-W-Øn-s\mcp ssk≤m-¥n-Im-Sn-Ød

Brevity is the soul of art, Nothing Imhy-]o- -bpsS abq-c- a\w sNbvX cmK߃ am‰n ]pXn-b- cmK-߃ D]-tbm-Kn®v X-cpsS kwKoX-sØ-∏‰n Fgp-Xp-∂Xv (1986:282). B´-°-Ym-Ir-Øp-°ƒ \nb- l-Øns‚ Hcp {]tXy-I-Kp-W-amWv' {i≤n-°m-Xn-cn-°p∂ tZmjw `mK-h-Xsc _m[n-®n-´n-√. A£c-kv^p-SX At±- CsXm-∂p≠v: " Ifn-_v{`m-¥-∑m¿°pw `mK-h-X-cpsS ]m´v Bkzm-Zy-am-hp-I-bn-√. F∂m¬ ]mS-W-sa∂p \n¿_-‘-ap-≈-h¿°pw kwKo-X-Øn¬ A`n-\n-th-i-an-√mØ {Xn-I-ambn `mK-h-X¿ D]-tbm-Kn-®n-cp-∂p. ]gb tkm]m-\-co-Xn-bn¬Xs∂ sf-∂√ ]Z-߃ ]mSp-tºmƒØs∂ I¿Wm-SIkwKo-X-ssi-en-Iƒ km¿∆- ]me-°m´p cma-`m-K-h-X-tcm-Sp≈ aa-X-bm-em-bn-cn°mw t«mIw sNm√p-tºm- \-amb kwKo-X-ssien Bhn-jvI-cn-®p-sh-∂-Xp-am-Wv. Xs‚ A\p-P-\mb S-I-kw-Ko-X-ssien [mcm-f-ambn D]-tbm-Kn®p XpS-ßn-sb-∂Xpw `mh-{]-[m- ´n-´p≈p. \ap-°n∂p a\- n-em-°m≥ km[n-°p-∂-Xv, IY-I-fn-∏m-´n¬ I¿Wm- cn¬ sh¶n-S-Ir-jvW-`m-K-h-X-cpsS kw`m-h-\-Itf Ipsdsb¶nepw ]Tn-°-s∏- IY-IfnkwKo-X-Øn\p \evInb kw`m-h-\-Iƒ hfsc {][m-\-am-Wv. Ch- s®mcp IY-IfnKmb-I-\mbn hf¿∂p. \ºo-is‚ C sh¶n-S-Ir-jvW-`m-K-h-X-cpsSbpw injy-Xz-Øn¬ \oe-I-WvT≥ \ºo-i≥ anI- ]n.-F-kv. tat\m≥ Fgp-Xn-bn-´p-≠v (1986:396). Ch¿ Ccp-h-cp-sSbpw ap≠mb \nb-an-°-s∏-´p-sh-¶nepw At±lw A[n-IImew AhnsS XpS¿∂n-s√∂v sI.- eØpXs∂ Imh-t»cn kman-°p´n `mK-h-Xcpw AhnsS A[ym-]-I-\mbn °p-∂-Xn¬ {]K-ev`-\m-bn-cp∂ ]pem-∏‰ Ip´≥`mK-h-X-cm-bn-cp-∂p. A°m- WvU-e-Øn¬ BZy-Im-eØv ]m´p ]Tn-∏n-®n-cp-∂Xv If-cn-bn¬ sNm√n-bm-Sn- \-s∏´ Znim-]-cn-Wm-a-ß-fn-eqsS ImtXm-Sn-°m≥ {ian-°p-I-bm-Wn-hn-sS. am-bn-cp∂ sslZ-c-ensb kvacn-®p-sIm≠v IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Ønse Nne {][m- F≥. AP-b-Ip-am¿ sslZ-c-enbpw IY-Ifn kwKo-X-Ønse Znim]cn-Wm-a-ßfpw IY-I-fn-bpsS \ho-I-c-W-Øn¬ {][m-\-]-¶p -h-ln® tIc-f-I-em-a- Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-≠nse IY-IfnkwKo-X-Øn¬ hy‡n-Xz-ap‰ i_vZ- "kmam\yw "I¿Wm-S-I-kw-Ko-X'-°m¿ A£-c-hy-‡n-bn¬ ' F∂mWv sI.-]n.-F-kv.-ta-t\m≥ `mK-h- u aq∂p Kpcp-\m-Y-∑mcpw Ifn-bn¬ `mhw 671 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 672 TAPASAM, January 2006 IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Ønse Znim-]-cn-Wm-a-ßfpw sslZ-c-enbpw Ir-jvW te-°p-b¿∂ IY-I-fn-Km-b-I-cn¬ ]ecpw \ºo-is‚ injy-cm-Wv. sh¶n-S- IY-I-fn-Km-b-I≥ \ºo-i-\m-bn-cn-°pw. Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-≠n¬ {]kn-≤n-bn- \oe-I-WvT≥ \ºo-i-\m-Wv. Hcp]t£ G‰-hp-a-[nIw injy-k-º-Øp≈ ßn-sb∂pw Duln-°mw. I¿Wm-S-I-kw-KoXw IY-I-fn-∏m-´ns\ Ahn-S-hn-sS-bmbn kzm[o-\n-°m≥ XpS- ≠t√m. F¥m-bmepw ]sØm-ºXmw \q‰m-≠ns‚ ]Ip-Xn-tbmsSXs∂ XsØ kw_-‘n-®n-S-tØmfw B cmP-Iob\K-c-Øn\p anI® ]mc-ºcy-ap- {][m-\-]m-´p-Im-c-\m-bn-cp-s∂-∂p-ap-≈Xv {i≤m¿l-am-Wv. I¿Wm-SIkwKo- j-am-Wn-sX∂p am{X-a-√, tat\m≥ Xncp-hn-Xmw-Iq¿ sIm´mcw Ifn-tbm-K-Ønse A¶p-c-ß-fp-≠m-bn-cp-∂n-cn-°mw.]sØm-ºXmw \q‰m-≠ns‚ ]Ip-Xn-bv°p-ti- XpS-ßnb' " \p-apºv IW-°m-°n-bn-cp-∂-sX∂v IY-I-fn-cw-K-Øn¬\n∂v a\- n-em-°mw. bm-Sn-°m-\p≈ Ign-hp-amWv `mK-h-X¿°p -th≠ {][m-\ -Kp-W-ß-fmbn AXn- {ian-®n-cpt∂m F∂p kwi-b-am-Wv. \√ IWvThpw Xmf-ÿn-Xnbpw sNm√n- apºp≈ ]m´p-Im¿ kwKo-XsØ C{]-Imcw hy‡n-Xz-ap≈ Ie-bm-°m≥ kmam-\y-h-Xv-I-cn®p ]d-bp-∂Xp icn-bm-bn-cn-°p-I-bn-s√-¶nepw, AXn\p `mK-h-X-cpsS kw-KoXw {]Nmcw t\Sp-∂Xv Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-≠m-Zy-am-W-t√m. {]-tbm-K-ßfn-eq-sS-bm-sW∂v Cu hnh-c-W-ßfn¬\n∂v a\- n-em-°m-\m-hpw. \n-ev°p-∂-Xn\v IY-Ifn kwKoXw Icp-Øp-t\-Sn-bXv `mK-h-X-cpsS kwKo-X- ÿm\w hln-°p-∂-tXm-sSm∏w kwKo-X-sa∂ \ne-bn¬ kzX-{¥-ambn \ne- kva-cn-®n-´p-≈-Xn¬\n∂v Adn-bmw. kwKoXw' sW-¶n¬°qSn B \yq\-Xsb ad-bv°p-hm≥ ]cym-]vX-am-Wv. At±-l-Øns‚ ≠m-bn-cn-°p-sa∂v, " F∂m¬ Ifn°p ]mSp-tºm-ƒ -AXn-\-\p-kr-X-amb `mhw B kwKo-X-Øn-\p- en-bp-ambn `mK-h-X¿ ASp-∏n-®n-cp-∂p-sh-∂-Xn\v CXpw sXfn-hm-bn-s´-Sp-°mw. s≠-∂m-Wt√m. F¥m-bmepw IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-XsØ I¿Wm-SIkwKo-X-ssi- Zm-b-Øn¬ kzc-k-ln-X-ambn At±lw IY-I-fn-∏-Z-߃ Ah-X-cn-∏n-°m-dp- amWv D≠m-bn-cp-∂-sX∂pw \ºo-i≥ Hm¿an-°p-∂p. AXn-\¿Yw It®cnk{º- tºmƒ IY-IfnkwKo-X-Øns‚ `mh-Øn-\p-]-Icw It®cnkwKo-X-Øns‚ `mh- Øm-dp-≠m-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂pw ]Z-߃°n-S-bn¬ kzcw tN¿Øv It®cn \S-Øp- A\p-kva-cn-®n-´p-≠v. AXp-t]mse At±lw IY-Ifn kwKo-X-°-t®cn \S- S-Ir-jvW-`m-K-h-X-cm-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂v Iem-a-WvUew \oe-I-WvT≥ \ºo-i\pw IY-Ifn Kmb-I¿ {ipXns°mØp ]mS-W-sa∂p \n¿_‘wsh®Xpw sh¶n- krjvSn-°p-∂-Xn¬ kwKo-X-Øn-\mWv H∂m-asØ ÿm\-sa∂p sXfn-bn-®Xpw "taf-∏-Z-Øn\p aRvPp-Xc ]mSp-tºmƒ kwK-Xn-sh®p ]mSp-hm≥ BZy-ambn - `m-K-h-XcpsS in£-W-Øn¬ ]´n-°mw-sXmSn If-cn-bn¬\n∂p cq]w- `mK-h-Xsc XpS¿∂v \ΩpsS {i≤-bm-I¿jn-°p-∂Xv Iem-a-WvUew A`n-\-b-kw-KoXw F∂ \ne-bn¬ `mh-kr-jvSn-bn¬ kp{]-[m-\- ' s\∑md am[-h-ta-t\m-\n¬ (1986:161) ]pXnb kwKo-X-t_m-[-Øns‚ ' (ta-t\m≥, 1986:283) F∂-Xn\v ]e DZm-l-c-W-ßfpw ]ecpw A\p- "ap∂n¬ \nev°p∂ thj-°m-c\p ck-hm-k\ Ipd-hm- cmK-߃ Xangv tXhm-cØnep≠v. ]pd-\ocv F∂p IY-I-fn-bn¬, ]pd-\o¿ssa _‘w Cßs\ hy‡-am-°p∂p: " b£-Km-\hpw a‰pw XpS¿∂v IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Øn\v Xangv kwKo-X-hp-am-bp≈ gv\m-´nse tXhm-chpw B{‘-{]-tZ-isØ `mK-h-X-ta-fbpw I¿Wm-S-I-Ønse kwÿm-\-ß-fnepw tkm]m-\-kw-Ko-X-ap≠v F∂m-W-t±-l-Øns‚ hmZw. Xan- ∂p-≠v. IY-IfnkwKoXw tIcf-Ønse tkm]m-\-kw-Ko-X-am-sW-¶n¬ CXc hnhm-Z-hn-j-b-am-bn-´p≈ tkm]m-\-kw-Ko-X-sØ-∏-‰nbpw ChnsS kqNn-∏n-°p- gv]m-c-ºcy-hp-ambn AXns\ _‘-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ {ian-®p-sIm-≠m-Wv. F∂pw \n∂p-hn´ ip≤hgn At±lw AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂Xv Nnte-S-sØ-¶nepw Xan- l-sØ-s°m≠v Aßs\ Nn¥n-∏n-®-Xv. F¥m-bmepw Cu Ie¿∏p-I-fn¬ Adp-]-Xp-Iƒ°p tijw sXfn-™p-tI´ Nne ]cn-h¿Ø-\-ß-fm-hWw At±- Ie-cp-∂Xv A`n-Im-ay-a-s√∂v At±lw ]d-bp-∂p-≠v. IY-IfnkwKo-X-Øn¬ SI kwKo-X-sa-∂-Xp-t]mse efn-X-kw-Ko-Xhpw IY-I-fn-∏m-´n¬ Aan-X-ambn sIm≠ amb Nne \n_-‘-\-I-fp-≠v. AXp kzoI-cnt® aXn-bmhq' ]Tn-®- hn-Zzm-\m-bn-cp-∂mepw IY-I-fn-bn¬ ]mSp-tºmƒ AXn∂p {]tXyI- {]m[m\yw Iev]n°p-∂p-sh-∂v. Kmb-I≥ F{X-Xs∂ I¿Wm-S-I-kw-KoXw CXn¬\ns∂√mw hy‡-amWv IY-I-fn-bnse F√m Ie-Ifpw `mh-Øn\p e£y-{]m-]vXn-bmWp `mh-]q¿Øn-sb-∂Xp hy‡-am-W-t√m...... Pohn-°p-∂Xv F∂-Xp-sIm≠pw e£y-{]m-]vXn-bm-hWw Kmb-Is‚ Dt±-iyw. tN¿∂p-≈ Ka-I-{]-tbm-K-Ønte D≈p-sh-∂-Xn-\mepw kwKoXw X\n-®√ IY-IfnkwKo-X-Øn¬ Bh-iy-an-√. IY-I-fn-bn¬ `mh-kv^p-cWw A\p-kzcw Fgp-Xn: " ]ng-bv°p-∂pthm F∂p kwibw tXm∂p-∂-Xp-sIm-≠m-hmw, \ºo-i≥ Cßs\ Øn-cp-∂-sX∂v Duln-°m≥ hgn-bp-≠v. Cu A\p-]m-X-t_m[w ]nev°m-eØv Øn-bn-´p-s≠-¶nepw Ac-ßp-]m-´n¬ ]m{X-`m-h-Øn-\mWv {]m[m\yw sImSp- ≠v. sh¶n-S-Ir-jvW-`m-K-h-X¿ kzc-k-ln-X-ambn IY-I-fn-∏-Z-°-t®-cn-Iƒ \S- Ko-X-Øns‚ X\na \jvS-s∏-SpØmw F∂ kwi-bhpw At±lw D∂-bn-®n´p- ´p-≈Xv kzm`m-hn-Iw. `mK-h-X-cn-eqsS Im¿Wm-S-I-kw-Ko-X-ssien At±-l-sØbpw kzm[o-\n-®n- ]n.- F-kv.- ta-t\m≥ \ºo-is‚ kwKo-XsØ hne-bn-cp-Øn-bn-´p≠v (1986:397). amdv kap-Nn-X-amb kzc-t`-Zßsf At±lw {]tbm-Kn-®n-cp∂p' F∂o KpW-߃°p ]pdta cwK-Øp≈ \Ss‚ `mhsØ t]mjn-∏n-°p- amb imco-cw, ]Z-߃ sNm√p-tºmƒ A£-c-kv^p-S-X, Dd® Xmf-t_m[w ∂XpamWv \ºo-is\ Hcp anI® s]m∂m-\n-bm-°n-bXv. {ih-W-kp-J-Z- ]´n-°mw-sXmSn cmap-Æn-ta-t\ms‚ If-cn-bn¬ sNm√n-bm-´-Øn\p ]mSn-bn-cp- ]nSn-®p-sIm≠p Xmf-an´v Zo¿L-Imew `mK-h-X-cpsS in¶n-Sn-bmbn ]mSn-bXpw At±-lsØ hnti-jn-∏n-°p-∂-Xv (2002:64). "

"I¿Wm-SIkwKo-X-°-t®-cn°p ]mSp-∂-Xp-]mse `rK-Ifpw \nc-hepw IY-IfnkwKo-X-Ønse {]ÿm-\-\m-b-I≥ F∂mWv Iem-[-c≥ ]t£, Aan-X-amb I¿Wm-SIkwKo-X-{]-tbm-K-߃ IY-I-fn-kw- "IY-I-fn-bn¬ C∂p \ne-hn-ep≈ Ipsd "Ime-{]-am-W-Øn\v Ipgn-Ømfw ' ( 1979:IV F≥. AP-b-Ip-am¿ ' F∂v sI. ). I¿Wm- 673 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 674 TAPASAM, January 2006 IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Ønse Znim-]-cn-Wm-a-ßfpw sslZ-c-enbpw X¬ H´n\nev°p-∂Xv Xan-g-I-tØm-SmWv F∂mWv ( Cßs\ ]e-Xp-ap-≠v. CXp-sIm≠p sXfn-bp-∂Xv IY-I-fn-kwKoXw IqSp- Im\-°p-dn™n F∂p IY-I-fn-bn¬, Ipdn-©n-∏¨ tXhm-c-Øn¬ ˛ tXhm-c-Øn¬. JWvUmcw F∂p IY-I-fn-bn¬, J™ F∂p tXhm-c-Øn¬. tIZm-c-]¥v IY-I-fn-bn¬ tIZm-c-]¨ tIc-f-Øns‚ \mtSm-Sntbm A\p-jvTm-\-]-ctam Bb kwKo-X tI-´n-cp∂ B \mZw klr-Z-b¿°v ad-°m-\m-hn-√. AXp Nne-t∏m-sgms° bm-\m-Ipw. cm{Xn-bpsS \n»-_vZ-bm-a-ß-fn¬ tN¶n-e-{ip-Xn-tbm-SnWßn Db¿∂p- Øns‚ kwKo-X-Øn¬ kz¥-amb At\z-j-W-ß-fp-≈Xv \ap°p Xncn-®-dn- I¿jn-°p∂Xv . \ºo-is‚ in£-W-Øns‚ Dd® ASn-Ø-d-bp≈ At±-l- Kpcp-\m-Y-s\∂ \ne-bn¬ \ºo-is‚ al-Xzw. ]-\-ssien hnI-kn-∏n-s®-Sp-Ø-h-cm-Wv. Cu sshhn-[y-am-bn-cn°pw Hcp ]t£ h-Øn¬ Ah-cm-Wv. Ah-cn¬ {i≤m¿l-cmb Hmtcm-cp-Øcpw kz¥-amb Bem- \q-‰m-≠ns‚ c≠mw ]Ip-Xn-bnse IY-I-fn-kwKo-X-Øns‚ apJy-[mc hmkvX- ]d-bm≥ Ign-t™-°pw. kzhy-‡n-XzsØ ]p\¿\n¿h-Nn-°m-\p≈ {ia-ßfpw XpS-ßn-bn-cp∂p F∂p \q‰m-≠ns‚ ]Ip-Xn-tbmsS I¿Wm-S-I-kw-Ko-X-kzm-[o\w Dt]-£n-°m-sX-Xs∂ X-Øn¬\n∂v ]eXpw kzoI-cn®v hy‡n-Xz-ap-d-∏n®v IY-I-fn-kwKoXw B am{Xw. Aßs\ t\m°p-tºmƒ, Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-t≠msS I¿Wm-SIkwKo- h-ÿ-bmbn B Nn¥-Iƒ ]›m-Ø-e-Øn¬ D≠m-bn-cp-∂n-cn-°mw F∂p A°m-esØ Nn¥-I-fn-se√mw D≠m-h-W-sa-∂-√. Hcp kmwkvIm-cnI Imem- bp-≠m-bn-cp-∂p-sh-∂pw Hm¿an-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. Ch-bpsS {]Xy£-kzm-[o\w Iƒ \S-∂n-´p-s≠∂pw sFIy-tIc-f-∏n-d-hn-°p-ti-jhpw Ahbv°p XpS¿®- ]e- L-´-ß-fnepw tIc-f-tZ-io-b-X-tbtbm tIc-fo-b-X-tbtbm ]‰n-bp≈ Nn¥- k¶-ev]-ßfpw {]h¿Øn°p-∂p-≠m-bn- F∂phcmw. Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-≠n¬ Ø-´n¬ \thm-∞m-\-aq-ey-ßfn¬ thtcm-´-ap-≈, tIc-f-tZ-io-b-X-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ kwKo-X-hp-am-bp≈ _‘w FSpØp ImWn-°m\pw {ian-°p-∂-Xns‚ ASn- X-]-≤-Xn-Isf a\- n-em-°m\pw AXn¬Xs∂ IY-I-fn-kwKo-X-Øn\v Xangv F∂m¬ hyXn-cn-‡-amb hy‡n-Xz-ap-≈-h-bp-ambn Z£n-tW-¥y-bnse kwKo- \p≈ {ia-amhpw AXv. ASn-ÿm-\-]-c-ambn kam-\-t{km-X- p-Iƒ D≈-hbpw ÿm]n-°m-\m-hn-√. AXn-\n-S-bnepw Nne \m´p-h-gn-Iƒ AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øm- kw-KoXw IY-I-fn-kwKo-X-{]-tbm-K-Øn¬ Hcp ]¶pw hln-®n-´n√ F∂p AXns‚ Xan-gv]-g-a-bn¬ {i≤bq-∂m≥ Im-cWsa¥m-bn-cn°pw? I¿Wm-S-I- I¿Wm-S-I-kw-Ko-X-Øns‚ kzm[o\w kphy-‡-am-sW-∂n-cns° \ºo-i≥ °p-∂p-≠v. ߃°v lnµp-ÿm\nkwKo-X-hp-am-bp≈ _‘hpw At±lw Nq≠n-°m-Wn- Iem-a-WvUew DÆn-Ir-jvW-°p-dp-∏mWv BZyw \ΩpsS {i≤-bm- \ºo-is‚ injy-k-º-Øn-s\-∏‰n kqNn-∏n-®p-h-t√m. Ccp-]-Xmw- sh¶n-S-Ir-jvW-`m-K-h-X¿ apX-ev°p≈ IY-I-fn-kwKo-X-Øn-se-¶nepw 1979:IV ). Nne- cw-K- Øns‚ a\- n-em-°m≥ ]‰n-tb-°pw. lnµn, Xangv Ne-®n-{X-Km-\-ß-fpsS CuW- Øp∂ hnIm-c-{]m-[m-\y-ap-≈-Xp-am-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂v Hcp Xncn-™p-t\m-´-Øn¬ Xy-Øns‚ `mh-Øn¬ ]c-am-h[n Du∂p-∂Xpw AXn-ssh-Im-cn-I-X-tbm-f-sa- am-Km-\-ß-fn-eqsS ]c-s∂m-gp-Inb A°m-esØ efn-XKm-\-ssien kmln- Km-\-ssi-en°v khn-ti-j-ÿm\w In´n-h-cp∂ Ime-hp-am-Wv. \mS-I-˛-kn-\n- P\-{]n-b-am-°n. F{ºm-¥ncn˛lcn-Zmkv Iq´p-sI-´ns‚ kwKoXw IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-XsØ hfsc ÿm\w Cu Bem-]-\-ssi-en-°p-≠m-hpw. F{ºm¥n-cn-˛-ssl-Z-c-en, ]n∂oSv ]-\-ssi-en-bm-hmw. BI¿jn-®p. P\-{]n-b-I-Y-I-fpsS {]Nm-c-Øn\v Hcp Imc-Ww-Xs∂ Cu Bem- {]m[m-\yw \evIn Be-]n-°p∂ Cu ssien hf-sc-tbsd Bkzm-Z-Isc AXv kv^pcn-°-Ø-°-hn[w i_vZ-\n-b-{¥W-tØmsS, sshIm-cn-I-Xbv°p Øns‚ `mhw kmln-tXym-Nn-X-ambn Dƒs°m≠v Hmtcm hcnbnepw hm°nepw {]n-b-I-Y-Ifpw \∂mbn cwK-{]-Nmcw t\Sp∂ Ime-L-´-am-W-Xv. kmln-Xy- Hcp hgn-Øn-cn-hp-≠m-Ip-∂Xv. tIm´-bw-I-Y-I-sf-°mƒ \f-N-cn-Xhpw a‰p P\- Wv, 1960-˛-I-fpsS c≠mw ]Ip-Xn-tbmsS, IY-Ifn kwKo-X-Øn¬ hy‡-amb kp{_-“-Wy≥ \ºq-Xn-cn-bpsS t]cpw ChnsS Hm¿°mw. P\-{]n-b-I-Y-Ifpw Hcp-t]mse At±lw ssIImcyw sNøp-∂p-≠v. amSºn Iem-a-WvUew KwKm-[-c-\m-Wv. F∂m¬ sNm√n-bm-´-{]-[m-\-amb IY-Ifpw Ønse ]pXp-h-gn-Iƒ IqSp-X¬ {it≤-b-am-hp-∂-Xv. \-tKm-]m-ew, IptN-e-hr-Øw apX-em-b-h-bn-emWv At±-l-Øns‚ kwKo-X- sf-°mƒ \f-N-cn-Xw, Cc-bn-Ω≥X-ºn-bpsS IY-Iƒ, cpIvamw-K-Z-N-cn-Xw, k¥m- ho-gm-dn-s√-∂Xpw Hm¿t°-≠-Xm-Wv. sNm√n-bm-´-{]-[m-\-amb tIm´bw IY-I- \-a-√' A`n-\-bn-t°-≠n-h-∂n√ F∂p ]d-™m¬ AXv Hcp \nebv°pw anYym-h-N- aosX F∂p ]d-bpI hø. a\ p \nd™p hngn-™p. ]m´ns‚ ta∑-sIm≠v A\m-bm-k-am-bn-Øo¿∂p. "hnPt\ _X', "adn-am≥IÆn' ˛ Ch-bn¬ GtXXp [\ym-kn-bn-se-Øn-bt∏m-tg°pw ]m´nse `mhm¿{ZX-sIm≠v B´w hfsc hm°p-I-fn¬\n∂p a\- n-em°mw: " Ipdp-∏ns‚ kwKo-X-Øns‚ `mh-]q¿WX hmtg-¶S Ip©p-\m-b-cpsS Cu l-Øns‚ kwKo-X-Øn-ep-s≠∂v \nco-£n-°-s∏-´n-´p-≠v (I-em-[-c≥, 2002:64). Xhpw DØ-tc-¥y≥ kwKo-X-h-gn-Ifpw tI´p-io-en-®-Xns‚ kwkvIm-chpw At±- 1979:1) CXn\v Dt]m-Zv-_-e-I-ambn Nq≠n-°m-Wn-°mw. lnµp-ÿm\n kwKo- Wn-∏m-´nepw At±-l-Øn-\p≈ ]cn-Nbw AXn-i-b-I-c-am-sW-∂Xpw (am-[-h≥, ß-fn¬ ]eXpw Ipdp-∏n\p kzmb-Ø-am-sW-∂Xpw Ifsa-gp-Ønepw \¥p- kwkvImcw Dƒs°m-≈p-∂- ' (1993:72). ]t£ AsXm-cn-°epw AXn-`m-hp-I-Xz-Øn-te°p hgp-Xn- Ign-™-\q-‰m-≠ns‚ Adp-]-Xp-Iƒ tIc-fo-b-kw-Ko-X-Øn¬ efn-X- Iem-a-WvUew i¶-c≥ F{ºm-¥n-cn-bpsS cwK-{]th-i-tØm-sS-bm- IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Øns‚ Nn´-I-fn¬ IqSp- I¿W-i-]-Y -Xmbn tXm∂pw. tIcf-Ønse {]mNo\ Iem-cq-]- -Øn\p ssIh∂ kzoIm-cy-X-bn¬ {][m-\- " "Im{Z-thb Ipe-Xn-eI' F∂ ]Zw -X¬ \njvT ]pe¿Øp-∂Xv F≥. AP-b-Ip-am¿ 675 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 676 TAPASAM, January 2006 tat\m≥, sI. ]n. Fkv. am[-h≥ tImS¿a-Æ Iem-a-WvU-ew \oe-I-WvT≥ \ºo-i≥, Ip©p-\m-b¿, hmtg-¶-S Iem-[-c≥, hn. {KŸ-kqNn XmWv {i≤m¿l-amb Imcyw. √msX tIc-f-Øns‚ B[p-\nI IY-I-fn-kwKoX-ambn kzoI-cn-°-s∏´p F∂- tXm∂p-∂n-√. Ch-cp-sSbpw lcn-Zm-kn-s‚bpw kwKoXw sX°p-h-S-°p-t`-Z-an- ]t£, \mtSm-Sn-kw-Ko-X-Øn¬\n-∂p≈ Du¿Pw A{X-sbm∂pw Ds≠∂p am-Wv. F{ºm-¥n-cn-bp-sStbm sslZ-c-en-bp-sStbm kw-Ko-Xmt\z-j-W-ßfn¬ cp∂ Ie¿∏p-I-sf-bp-am-hmw. AXp ]t£, ]pXnb kwKo-X-Øns‚ bmYm¿Yy- Wn-®Xv F{ºm-¥n-cn-bp-sSbpw sslZ-c-en-bp-sSbpw kw-Ko-XØn¬ I≠p-h- ∏n® teJ-\-Øn¬ IY-Ifnkw-Ko-XØnse Ie¿∏mbn \ºo-i≥ Nq ≠n°m- a\ v At±lw HSp°whsc \ne-\n¿Øn-bn-cp-∂p. Hcp-]-t£, ap≥ kqNn- Ko-Xk{º-Zm-b-ß-sfbpw ka-`m-h-\-tbmsS ImWm\pw kzmwio-I-cn-°m-\p-ap≈ Ko-Xhpw lnµp-ÿm\nkw-Ko-Xhpw efnXkw-Ko-Xhpw hi-am-°n. F√m kw- Ko-XØnepw {]mhoWyw t\Snb At±lw kz¥w \nebv°v I¿Wm-S-I-kw- cy-h-im¬ IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-tØm-sSm∏w \rØkw-Ko-XØnepw \rØ-\m-SIkw- At±-l-Øns‚ {]-h¿Ø-\-ßsf hyXn-cn‡am°p∂ Hcp LS-Iw. kml-N- tIƒ°mw. kwKo-XsØ kw_-‘n-®p≈ \ne-bv-°mØ At\z-j-W-ß-fmWv hnizkn-°m≥ hgn-bp-≠v. ]pe¿Øp∂ kwKo-X-ssi-en-bmWv F{ºm¥ncn-bn-eqsS {]Nmcw t\Sn-b-sX∂p s]mXp-kw-Ko-X-kw-kvIm-c-hp-ambn Gdntbm Ipdt™m kam-¥-cXzw hy‡n-I-fpsS kaq-l-Øn\v AXv kzoIm-cy-am-hm-\p≈ Hcp Imc-Ww. Cu kmln-Xyhpw Cu kwKo-X-ssi-enbpw XΩn-ep≈ CW-°-am-hWw ]pXnb hy-‡n-bpsS Bi-I-fnepw thZ-\-I-fnepw kwL-¿j-ß-fnepw thtcm-´-ap≈ Xz-ap‰ Hcp tIc-fob efn-X-Km-\-ssien Ah¿ hm¿sØ-Sp-Ø-Xv. B[p-\n-I- ÿm\w hnkva-cn-°m-\p-am-hn-√. Cu ASn-Ø-d-bn¬\n∂pXs∂-bmWv hy‡n- h≥, tZh-cm-P≥ apX-em-b-h¿°v I¿Wm-S-I-kw-Ko-X-Øn-ep-≠m-bn-cp∂ ASn- ßfn¬\n∂p amdn tIc-fo-b-kw-Ko-X-Øns‚ hgn At\z-jn® sI. cmL- IY-I-fn-kw-Ko-X-Ønse Znim-]-cn-Wm-a-ßfpw sslZ-c-enbpw CXns‚ XpS¿®bpw hnIm-khpw sslZ-c-en-bpsS kwKo-X-Øn¬ 1979 1986 tIc-f-kw-Ko-X-Øn\p ]pXnb apJw, amXr- 1979 1993 2002 IY-I-fn-cw-Kw `qan hmcm-¥-∏-Xn-∏v, G{]n¬ 22 amXr-`qan hmcm-¥-∏-Xn-∏v, IY-I-fn-kw-KoXw ip≤-am-°n-\n¿Ø-Ww, satΩm-dn-b¬ {Skv‰v, Imd¬a-Æ IY-I-fn-sh-´w _pIvkv, tIm´-bw ae-bm-f-ap-{Z. Zriy-{im-hy-I-e-Iƒ jnwKv lukv, tImgn-t°m-Sv. , amXr-`qan {]n‚ , hmtg-¶S Ip©p\mb¿ sabv 27 - nwKv & ]ªn- , Un.-kn. 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 12345678901234 vik activity in India is small ... wellknown that active steps are writing to you ... ask bring the matter his notice. unable to see His Highness when I was last at Bolghatty, am now measures which it might be necessa[ry] to take lat[t]er or. As I was Highness’ notice in order that his cooperation might be ... any adopted; and was asked to bring the matter confidentially His vik propaganda in India, and to countermeasures which were being the Madras Government referring to possible spread of Bolshe- My dear Mr. Vijayaraghavacharya, D. O. Secret tcJm-ti-J-c-Øn¬\n∂v ∂mWv kq{]≠v adp-]Sn \¬Ip-∂-Xv. sIm®n-bnse apl-Ω-Zo-b¿°v Jnem-^Øv {]ÿm-\-tØmSp XmXv]-cy-an-s√- t]meokv kq{]≠v Fw. F. Nmt°m-hn-\p≈ (aq-∂mw) IØn¬. F∂m¬, \sØ t_mƒsj-hn°v Nmc-∑m¿ apX-se-Sp-°p-sa∂ ap∂-dn-bn-∏p≠v, sIm®n ep-≠v. apl-Ω-Zo-b-cn¬ cmPy-t{ZmlNn¥ ]S¿Øm≥ Jnem-^Øv {]ÿm- amb aÆ√ sIm®n-bp-tSXv F∂v cmPmhv Icp-Xp-∂-Xmbn Znhms‚ adp-]-Sn-bn- cl-ky-I-ØmWv BZy-tØ-Xv. t_mƒsj-hn°v {]Nm-c-W-Øn\v A\p-Iq-e- sIm®n Znhm≥ ‰n. hnP-b-cm-L-hm-Nm-cy¿°v 1920 G{]n¬ 3˛\v Fgp-Xnb F®v. F¬. s{_bvUvhp-Uv, a{Zm-knse a[p-c-Pn-√-bnse am´p-∏-´n-bn¬h®v, FØn-°-gn™p F∂ a´n¬ sIm®n-˛-Xn-cp-hn-Xmw-Iq¿ {_n´ojv sdkn-sU‚ sIm®n-bnse BZy HutZym-KnIIØp-I-fmImw Ch. CXm, Iayq. `ojWn L´-Øn-te-XmWv Xmsg ]I¿Øp∂ k¿°m¿ tcJ-Iƒ. C°m-cy-Øn¬ The following is a summory of the ... Actual proof Bolshe- A short time ago I received a confidential communication from C≥Uy-bn¬ Iayq-WnÃv {Kq-∏p-Iƒ cq]-s∏-Sp-∂-Xn\p sXm´p-ap-ºsØ Iayq-Wnkw hcp∂p Bolshevik Menace / F rom the

˛ Archives sNdmbn cmaZmkv 3. 4. 20 V Mattupatti P ia Periakulam . O. v 677 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 678 TAPASAM, January 2006 (3) land routes. tempt ... made to detect the ingress of suspe.. foreigners by watching (2) Ingress by sea is already checked ... passport system. special .. in the Madras Presidency of Bols.. in India. of India ... collect and coordinate informat.. as to the possible spread (1) Two officers are being placed on s.. duty with the Government present. referring to Bolshevism ..uld be issued any other officers at Bolshevik Literature. be Bolshevik ..gents/such are likely to cleverly disgus.. ... of Poli.. ... keep a lookout for (1) suspicious ..reigners who might would, with His Highness’ permiss.. ..struct your Superintendent Meanwhile, pending the receipt ... instructions, it would be a you which may be taken hereafter to check the spread of Bolshevism. (3) to prevent the circulation of Bolshevik L.. (2) to prevent the ingress into India of Bol[shevist] Emissaries and (1) to collect better information, ment of India proposes:- hammadans in regard to ... By way of countermeasures the Govern- existing and in particular will try to work upon the feelings of Mu- is apprehended that they will seek to utilize force of discontent now Empire. It is known that Bolshevist agents have entered India and it being taken tcJm-ti-JcØn¬\n∂v A to check the action of any who may have come in ... careful watch will be kept for Bolshevik Literature. Method proposed A Muhammadan Deputy Sup.. of Police is being placed on It is however not desirable that any instruction specifically I have no doubt that His Highness will ... cooperate in any outside India to carryout the above:- by various agencies hostile to the British H. L. Braidwood Y ours sincerely . An at- Cochin. touch with the activities of movement amongst Mahomedans in orders that the Superintendent of Police should keep himself in close are possibilities of mischief in the Khalifat Movement. He has issued favourable soil for spread of Bolshevist propaganda but realises there that may be taken hereafter to check the spread of Bolshevism. British Government, that he will cordially co-operate in all measures (2) Bolshevik literature. (1) Suspicious foreigners who might be Bolshevik agents, and for issued orders to the Superintendent of Police keep a sharp look out hastened to place it before His Highness. Under his directions I have My dear Mr. Braidwood, Rao Bahadur V Dewan of Cochin D. O. Secret ijayaraghavachary 3. 2. Your D. O. Secret dated 3-4-20 came to hand yesterday and I His Highness is inclined to think that Cochin not a His Highness asks me to assure you, and through you the , ... Bolshevik Menace (Copy) Sd/- T. Vijayaragha[va]charya. Yours sincerely, tcJm-ti-JcØn¬\n∂v 10 Nilgris, Springfield P th

April 1920 . O. 679 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 680 TAPASAM, January 2006 SECRET Madura Dt. via Periakulam Mattupatti P[.O.] Br. Residency H. L. Braidwood Esr., I. C. S. tcJm-ti-JcØn¬\n∂v Dear sir, on the subject before you proceed leave. ment in Cochin State, and desire to have a special report from you and confidential touch with the activities of Bolshevik move- Mahomedans. tage of the Khalifat movement to spread sedition among to enter India at various points, and they are likely take advan- way into the State. arriving by rail and road into the State, have taken. hand over to him this D. O. and instruct as what steps you M.R. R When you hand over char The Darbar expects you and your successor to be in close Ther is reason to believe that Bolshevik emissaries are trying (2) any Bolshevik tracts or pamphlets that might find their (1) suspicious foreigners who may be the Bolshevik agents Please keep a sharp look out for y . M.A. Chakko Bolshevik Menace A vl. ge to Mr . V Nilgiris,10 Springfield P Y ydhianatha ours sincerely M A yyar , th

Apr , please . O., . 20 [M.] R. R [d]esired. ment can spread to our State. in a cluster mangalom which is the only place [w]here Mahommedans live Secret [Dea]r Sir, Mr But his enthusiasm does not seem to be catching. I have instructed Mahommedan paper “Islam” seems to be somewhat enthusiastic. be rather indifferent and pessimistic over it. Only the Editor of movement. The Mahommedans both Cutchees and local seem to inform you that in Cochin State ther is no ..ent over the Khalifat . Rice, the B Dn Inspector I am handing over the D O to Mr Referring to your D O Diwan of Cochin. Rao Bahadur y , that is close to British [P]alghat from where any move- ., REGIONAL ARCHIVES, ERNAKULAM pp. 1 - 3,5,7,9 of Cochin, File No. 50, [D. O. Cor Bolshevik Menace T . V ijayaraghava Charya Communication dated 10th ... beg to r espondence of the Diwan , to be watchful about A Y T richur ours very sincerely vl. M. V aidyanatha Iyer as tcJm-ti-JcØn¬\n∂v , 22nd [sd/-] A., April 20 Thatha- ] , 681 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 682 TAPASAM, January 2006 k¶o¿Æ-amb Cu `mhp-I-Xz-Øns‚ k¿h-hym-]n-Xz-hpw, Imem-Xo-X-Xzhpw \n-I-Xsb ap≥\n¿Øn hni-I-e\w sNø-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv. sI-´v, Akp-c-hn-Øv, Imew, c≠m-aqgw F∂o ]{¥≠p t\h-ep-I-fmWv Imev]- Ifpw kpµ-c-∑m-cpw, Hcp hgnbpw Iptd \ng-ep-I-fpw, Rms\∂ `mhw, \mep- F∂-Xp-sIm-≠mWv Cu ]T-\-Øn¬ cmP-e-£vanbpw Xnc-s™-Sp-°-s∏-´-Xv. Sm. hyXy-kvXhpw X\-Xp-amb Nne Imev]-\nI {]h-W-X-Iƒ DZm-l-cn-°p∂p ey-tam Kcn-jvT-Xtbm cmP-e-£van-bpsS kw`m-h-\-bv°p-s≠∂p ]d-™p-Iq- Øn-bp≈ L´-hn-`-P-\-amWv kzoI-cn-®n-´p-≈-Xv. F∂p ]d-™p-Iq-Sm. Ime\n-jvT-sa-∂-Xn-s\-°mƒ ]-T-\-ku-Icyw ap≥\n-dp- \n-[m\w sNøp-∂-h-cmWv kn. hn. bpw Ddq_pw Fw.-Sn.bpw cmP-e-£vanbpw Ø-e-Øn-em-Wv.IrXy-ambpw ae-bmft\mh-ens‚ hyXy-kvX-L-´-ßsf {]Xn- tKm]m-eIrjvW-]n≈ \S-Ønb Kth-jWw {it≤-b-am-Ip-∂Xv Cu ]›m- \S-∂n-´p-≈q. {]ap-J-cmb \mep t\mh-en-Ãp-I-fpsS IrXn-Isf Bkv]-Z-am°n Imev]-\n-I-X-sb-°p-dn®v B\p-jw-Kn-I-amb Nne At\z-j-W-ßtf CXp-hsc Ipdn®v {it≤-b-amb Nne ]T-\-߃ \S-∂n-´p-s≠-¶nepw ae-bmft\mh-ense Kth-j-W-t am¿§-Z¿in : tUm. kvIdnbm k°-dnb Fkv. tKm]m-e-Ir-jvW-]n≈ ae-bm-f-t\m-h-ense Imev]-\n-I-L-S-I-߃ I-{µw: ae-bm-f-hn-`mKw, sk‚ BZyA[ymbw Imev]-\n-I-X-bpsS ssk≤m-¥nIN¿®-bm-Wv. hfsc am¿Øm-WvU-h¿Ω, [¿ΩcmP, cma-cm-P-_-l-Zq¿, DΩm-®p, kpµ-cn- BZysØ aq∂p t\mh-en-Ãp-I-fp-sSbpw kw`-mh-\-I-fpsS ssh]p- Imev]-\n-I-X-tbbpw ae-bmfIhn-X-bnse v _¿°p-am≥kv t ®p≈ Ipdn-∏p-Iƒ £Wn-°p-∂p. ∂-h-cpsS {]_-‘-ß-sf-°p-dn- hn-j-b-ß-fn¬ _ncpZw e`n-°p- h-Ip-∏p-I-fn¬\n∂p tIc-f-]-T-\- ]w‡n-bm-Wn-Xv. hnhn[ ]T-\- ‘-߃ ]cn-N-bs∏SpØp∂ _ncpZw e`n-°p-∂h-cpsS {]_- im-e-I-fn¬\n∂p tUmIvS¿ bßfn¬ hnhn[ k¿h-I-em- tIc-f-]-T-\-kw-_-‘-amb hnj-

Kth-j-W-cwKw (2006) Imf-Pv, alm-flm-Km‘n k¿h-I-em-ime tUm. Un. _©-an≥ {]ta-b-ssh-hn-[yhpw cN\msshNn-{Xyhpw [mcm-f-ap-≠v. Ht´sd kzm[o-\- Øn¬ {ian-®n-cn-°p-∂-Xv. hnIm-k-]-cn-Wm-a-߃ \n¿≤m-cWw sNøm-\m-Wv. Cu Kth-jW{]_-‘- ‡Xbnte°pw \bn-°p∂ kµ¿`-߃ hnc-f-a√. thiw Ie¿∂ `mj hmNm-e-X-bn-te°pw _nw_-I-ev]-\-Iƒ Ahy- tKm-]m-e-Ir-jvW-]n≈ ]e-t∏mgpw Cu \n_-‘-\ -]m-en-°p-∂n-√. Hs´m-cm- bmepw Imcy-am-{X-{]-k-‡hpw ]cn-\n-jvTn-X-hp-amb `mj-bn-em-hWw. Fkv.- imkv{Xo-b-amb kq£vaX ]men-®n-´p-ap-≠v. Øns‚ anI-hm-Wv. ASn°p-dn-∏p-Ifpw {KŸ-kq-Nnbpw Xøm-dm-°p-∂-Xn¬ XΩnepw ]pe¿Øp∂ ssPh-_‘w coXn-im-kv{X-]-c-ambn Cu {]_-‘- A[ym-b-ß-fnse hni-I-e-\-ßfpw XΩn-epw, A[ym-b-ßfpw D]-kw-lm-chpw kw`-hn-°m-hp∂ ]cn-an-Xn-Ifpw N¿® sNbvXn-´p-≠v. ssk≤m-¥n-IN¿®bpw ß-fpsS kz`m-hhpw kzoI-cn-®n-cn-°p∂ coXn-im-kv{Xhpw kao-]-\-Øn\p X-sbm-cp-°p-∂p-≠t√m. amb-\pw, im¥bpw Ccp-º≥ tKmhn-µ≥\m-b-cp-sams° AXn-\p≈ km≤y- L¿j-ß-sf- Ip-d®pIqSn Bg-Øn¬ A]-{K-Yn-°m-am-bn-cp-∂p. DΩm-®phpw ≠v. ]t£ Ddq-_ns‚ IYm-]m-{X-ß-f-\p-`-hn-°p∂ Xo£vW-amb A¥- w- ]m-{X-ß-fn¬ shfn-s∏- ka¿∞-ambn hni-I-e\w sNøp∂ {]_-‘-Im-c≥ cmP-e-£van-bpsS IYm- ep-I-fnse hnjm-Zm-fl-I-Xzhpw IYm-]m-{X-ß-fpsS DZm-c-amb Alw-t_m-[hpw X-Ifpw hni-Z-am-°p-∂-Xn¬ {]_-‘-Im-c≥ {i≤n-®n-´p-≠v. Fw. Sn.-bpsS t\mh- kam-\-amb Imev]-\nI {]h-W-X-I-fpw, Ah¿ {]I-Sn-∏n-°p∂ hyXn-cn-‡- _-am-°n-bmWv hni-I-e\w \S-°p-∂-Xv. \mep -t\m-h-en-Ãp-I-fnepw ImWp∂ I-e-\-߃ {]mtbW Cu {]h-W-X-Isf ap≥\n¿Øn-bmWv \S-Øn-bn-´p-≈-Xv. \nI{]h-W-X-I-fmbn Nq≠n-°m-´p-∂-Xv. XpS¿∂p≈ \me-[ym-b-ß-fnse hni- hnjm-Zm-fl-I-Xzw, Krlm-Xp-c-X, {]Wbw F∂n-h-sb-bmWv {][m\ Imev]- \n-jvTX, kz]v\-tem-ep-]-X, {]Ir-Xn-bn-te°p aS-ßn-t∏m-Im-\p≈ hy{K-X, {]_-‘-Im-c≥ hni-Z-am-°p-∂p-≠v. `mh-\m-fl-I-X, {]t£m-`-hm-k-\, Bfl- tUm. Un. _©-an≥ k®n-Zm-\-µs‚ Imhy-temIw AXy¥w sshNn-{Xy-]q¿Æ-am-Wv. k®n-Zm-\-µs‚ Ihn-X-bnse Z¿i-\-Øn\pw ssien°pw kw`-hn® Kth-j-W-{]-_‘cN-\, AXp kmln-Xob{]iv\-ßsf°p-dn-®m- Bap-J-Øn¬ hnj-b-Øns‚ hym]vXnbpw CXp-hsc \S∂ ]T-\- IYm-]m{X-k-¶-ev]-\-sØbpw A¥-co-£-kr-jvSn-tbbpw Ah-ew- Z¿i-\-Øn-s‚bpw ssien-bp-sSbpw hnIm-k-]-cn-Wm-a-߃ -Sp-∂, Bflm-wi-Øns‚ Aan-XXzw FSpØp Im´p-∂p- Kth-j-W-tI-{µw: bqWn-th-gvkn‰n sse{_dn, tIcf k¿h-I-em-ime k®nZm-\s‚ IhnX-I-fn¬ (2005) am¿§-Z¿in : tUm. kn. Ão^≥ Kth-j-W-cwKw ]n. kn. keow 683 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 684 TAPASAM, January 2006 Kth-j-W-cwKw ¶nepw ∂-Xv. ssien-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ B[p-\nIk¶-ev]-߃ ]cm-a¿-in-°p-∂p-s≠- efn-X-amb k¶-ev]-\-Øn-emWv Z¿i-\sØ°pdn-®p≈ N¿® FØn-t®-cp- Øp-Im-cs‚ kzXz-Øns‚ Bfl-\n-jvT-amb hn\y-k-\-amWv Z¿i-\ Ahn-i-Z-am-°p∂ kµ-¿`-߃ Ipd-h-√. ]men-t°≠nbncp- XmWo {]-_-‘w. ]t£ `mj-bpsS Imcy-Øn¬ Ipd®pIqSn kq£vaX im-kv{XsØ \njvI¿j-tbmsS ]n¥pS¿∂n´n-√.s]mXpth \nehm-c-ap-≈- ∏p-Iƒ Xbm-dm-°p-∂-Xn-epw, {KŸ-kqNn kwhn-[m\w sNøp-∂-Xnepw coXn- \y-ambn AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ {]_-‘-Im-c\v km[n-®n-´p-ap-≠v. ]t£ Ipdn- amb Hcp Imev]-\nI {]h-W-X-bt√ F∂ tNmZyhpw Ah-ti-jn-°p-∂p. t°-≠-Xm-bn-cp-∂p. tijw k®n-Zm-\-µ≥ \S-Øp∂ ]mc-{ºym-t\z-jWw CXp-am-bn-tN¿Øp hmbn- º-cysØ Fßs\ ImWp∂p F∂p hy‡-am-°p-∂-Xm-Wv. F¨]-Xp-I¬°p- sNbvXv {]_-‘-߃ hln® ]¶v hfsc hep-Xm-Wv. At±lw Xs∂ {]km-[\w ∂p. \ho\Ihn-X-bpsS Bi-b-]-›m-Øew \n¿Æ-bn-®-Xn¬ k®n-Zm-\-µs‚ √. Cu ]pkvXIw Ipd-®p-IqSn Kuc-h-]q¿∆w ]cm-a¿in-°-s∏-tS-≠-Xm-bn-cp- C{Xam{Xw {]Km-V-ambn ae-bm-f-Ønse as‰mcp Imcy-Ønepw ImWp-I-bn- Zm-\µs‚ Bfl-KoXw ]pdØphcp-∂-Xv. AkvXn-Xz-hm-Z-Øns‚ kzm[o\w Im-c≥ Imev]-\n-I-X-bpsS L´w F∂p hnti-jn-∏n-°p∂ Ime-ØmWv k®n- I-Xsb \n¿Æ-bn® AkvXn-Xz-hm-Z-Øns‚ kzm[o\w {]I-S-am-Wv. {]_-‘- tºmƒ {]k‡-amb hnZym-hn-`m-K-ß-sf-sbms° {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p-ap-≠v. j-I≥ th≠ kq£vaX ]men-®n-´p-≠v. `mhp-IXz]cn-Wmaw hni-I-e\w sNøp- kwt£-]n-®n-cn-°p-∂p. hkvXp-Xm-kw-`-c-W-Ønepw hni-I-e-\-Ønepw Kth- Cu A]-{K-Y-\-Øn¬\n∂p -sh-fn-s∏´ {][m-\-Im-cy-߃ D]-kw-lm-c-Øn¬ shº¬ i‡-am-Ip-∂p. 2000- hsc Fgp-Xnb Ihn-X-Isf ap≥\n-dp-Øn-bp≈ F∂ {]l-Xamb [mc-W-bn¬Øs∂ {]_-‘-t-{km-X p-Iƒ tXSm-\p≈ hy‡-am-°m\pw Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ {]-_-‘-Im-c≥ bXv\n-®n-cn-°p-∂p. hyXymkw N¿®-sN-øm\pw Pohn-X-Z¿i-\-Øn\v XØzNn¥-tbm-Sp≈ ASp∏w e-\-amWv H∂m-a-[ym-bw. Pohn-X-ho-£-Whpw Pohn-X-Z¿i-\hpw XΩn-ep≈ [m\w sNbvXn-cn-°p-∂p. ap-{Z-Ifpw, D]-kw-lmcw F∂n-ßs\ Bd-[ymbßfmbn {]_‘w kwhn- Ifpw, hnπ-h-I-hn-X-Ifpw hnh¿Ø-\-ßfpw, ]mc-ºcyhpw X\-Xp-kw-kvIm-c- km≤y-X-Ifpw D≈-Xm-sW∂p ]d-bmw. {ia-I-c-am-Wv. Kuc-h-]q¿Æhpw k¶o¿Æ-hp-amb {]_-‘-hn-jbw [mcmfw ≠p-Xs∂ Z¿i-\-Øn-s‚bpw ssien-bpsSbpw hnIm-k-]-cn-Wmaw Is≠-ØpI X `mjm-]-c-amb ASn-ÿm\kz`m-h-ß-fn¬\n∂p≈ hyXn-N-e-\-hp-amWv ssien Iƒ°p hnt[-b-amb Hcp Ihnhy-‡n-Xz-amWv k®n-Zm-\-µ-t‚-Xv. AXp-sIm- " Hsc-gp-Øp-Im-cs‚ X\-Xmb khn-ti-j-X-I-fpsS BsI-Øp-Ibpw " lcn-{io -k-®n-Zm-\-µs‚ Imhy-Po-hn-X-Øn¬ cq]w-sIm≠ ]cn-Wmaw kmam- `qX-Im-e-c-Xn-tbmsS ]mc-º-cy-Øns‚ thcp-Iƒ tXSp-∂Xv i‡- k®n-Zm-\-µs‚ ImhyPnhn-X-Øns‚ Bcw-`-Øn¬Øs∂ B[p-\n- Z¿i-\w, ssien F∂n-h-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ ssk≤m-¥n-I-amb hni-I- Z¿i-\hpw ssienbpw, Imev]-\n-I-Xbpw k®n-Zm-\-µs‚ Ihn-X- ' bv°v At±-l-sa-gp-Xnb ∂p. hmNm-e-Xbpw {]tbm-K-Im-ep-jy-ßfpw hmZ-ap-J-ßsf - " Ah-Xm-cnI ' \ho-\-`m-hp-IXzw ]mc- ' -sa∂ " Fgp- ' his article was published in Eventually belong. He protested that his colleagues lef represented by either of the participants, and to which he himself did not only one who had suggested writing about a community that was not scriptive of the rich diversity communities in Kerala. Jussay was tians Nairs, and so forth – that the total sum of articles would be de- describing the community of specific writer – Muslim, Ezhavas, Chris- at Calicut university were attempting a special publication of articles, each Chennamangalam. He vividly recollects and describes how his colleagues aspects related to Jews he happened know from his hometown, cal justice, Jussay got engaged in studying and documenting dif customs were almost forgotten in Kerala. Out of a sense doing histori- almost extinct, community of fellow Keralites, whose peculiar faith and same time full of loving appreciation a Keralite towards small, and the study of Kerala Jews. This small book is very informative, and at ous magazines and books, is indeed a blessing for anybody engaged in Ophira Gamliel The Jews of Kerala T , Jussay was the only one to have accomplished t he publication of Jussay’ Mathrubhoomi of Calicut. Price Rs.75/- Calicut. Published by Publication Division University K J John, Head of the Dept History of Calicut. Price Rs.75/- Calicut. Published by Publication Division University K J John, Head of the Dept History P P .M. Jussay .M. Jussay ]pkvX-I-]q-cWw s p ]w‡n-bn-te°p £Wn-°p-∂p. Xp∂ ]qc-W-°p-dn-∏p-Iƒ Cu \-°mtcm {KŸ-I¿Øm-°tfm Fgp- {]kn-≤o-I-c-W-ß-sf-°p-dn®p hmb- tIc-f-]-T-\-kw-_-‘-amb ]pXnb COMPLEMENTING THE BOOKS apers, so far scattered around vari- The Jews of Kerala, The Jews of Kerala, , 22.1.1967 (pp. 12-13). It seems t out one community ˛ ]{Xm-[n-]¿ General Editor Dr General Editor Dr Ophira Gamliel , University of , University of , the Jews. ask, and ferent 685 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 686 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Jews of Kerala Jussay’ However is understandable; it in Malayalam, inaccessible to foreign scholars. body interested in the heritage of Kerala Jews. The reason for ignoring it English articles in this book, it would have been a great service for any- to me that had this article been also re-published among the collection of Chilappathikaram to literary herit turns to traditions of Christians (22, 30, 37-40, 80), and Jains 65, and he uses it time again in his attempts at analyzing data. Thus Malayalam culture, literature and language are readily accessible to him, leagues, by and large foreigners, studying the Jewish community in Kerala. Jewish community (30-32). Jussay is also attentive to conflicting voices narrating the history of social divergence and inner struggles (26-27, 50-54). In that attempt cere attempt to understand the notions and currents at root of their 27, 73). He watches his fellow countrymen with empathy and a sin- century (19-23), when they received the famous copper plates grant (23- 19) and the first settlements they have formed sometime before tenth follow their mysterious ancient route of arrival to the Malabar coast (18- borhoods in and around Cochi. He had listened to their stories, tried Jews from his hometown, Chennamangalam, and other Jewish neigh- in this peculiar subject. Jussay had spent many hours conversing with t up the study of Jews Kerala seems to have been an adventurous Jussay’ read. while taking on part of a foreign scholar to get this article translated or to publish the songs and study them, but latter eventually dropped his Christian drama not linguistic. Simon was actually preceded by prestige and pedigree, so his treatment of the songs was neither literary centuries old battle between Malabari and Paradeshi Jews over Jewish the purpose of scoring more points in favor his community four existence was Simon (1947). Unfortunately noting them in them out of their own merit. The first writer who had brought to light on the Jewish Malayalam folksongs, he was first to have related folksongs (1 folksongs, which he compares with the Canaanite Christians Malayalam (37), and most important to the Jewish Malayalam literary heritage of ask for Jussay s writing in this article is indispensable, and it an ef s loving and emotional eyes as presented in the foreword. , the fresh and enthusiastic outlook that must have been guiding Being a Malayali Jussay has great advantage over his col- The reader is introduced to the subject of book through Though Jussay was not the first to have read an 18-128). , and I do think also for many of us who took up research Chavittu (35, 80) and the age in

Nat T amil and in Malayalam, such as the akam (38) and the ballad Kokasandesham T . K. Joseph in an attempt (21, fn. 35), to the Sarah d commented fort worth-

V T ijayam aking of them performed for specific events during the elaborate sequence states that “[m]ore than fifty songs are associated with weddings, many attributives he had applied to the songs. Johnson, in a recent article, research, “wedding”, “folk” and “ancient Malayalam” were synonymous loguing and indexing these songs. W tunes (as recorded with women who could still remember them), cata- deep into them and making a systematic study of them?” (1 survey of the songs, how much more cannot an expert gather by delving appendix V in his book: “If a laymen could glean so much from causal literary and linguistic value. He emphatically states at the conclusion of Jussay was sensitive enough to have read some of these songs for their tage of Kerala Jews that the study these songs was taken up again. attempt. It was not until Jussay became interested in the history and heri- of reading, I realized that for Jussay songs” and next as “ancient Malayalam (20-21). From that much Kerala Jews, and denotes them here as “wedding songs”, there “folk in passing to the songs for clarifying this or that idea connection great varieties of themes and styles involved in them. Thus Jussay refers ef of the songs. The three had conducted an extensive fieldwork in a joint “snatched” by Shirley Isenberg and Barbara Johnson for a deeper study books until he was approached by foreign scholars (13). Thus It seems that by and large the songs were somehow neglected by later scholars who were dealing with these songs. that Jussay was aware of an important aspect these songs, further published in Hebrew Jussay’ songs and intermingle with other Jewish scholars. The Ben-Zvi institute Ben-Zvi Institute in Jerusalem, which allowed him to further study the research in Israel. He was cordially accepted as a scholar the received a grant from Jewish foundation in the USA to continue his to bring the songs into awareness of Jewish scholars, Jussay had as I was reading Jussay’ three more months (13). ther financial support, and out of his own pocket, to have Jussay stay for tion of oriental Jewish culture and heritage), that had come up with fur- Y after a three months stay in Jerusalem, it was the then president of Israel, ceived with such enthusiasm, that when his funds had been exhausted ish community in Kerala (1986). Jussay and his research topic were re- too, and provoked Shalva W III. Jussay’ of Evarayi” (Jussay itzhak Navon (well known for his att fort to salvage out of oblivion text Jussay was not aware of the songs being written down in note- My own research topic is the Jewish Malayalam folksongs, and s work in Israel had ignited the imagination of local scholars , 1982), which appears also in this book as appendix s p apers collected in this book, I had the feeling eil into publishing an article about the Jew- s (as written down in notebooks) and s article analyzing in det achment to the study and preserva- , at least in the initial st ith Johnson’ wedding s relentless motivation songs, albeit the ail “The song Ophira Gamliel 16-1 ages of his 17). 687 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

688 TAPASAM, January 2006

ku only two notebooks, namely B3 and B29, which have performed during this or that of the wedding festivities. So far I have seen other songs dealing with a variety of themes might have been originally als, albeit their varying thematic concerns. I therefore suspect that many notebook is occupied with songs destined for the dif K performative as otherwise the songs in notebooks have either first-word, the reason behind this thematic concern, for it seems to be exceptional, the songs (in Hebrew and in Malayalam). It is indeed interesting to guess Zacharia 2005:54-55; Gamliel, 2005: 51-52), which was sung for the ritual (III-52, 55, 83, 87, 48). There is even one historical song, I-17 (see Y ding, pre-wedding and post-wedding ceremonies, circumcision etc. songs). five thematic categories, one of them is the category “occasions” (wed- According to the updated index of songs there are 257 listed in marriage rituals, which used to last for two weeks” (Johnson, 2005:214). mining which song is being discussed. Jussay does give numbers to the ing the songs is again left with only clues to enable a guess work deter- not given in his essay indeed a pity that their first-word title or alternately index number is only be recognized after a thorough reading of the whole corpus, and it is tions. However songs he mentions might be traced through the first words Jussay men- Malayalam songs sung at the dif emonies connected with the wedding he makes it a point to refer also to the wedding ceremonies. Thus, when he describes elaborate cer- ation their inherent connection to ritual activities, especially those related of the songs. When he relates to songs often takes into consider- songs should seriously take this possibility into consideration. hunch (and rather wild too), yet I do believe that those who read the a whole has wedding songs for its roots and trunk is of course merely dexed as Biblical are in fact sung during the doing during the past few months I have noticed that many songs in- performative context of the songs. From little work that I have been the thematic index, which usually does not take into consideration wedding ceremonies, as many of these songs are indexed according to hard to tell how many more songs have been sung during the two weeks posed of songs designed for wedding rituals alone. At the moment, it is The Jews of Kerala

et, as Johnson acknowledges, about a fif

a

4

pp

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In the essay dedicated to songs (105-1 Jussay had laid the foundation stone for a scholarly treatment a

,

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, many of the songs, which he mentions in p

ppu c

) f

titles, or otherwise no titles at all. That the corpus as

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ferent occasions (96-98). Some of the

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17) the reader study- x x

ferent wedding ritu- R ), or generic (f.i.

thematic

a tri assing, might pre-wedding titles for cally Muslim ( tify for the recurring of lexemes, which Gundert (1872) defines as specifi- sibility of intertextual connections with Muslim songs (Zacharia, 2005:193). with other literary corpuses of Kerala. Thus for example there is the pos- and linguistic elements expressed in the songs that call for comparison spiring and informative. However comparison of the Jewish songs with Canaanite is indeed in- nobody attempting a research of that sort in regard the songs. The tionately term the study of Jewish Malayalam folk songs), there was Scaria Zacharia into the “project” (as some of people involved af study and it is indeed a pity that never grew into mature, fully developed from the Canaanite Christian community (appendix VI) Jussay compares the Jewish songs with collected terprise, which Jussay was the first to have undertaken up. In this essay time in order to conduct an intertextual study of the songs, again en- dices III, V and VI). number of essays dealing with these songs out their own merit (appen- that enabled him to pay attention these important details, and write a 1975:121). It is then on p ticed the songs and to have published them, namely Simon (Johnson, ited by Jussay describing the songs (107). The misleading thematic division was inher- lication of in Sreeshankaracharya University of Sanskrit previous to the pub- 2005: 1 2005: 217 fn. 161 and 222 171). Songs II-16, II-16a (Zacharia suggestions for comparing the Jewish songs with other materials (Gamliel, to be intertextualy connected with a confused as I did. that no more changes are to be done in the index, lest future scholars get during the course of time since this essay has been written. I do hope it is numbered I-12). This confusion might be due to changes in the index discussion (f.i. the “Song of Evarayi” is numbered as 7, while in index result was finding songs which have nothing to do with the in tried to locate the songs under discussion. songs from the “historical” section of index, I turned to it (index I), and songs, which he describes as “historical”. Assuming was relating to See the following lines in II-16: . In fact, since Jussay had studied these songs until the yoking of 17-1 From my own little experience with reading the songs, I can tes- The last article in the book is also focused on songs, this Jussay was the first to come up with a K 19; Gamliel, 2005:121-125) st a Mappi!!a rku , Johnson and Isenberg, from the first person to have no- 8 ali (Zacharia, 2005), students came up with many other ), such as ar of Jussay’

ñ

, there seem to be many other cultural

a yan

to s sensitivity to literature and culture

44 and

. His list of words is very useful, art with formulaic lines that seem

a m That was a futile ef

q

p

ppana attx

generic

. from North Malabar In a seminar held distinction in Ophira Gamliel fort, for the fec- . 689 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

690 TAPASAM, January 2006

e v v katticca kaivi manaso ciriyanantara t t daiva bh v p p tto deva etta-kki pantal p manaso n p f66 al al a The Jews of Kerala taken to support an extreme position by some scholars, arguing for a great service to anybody in the field. However No doubt, the comparative intertextual study conducted by Jussay was a these lines: reader is refered to the referrences given above for variations on 76, 79, 83, 104, 105, 1 57, 61, 73, 76, 79, 102, 103, 1 17, III-14, III-14a, III-8, III-72, III-5, II-60, II-22 and II-4 (Zacharia, 2005:55, ring closing lines of many the Jewish Malayalam folksongs, such as I- and with the interesting combination of both formulas in And compare with the opening lines of Note that it is not only the word (Vi and compare with the following verses from tiri, 1998:163):

a

ti p

a8

44 a a8 q q att at

p o n p

yka v

lika p lika

u

ka v

44

t uka v

aka-

amm w6

q

attil p

i mi p u

q

m a

lika daivame aha

t q

m

unambutiri, 1998:182) and from the

lika mannil anta ava-janma-bh m and the

lika poyi p

v

p a8

p

sa

tf tf

(op. cit. 268): 6 q a q q

a8

ka daivame q

a

a8

a

q

yka liy lika daivame p

lika ma la na

ma ma

q lika ma

ka daivame

yi v

4x lika daivame tirun

uka lik

fta mulla-pantal p

Jewish

1

6 6

ftq

a8

t

l av av

a

daivame v aya-ra

akk

kaly

f n p

unna tambur

manassil p ppo 6

al att

q 6

itta

lika

i-pu an makka p

q x

i makka p

a6

u

lika

p

p

8 mi p

nnx

13). I shall give here for example just one, and the 4

m

u

a-pantalil

att m

ayu

q w

m

pa

pa

q p lika daivame

u

lika daivame

p

v

q

q m m

, t a

i p

lika daivame

lika but also the word pantal. See recur- q

yka daivame a8

q q p p

lika daivame

al

likk

10 respectively; Gamliel, 2005:52, 55, 61, lika daivame q

uka q

q

q

q

p a

lik lika

lika lika

lik

n t

q p

ft

fta

lika

q ftq

a

… a lika n anna …

… u

that is common to the

4 accil-tto

…

p . qtt

, it seems to have been

an to

44

a

44

m

a ucci

(Vi

m

k att respectively:

w6

u-ma tt

u nambu- atto

to

t

anta- 44

44

a a

m m tions about the tradition that regards one singular source for Jewish listing of dat hensive and exhaustive as that of Johnson in terms giving out gin of Jews in Kerala W the most dominant and widely accepted. also interesting to examine how and why the Kodungallur history became in Kerala might have had its first settlements more than one place. It is studying their history or literary heritage that the Jewish community origin, namely Kodungallur (80-81). It might prove beneficial to reconsider the theory of one place the feudal lord of Chennamangalam where there was a colony Jews” elderly woman who now lives in Israel. This song is about Paliath Achan, a few lines of another song mentioning Paloor are remembered by an couple of Jewish songs, and where it does appear is significant. […] Only which was the “first emporium of India” […]. Still Paloor appears in a eclipsed by the dazzling glory of city many names, Cranganore, not frequently appear in the legends and songs probably because it was more possibility for historical Jewish origin in Kerala: “But Paloor does writes about the song of Evarayi, he seems to be suggesting at least one a tradition she associates with the Malabari Jews (60-61). When Jussay some sources for giving Calicut and Paloor as possible places of origin, myths of the community is Johnson (1975). Thus for example she lists one of several other possibilities? Kerala Jews originating in Kodungallur (also called Cranganore) is but having this question in mind – could it be that the so called history of and I went back to some studies, which had already read, this time Madai, Maliankara (20) and Chennamangalam (33). My curiosity has risen, However seph Rabban, the beneficiary of famous copper plates, as its “king”. Kodungallur is accepted as the seat of a Jewish “kingdom”, having Jo- a whole had its origins in Kodungallur (also referred to as Shingly). long past. I have read in quite a few studies that the Jewish community as was never my interest to sift out of any kind data facts about days reading the book. I have not been disciplined in field of history form new colorful and multi-shaped cultural phenomena. reflecting and reflected in each other where cultural elements travel freely between the many communities, p the Canaanite Christians (W “sy attern is highly unlikely in a “kaleidoscopic” society mmetrical pattern” between Kerala Jews and their fellow countrymen , Jussay list There is yet another interesting source for dealing with the ori- Perhaps the richest reliable source for providing other origin There was a disturbing question that irritating me as I a and sources, W s some more possibilities, such as Palur , of the Kerala Jews, and to keep in mind while alerstein (1987). eil, 1986). Such a neat cultural symmetrical alerstein does pose so , ever turning round and to Though it is not as compre- me import , such as Kerala’ Ophira Gamliel ant ques- , Pulloot, , and it s, 2 691 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 692 TAPASAM, January 2006 Evarayi” (I-12), writing a det terest of his might have been the ground elaborating on “The Song cite also origin myths contra to the Kodungallur story (109-1 so when he writes of the Jewish Malayalam folk songs, takes care to The Jews of Kerala study of historical narratives within the Jews Kerala. seems to have given a proper stage for opening up new directions the mologies (77-92). This article is definitely one of his best studies, and it possibilities for underst think that such skepticism is indeed in place, for it might bring out more never even heard of Joseph Rabban (124-125; Johnson, 1986:167). I statement that many of the elder Malabari women, whom she interviewed, act and in a tradition altogether dif cal” historical detail common to both Jews and Canaanite Christians), coast (1 families in the entourage of Thomas Cana upon his arrival to Malabar 1975:83, who also suggests taking this number as mythical), seventy two 1975: 20), seventy two kings in the line of Joseph Rabban (Johnson, listed in the copper plates (24; Narayanan, 1972:81; 2005:10; Johnson, vestigation rather than historical. Thus there are seventy two privileges have – seventy facet has any peculiar meaning in the Jewish tradition, though seventy does ber is peculiar to Kerala culture. I do not think that this number as such copper plates, it seems reasonable to assume that this typological num- 1971:60). As the latter tradition is both as ancient and Keralite context number “seventy-two”, and as it comes up again in dif numerical item, often coming up in other scholars’ essays. That is the (W the exact nature of group which received decree rights beneficiary of the grant was a Jew at all, and raising doubts concerning per plates grant. She even dares asking whether Joseph Rabban, the com Jussay’ sel, and so forth. he was turned down. He started going around preaching to people, got “The Diary of David Reuveni” (25, 29, 63). Europe against Muslims. Reuveni’ pope in Rome an alliance between Jews his land and Christians written in awkward Hebrew by a man who came from the East to of alerstein, 1987:33). W s, from which a performer might select for Kutiyatt munity in Kerala and connects it with Kodungallur the cop- s, it seems to be a typological number s book. One of them is the import 18; W Jussay is indeed interested in multiple historical narratives, and Reading in Jussay’ In spite of its great merits, there are a few misleading issues in eil, 1986:182, 191, who notes this number as a “symmetri- s of the anding the origin of community and it alerstein further comes up with the interesting s collected p T ailed essay orah, seventy elders in the Sanhedrin coun- ferent, there is a repertoire of seventy two s of fers were not t , with translation and word ety- apers I have noticed a recurring ance given to a source called This is a 16 , a matter for folklorist in- aken seriously th am play (Nair century diary 1 1). s history This in- fer the ferent , and . , , to have come from a place named (69, fn. 26; Johnson, 1975:63), regardless of the latter 1987:36). However quarrels, debates, and interference of “external” authorities, Jews social divisions among the Kerala Jews, and issue has sparkled many ther is there any clear cut dichotomy Paradeshi and Malabari, respectively and scholar as Ran (Shulamit Elizur Hebrew poetry connoisseur to have it attributed such an eminent poet t Meshuhrarim moreover Johnson notes, the Ran have never left Spain (Johnson, 1975:104). And likely that the famous Ran had composed this song. For one thing, as or might not have come from Spain to Kerala, but it is indeed highly un- “Nissim”. The song might have been composed by one Nissim, who attributed to the famous Ran, and there are were many Jews called editor marks it as bearing the acrostic “Nissim”. There are many works cit., for speculations in regard of the liturgical function this poem). The Malayalam speaker nection between Rabban and Reuveni (63). That might be plausible for a was of the family Joseph Rabban, and establish an etymological con- Keralite Jew Neither can I altogether rule out the possibility that Reuveni was indeed a I can not at the moment pass any judgment, except for raising my doubts. Reuveni’ According to Jussay cial divisions among the Kerala Jews (51 and elsewhere in book). preceding the appears in the anthology “Areshet Sfateynu” (1980) as part of liturgy fication of the composer this song with famous Ran). The poem 40; Johnson, 1975:103-106, who expresses doubts regarding the identi- Kerala Jewry with the “external” Jewish world (Koder poem is cited also by other scholars in order to show the ancient ties of Rabenu Nissim, a famous Hebrew poet from Barcelona (25, 63). The poem, cited in many other sources, and attributed to Ran, initials for Kodungallur (62, 66). Reuveni claims he comes from Jussay derives this name from Changala Azhi, and identifies it as he does mention a kingdom of Jews ruled by Jewish king in Shingly Portugal. He is described as small, dark and charismatic, in his diary arrested by the inquisition and died lonely dejected in a prison aken by scholars to be a place in the But perhaps the greatest confusion in book concerns so- Another misleading data analysis is in regard to a small Hebrew s diary with attention and care, neither the source Jussay cites, , the poetic qualities of poem do not p . It does however seem a bit hasty to conclude that Reuveni , which he equates with White and Black, rich poor

kadi

, some have inferred that Reuveni was of Indian origin s , but not for a Hebrew speaker

prayer during , there is a dichotomy between

“ s “

, personal communication).

. abath b . Much has been written about the

H

The picture is not that simple, nei- abor Arab peninsula (W

e ”.

s ala As I have not fully read ass the test of a skilled

. h ” “

, 1986:128, 140 fn. (see Johnson, op. H ’

s own st Meyuhasim abor Ophira Gamliel ”, alerstein, normally atement and , . , 693 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 694 TAPASAM, January 2006 those of pedigree, and the lish “pure anthropoligsts at those times, before the Nazis abused science to estab- “origin” questions. Such methods might have been popular among resorted to “scientific” “medical” methods in her pursuit after answers The Malabaris are divided into two sub-groups, the neither were all aware of they were not exclusively poor in comparison to the gree. The majority of Kerala Jews were Malabaris, and as far I am “ “black” or “brown”). Each group is further divided into sub-groups. The and “Black” Jews respectively of Kerala, Paradeshis and Malabaris (elsewhere referred to as “White” set the terminology straight. There are two major groups among Jews (1975:2-3, 24-25, 80-83) and W divisions is Mandelbaum (1986), and the issue tackled also by Johnson non-Jews alike. The most comprehensive account of these caste-like of early sixties comparing the teeth of Cochinis (i.e. Kerala Jews) with those (Mandelbaum, 1986:89). I also happen to know of a research from the Malabaris, putes in a far of line of “research”, while probing into inter-communal struggles and dis- tific” methods in establishing their racial ideologies, Jews are follow this that hardly one decade after the Nazis were using such dubious “scien- ther studies with my own eyes, however I find it somewhat astonishing “Y “The Racial Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Bengal published an article on asm in attempting to trek down the “roots” of Kerala Jews. In 1937 of the researchers are Jews, it had ignited their imagination and enthusi- were the outcome of an age long socio-economical conditions. able. editor to execute the work in such a short time is definitely understand- somewhat hasty manner one book is a good and beneficent one. It pity that it was done in The Jews of Kerala dence in Biblical Hebrew for Rabin’ takes are left out and printed, such as the unfortunate confusion of Chayim overlooked. The problem becomes more acute when embarrassing mis- been neglected. Had the problem typoids alone it might have meshuhrarim emenite origins” of Malabari Jews?). I have not been able to see nei- Y emenites (perhap As a result of this urgency s name with the first word of title his book “Loan W The initiative to have Jussay’ This issue was taken up by scholars with great interest. As many Aryan” identity Af to be examined for its type, and statistically analyzed finities of the Jews Cochin”. ”, “freed (slaves)” are a sub-group among the Paradeshis. f Jewish community on the Malabar Coast. Paradeshis s in an attempt to prove, or otherwise refute, the . , though the sense of urgency that has led Thus, blood was drawn out of “non- rich so as to conclude that these divisions T rade between , though no group is exclusively “white”,

, some import

alerstein (1987:3-4). Let me just briefly

meyu

s essays collected and republished in

h asim The author T amil Nadu and Palestine in ant editorial matters have ”, those lacking of pedi- “

, Eileen Macfarlane, meyu Paradeshis

Paradeshis,

h asim ord Evi- ”, i.e. and Narayanan, M.G.S. Vi Johnson, Barbara Walerstein, Marcia Mandelbaum, David G. Nair, K. Ramachandran Gamliel, List of Sources : 2 Zacharia, Scaria, Shoshana –––––– 1 Notes : Kerala Jews. the book is indeed a must for anybody interested in rich heritage of paring a bibliography and small index. In spite of these short comings, is Malayalam (89). It would have been good to spend some time in pre- included in a Kerala publication, such as the lengthy note explaining what leaving out notes and data in the footnotes, which seem absurd to be expert turned out as Rabin C. Loan in this book. Another problem is the First Millennium B.C.”. The Late Hebrew University linguist and Bible w6 see Narayanan, 2005:11-12. For the nature of such “kingdoms” in Kerala first millenia,

1972 1987 1975 1986 1971 2005 2005. 2005

India Jewish women’s songs in Malayalam with Hebrew Translations T Cochin, India, in Israel: Expressions of Eth- Public Rituals among the Jews from Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala Shingly or Jewish Cranganore in the Tra- nic Identity ditions of the Yefefiah-Gorgeous: Jewish women’s songs in Malayalam with Hebrew Translations Cochin in India and Israel.” In: “Social stratification among the Jews of Anjalai Early Manipravalam: A Study. Trivandrum: t Institue. California. ed., comm. and introduction, Jerusalem National and University Library, Unpublished paper delivered in the Jewish “King of the Jews Kodungallur (Kerala)”. Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institue. Thesis. Vikas Vijnanamudranam Press. Kerala Historical Society.

rans.

f yya

, ed. Thomas Timberg. New Delhi:

K

m

a

(Malayalam). Tiruvanantapuram: rku

. PhD Thesis, University of

8

ali-Yefefiah-Gorgeous: Cochin Jews of India . Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi . Trivandrum:

Ophira Gamliel

K

a

rku Jews in

. M.A.

8 ali- . 695 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 696 TAPASAM, January 2006 eighteenth century Autobiography emerged as a distinct literary genre only since the and see how far Nalini Jameela’ Josy Joseph the Politics of Autobiography Nalini Jameela and The Author(ity) of Experience: Augustine’ as well the generalisations of classical feminism. authorship, the genre of autobiography Autobiography of a Sex Worker represent the genre brings into debate such concepts as selfhood, authorship, point of this kind writing in the W subject to represent itself. Autobiographies are written by people who is a consensus among the reading public regarding eligibility of models, as well the majority of texts written till date, we find that there I am not an image, object. It is my “The ‘private life’ is nothing but that zone of space, time, where which I must protect.” It is interesting to look at the genre and history of autobiography strategic necessity at a particular time, rather than an end in itself.” “The genre of women’ This p ation, historicity s Confessions aper attempt , the form was recognised quite earlier and S (400AD) is generally regarded as the st , and literariness. If we look at all the early published by D C Books, Kottayam, 2005. Nalini Jameela,

s to look at the way Nalini Jameela’ s autobiography should be understood as a s work fit Diane Elam, problematises conventional notions of I

estern tradition. By it s into it Oru Lingikathozhilaliyude A , the profession of prostitution, Roland Barthes, political Feminism and Deconstruction s formal scheme. right to be a subject

s very nature,

Camera Lucida tmakatha Though s book, arting t traditional autobiography and its profound, endless mysteries’ (Olney 23). for the special appeal of autobiography…is a fascination with self should tend towards a goal—the fulfilment of the achieved version a way of interpreting the history genre as well. All autobiography version of the self that is socially and historically specific also provides the narrative pattern of most autobiographical texts. This developmental set purpose or objective. The ‘bildungsroman’ motif is inseparable in and both time personality are controlled by the narrative to suit a personalities. autobiographies are written by celebrities such as film stars and sports autobiographies are written by great people, while popular (or pulp) usually made between serious books and popular ones. Serious interested in their lives. Among autobiographical texts, a distinction is have some claims to greatness, or reason for others be met and unique. And this notion of the selfhood often borders on the self which attributes each individual a selfhood that is both unified autobiography reviewer writing in 1829 as usual, takes place only with and among a certain selection of texts. A personality depends on the ‘seriousness of author For instance, Roy Pascal asserts that the validity of autobiography providing the link between three, guaranteeing ‘truth’ of writing. (Lejeune 193). Also, the ‘intention’ of author became crucial in legitimate autobiographical class’ the ‘identity between author attempt any of the other forms.The classical autobiography guaranteed written only by people capable of self-reflection, while anybody could reflection its ‘subjects’ displayed. In other words, autobiographies were position. and testaments) with the full ‘autobiography’ occupying highest autobiographical writing (these include memoirs, journals, diaries, letters, was established not only among the subjects but even forms of became class distinctions and by the nineteenth century of ‘historical importance’ to say (Marcus 31-2). Literary distinctions rather belong to people of ‘lofty reputation’ or who have something ‘excite prurient curiosity that may command a sale’. Autobiography should aphysical. For inst A related marker was the ‘developmental narrative’ inbuilt in a T It was distinguished from the other forms by kind of self- raditionally , and his intention in writing’ , the whole narrative centres on a romanticised notion of , the serious work is favoured and canon construction, ance, according to James Olney . This presupposes the notion of life-fulfilment Blackwoods Magazine which excluded the ‘vulgar , the narrator (Pascal 60). Moreover , the seriousness of his , and the prot talked about ‘a , ‘the explanation , a hierarchy , in classical ’ who try to Josy Joseph agonist’ 697 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 698 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Author(ity) of Experience absence of women’ critics writing about autobiography in the 1980s encountered glaring of the basic statements in feminist criticism. For instance, most The arguments and evidences are pretty obvious they form some where even history is constructed almost entirely in patriarchal terms. of expression. This is only to be expected in a system discourse itself (Anderson 9). This raises p which legitimises cert autobiography as a genre, but also what Derrida calls ‘the law of genre’ text relates to subjects who are marginalised, oppressed or even transgression it tries to exclude. This is particularly important when the to be dif crude, illegitimate, or failing to meet the necessary standards. autobiographical writing but that it was largely dismissed as unimportant, writing. As with the other genres, it was not that women did produce with the masculine gender celebrate the extraordinary ‘lives of “great” men’, genre equates itself up with gender other words, the genre of autobiography has always been implicitly bound writing and how they were kept out in the reckoning of life narratives. In quote Derrida, “As soon as the word at work in it a face called into being by the substitutive trope of prospopoeia. what he is seeing in this self-reflexive or specular moment a figure understanding (de Man 171-4). The author reads himself in the text, but repeated every time an author makes himself the subject of his own identifies autobiography with a linguistic dilemma which is likely to be operation not only within autobiography but also a range of texts. He should be treated as ‘a figure of reading or understanding’ that is in de Man suggests that instead of seeing it as a genre, autobiography which almost signals the end of genre. As an alternative perspective, conceive of it as a separate genre at all. He takes radical position unanswerable questions, which arises from the fundamental attempt to Paul de Man argues that autobiography is ‘plagued’ by a series of (Derrida 224). when a limit is established, norms and interdictions are not far behind….” heard, as soon one attempts to conceive it, a limit is drawn. And ferent, allows us to read back into genre the heterogeneity and However Feminists have always pointed out how the politics of genre is In his famous essay entitled ‘Autobiography as De-facement’, s turn towards a p . By focusing on a p , the writing of women, or any subject who is deemed s text ain autobiographical writings and not others. s from an accepted canon of autobiographical . Thus autobiography becomes a man’ atriarchal law which delegitimises women’ roblems not only about the definition of articular historical canon of text genre is sounded, as soon it s mode s that To s several ‘strategic’ auto/biographical narratives that have appeared in of a Sex Worker can be employed in reading a text like Nalini Jameela’s group it represents through their cultural inscription and recognition. a way of testifying to oppression and empowering the subject of the experiences a whole marginalised group. It also becomes both through one person’ important is not what it comments on it’ (Probyn 98). Thus in ‘strategic’ autobiographies what is expressing a self or position which ‘arises from the situation as it model of subjectivity has been identified by Julia Swindells thus: and political intervention. This new radical use of autobiography process they construct textual subjectivities with potential for creative strategy to get their voices heard in the mainstream discourse. In social groups thus find autobiographical writing a powerful political and circumstances of its author readers’ (Gagnier 4). Marginalised here than ‘the purpose an autobiographical statement serves in the life there is a ‘pragmatics of representation’ where truth less the issue abnormal, or illegitimate. hegemonic systems and power structures determine as variant, oppressive and selective system, finally to any subjectivity that normative’ heterosexual discourses, to subaltern subjects within an patriarchal systems, to all gay and lesbian subjects within ‘normal / to the writings of all marginalised subjects. It applies women within necessity at a p autobiography—that the genre ‘should be understood as a strategic determined as themselves as subjects in order to escape the eternal bondage of being silenced. It becomes a political imperative for such people to constitute speaks beyond itself (Swindells 7). autobiography have more than begun to insert themselves into the culture via powerlessness – women, black people, working-class people both for and beyond the individual. People in a position of oppressed and the culturally displaced, forging a right to speak Autobiography now has the potential to be text of This is the theoretical framework which my paper suggests When autobiography thus becomes ‘the text of the oppressed’, As strategy articular time, rather than an end in it object . Seen thus, the book should be t , but rather employs ‘local uses of the self , autobiography reject s experience, it makes represent , via the assertion of a ‘personal’ s. What Diane Elam (65) said about women’ is but what it does . As Regenia Gagnier says, s the choice of a universal self aken along with the ’—applies equally ative articulation Autobiography voice, which Josy Joseph ’, ways of s 699 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 700 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Author(ity) of Experience narrated by C K Janu, V Malayalam in recent times. These include books or articles written / and Baby Haldar well as the translated texts of Kancha Ilayya, Sharankumar Limbale, thus problematising the idea of authorship even further the third year at school), but narrated it to Mr I Gopinath, a journalist, Jameela did not actually write this (her formal education go beyond just of a matter expediency which overstayed its purpose. Nalini of two dif The name Nalini Jameela itself is problematic as it represents the mixing professional life. The book has in it the potential to ‘go against grain’. experiences a sex worker in Kerala had several decades of her autobiography the logical coherence or narrative sequence of a ‘well-written’ but the book is also a strong commentary of her world and time. It lacks more of a memoir (a recollection experiences) than autobiography ‘autobiography’, the book actually defies genric categorisation. It is the Sex W more or less independent. The opening chapter titled ‘the Manifesto of p It is also a thorough exposal of the hypocrisy our conservative society common cause and started demanding their legitimate human rights. also the record of way these helpless women united for their including the police, judiciary also those who the sex workers deal with as part of their profession, lives of several people — not just the sex workers and their clients but appear in the mainstream of public discourse. It throws light on social text that documents those realities of the world which never more on the circumstances than act itself. The book is a variety of the clients as well their sexual preferences. The focus is is the detailed description of management trade and disappointed. The only voyeuristic gratification that the book provides attention. In this sense, it is the loud voicing of marginalised. a human being who has life to tell and that her story too deserves life experience. It is rather a political statement that sex worker also any great achievement that merits or even justifies the sharing of her them an interest (in the usual sense) in her life. Nor can she claim of earned the respect and admiration of people so as to arouse in articularly in addressing sexuality Autobiography of a Sex Worker The book is episodic in nature with fifty-six chapters that are Those readers who look in the book for steamy stuff will be ferent identities and as it turns out from the narrative, this was orker . The author is not a celebrity or public figure who has ’ not only set . inaya, Pokkudan, Nilambur s the tone of narrative that follows, but , the politicians, and media. It is II . is a candid recollection of the A yisha, . Though titled Y irimyav as , , p case treated as a pariah.’ (Beauvoir 569). legally under police supervision or works illegally in secret, she is any their material condition that is most often deplorable. Exploited by vent with the most chivalrous respect. The prostitute is a scapegoat; man of ‘shameless women’ (who) allows the ‘honest to be treated prostitution in her celebrated classic, the social hierarchy alternative. In most societies prostitutes constitute the lowest caste in misery and economic constraints continue in it for want of a better women, known by dif identities or aspire for any respectability higher social positions. These are out in the street or on move. They have no means to hide their secretly (by hiding their identities) for money monetary or political favours, there are women who indulge in the trade standing. There are ‘high class’ women who trade their bodies for mere objects or bodies. All prostitutes do not have the same social and oppression of women by men, a system which reduces to gratification. Prostitution is also seen as a blatant display of possession practice instituted and maintained by men for their own selfish need or status as some kind of a celebrity in Kerala. the most important spokesperson of sex workers and finally to her present jobs, journeys, social activism, attempt many lovers and friends, numerous clients, her struggles, other through her life as a labourer first and prostitute later traces the dramatic life of a poor girl beginning with her dif all the issues involved. Apart from its political content, book also in Thiruvananthapuram 2003. This interview highlights and restates and the media as p Ms Jameela and her colleagues had with the representatives of public personalities. At the end of book is given lengthy interaction that and opinions. She also comments on a number of events, issues, of issues including questions of morality and legality strong opinion of her professional community / social group on many to narrating the experiences of one individual book also voices also makes clear the political import of this ‘marginal’ text. In addition sychological f in all these account s his turpitude upon her However Most feminist theorists and activists see prostitution as a pressure that makes the prostitutes’ , Beauvoir also point art of the National Conference Sex W . As Simone de Beauvoir argues in the chapter on ferent names, ‘enter s as a liberated woman with strong convictions , and he reject III The Second Sex s out that ‘it is not their moral or s at cinematography ’ this profession due to their s her , but the majority of them . Nalini Jameela comes . Whether she is put lot hard to bear , her three husbands, , they are a caste ficult childhood, , her role as orkers held Josy Joseph . It is 701 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 702 TAPASAM, January 2006 pimp The Author(ity) of Experience and economic issues are largely ignored or overlooked. Moreover issue that threatens the safety of their family lives. The social, political fourths of them are penniless’ (Beauvoir 577). Marro’ woman tends to be the expression of power and control. Beauvoir quotes oppressive patriarchal system, any relationship between a man and the following excerpt from her classic text once’ (569). This view is also shared by Kate Millet as evident from the rights of a person, she sums up all forms feminine slavery at definitely to check the oppression. So long as prostitute is denied married woman, is respected as a human being; this respect beginning great dif in the price and length of time contract runs’ adds that ‘the themselves in prostitution and those who sell marriage is on camera work, which I learned, and try live as a professional…. In Coordinator of the Kerala Sex Workers’ Forum. Or else, I can concentrate and start a new life. I can go somewhere else work full-time as which also forms the prologue to her narrative, we read: sympathisers. In the opening chapter ‘The Manifesto of Sex Worker’ herself and in the process antagonises feminist activists profession and the joyous assertion of her liberty that she distinguishes structures and conventions. But it is in the attempts at validating her and economic dimensions of the institution hits hard at patriarchal institution as a profession and not condition. She accepts the social sex worker the designation of ‘prostitute’ and instead deliberately calling herself a the widely held opinions about sex workers and their plight. Rejecting s and their madams, they live in a st s st Nalini Jameela, in her book, takes a radical position that unsettles ference between them is that the legal wife, oppressed as a But for the majority of people, this is almost always a moral I am now fifty-one years old and if wish, can hide my past There is…a sense in which the prostitute’ punish in men (Millet 123). great penalties to a promiscuity in women it does not think attitudes towards sexuality are negative and which attaches toward her is held and holds herself, the punitive attitude society adopts of sexuality for support. The degradation in which the prostitute majority of females are driven to live through some exchange exaggeration of patriarchal economic conditions where the atement that ‘the only dif , Nalini Jameela fires the first salvo by considering , are but reflections of a culture whose general ference between women who sell Sexual Politics ate of insecurity : s role is an , and three- , in an assumes sexist connotations in the manner which multinational does not go beyond the usual lef multinational capital about to descend on our settled socialist fabric) demand of sex trade in a globalised world. intentions of preparing an ambience consensus for the increasing and some even do not hesitate to call her a stooge of Neo-capitalist a claims to be enjoying as a sex worker of contradictions and inconsistencies regarding the ‘liberty’ that she to Nalini Jameela’ was published, feminist theorists and activists in Kerala have objected supporting prostitutes and rejecting / critiquing prostitution. Ever since it prostitution which stems from the perceived choice to be made between this to her…. (who is 23), chooses to follow my path. In fact I have openly conveyed better or greater than me. I will not object a bit, even if my daughter labourer For this reason, I don’t consider a scientist, who uses his head; or any profession which makes use of other p there are occup continue in this field as long my physical fitness permits. Just variety of experiences, is certainly far better than such lives. I intend to habitually rape them? miserable lives with their husbands who often physically assault and Kerala –weighed down by some misconceptions—are forced to suffer freedom to choose the father of her child? How many poor women in relationship that she no longer enjoys? Does any other woman have the like; but is it easy for an ordinary woman to free herself from a sexual I enjoy? A sex worker can choose not to sleep with a client she does might) ….Moreover matter even in daylight—and still feel safe? (Perhaps those purdah or not. Who else in Kerala can roam the streets at night—or for that an ordinary housewife. I don’t care whether feminists will agree with me imagine myself in the fetters of another life. the kind of experiences which no other profession can give, I cannot interested. I really wish to continue as a sex worker. Having gone through fact, several re academics — are also very eager to attribute ulterior motives on her This kind of traditional anxiety (the haunting spectre global / Feminists everywhere have always faced the dilemma about , who uses his limbs; or a teacher mouth as any …I believe that my life, which has been a journey through I believe that in Kerala, a sex worker is far more liberated than people have approached me with offers. But I’m not ations which make use of one’ s book and have pointed out that it consist , who else can have the kind of sexual freedom that tist rhetoric. . These feminist s brains or arms, so is As a met art of the human body s – most of them aphor s of a number Josy Joseph , it also . 703 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 704 TAPASAM, January 2006 The Author(ity) of Experience that it has more to than what generates initial curiosity as the academic community within and outside country indicates demand all over Kerala and has attracted attention of the media as well issue and not a moral one. The fact that the book has been in great agendas masquerading as righteousness. are perhaps unwittingly subscribing to the patriarchal and oppressive accept a sex worker as human with much right anybody else — instead worry about public morality and the discomfort of having to fail to see the political import of same ‘of book deals with these women and not the privileged ones doing are forced to hide in the sun. W records as legal citizens. They do not have identities or addresses and of sex workers in India, many whom do not even figure It is also the invention of a language for hitherto speechless millions oppressed people who have been denied even the basic human rights. in the process, giving voice to a section of silenced /marginalized / those she represents Nalini Jameela is also ‘looking for language’ and Andrea she has brought the whole debate to forefront of public discourse. economic issues involved as about the articulation of these issues. about the continuation of institution prostitution and socio- of the detractors Nalini Jameela and her book are less worried that is village Kerala. One also gets the impression at least some city is portrayed as a greedy male about to assault the virgin female in From

October 1992 said: Academia to In articulating her own experiences as well the concerns of us.” undo the system of male dominance that is sitting on top all political reason: to know it is come closer knowing how value. It is true and it has been hidden. hidden for a what the prostituted woman knows, because it is of immense In fact, neither thing is true. What matters here to try learn of most prostituted women that one knows nothing worth knowing. that one knows everything worth knowing. It is the presumption The real significance of Nalini Jameela’s book lies in the way find out what we don’t know W discussions about prostitution, we are all looking for language. “I want to emphasize that in these conversations,

Dworkin, while addressing a symposium entitled “Prostitution: fence’. e are all trying to find ways say what we know and also That is why it should be regarded as addressing a social Activism,” at the University of Michigan Law School e should remember that Nalini Jameela’ Autobiography of a Sex Worker . There is a middle-class presumption . Those who — but ficial s Gagnier Elam, Diane Dworkin, Derrida, Jacques De Man, Paul Barthes, Roland Beauvoir Anderson, Linda W 2. 1. Notes orks Cited even further the question of ‘authorship’ and has underlined textuality genre but does not mind doing so. The whole issue of ‘revision’ has problematised sure of the propriety revising (and hence rejecting) a well-received book, mediation of another person distanced her book from herself. She is not writers. In several interviews she gave, Nalini Jameela had argued that the prepared by just one person, the second version has engaged a ‘team’ of perhap a few deleted, but the most striking dif and style. Some stories have been elaborated, some new ones added thematically Nalini Jameelayude atmakatha several reprint a new title in December 2005, six months after the first one—which ran into Jameela completely revised the book and brought out another version with Not feeling happy with the outcome of her autobiographical attempt, Nalini anthology edited by Lee Edwards and Arlyn Diamond. The phrase ‘the authority of experience’ is the title a feminist critical , Regenia , Simone de Andrea s the omission of ‘Manifesto’ , but the author claims is more accurate and closer to her intention . s—was published. 1991 1994 1993 1992 2000 1993 1997 2001 is not significantly dif The new version, Oxford UP Representation in Britain Subjectivities: A History of Self- London: Routledge. Feminism and Deconstruction V Michigan ‘ New Acts of Literature Deconstruction : ‘Autobiography as De-facement’ in Edinburgh Ed. Martin McQuillan. Edinburgh: Howard. London: V Camera Lucida ed. H.M. Parshley The Second Sex London: Routledge Autobiography Prostitution and Male Supremacy’. ol I. in the latter Y ference between the two text ork: Routledge

Journal of Gender & Law

UP , . pp 171 – 4. . The New Critical Idiom. T . If the first version was Njan L (1949). trans and A . ed. Derek Attridge. rans. 1980. Richard . London: V Reader ferent structurally or int age ymgikathozhilali: . Oxford: . Josy Joseph int . age , s is 705 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 706 TAPASAM, January 2006 Olney Millet, Kate Marcus, Laura Probyn, Elspeth Pascal, Roy Jameela, Nalini Lejeune, Philippe Swindells, Julia. ed. The Author(ity) of Experience , James ,, Dec. 2005 June 2005 2000 1994 1993 1960 1980 1982 1995 Illinois P Sexual Politics Manchester: Manchester UP Auto/biographical Discourses UP Theory T Culture Studies Sexing the Self: Gendered Positions in Cambridge: Harvard UP Design and T Critical Autobiography: Essays Theoretical and Jameelayude Njan L Kottayam: D C Books Oru Lymgikathozhilaliyude Atmakatha Tzvet ‘The Autobiographical Contract’, in D C Books The Uses of T aylor & Francis. an ymgikathozhilali: Nalini . Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP . T oday odorov (ed). Autobiography ruth in

. Cambridge: Cambridge Atmakatha (1969). Urbana: U of . London: Routledge Autobiography French Literary . . Kottayam: . London: . . . ‘n-X-cm-bn-Øo-cp-∂p. kaq-l-Øns‚ sI´p-]mSpw kZm-Nm-chpw XI-cp∂p tc-J-I-fmbn hmbn-°m\pw hna¿in-°m\pw kaq-l-Ønse taem-f¿ \n¿_- AX-p-sIm-≠p-Xs∂ Ccp-h-cp-sSbpw cN-\-Isf Iem]kz`m-h-ap≈ Pohn-X- sI´ntbev]n°p∂ _m[y-X-I-sf-°p-dn®p Xpd-s∂-gp-Xm-\p≈ hy{K-X-bp-≠v. ImWp-∂n-√. am[-hn-°p-´n°pw \fn\n Paoe°pw kv{XobpsSta¬ kaqlw jv°m-c-ß-fm-bn-am{Xw Ah th¿Xn-cn®p tcJ-s∏-Sp-ØWw F∂p iTn®p A\p-`-h-ßsf khn-ti-j-ambn Ah-X-cn-∏n-°p-tºmgpw s]◊-bpsS Bhn- Pao-ebpw. kmdm-tPm-k-^n-s\-t]m-ep≈ anI® Fgp-Øp-Im-cn-Iƒ kv{XobpsS bpsS A\p-`hw ka-Im-enI ae-bm-f-Øn¬ Ah-X-cn-∏n-®-Xv. Ct∏mƒ \fn\n kv{XoI-fpw. am[-hn-°p´n-bmWv XnI®pw hyXncn-‡-amb \ne-bn¬ s]◊- j-Zr-jvSn-bn¬ t\m°n°≠v BW-\p-`hwt]mse Fgp-Xp-∂-h-cmWv ]e F∂n-√. BWp-ß-sf-t∏mse Fgp-Xp-∂-XmWv FgpØv F∂p {`an®p ]pcp- ߃ Fgp-Xn-b-Xp-sIm-≠p-am{Xw s]¨Im-gvN-Iƒ {]I-S-am-bn-s°m-≈-Ww s]¨ImgvN-Iƒ \¬Inb ]pXp-a-IqSn B IrXn°v Ah-Im-i-s∏-Smw. s]Æp- IrXn-bpsS {]m[m-\yw. B¨Im-gvN-Iƒ hmb-\-bn-eqsS ioen® ae-bm-fn°p bn¬ {]tXyI IuXpIw D≠m-Im-sa-¶nepw AXp -am-{X-am-bn-cp-∂n√ B t\Snb Bfl-I-Ybv°v ssewKn-I-sØm-gn-em-fnbpsS Pohn-X-IY F∂ \ne- Pao-e-bpsS Bfl-I-Y-bm-bn-cp-∂p. ]e ]Xn-∏pI-fn-eqsS hym]-I-amb {]Nmcw h-ßfm-Wt√m. 2005˛¬ G‰hpw IqSp-X¬ {i≤n-°-s∏´ ae-bm-f-{KŸw \fn\n kvIdnbm k°-dnb Hcp C¥y≥ P sIm®o-°mcn dq_n ae-bm-f-Øn¬ Ct∏mƒ kv{XoI-fpsS Bfl-I-Y-Iƒ hne-s∏´ hn`- qX-kv{Xo-bpsS Hm¿a-Iƒ An Indian Jewsih W Ruby Daniel and Barbara C. Johnson Publication Society , Philadelphia and Jerusalem omen Remembers, Ruby of Cochin, The Jewish 707 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn

708 TAPASAM, January 2006

members. members. sIm®o-°mcn dq_n Xm\pw hmbn°m\pw Adn™pIqSm-Ø-XpsIm-≠-√, Bfl-I-Ym-c-N-\-bn¬ Wm-Ipfw sk‚ bmb tUm. _m¿_dm tPm¨k¨ tIs´-gpXn {KŸ-cq-]-Øn-em-°n. Fd- j-W-cq-]-Øn¬ ]I¿∂p-sIm-Sp-ØXp Ata-cn-°≥ \c-hw-i-im-kv{X-⁄- Pohn® (1912-˛2002) dq_n kz¥w _meyhpw buh-\hpw hm¿[-Iyhpw kw`m- bn¬ P\n®p hf¿∂p \√ {]mb-tØmfw tIc-f-Ønepw C{km-tb-en-ep-ambn amb ]›m-Ø-e-amWv dq_n-bpsS Bfl-I-Ysb D÷z-e-am-°p-∂-Xv. sIm®n- Xm\pw hmbn°m\pw Adn™pIqSm-Ø-XpsIm-≠-√, Bfl-I-Ym-c-N-\-bn¬ Wm-Ipfw sk‚ bmb tUm. _m¿_dm tPm¨k¨ tIs´-gpXn {KŸ-cq-]-Øn-em-°n. Fd- j-W-cq-]-Øn¬ ]I¿∂p-sIm-Sp-ØXp Ata-cn-°≥ \c-hw-i-im-kv{X-⁄- Pohn® (1912-˛2002) dq_n kz¥w _meyhpw buh-\hpw hm¿[-Iyhpw kw`m- bn¬ P\n®p hf¿∂p \√ {]mb-tØmfw tIc-f-Ønepw C{km-tb-en-ep-ambn jn¬ {]kn-≤o-I-cn® ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°m-hp∂ as‰mcp {KŸ-amWv 1995˛¬ Ata-cn-°-bn¬ Cw•o- fpt≠m F∂ tNmZyw {]k-‡-am-Wv. AØcw At\z-j-W-Øn¬ ^e-{]-Z- kv{XoI-fpsS kzX{¥BJym-\-ßsf {]tNm-Zn-∏n-°p∂ Bi-bm-h-en-I- T\w A¿ln-°p-∂p. `mjbv°pw BJym-\-X-{¥-߃°p-a-∏pdw tIc-fob {¥-ßfpw BJym-\-am-Xr-I-Ifpw tIc-fo-b-]-›m-Ø-e-Øn¬ khn-ti-j-]- Ipcp-ß-p-∂p-≠v. kv{XoI-fpsS Bfl-I-Ym-]-c-amb cN-\-I-fnse BJym-\-X- Ah-cpsS BJym\amXr-I-Iƒ P\-{]nbkwkvIm-c-Øns‚ kt¶-X-ßfn¬ KX kmln-Xym-Jym-\-ß-fn¬ \n∂v AI∂p \n¬°m≥ {ian-°p-tºmgpw Øns‚ `mj-W-io-e-ß-fp-ambn D‰-_‘w ]pe¿Øp-∂-h-bm-Wv. ]c-º-cm- IY shfn-hm-°p-∂p. Ccp-h-cp-tSbpw BJym-\-X-{¥-߃ A\p-Zn\Pohn-X- F∂n-h-bpsS Nn´-h-´-ßfp-ambn CW-ßn-∏n-W-ßn-\o-ßp∂p F∂p Bfl- emWv Ah-cpsS {i≤. ssewKn-IX Fßs\ IpSpw-_w, kap-Zm-bw, cmjv{Sw bpsS IrXn hmbn-®n-´p-≈-h¿°-dnbmw ssewKn-I-X-bpsS kmaq-ln-I-X-bn- cN-\-bn¬ ico-c-]-c-X-bpsS tXmXv Xmc-X-tay\ IqSp-X-ep-≠v. \fn\n Pao-e- Y'bv°pw FXnsc Db-cp∂ {]Xn-tj-[-Øns‚ a¿Ωw. am[-hn-°p-´n-bpsS F∂-XmWv "Fs‚ IY'bv°pw "ssewKn-I-sØm-gn-em-fn-bpsS Bfl-I- dq_n Um\n-tb-emWv {KŸ-Im-cn. kmap-Zm-bn-Ihpw aX-]-c-hp- v sXtc-kmkv tImf-Pn¬ ]Tn® dq_n Um\n-tb-en\v Fgp- v sXtc-kmkv tImf-Pn¬ ]Tn® dq_n Um\n-tb-en\v Fgp-

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u {KŸ-Øn\p Cw•o-jn¬ c≠p ]Xn-∏p-I-fm-bn. ae- dq_n-bpsS CS-s]-S¬. CXns‚ cN-\-bnepw {]km-[-\-Ønepw s∏-Sm≥ Ign-bp∂ Xc-Øn-em-bn-cp∂p {KŸw Xt‚-Xm-Wv F∂p Ah-Im-i- gpØp th≠n-h-∂-Xv. F¶nepw C Iº-an-√m-Xn-cp-∂-Xp-sIm-≠mWv tIs´- \n∂p-sIm≠v tIc-fobPqXsc Kth-j- Øns‚ Bi-bm-h-en-Iƒ°p-≈n¬ ]m›m-Xy-tI-{µn-X-amb PqX-tem-I- PqX-cpsS Kth-j-W-]-T-\-ßfm-Wv. Ah-bn¬ H´pan°-hbpw ]m›mXy [mcmfw ]pkvX-I-߃ D≠m-bn-´p-≠v. IS∂pt]mIp-tºmƒ tIc-fobPqX- dq_n Um\n-tb-ens‚ {KŸ-Øn-eqsS Xn-Iƒ CØcw cN-\-Iƒs°-√m-ap-≠v. W-°-Æn-eqsS ]Tn-°p-∂-Xns‚ ]cn-an- sIm®n-bnse PqX-sc-°p-dn®p kvIdnbm k°-dnb u IrXn-bpsS u 709 Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn 710 TAPASAM, January 2006 D D D Ms D Ms D D M D D S M M D D D M D M D R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R D EDWIN SEROUSSI,

SCARIA ZACHARIA, KESA M.G.S. NARA

BARBARA MARCIA WALERSTEIN SHAL K. G. PAULOSE, C. N. D. BENJAMIN, GALIA OPHIRA GAMLIEL MICHAEL MANOJ KUROOR, C. V CHERAI RAMDAS, JOSY ALBRECHT AJU NARA R

RAJENDRAN, DEEP AJA . SUDHEEER VA V JOSEPH, HACCO, Y AN VELUTHA WEIL, AKUMAR, A Folksongs, Israel. Research. University of Calicut, former Chairman Indian Council for Historical Hebrew University USA. Kalady Principal of Sanskrit College, Thrippunithura. University of Sanskrit, Kalady Changanacherry Sanskrit, Kalady GLA , Lecturer Y C. JOHNSON FRENZ, ANAN, Y ANAN TZER, Senior Researcher Professor of Malayalam, University Kerala. . Lecturer Researcher Professor of Sanskrit, Calicut University Director of Publications, Kottakkal Lecturer Music Performer and Researcher Research Scholar at the Department of Indian Studies, The Lecturer , Researcher Researcher and writer Note on Contributors Professor of Musicology Indologist, Stuttgart, Germany , St. Stephen’ Professor of Malayalam, Sree Sankaracharya University T , Historian, former Professor at the Department of History Academic Secretary , Professor of History , Glendale Community College, California, USA. . . , Department of English, St. Berchmans’ , , Jerusalem. , Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady Associate Professor , Department of Malayalam, Sree Sankaracharya , Leader of singing group Jewish- Malayalam , Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, s College, Uzhavoor , The Hebrew University . , Ben-Zvi Institute, Jerusalem. , Kochi. , University of Mangalore. , The Hebrew University , Ithaca College, New . , Lecturer , Kottayam. Aryavydyasala. Former , Jerusalem. . , N.S.S. College. , Jerusalem College, Y ork, ,

Xm]kw 2006 P\p-hcn