Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

Home , Cesspit, Ecological sanitation, Jerrycan, List of technologies, Modern Toilet Restaurant, Sustainable sanitation

Compendium of Sanitation Systems

2nd and Technologies revi sed edition

2nd revised edition

Elizabeth Tilley, Lukas Ulrich, Christoph Lüthi, Philippe Reymond and Christian Zurbrügg

Our special thanks go to: the Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) and the International Water Association (IWA) specialist groups.

We would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions and comments: Magalie Bassan, Chris Canaday, Pierre-Henri Dodane, Jan-Olof Drangert, Andrin Fink, Roman Grüter, Heino Güllemann, Heike Hoffmann, Elisabeth Kvarnström, Christian Riu Lohri, Antoine Morel, Peter Morgan, Eberhard Morgenroth, Elisabeth von Münch, Sara Oppenheimer, Jonathan Parkinson, Eddy Perez, Annette Remmele, Samuel Renggli, Christian Rieck, David Robbins, Roland Schertenleib, Anjali Sherpa, Mingma Sherpa, Hansruedi Siegrist, Dorothee Spuhler, Linda Strande, Gabor Szanto, Kai Udert, Björn Vinnerås, Carolien van der Voorden, Nanchoz Zimmermann

We would like to acknowledge support from: The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) The Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC)

Eawag Christian Zurbrügg to health, water andenvironmental sustainability. relating those also and sanitation regarding Goals Development Sustainable the of achievement the ensure to help will efforts collective on-going our that believeWe flexibility ofuse,andmakes updatingeasier. and information the to access on-line improved for allows version eCompendium resource for important stakeholders in their decision making planning process. The an be will and technologies of range increased an about updates information presents and provides edition second expanded This tool. as reference audience international large an a by acclaimed widely is and sector sanitation the in compilation technical popular most the become has Compendium the years, recent In management ofexcreta. sustainable the for objective necessary a as options reuse and recovery resource presented also It system. transportation and collection operational an via facility recognition that a fully functioning sanitation ‘chain’ must link toilets to a treatment the increase to helped and agenda, and/or bias withouttechnologies sanitation of 2008 in WSSCC went a long way and towards this objective. It provides Sandec) knowledge on a (Department wide range by Eawag produced Compendium first The information. this use who practitioners of capacity the building and technologies sanitation of range full the about information disseminating innovation, foster to continue we Initiative, Sanitation achieveUrban the under collaboratively Workingimprovements. these to how about guidance and base knowledge accessible easily an viding to promote improved by- sanitation pro Eawagand efforts have considerable made (WSSCC) Council Collaborative Sanitation Water(IWA),and the Association Supply International Water The worldwide. wellbeing and health people’s influences cantly signifi- and development sustainable of element key a is sanitation Undisputedly, WSSCC Chris Williams IWA ParkinsonJonathan Foreword

3 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Foreword 4 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Table of Contents S.3 Single Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP) S.2 Single Pit S.1 Storage Urine Tank/Container CollectionandStorage/Treatment S FlushToiletU.6 Urine-Diverting (UDFT) U.5 Cistern FlushToilet U.4 Pour Flush Toilet U.3 Urinal Toilet Dry U.2 Urine-Diverting (UDDT) U.1 Toilet Dry User Interface U Reading Technology the Information Sheets Sheets Information 2:Part FunctionalGroupswith Technology System 9: Sewerage System with Diversion Urine System 8: Blackwater Transport to Treatment (Semi-)Centralized System System 7: Blackwater Treatment System with Effluent Transport System 6: Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration System 5: Biogas System System 4: Waterless System with Diversion Urine System 3: Pour FlushPitSystem without Sludge Production System 2: Waterless PitSystem without Sludge Production System 1: Single PitSystem SystemUsing the Templates 1:Part System Templates TechnologiesSanitation Functional Groups Products SystemsSanitation Compendium Terminology Sector Sanitation DevelopmentComplementary Tools andUseoftheStructure Compendium NewWhat’s inthe SecondEdition? andTargetBackground Audience Introduction Table ofContents 56 42 40 39 15 10 44 16 62 60 58 52 50 48 46 36 34 32 30 28 26 22 20 54 24 10 10 13 12 8 7 7 7 7 D.3 Application ofDehydrated Faeces D.2 Application ofStored Urine D.1 andCover/Arborloo Fill Useand/or Disposal D andDisinfectionPOST Filtration Tertiary T.17 Biogas Reactor T.16 Co-Composting T.15 Beds Planted Drying T.14 Beds Unplanted Drying T.13 Sedimentation/Thickening Ponds T.12 Activated Sludge T.11 Upflow Sludge Anaerobic Blanket Reactor (UASB) T.10 Trickling Filter T.9 Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland T.8 Flow Constructed Wetland Subsurface Horizontal T.7 Constructed Free-Water Wetland Surface T.6 Aerated Pond T.5 Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP) T.4 Filter Anaerobic T.3 Baffled Anaerobic Reactor (ABR) T.2 Tank Imhoff T.1 Settler PRE Pre-Treatment Technologies T (Semi-)Centralized Treatment C.7 Transfer Station HoldingTank) (Underground C.6 Conventional Gravity Sewer C.5 Solids-Free Sewer C.4 Simplified Sewer C.3 Motorized Emptying andTransport C.2 Human-Powered Emptying andTransport C.1 Jerrycan/Tank C Conveyance S.12 Biogas Reactor S.11 Filter Anaerobic S.10 Baffled Anaerobic Reactor (ABR) S.9 Septic Tank S.8 Composting Chamber S.7 Dehydration Vaults S.6 Twin Pitsfor Pour Flush S.5 Fossa Alterna S.4 DoubleVentilated Improved Pit(VIP) 138 108 106 104 102 100 144 142 140 136 134 132 130 128 126 122 120 124 110 118 114 116 112 98 82 96 92 90 88 86 80 78 72 70 68 66 84 64 94 76 74

5 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Table of Contents 6 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Table of Contents Glossary Emerging Technologies Sanitation D.13 Biogas Combustion D.12 DisposalandStorage Surface D.11 Water Disposal/Groundwater Recharge D.10 FloatingPlantPond PondD.9 Fish D.8 Leach Field D.7 SoakPit D.6 Irrigation D.5 ApplicationofSludge D.4 ApplicationofPitHumusandCompost 166 170 158 156 152 150 148 146 154 162 160 164 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. offers: and content, more has edition second revised, The What’s New intheSecond Edition? decision-making. expert-driven for engineers, making decisions figurations. It is not intended as astand-alone document systemcon- different and infrastructure on information require and technologies high-end conventional about knowledge detailed have who persons/experts for ed processes involving local communities. It is also intend- planning communicative for used be tointended marily - pri countries, middle-income and low- in planners and The Compendium is a guidance document for engineers tional sewers). convento pits - single from technologies(e.g., rural and edition, we include the whole range of urban, peri-urban first the Like sanitation. accessible and hygienic, safe, include “improved” sanitation technologies that provide only we Also, prototypes. as only exist that or opment devel- under are that technologies sanitation consider not do we edition, first the in As document. single a in technologies tested and tried on information of range huge a presenting and structuring – brevity its in lies popularity document’s The organizations. sector ious var by digitally distributed and languages several into translated been has it then Since Sanitation. Yearof al Internation- the during 2008 in published first was gies Technoloand - Systems Sanitation of Compendium The Background and Target Audience System” Biogas 5: “System system, sanitation additional An technologiestion onemerging sec- a and sheets information technology new Five between technologies system andstreamlines configuration compatibility the clarifies that products output and input of presentation elaborate more A key developments in the sector over the last six years account into taking and experts sector renowned by reviews on based illustrations improved and ences refer updated with descriptions technology Revised Simplified userguidance for the community, e.g., - - is provided onthe following doublepage. tools development sector sanitation complementary of with other available publications and tools. An overview conjunction in used be should and services, sanitation environmental improving in involved stakeholders ent facilitate informed decision-making on the part of differ to field the in document one only is Compendium The uate the andredesign systems accordingly. gestions,toused thenthebe can Compendium re-eval - sug- community’s the Following area. intervention the of community the to present to configurations system tually, the user should be able to develop one or several technologies appropriate for further investigation. Even- and/or systems identified has he/she until erenced) - cross-ref are (they sheets information technology and after, the user can move between the system templates There components. their and templates system the of structure and terms key the with familiar become to 16-19),(pp. Templates” System the “Using 10-13)and (pp. Terminology” “Compendium sections first the user review Compendium the that recommended is It mation Sheets. TechnologyInfor the (2) and them; use to how about two (1) parts: the into divided is Compendium the edition, first the Like andUseoftheCompendium Structure System Templates and a description Introduction - -

7 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Introduction ISBN: 9781780404779(eBook) ISBN: 9781780404769(Paperback) www.iwapublishing.com developing in colleges engineering at students for text countries interested intakingaclassthatteachesthemethodsofDEWATS development. useful developing a in also providers is service It sector countries. private and makers decision sector public for resource invaluable an is Conditions Local to According SystemsWastewater Designing term sustainability. appropriate most the long to leads that key the Matching is project wastewater the of process. needs specific the to technologies selection technology the to information this applies then and inputs, criticalrepresent that conditions site and source to related data generate first that activities promotes handbook this in presented private model The problems. and officials government local of sanitation solve part to systems treatment wastewater implement to providersservice sector the on interest increasing an is There programs incivilandsanitaryengineering. will serve as a reference for training classes, certification programs, and higher education handbook This studies. case and tools related contains which professionals, wastewater decentralizedand on-site of community based web a to link a include will studies.It case and checklists tools, of use the through decisions informed make officials regulatory and Designing Wastewater Systems According to Local Conditions helps local service providers local wide scale useindevelopment settings. enable help to intended is It implementation of on-site and decentralized wastewater installed.treatment systems (DEWATS) for be will technologies reuse/disposal and used for characterizing wastewater techniques sources and investigating sites the where collection, treatment to approach step-by-step a providing handbook practical a is This David MRobbins andGrant C. Ligon Local ConditionsinDeveloping Countries How to DesignWastewater Systems for

8 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

Complementary Sanitation Sector Development Tools

How to Design Wastewater Systems for Local Conditions in Developing Countries Developing in Conditions Local for Systems Wastewater Design to How David M Robbins and Grant C. Ligon C. Grant and Robbins M David Developing Countries for Local Conditionsin Wastewater Systems How to Design Complementary SanitationSectorDevelopment Complementary Tools David MRobbins andGrant C. Ligon

reference materials andpractical guides. Someare presented below: plement thiswork andadd tothegrowing body ofsustainable technology In thepastfew years, anumber ofdocumentshave beenpublished that com- By Robbins, D.M.andLigon,G.C.(2014). IWA Publishing. inchargespecialists ofimplementing wastewater systems. private providers, and regulators public and sectorengineers/development service to addressed primarily is manual This selection. and identification technology as well as evaluation, site and characterization source for guides field and tools vides - pro It area. their for technologies suitable most the select to user the guiding by selection technology to approach context-specific a promotes It settings. country developing in wastewatersystems of design the in guidance provides manual This ing Countries How toDesign Wastewater SystemsforLocalConditionsinDevelop - Free PDFavailable at: www.iwahq.org andwww.sandec.ch By Parkinson, J.,Lüthi, C.andWalther, D.(2014). IWA, GIZ,Eawag (Sandec). planning. edge andexperience incity-wide knowl- in increase the upon builds 21framework Sanitation the of version revised This plan. sanitation city a of development the guide to activities recommended presents and services sanitation interestedprovidingin appropriateaffordable and in non-technical language to be relevant to policy makers and who practitioners are preferences to help inform the choice of appropriate sanitation systems. It is written and needs stakeholder with options management and technology about decisions together brings 21 Sanitation practices, best and experience practical upon Built guidelines. process recommended and planning sanitation of principles key upon based framework planning recognized internationally an presents 21 Sanitation A PlanningFramework Improving for City-wide SanitationServices Sanitation 21 Free PDFavailable at: www.sandec.ch/clues Lüthi,By Tilley, Morel,C., A., Ulrich,and E. (2011).L. Eawag WSSCC,(Sandec), UN-HABITAT. enabling environment for planninginurbansettings. sanitation an foster to how on guidance provides also document The context. urban given a ing the systems approach to select the most appropriate technological option(s) for sequential order. Step 5 of the planning approach relies on the Compendium, apply communities. CLUES features seven peri-urban easy-to-follow steps, which are intended to be undertaken in and urban for services sanitation environmental of ery deliv the facilitating for framework planning up-to-date most the is It areas. urban low-income in planning sanitation for guidelines completeof seta CLUES presents DecisionMakersComplete Guidelinesfor with30 Tools Community-Led UrbanEnvironmental Sanitation: CLUES - - all thestakeholders. involvementof the with project management sludge faecalcity-level a plan to to providing how on guidance provides and aspects, financial and institutionaloperational, In addition of details into goes sludge. book ofthe treated technologies, of overview an and or disposal fundamentals enduse final the to service chain, from the collection and transport of sludge and treatment options, addresses It the planning planning.and organization and of the managemententire technology,faecal sludge includesmanagement that Itcompiles approach integrated an presents management. and field, sludge evolving rapidly this to faecal of knowledge of state current dedicated the book first the is This of humanandenvironmental health. of management adequate faecalsludge deriving from onsite technologies and imperativeis forprotection the appropriate The systems. sewer-based with combination in or solution, standalonepermanent intermediateor an as either can be implemented. However, the reality is that onsite sanitation is here to stay, sewer-baseduntil solutionsregarded temporarysystems asbe tosystemstend sanitation onsite and lacking,often resourcesare Financial neglected.grossly and the Asia, now, Africa, Until technologies. of sanitation management of faecal areas sludge resulting onsite from these onsite technologies peri-urban by has been served and are urban America Latin in people billion a Over Edited by ISBN: 9781780404738(eBook) ISBN: 9781780404721(Hardback) www.iwapublishing.com

Funded by

Faecal Sludge Management Sludge Faecal

Damir Brdjanovic Damir

Mariska Ronteltap Mariska Linda Strande Linda Management Faecal Sludge on-line resources Additional An Overview ofApproaches and Operation for Implementation Systems Approach Mariska Ronteltap Damir Brdjanovic Linda Strande Editors Available at: www.sswm.info material. andtraining studies, case links, web and articles publications, with them links and software, and tools planning combines It available. sanitation sustainable and management water of approaches and tools of collection comprehensive most theToolbox SSWMis The Sustainable Sanitationand Water Management Toolbox Available at: www.sandec.ch/ecompendium Additionally,user groups. ofthe SSWM Toolbox. itisanintegral part tronic version allows for easier updating and flexibility of use on the part of different around the different sanitation systems and the 57 featured technologies. This elec- structured resource, digital stand-alone a is theCompendium of version digital The eCompendium complement the documentslisted above. that resources downloadable and guidance useful provide tools on-line following The Free PDFavailable at: www.wsscc.org By Peal, Evans, A., B.andvan derVoorden, C.(2010). WSSCC. This publicationwas developed asacompanion to the Compendium. where it should be used, how it should be implemented and how much it costs, etc. and when comprises, actually it toachieve,what designed is approach particular a settings – urban, informal-urban and rural, and aims to address such issues as what of types all in years deployed40 havethatbeen over last theapproaches software hygiene sanitation various thetakesand at publication in-depthlook This an ware‘. - ‚hard of provision the from them distinguish to ‘software’, as to referred generally are approaches or methods These services. for demand a create and/or change behavioural enable to programmes development in groups target engage to are used methods several delivery, service and programme hygiene and sanitation In ofApproaches Hygiene andSanitationSoftware –AnOverview Free PDFavailable at: www.sandec.ch By Strande, L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014). IWA Publishing. and/orwastewatermental engineering. engineers, and practitioners in the field who have some basic knowledge of environ - technology options. The book is designed for undergraduate and graduate students, discusses also factors important to consider when evaluating It and upscaling new treatment field. the in experience of years 20 Sandec’s on based planning, and management, technology,together brings that approach integrated an presents It knowledge of treatment options, and the final end use or disposal of treated of sludge. state current the to sludge, of transport and collection the from chain, service management. It addresses the organization sludge of the entire faecal faecal sludge on management knowledge of state current the compile to book first the is This Systems Approach ImplementationandOperation for Faecal Sludge Management

9 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Complementary Sanitation Sector Development Tools 10 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium Terminology this text below. described are within referenced products The system. the in nologies (inputs) and out of (outputs) each of the sanitation tech- to define all ofessary the products that are flowing into nec- is it system, sanitation robust a of design the For as afunctionofstorage (e.g.,Sludge). ortreatment generatedmove are some Excretaand sewers)through to Flushwater (e.g., technologies of functioning the in required are others Faeces), and Urine (e.g., humans by directly generated are products Some ‘resources’. or ‘wastes’ called also are that materials are Products Products Templates” onpp.16-19. Systemthe “Using section the in given is used they are how systemand templateshow function of explanation detailed A described. are templates system sanitation different nine Compendium, the of 1 Part In designed. be can system a which from combinations technology A sustainably. to required that theensure system safelyand functions (O&M) maintenance and operation management, the includes also system sanitation A System. Sanitation logical a design can one Group, Functional cable appli- each from TechnologyProduct a each foring context. the to according selected be can contain which Groups Functional of comprised is system sanitation A disposal. or utilization formation, - trans transport, containment, collection, their for i.e., resources), (or wastes these of management the services and for of technologies series context-specific A disposal. ultimate or use of point the to generation of point the from managed are wastewater and excreta human which amulti-step in process as sanitation defines Compendium The Sanitation Systems Compendium Terminology defines a suite of compatible of compatible a suite defines Template System (wastes) that travel through through travel that (wastes) Products is a a is System Sanitation that Technologies y select- By be collected for fuel(like andburned propane). can Biogasotherwater components. and phide, vapour sul- hydrogen nitrogen, of quantities varying and 50%) to (25 dioxide carbon 75%), to (50 methane of prised com- is Biogas digestion. anaerobic from released es typically ranges 0.5Lto from 3L. cleaning per used water of volume The cleansing. anal ed by those who use water, rather material,than for dry generat- is it urinating; and/or defecating after oneself black material. Compost has excellenthas soil-conditioning Compost material.black brown/ odourless, earth-like, an produce and ponents ria and fungi) decompose the biodegradable waste com - In this biological process, microorganisms (mainly bacte - process. degradation aerobic controlled a from results 1). ure - Fig (see Materials Cleansing Dry and/or cleansing) for Water used waterCleansing is (if Anal include mayalso Brownwater Flushwater. the by diluted only reduced, not is Faeces of load nutrient and pathogen The used. therefore, Flushwater the of and, volume the on depends volume (U.6) the Toilets Flush Urine-Diverting by generated is It Urine. contain not does and water, water. Flush- the in diluted are that Urine of nutrients the and Figure 1). Blackwater contains the pathogens of Faeces used for cleansing) and/or Dry Cleansing Materials (see is waterWater (if Cleansing Anal with along Flushwater production. fuel and fibre feed, beneficial food, for utilized be can other that crops or forage fruit, vegetables, insects, a fish, include may Biomass term through The system. sanitation flowing nutrients and/or water the using Biogas is the common name for the mixture of gas- cleanse to used water is Water Cleansing Anal s eopsd rai mte that matter organic decomposed is Compost Flush- and Faeces of mixture the is Brownwater and Faeces Urine, of mixture the is Blackwater cultivated animals or plants to refers Biomass ment before itcanbeusedordisposed of. - treat further require may or sanitized completely be may Effluent the treatment, of type the on Depending Treatmenttechnology. Centralized (Semi-) a or Storage of type and Collection a either at originates Effluent treatment. other some or separation solids undergone has Sludge or Blackwater after typically technology, a waste generated inthe household. solid the with along treatedalways), notbe they should (though general In Compendium. this in included not is tampons and napkins sanitary like products hygiene menstrual for name product separate a important, ly extreme- Although of. disposed separately and lected col- be mayMaterials Cleansing system,Dry the on ing Depend- stones). or paper, rags (e.g., leaves, corncobs, urinating and/or defecating after oneself cleanse to ronments. envi- humid in particularly, conditions, right the under risk that small some pathogenic a organisms can be reactivated is There off. die pathogens most and dration dehy during volume in 75% around by reduce Faeces However,matter. organic in rich still are Faeces Dried the - that degrada means this and dehydration during occurs tion little Very material. absorbent of presence the and/or temperatures high ventilation, good with environmenttakes tion byplace storingdry Faeces a in Dehydra - material. crumbly dry, a become they until ed achieved. be normally can reduction pathogen considerable but (S.8), Chambers Composting most in guaranteednot is temperature This use. agricultural safe for sufficiently sanitized be to order in °C) 60 to (55 conditions philic - thermo under months) to4 (2 enough compostedlong and be should Sludge nutrients or Excreta matter.Generally, organic in rich still is material the but lost, be may nutrients the of some volatilization, and leaching of Because content. nutrient variable a and properties Ü Figure1: DefinitionofExcreta,BrownwaterandBla BERSI is theis Effluent general term for liquida that leaves Cleansing Dry Materials are solid materials used Dried Faeces are Faeces that have been dehydrat- CH Excret TS GR a AFIK

Fa Ü Figure1: DefinitionofExcreta,BrownwaterandBla ece BERSI s ckw CH ater Excret TS GR a Brownw Flushw Blackwater - AFIK 39% P, 26% K and have 10 have and K 26% P, 39% N, 12% about contain Faeces excreted, nutrients total the Of water. 80% about contain faeces Fresh matter. faecal of year per L 50 approximately produces person water.or Urine mixedeach notwithdiet, on Depending runny consistency. pathogens. and or soft a has it Faeces, the of quality the on Depending nutrients both in concentrated but volume, in small is Flushwater.Excreta any with mixed Peter Morgan in Zimbabwe. The various natural decom- Peternatural variousZimbabwe. The in Morgan as to referred also product is earth-like This degradation. and dewatering through (S.4-S.6) technologies pit double in generated is that material humic improved, hygienically ent-rich, undigested plantmaterial. to refers Organics matter,term organic the contain um Compendi- this in products other Although waste. ket can include, but is not limited to, leaves, grass and mar material degradable Organic S.8). Chambers, posting Com - (e.g., properly function to them for order in ogies technol- some to added be must that waste) (organic flush toilets. with households in produced wastewaterthe of 65% ly approximate- for accounts Greywater pathogens. also therefore, and, diapers) washing from (e.g., Excreta of from bathing, but not from toilets. It may contain traces as well as dishware, clothesand food, washing from ed source. Flushwater a as used be can three the of combination any or Greywater, recycled rainwater, Freshwater, it. clean and/or content the transport to Interface User 100 mL. a a te ter r

refers to (semi-solid) excrement that is is that excrement (semi-solid) to refers Faeces not is that Faeces and Urine of consists Excreta Pit Humus Pit material plant biodegradable to refers Organics generat - water of volume total the is Greywater the into discharged water the is Flushwater Fa ece A nal Cleansin s - nutri the describe to used term the is ckw g ater , a term conceived by conceived term a EcoHumus, W ater 7 to 10 Brownw Flushw Blackwater D r y a C 9 a te faecal coliforms in in coliforms faecal leansin ter r g Materia A nal Cleansin l - g W ater 11 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium Terminology D

y C leansin g Materia l

12 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium Terminology enzymes into ammonia and bicarbonate. Stored Urine Urine Stored bicarbonate. and ammonia into enzymes naturally over time, i.e., the urea has been converted by ment that andthe isrequired end-usepossibilities. The Sludge composition will determine the type of - treat TreatmentCentralized processes. (Semi-) and collection wastewater sewer-based from originates that Sludge is Sludge)sewage as to referred (also SludgeWastewater 9). p. Tools, Development tor 2014Sec- al., (see et Strande to refer Sludge faecal of without Greywater. For a more detailed characterization or with Blackwater, or Excreta of Storage/Treatment and Collection the from results and semisolid, or slurry a digested, partially or raw be can It sewer. a through sanitation technologies, i.e., it has not been transported onsite from comes Sludge Faecal Sludge. wastewater and Sludge faecal between made be can distinction A grit, metals, trash and/or various chemical compounds. ing mostly Excreta and water, in combination with sand, system.of asanitation removal for ofthese the iscrucial substances durability treatment early Therefore, wear. and/or and clogging through efficiency transport impair can trash), and like fats, oil, grease, and various solids (e.g. sand, fibres Substances 100). p. PRE, (see chambers grit or traps grease screens, as such units, treatment preliminary in Sludge or Greywater Brownwater, Blackwater, from although pathogens may bepresent. still properties, conditioning soil good have and Compost to similar very look can Humus Pit considerably. vary can content, matter organic and nutrient its including product, the of quality the and slower generally is tion and temperature. Therefore, the rate humidity of pathogen - reduc ratio, C:N supply, oxygen controlled a to ed processes are passivedegradation and are not subject- the that is Compost and Humus Pit between ference dif- main The conditions. operating and technology the on depending nature, in anaerobic and aerobic both be can pits alternating in place taking processes position s rn ta hs en hydrolysed been has that Urine is Urine Stored - contain liquids, and solids of mixture a is Sludge separated materials are Pre-TreatmentProducts The five are: groups functional build asystem. to chosen be can technologies which from groups al have function- similar fiveare functions. There different that technologies of grouping a is group functional A Functional Groups leaves the body. it when sterile is Urine cases, rare some of exception the With nitrogen. of kg 4 to 2 contains L) 550 to 300 (approx. year one during person one from collected Urine human water.diet, or Faeceson with Depending the Urine product refers to pure Urine that is not mixed itself of urea and other waste products. In this context, that doesnotrainfall infiltrate into the soil. before flowing towards low-lying land. It is the portion of surfaces other and roads roofs, from collected runoff compared tocompared the other technologies within the group. is technology the human) and material economic, (i.e., intensive resource how approximately indicates est, high- to lowest from going number, the and Interface) ter corresponds to its functional group (e.g., U for User reference code with a single letter and number; the let- each technology within a functional group is assigned a Also, identifiable. easily are they that so code colour same the share group functional given a within ogies Each functional group has a distinctive technolcolour; - pathogen reduced. isconsiderably transmission at survive this pH. After 6 months of storage, the risk of cannot pathogens Most 9. approximately of pH a has D T C S U

is the liquid produced by the body to rid rid to body the by produced liquid the is Urine rainfall the for term general the is Stormwater (Technologies D.1-D.13): Blue Use and/orDisposal (Technologies PRE,T.1-T.17, POST): Green (Semi-) Centralized Treatment Conveyance (Technologies C.1-C.7): Yellow (Technologies S.1-S.12): Orange Collection andStorage/Treatment (TechnologiesUser Interface U.1-U.6): Red

ment before Useand/orDisposal. by these technologies often require subsequent - treat ing no energy input). Thus, products that are ‘treated’ function of storage and is usually passive (e.g., requir a often is technologies these by provided treatment The Interface. generatedUser the products the at ing - treat sometimes and storing, collecting, of ways the mation sheets PREandPOST). infor (technology described also are post-treatment and pre-treatment for Technologies Sludge. of ment treat- the for mainly T.13-T.17 whereas are Effluent, or Greywater Brownwater, Blackwater, of treatment are divided into 2 groups: T.1-T.12 are primarily for the technologiesThe level. S the at technologieser-scale small- for than higher generally are group functional this within technologies of requirements energy and maintenance, operation, The applications). level city to neighbourhood (i.e., groups - appro user large generally for priate are that technologies treatment between products these functionalgroups. port - trans to used technologies the describes only ance Convey simplicity, of sake the for Therefore, ment. and Storage/Treatment and (Semi-) Centralized Treat- most gapimportant is between and User Interface or Collection longest, the groups, functional between ways various in transferred be to need may products Although another. to group functional one from ucts by which products are ultimately returned to the envi- products thatproducts originate it. from thewith along treated maybe but Interface, User the at originate not do Stormwater and Greywater that will Interface depend on the availability of water. Note User of choice the cases, many In system. sanitation the accesses user the which byway the is it contact; in comes user the which with urinal or pan, pedestal, S C U D T

Collection and Storage/Treatment (S) describes - prod of transport the describes Conveyance(C) refers to the methods the to refers (D) Disposal and/or Use ecie te ye f toilet, of type the describes (U) Interface User ees to refers (T) Treatment Centralized (Semi-) - - - resource: following the to refer please technologies, and systems Greywater dedicated of summary comprehensive more a For templates. system the in products as shown still are but detail, in described not are technologies Stormwater with Excreta. This explains why the related Greywater and ment, although it does show when they can be co-treated manage- orStormwater Greywater address specifically not does and Excretatorelated directly technologies and systems with concerned primarily is Compendium The edition ofthe Compendium. future a in sheet information technology a of form the in included be may technologies these of some Hopefully, 166-169). (pp. Technologies” Sanitation “Emerging tion outlined in the are and middle-income countries sec- low- in implementation for potential high with developments available. Examples of the most interesting and promising and mature fully yet not development, are or prototypes under as only exist currently either are group tional func- each in technologies sanitation of variety wide A the provision ofsafe, hygienic, andaccessiblesanitation. to regards in “improved” considered are they if included been only have they Moreover, included. are countries middle-income and low- of context the in tested and en Only those sanitation technologies which have been prov technologies within each ofthe fivegroups. functional Information Technology Sheet a on described is pendium Com- this in included technologies57 the of Each group. functional another to products transport to or products, transform and contain to designed services or methods, infrastructure, specific the as defined are Technologies Sanitation Technologies for flushing). Greywater treated using by (e.g., system a into back cycled be also can products Furthermore, materials. reduced-risk or resources useful as either ronment, andDiener, A. S.(2006).Greywater_ Morel, Management www.sandec.ch CH. Available for free download(Eawag), at: Dübendorf, InstituteSwiss Federal ofAquatic ScienceandTechnology Treatment Systems for HouseholdsorNeighbourhoods. Review andMiddle-IncomeCountries. in Low- ofDifferent in Part 2. There are between 6 and 17 different different 17 and 6 between are There 2. Part in -

13 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium Terminology 14 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Part 1: System Templates Part 1: System Templates

A system template defines a suite of compatible and These systems have all proven their feasibility in proven technology combinations from which a sanita- practical applications. Each has their own character- tion system can be designed. The system templates istic advantages and disadvantages, as well as scope can be used to identify and display complete systems of application. The Compendium, however, is not an which take into account the management of all product exhaustive list of technologies and associated systems. flows between User Interface and Use or Disposal, and In specific cases, technology combinations other than to compare the different options that are available in those presented in this document may be applicable. specific contexts. Although the system templates are predefined, the This first part of the Compendium explains in detail how Compendium user must select the appropriate tech- the system templates are read and used, and includes nology from the options presented. The choice is con- a presentation of the different templates. It describes text-specific and should be made based on the local the main considerations and the type of applications environment (temperature, rainfall, etc.), culture (sit- for which each system template is appropriate. ters, squatters, washers, wipers, etc.) and resources (human, financial and material). The Compendium includes nine different system templates, ranging from simple (with few technology choices and products) to complex (with multiple technology choices and products). Each system template is dis- tinct in terms of the number of products generated and processed. The nine system templates are:

System 1: Single Pit System System 2: Waterless Pit System without Sludge Production System 3: Pour Flush Pit System without Sludge Production System 4: Waterless System with Urine Diversion System 5: Biogas System System 6: Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration System 7: Blackwater Treatment System with Effluent Transport System 8: Blackwater Transport to (Semi-) Centralized Treatment System System 9: Sewerage System with Urine Diversion Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Templates System Part 1: 15

16 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Using the System Templates nologies from the five functional groups. The output of output The groups. functional five the from nologies tech - compatible different along transformed and ed - transport stored,collected, successively are Products the that products itmanages. all of and system a of components technology the of overview an gives presentation graphical a Such exist. combinations potential where togetherlinked are that clms and (columns) groups functional of matrix a as visualized be can system sanitation A system template columnsofa Figure 2:Explanationofthe different Products Input Using theSystem Templates The grey columnsshow the input/outputwhich products enter/exit the functionalgroups U User Interface The colour-coded columns represent the different functionalgroups The colour-coded the columnsrepresent different Products Input/Output S products Treatment and Storage/ Collection (rows) Products Input/Output a system template. of elements and structure the explain 3 and 2 Figures includedwithinare the system. sanitation howmanythemof of regardless maintained be usually should groups functional the of ordering however,the groups; functional five the of each from technology a It is not always fornecessary a product to pass through the input for the next. a technology in one functional group, thereby, becomes C Conveyance T Treatment Centralized (Semi-) (Semi-)

Products Input/Output D Disposal Use and/or

Figure 3: Explanation of the different graphical elements in a system template

Input Input/Output Collection Input/Output (Semi-) Input/Output Use and/or Products U User Interface Products S and Storage/ Products C Conveyance T Centralized Products D Disposal Treatment Treatment Technologies T.1-T.12 are used for the treatment of Blackwater, Brownwater, Dry Cleansing Greywater or Effluent D.1 Fill and Cover/ Material Arborloo T.1 Settler In each functional group the The technology codes refer to the T.2 Imhoff Tank applicable technologies are shown technology information sheets in Part 2 T.3 ABR in boxes T.4 Anaerobic Filter Urine C.2 Human-Powered D.6 Irrigation U.1 Dry Toilet Excreta Emptying and T.5 WSP D.9 Fish Pond S.2 Single Pit Transport T.6 Aerated Pond Sludge Effluent D.10 Plant Pond S.3 Single VIP C.3 Motorized T.7 FWS CW Emptying and D.11 Disposal/ U.4 Pour Flush Toilet Blackwater T.8 HSF CW Transport Faeces Recharge T.9 VF CW T.10 Trickling Filter Multiple technologies in one box T.11 UASB Filtration/Disinfection indicate that there are different Thin arrows indicate alternative flow T.12 Activated Sludge alternatives from which the user can Anal Cleansing paths which are possible but not POST select when designing a system Water always common or recommended T.13 Sedimentation/ Thickening T.14 Unplanted Drying Beds D.5 Application Flushwater C.7 Transfer Station Sludge Surface Disposal T.15 Planted Drying D.12 Beds and Storage Pre-Treatment Bold arrows are used to show the T.16 Co-Composting D.6 Irrigation most appropriate flow path T.17 Biogas Reactor PRE D.7 Soak Pit Greywater Greywater Treatment Effluent Technologies T.13-T.17 are used for D.11 Disposal/ Recharge the treatment of Sludge

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge

17 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Using the System Templates

18 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Using the System Templates Toilet). The Blackwater generated Blackwater The Toilet). potential options: sanitation The following canbeusedto procedure pre-select legal requirements). and resources financial acceptance, capacities, socio-cultural and skills as such factors (especially, environment enabling local the account into taking infrastructure and make use of local resources, while existing optimize redundancy, should minimize to Designers attempt context. specific a for possible solution best the find to trying when perspective engineering rational a exhaustivelose not should planners and not are links associated and nologies tech- the However, technologies. of combinations logical most the present templatessystem nine The Steps forselectingsanitation optionsusingthesystemtemplates umns col- through right to left from move products the how describes text following The technologies. sanitation water) enter a system and are managed using different Flush- and It Urine (Faeces, template. products three system how a shows from example an is 4 Figure Figure 4:Example ofhow inputs enter into transformed andare functionalgroups into ment” (Twin Pits for Pour Flush) and is transformed transformed into is and Flush) Pour for Pits (Twin ment” 1 4 Products Input Flushwater Urine Faeces Three inputs (Faeces, Urine and Flushwater) enter Flushwater) and Urine (Faeces, inputs Three functional group S “Collection and Storage/Treat- and “Collection S group functional 1 2 5 1

- degra natural and storage through Humus Pit functional group U “User Interface” (Pour Flush – 9 U.4 U ofthe system template.

Pour FlushToilet User Interface 2 Products Input/Output Blackwater 3 3 S.6 S then enters into enters then Treatment and Storage/ Collection Twin Pitsfor Pour Flush 4

Products Input/Output Pit Humus 5 ot ad kp over skips and port) C “Conveyance” (Human-Powered Emptying and Trans - 4. Compare the4. Compare systems anditeratively change individ- 3. For each template, selectatechnology each from 2. Identifythe system templates that the process 1. Identifythe that products locallygenerated are and/ dation. The Pit Humus enters into enters Humus Pit The dation. is directly transported to the final the to transported directly is safe), and with no further further no with and safe), hygienically be should it (as Treatment“ Centralized and Storage). Disposal (Surface site disposal final or storage porary tem- a to brought or (Application) agriculture in tioner condi- soil a as applied be can Humus Pit the ences, prefer and needs conditions, local the on Depending D “Use and/or Disposal”, where two possibilities exist. constraints, andtechnicalconstraints, feasibility for (e.g.,Compost), economic specificend-products the demand based onuserpriorities, systemual technologies template or useadifferent the oftechnologies series make upasystem choice presented (box with multipletechnologies); there where isa technologyfunctional group defined products or Organics for composting) or available (e.g.,AnalCleansingWater, Flushwater C.2 C Conveyance Human-Powered Transport Emptying and 6

T (Semi-) (Semi-) Treatment Centralized 7 7

fntoa gop “(Semi-) T group functional 8 It products. input/output Products Input/Output 6 9 8 group functional group functional

D.12 D.4 D Disposal Use and/or and Storage Disposal Surface Application

9 -

and any numberofsystems can bechosen. can then be followed for each of the separate sub-areas, it, similar characteristics and conditions. The procedure within has, one each that so sub-areas into sideration con- under zone planning the divide to useful be may It A PowerPoint template is also available for download for available also is template PowerPoint A with options orstakeholdersexperts inaworkshop. different discussing when example, for systems, sanitation site-specific sketch to used and printed be can It www.sandec.ch/compendium. from downloaded be can template system blank A www.sandec.ch/clues solutions for anarea. appropriate sanitation to selectanddiscuss community workshops and expert ticipatory can beusedinpar how the Compendium detailed description of ment Tools, p.8)give a (see Sector Develop- The CLUES guidelines vice Options”. “Identification ofSer seven steps isthe (CLUES), of the fifth PlanningSanitation Urban Environmental In Community-Led Selection ofsanitationoptionsintheCLUESplanningapproach > and ahealthy life. Byinvolving allrelevant stakeholders, with thoseoftheenvironment to support humandignity on aframework which balancestheneedsofpeople peri-urban communities. The planningapproach builds infrastructure andservicesindisenfranchised urbanand ning andimplementationofenvironmental sanitation These guidelinespresent guidingprinciples for theplan exists inmostparts ofthedeveloping world. unable to make asignificantdentinthebacklog which conventional approaches to environmental sanitationare and solid waste services, presents strong evidence that is withoutaccessto adequate water, sanitation, drainage The fact thatalarge majority oftheworld’s population -

- Overview oftheCLUES planningapproach www.eawag.ch Aquatic Science and Technology Swiss Federal Instituteof Figure 5:Theseven steps ofCLUES Step Step 5 1 Step Step Step 4 3 2 Step Step 7 6

problems &validation of thecommunity Prioritisation of theplanningprocess Launch and demandcreation Process Ignition of the Action Plan Implementation Action Plan Development ofan of thecurrent situation Detailed Assessment Action Cross-cutting Tasks Identification of ServiceOptions

mary goal. mary - pri the as satisfaction user with flexibility, maintain to yet services, or infrastructure existing integrate to engineers and planners the of goal the is it case of a Parts sanitation system may already exist; in that plate isexplained in detail. tem- system Each pages. following the on described and presented are templates system nine The tion ofcustomized system sanitation drawings. ucts, technologies and arrows), facilitating the - prepara elements(such- asprod thatgraphical pre-defined has final workshop workshop workshop workshop www.wsscc.org Council Collaborative Water SupplyandSanitation report report -

memory key. of theprocess. The toolbox isprovided ontheenclosed which aimto support andstreamline theimplementation nurtured. Part 3provides 30practical tools indigitalform for thesuccessof a planningprocess andhow itcanbe and knowledge framework) isneededasaprecondition ment (political, legal, institutional, financial, socio-cultural are explained. Part 2describes why anenablingenviron In Part 1theseven steps oftheactual planning approach tion inacommonagreement. finding thebestpossibleenvironmental sanitationsolu the entiretyof perspectives and expectations. allowsThis particularly thebeneficiarycommunity, itaims to consider

OMMUNICATION C & POSURE and pilots to facilities community expose Ex

EVELOPMENT D APACITY C skills develop train and

www.un-habitat.org UN-HABITAT

VALUATION E & ONITORING M tation of implemen- & monitoring progress & assess plan monitoring develop evaluation

19 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

Using the System Templates - - 20 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 1 – Single Pit System

Sanitation System 1: Single Pit System

Dry Cleansing D.1 Fill and Cover/ Material Arborloo T.1 Settler T.2 Imhoff Tank T.3 ABR T.4 Anaerobic Filter Urine C.2 Human-Powered D.6 Irrigation U.1 Dry Toilet Excreta Emptying and T.5 WSP D.9 Fish Pond S.2 Single Pit Transport T.6 Aerated Pond Sludge Effluent D.10 Plant Pond S.3 Single VIP C.3 Motorized T.7 FWS CW Emptying and D.11 Disposal/ U.4 Pour Flush Toilet Blackwater T.8 HSF CW Transport Faeces Recharge T.9 VF CW T.10 Trickling Filter T.11 UASB Filtration/Disinfection T.12 Activated Sludge Anal Cleansing POST Water T.13 Sedimentation/ Thickening T.14 Unplanted Drying Beds D.5 Application Flushwater C.7 Transfer Station Sludge Surface Disposal T.15 Planted Drying D.12 Beds and Storage Pre-Treatment T.16 Co-Composting D.6 Irrigation T.17 Biogas Reactor PRE D.7 Soak Pit Greywater Greywater Treatment Effluent D.11 Disposal/ Recharge

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge System 1: SingleD11: LAN PitD ASystemPPLICATION 137

T11: SEDIMENTATION/ THICKENING PONDS 105

S3: SINGLE PIT VIP

fly screen

> 30cm >11cm vent pipe

baffle ramp for desludging scum sludge liquid outlet air currents screen supernatant

grit chamber thickened sludge

This system is based on the use of a single pit tech- Plant Ponds (D.10) or discharge to a watersludge body (Water nology to collect and store Excreta. The system can Disposal/Groundwater Recharge, D.11). After adequate be used with or without Flushwater, depending on treatment, Sludge can either be used in agriculture the User Interface. Inputs to the system can include (D.5) or brought to a Storage/Disposal site (D.12). Urine, Faeces, Anal Cleansing Water, Flushwater and Dry Cleansing Materials. The use of Flushwater and/or Considerations This system should be chosen only Anal Cleansing Water will depend on water availability where there is either enough space to continuously dig and local habit. The User Interface for this system can new pits or when there is an appropriate way to emp- either be a Dry Toilet (U.1) or a Pour Flush Toilet (U.4). A ty, treat and dispose of the faecal Sludge. In dense Urinal (U.3) could additionally be used. The User Inter- urban settlements, there may not be sufficient space face is directly connected to a Single Pit (S.2) or a Sin- to access a pit for desludging or to make a new pit. This gle Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP, S.3) for Collection and system is, therefore, best suited to rural and peri-urban Storage/Treatment. areas where the soil is appropriate for digging pits and When the pit is full there are several options. If there absorbing the leachate. It is not recommended for areas is space, the pit can be filled with soil and a fruit or prone to heavy rains or flooding, which may cause pits ornamental tree can be planted, which will thrive in the to overflow. nutrient rich environment (D.1), and a new pit built. This Some Greywater in the pit may help degradation, but is generally only possible when the superstructure is excessive amounts of Greywater may lead to quick fill- mobile. Alternatively, the faecal Sludge that is generating of the pit and/or excessive leaching. All types of ed from the Collection and Storage/Treatment technol- Dry Cleansing Materials can be discarded into the pit, ogy has to be removed and transported for further treat- although they may shorten the pit life and make it more ment. The Conveyance technologies that can be used difficult to empty. Whenever possible, Dry Cleansing include Human-Powered Emptying and Transport (C.2) Materials should be disposed of separately. or Motorized Emptying and Transport (C.3). A vacuum This system is one of the least expensive to construct in truck can only empty liquid faecal Sludge. terms of capital cost. However, the maintenance costs As the untreated faecal Sludge is highly pathogen- may be considerable, depending on the frequency and ic, human contact and direct agricultural application method of pit emptying. If the ground is appropriate and should be avoided. The Sludge that is removed should has good absorptive capacity, the pit may be dug very be transported to a dedicated faecal Sludge treatment deep (> 5m) and can be used for several years with- facility (T.13-T.17). In the event that such a facility is not out emptying (up to 20 or more years). However, the easily accessible, the faecal Sludge can be discharged groundwater level and use should be taken into con- to a Transfer Station (C.7). From there, it will be trans- sideration when digging pits in order to avoid contam- ported to the treatment facility by a motorized vehicle inating it. Although different types of pits are common (C.3). A technology selection tree for faecal Sludge in most parts of the world, a well-designed pit-based treatment plants is provided in Strande et al., 2014 (see system with appropriate transport, treatment and use Sector Development Tools, p. 9). (Semi-) Centralized or disposal is rare. Treatment technologies (T.1-T.17) produce both Effluent Guidelines for the safe use of Sludge have been pub- and Sludge, which may require further treatment prior lished by the World Health Organization (WHO) and to Use and/or Disposal. For example, Effluent from a are referenced on the relevant technology information faecal Sludge treatment facility could be co-treated with sheets. wastewater in Waste Stabilization Ponds (T.5) or Con- structed Wetlands (T.7-T.9). Options for the Use and/or Disposal of the treated Efflu- ent include Irrigation (D.6), Fish Ponds (D.9), Floating Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and System 1 – Single Pit 21 22 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 2 – Waterless Pit System without Sludge Production

Sanitation System 2: Waterless Pit System without Sludge Production

S.4 Double VIP Faeces Pit Humus S.5 Fossa Alterna C.2 Human-Powered U.1 Dry Toilet Excreta Emptying and D.4 Application Transport S.8 Composting Urine Compost Chamber

Organics

Anal Cleansing Water

Dry Cleansing D.12 Surface Disposal Material and Storage

D.6 Irrigation D.7 Soak Pit Greywater Greywater Treatment Effluent D.11 Disposal/ Recharge

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge SystemU1: DRY TO 2:ILET Waterless Pit System without Sludge Production

S5: FOSSAslab ALTERNA R4: APPLICATION OF COMPOST/ECO-HUMUS

123

soil .50m max. 1

option 1 This system is designed to produce a solid, earth- posting facility before it is used. If there is no use for like material by using alternating pits or a Compost- the product, it can be temporarily stored or permanent- ing Chamber (S.8). Inputs to the systemoption 2 can include ly disposed of (D.12). Urine, Faeces, Organics, Anal Cleansing Water, and Dry This system is different from System 1 (Single Pit Sys- Cleansing Materials. There is no use of Flushwater. tem) regarding the product generated at Collection and A Dry Toilet (U.1) is the recommended User Interface Storage/Treatment level. In the previous system, the for this system, although a Urine-Diverting Dry Toilet Sludge required further treatment before it could be (UDDT, U.2) or a Urinal (U.3) could also be used if the used, whereas the Pit Humus and Compost produced in Urine is highly valued for application. A Dry Toilet does this system are ready for Use and/or Disposal following not require water to function and in fact, water should Collection and Storage/Treatment. not be put into this system; Anal Cleansing Water should be kept at a minimum or even excluded if possible. Considerations Because the system is permanent The User Interface is directly connected to a Double and can be indefinitely used (as opposed to some Sin- Ventilated Improved Pit (S.4), Fossa Alterna (S.5) or a gle Pits, which may be filled and covered), it can be Composting Chamber (S.8) for Collection and Storage/ used where space is limited. Additionally, because the Treatment. product must be manually removed, this system is suit- Two alternating pits, as in the Double VIP or Fossa Alter- able for dense areas that cannot be served by trucks na, give the material an opportunity to drain, degrade, for mechanical emptying (C.3). This system is especially and transform into Pit Humus (sometimes also called appropriate for water-scarce areas and where there is EcoHumus), a nutrient-rich, hygienically improved, an opportunity to use the humic product as soil con- humic material which is safe to excavate. When the ditioner. The material that is removed should be in a first pit is full, it is covered and temporarily taken out safe, useable form, although proper personal protection of service. While the other pit is filling with Excreta should be used during removal, transport and use. (and potentially Organics), the content of the first pit The success of this system depends on proper opera- is allowed to rest and degrade. Only when both pits are tion and an extended storage period. If a suitable and full is the first pit emptied and put back into service. continuous source of soil, ash or Organics (leaves, grass This cycle can be indefinitely repeated. As the Excreta clippings, coconut or rice husks, woodchips, etc.) is in the resting pit is draining and degrading for at least available, the decomposition process is enhanced and one year, the resulting Pit Humus needs to be manually the storage period can be reduced. The required storage removed using shovels, and vacuum truck access to the time can be minimized if the material in the pit remains pits is not necessary. well aerated and not too moist. Therefore, the Greywa- A Composting Chamber is not strictly a pit technology, ter must be collected and treated separately. Too much but it can also have alternating chambers and, if proper- moisture in the pit will fill the air voids and deprive the ly operated, produces safe, useable Compost. For these microorganisms of oxygen, which may impair the degra- reasons it is included in this system template. dation process. Dry Cleansing Materials can usually be The Pit Humus or Compost that is generated from the collected in the pit or chamber together with the Excre- Collection and Storage/Treatment technology can be ta, especially if they are carbon-rich (e.g., toilet paper, removed and transported for Use and/or Disposal man- newsprint, corncobs, etc.) as this may help degradation ually using a Human-Powered Emptying and Transport and air flow. service (C.2). Since it has undergone significant degra- Guidelines for the safe use of Excreta have been pub- dation, the humic material is quite safe to handle and lished by the World Health Organization (WHO) and use as soil conditioner in agriculture (D.4). If there are are referenced on the relevant technology information concerns about the quality of the Pit Humus or Com- sheets. post, it can be further composted in a dedicated com- Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Pit System without Sludge Production Waterless System 2 – 23 24 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 3 – Pour Flush Pit System without Sludge Production

Sanitation System 3: Pour Flush Pit System without Sludge Production

Dry Cleansing D.12 Surface Disposal Material and Storage

Faeces

Urine

S.6 Twin Pits for C.2 Human-Powered D.4 Application U.4 Pour Flush Toilet Blackwater Pit Humus Pour Flush Emptying and D.12 Surface Disposal Transport and Storage Flushwater

Anal Cleansing Water

D.6 Irrigation D.7 Soak Pit Greywater Greywater Treatment Effluent D.11 Disposal/ Recharge

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge System 3: Pour Flush Pit System without Sludge Production

U4: POUR FLUSH TOILET S6: TWIN PIT POUR-FLUSH LATRINE (TPPFL) R4: APPLICATION OF COMPOST/ECO-HUMUS slab

leach pit

seal

lleacheach ppitit

seal depth

This is a water-based system utilizing the Pour Flush Considerations This system is suited to rural and Toilet (pedestal or squat pan, U.4) and Twin Pits (S.6) peri-urban areas with appropriate soil that can con- to produce a partially digested, humus-like product, tinually and adequately absorb the leachate. It is not that can be used as a soil amendment. If water is not appropriate for areas with clayey or densely packed available, please refer to Systems 1, 2 and 4. Inputs soil. As leachate from Twin Pits directly infiltrates the to the system can include Faeces, Urine, Flushwater, surrounding soil, this system should only be installed Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing Materials and where there is a low groundwater table that is not at Greywater. The User Interface technology for this sys- risk of being contaminated from the pits. If there is tem is a Pour Flush Toilet (U.4). A Urinal (U.3) could frequent flooding or the groundwater table is too high additionally be used. The Blackwater output from the and enters the Twin Pits, the dewatering process, par- User Interface and possibly Greywater is discharged ticularly, in the resting pit, will be hindered. The mate- into Twin Pits for Pour Flush (S.6) for Collection and rial that is removed should be in a safe, useable form, Storage/Treatment. The Twin Pits are lined with a although proper personal protection should be used porous material, allowing the liquid to infiltrate into during removal, transport and use. the ground while solids accumulate and degrade Greywater can be co-managed along with the Black- at the bottom of the pit. While one pit is filling with water in the Twin Pits, especially if the Greywater Blackwater, the other pit remains out of service. When quantities are relatively small, and no other man- the first pit is full, it is covered and temporarily taken agement system is in place to control it. However, out of service. It should take a minimum of two years large quantities of Flushwater and/or Greywater may to fill a pit. When the second pit is full, the first pit is result in excessive leaching from the pit and possibly re-opened and emptied. groundwater contamination. After a resting time of at least two years, the content This system is well-suited for anal cleansing with is transformed into Pit Humus (sometimes also called water. If possible, Dry Cleansing Materials should be EcoHumus), a nutrient-rich, hygienically improved, collected and disposed of separately (D.12) because humic material which is safe to excavate. Since it has they may clog the pipe fittings and prevent the liquid undergone significant dewatering and degradation, inside the pit from infiltrating into the soil. Pit Humus is much more hygienic than raw, undigest- Guidelines for the safe use of Excreta have been pub- ed Sludge. Therefore, it does not require further treat- lished by the World Health Organization (WHO) and ment in a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility. The are referenced on the relevant technology information Pit Humus is removed using a Human-Powered Emp- sheets. tying and Transport (C.2) technology and transported for Use and/or Disposal. The emptied pit is then put back into operation. This cycle can be indefinitely repeated. Pit Humus has good soil conditioning properties and can be applied in agriculture (D.4). If there are concerns about the quality of the Pit Humus, it can be further composted in a dedicated composting facility before it is used. If there is no use for the product, it can be temporarily stored or permanently disposed of (D.12). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Flush Pit System without Sludge Production System 3 – Pour 25 26 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 4 – Waterless System with Urine Diversion

Sanitation System 4: Waterless System with Urine Diversion

Dry Cleansing D.12 Surface Disposal Material and Storage

Anal Cleansing Anal Cleansing Water Water D.7 Soak Pit

Application S.7 Dehydration C.2 Human-Powered D.3 Faeces Faeces Dried Faeces Vaults Emptying and D.12 Surface Disposal Transport U.2 Urine Diverting and Storage Dry Toilet U.3 Urinal C.1 Jerrycan/Tank Urine Urine S.1 Storage Tank Stored Urine D.2 Application C.3 Motorized Emptying and Transport

D.6 Irrigation D.7 Soak Pit Greywater Greywater Treatment Effluent D.11 Disposal/ Recharge

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge System 4: Waterless System with Urine Diversion C1: JERRYCAN/TANK

S7: DEHYDRATION VAULTS R2: URINE APPLICATION 119

fly screen

> 30cm >11cm vent pipe

urine diversion view A

urine

urine tank

view A section

This system is designed to separate Urine and Fae- Faeces pose little human health risk when they are ces to allow the Faeces to dehydrate and/or recover removed. A minimum storage time of 6 months is the Urine for beneficial use. Inputs to the system can recommended when ash or lime are used as cover include Faeces, Urine, Anal Cleansing Water and Dry material. The Dried Faeces can then be applied as Cleansing Materials. soil conditioner (D.3). If there are concerns about the The main User Interface technology for this system quality of the material, it can be further composted is the Urine-Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT, U.2), which in a dedicated composting facility before it is used. If allows Urine and Faeces to be separately collected. A there is no use for the product, it can be temporarily Urinal (U.3) can additionally be installed for the effec- stored or permanently disposed of (D.12). tive collection of Urine. Different UDDT designs exist for different preferences (e.g., models with a third Considerations This system can be used anywhere, diversion for Anal Cleansing Water). but is especially appropriate for rocky areas where Dehydration Vaults (S.7) are used for the Collection digging is difficult, where there is a high groundwa- and Storage/Treatment of Faeces. When storing the ter table, or in water-scarce regions. The success of Faeces in vaults, they should be kept as dry as pos- this system depends on the efficient separation of sible to encourage dehydration and pathogen reduc- Urine and Faeces, as well as the use of a suitable cov - tion. Therefore, the chambers should be watertight er material. A dry, hot climate can also considerably and care should be taken to ensure that no water is contribute to the rapid dehydration of the Faeces. introduced. Anal Cleansing Water should never be put The material that is removed should be in a safe, use- into Dehydration Vaults, but it can be diverted and able form, although proper personal protection should discharged into a Soak Pit (D.7). Also important is a be used during removal, transport and use. constant supply of ash, lime, soil, or sawdust to cover A separate Greywater system is required since it the Faeces. This helps to absorb humidity, minimize should not be introduced into the Dehydration Vaults. odours and provide a barrier between the Faeces and If there is no agricultural need and/or no acceptance potential vectors (flies). If ash or lime are used, the of using the urine, it can be directly infiltrated into the related pH increase will also help to kill pathogenic soil or into a Soak Pit. Where there are no suppliers organisms. of prefabricated UDDT pedestals or slabs, they can be For the Collection and Storage/Treatment of Urine, locally manufactured using available materials. Storage Tanks (S.1) are used. Alternatively, Urine can All types of Dry Cleansing Materials can be used, also be diverted directly to the ground through an Irriga- although it is best to separately collect them as they tion system (D.6) or infiltrated through a Soak Pit (D.7). will not decompose in the vaults and use up space. Stored Urine can be easily handled and poses little Anal Cleansing Water must be separated from the risk because it is nearly sterile. With its high nutri- Faeces, but it can be mixed with the Urine if it is trans- ent content it can be used as a good liquid fertiliz- ferred to a Soak Pit. If Urine is used in agriculture, er. Stored Urine can be transported for Application Anal Cleansing Water should be kept separate and in agriculture (D.2) using either Jerrycans or a Tank infiltrated locally or treated along with Greywater. (C.1), or a Motorized Emptying and Transport technol- Guidelines for the safe use of Faeces and Urine have ogy (C.3) – the same way that bulk water or Sludge is been published by the World Health Organization transported to fields. (WHO) and are referenced on the relevant technology Human-Powered Emptying and Transport (C.2) is information sheets. required for the removal and Conveyance of the Dried Faeces generated from the Dehydration Vaults. The alternating use of double Dehydration Vaults allows for an extended dehydration period so that the Dried Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and System with Urine Diversion Waterless System 4 – 27 28 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 5 – Biogas System

Sanitation System 5: Biogas System

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge

D.6 Irrigation D.7 Soak Pit Greywater Greywater Treatment Effluent D.11 Disposal/ Recharge

Organics Biogas Biogas D.13 Combustion

Faeces U.4 Pour Flush Toilet Blackwater S.12 Biogas Reactor

D.5 Application Sludge D.12 Surface Disposal Urine and Storage U.3 Urinal

U.6 Urine-Diverting Brownwater Flush Toilet

Flushwater

Dry Cleansing C.1 Jerrycan/Tank Urine S.1 Storage Tank Stored Urine D.2 Application Material C.3 Motorized Emptying and Transport

Anal Cleansing D.7 Soak Pit Water System 5: Biogas System D11: LAND APPLICATION 137

S12: BIOGAS REACTOR

inlet biogas pipe sludge

seal access cover

biogas outlet

digestate

expansion chamber sludge

slurry

This system is based on the use of a Biogas Reactor collected in the Storage Tank is ideally applied on (S.12) to collect, store and treat the Excreta. Addition- local fields (D.2). Stored Urine can be transported in ally, the Biogas Reactor produces Biogas which can be Jerrycans or a Tank (C.1), or using a Motorized Empty- burned for cooking, lighting or electricity generation. ing and Transport technology (C.3). Inputs to the system can include Urine, Faeces, Flush- water, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing Materials, Considerations This system is best suited to rural Organics (e.g., market or kitchen waste) and, if avail- and peri-urban areas where there is appropriate able, animal waste. space, a regular source of organic substrate for the This system supports two different User Interface Biogas Reactor and a use for the digestate and Bio- technologies: a Pour Flush Toilet (U.4) or, if there is gas. The reactor itself can be built underground (e.g., a demand for the urine to be used in agriculture, a under agricultural land, and in some cases roads) and, Urine-Diverting Flush Toilet (U.6). A Urinal (U.3) could therefore, does not require a lot of space. Although a additionally be used. The User Interface is directly reactor may be feasible in a dense urban area, prop- connected to a Biogas Reactor (S.12, also known as er Sludge management is crucial and needs specific an anaerobic digester) for Collection and Storage/ attention. Because the digestate production is contin- Treatment. If a Urine-Diverting Flush Toilet is installed uous, there must be provisions made for year-round (and/or a Urinal), it will be connected to a Storage use and/or transport away from the site. Tank (S.1) for Urine collection. The Biogas Reactor can function with a large range Depending on the loading and design of the Biogas of inputs and is especially suitable where a constant Reactor, a thin or thick digestate (Sludge) will be con- source of animal manure is available, or where market tinuously discharged. Because of the high volume and and kitchen waste is abundant. On farms, for example, weight of the material generated, the Sludge should large quantities of Biogas can be produced if animal be used onsite. In some circumstances, a very thin manure is co-digested with the Blackwater, whereas digestate can be discharged to a sewer (though this is significant gas production would not be achieved from not shown on the system template here). human Excreta alone. Wood material or straw are diffi- Although the Sludge has undergone anaerobic diges- cult to degrade and should be avoided in the substrate. tion, it is not pathogen free and should be used with Achieving a good balance between Excreta (both caution, especially if there is no further treatment. human and animal), Organics and water can take Depending on how it is used, additional treatment some time, though the system is generally forgiv- (e.g., in Planted Drying Beds, T.15) may be required ing. However, care should be taken not to overload before application. It is nutrient-rich and a good ferti- the system with either too many solids or too much lizer that can be applied in agriculture (D.5) or trans- liquid (e.g., Greywater should not be added into the ported to a Surface Disposal or Storage site (D.12). Biogas Reactor as it substantially reduces the hydraulic The Biogas produced must be constantly used, for retention time). example as a clean fuel for cooking or for lighting Most types of Dry Cleansing Materials and Organics (D.13). If the gas is not burned, it will accumulate in can be discharged into the Biogas Reactor, although the tank and, with increasing pressure, will push out to accelerate digestion and ensure even reactions the digestate until the Biogas escapes to the atmos- within the tank, large items should be broken or cut phere through the digestate outlet. into small pieces. A Biogas Reactor can work with or without Urine. The Guidelines for the safe use of Sludge have been pub- advantage of diverting Urine from the reactor is that lished by the World Health Organization (WHO) and it can be used separately as a concentrated nutrient are referenced on the relevant technology informa- source without pathogen contamination. The Urine tion sheets. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and System 5 – Biogas 29 30 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 6 – Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration

Sanitation System 6: Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge

D.7 Soak Pit Effluent D.8 Leach Field Greywater T.1 Settler T.2 Imhoff Tank T.3 ABR T.4 Anaerobic Filter T.5 WSP Faeces D.6 Irrigation T.6 Aerated Pond U.4 Pour Flush Toilet S.9 Septic Tank D.9 Fish Pond T.7 FWS CW U.5 Cistern Flush Blackwater S.10 ABR Effluent D.10 Plant Pond T.8 HSF CW Toilet S.11 Anaerobic Filter D.11 Disposal/ T.9 VF CW Urine Recharge T.10 Trickling Filter T.11 UASB Filtration/Disinfection C.2 Human-Powered T.12 Activated Sludge

Emptying and POST Transport Flushwater Sludge C.3 Motorized T.13 Sedimentation/ Emptying and Thickening Transport T.14 Unplanted Drying Beds D.5 Application Sludge Surface Disposal Anal Cleansing T.15 Planted Drying D.12 Water Beds and Storage Pre-Treatment T.16 Co-Composting C.7 Transfer Station T.17 Biogas Reactor PRE

Dry Cleansing D.12 Surface Disposal Material and Storage System 6: Blackwater Treatment System with Infiltration

D7: Leach Field C3: MOTORIZED EMPTYING AND TRANSPORT S9: SEPTIC TANK

access covers vent

inlet inlet-T outlet scum sludge

sedimentation zone

septic tank sludge

settled effluent

This is a water-based system that requires a flush toi- ment Tools, p. 9). (Semi-) Centralized Treatment tech- let and a Collection and Storage/Treatment technolo- nologies (T.1-T.17) produce both Effluent and Sludge, gy that is appropriate for receiving large quantities of which may require further treatment prior to Use and/ water. Inputs to the system can include Faeces, Urine, or Disposal. For example, Effluent from a Sludge treat- Flushwater, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing Mate- ment facility could be co-treated with wastewater in rials and Greywater. There are two User Interface tech- Waste Stabilization Ponds (T.5) or Constructed Wet- nologies that can be used for this system: a Pour Flush lands (T.7-T.9). Toilet (U.4) or a Cistern Flush Toilet (U.5). A Urinal (U.3) Options for the Use and/or Disposal of the treated Efflu- could additionally be used. The User Interface is direct- ent include Irrigation (D.6), Fish Ponds (D.9), Floating ly connected to a Collection and Storage/Treatment Plant Ponds (D.10) or discharge to a water body (Water technology for the Blackwater that is generated: either Disposal/Groundwater Recharge, D.11). After adequate a Septic Tank (S.9), an Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR, treatment, Sludge can either be used in agriculture S.10), or an Anaerobic Filter (S.11) may be used. The (D.5) or brought to a Storage/Disposal site (D.12). anaerobic processes reduce the organic and pathogen load, but the Effluent is still not suitable for direct use. Considerations This system is only appropriate Greywater should be treated along with Blackwater in in areas where desludging services are available and the same Collection and Storage/Treatment technology, affordable and where there is an appropriate way to dis- but if there is a need for water recovery, it can be treated pose of the Sludge. For the infiltration technologies to separately (this is not shown on the system template). work there must be sufficient available space and the Effluent generated from the Collection and Storage/ soil must have a suitable capacity to absorb the Efflu- Treatment can be directly diverted to the ground for Use ent. If this is not the case, refer to System 7 (Blackwater and/or Disposal through a Soak Pit (D.7) or a Leach Treatment System with Effluent Transport). This system Field (D.8). Although it is not recommended, the Efflu- can be adapted for use in colder climates, even where ent can also be discharged into the Stormwater drain- there is ground frost. The system requires a constant age network for Water Disposal/Groundwater Recharge source of water. (D.11). This should only be considered if the quality of This water-based system is suitable for Anal Cleans- the Effluent is high and if there is no capacity for onsite ing Water inputs, and, since the solids are settled and infiltration or transportation offsite. digested onsite, easily degradable Dry Cleansing Mate- The Sludge that is generated from the Collection and rials can also be used. However, rigid or non-degradable Storage/Treatment technology must be removed and materials (e.g., leaves, rags) could clog the system and transported for further treatment. The Conveyance cause problems with emptying and, therefore, should technologies that can be used include Human-Pow- not be used. In cases when Dry Cleansing Materials are ered (C.2) or Motorized Emptying and Transport (C.3). collected separately from the flush toilets, they should As the Sludge is highly pathogenic prior to treatment, be disposed of in an appropriate way (e.g., Surface Dis- human contact and direct agricultural application posal, D.12). should be avoided. The Sludge that is removed should The capital investment for this system is considerable be transported to a dedicated Sludge treatment facility (excavation and installation of an onsite storage and (T.13-T.17). In the event that such a facility is not easily infiltration technology), but the costs can be shared by accessible, the Sludge can be discharged to a Transfer several households if the system is designed for a larger Station (C.7). From the Transfer Station it will then be number of users. transported to the treatment facility by a motorized Guidelines for the safe use of Effluent and Sludge have vehicle (C.3). been published by the World Health Organization (WHO) A technology selection tree for Sludge treatment plants and are referenced on the relevant technology informa- is provided in Strande et al., 2014 (see Sector Develop- tion sheets. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and System with Infiltration Treatment System 6 – Blackwater 31 32 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 7 – Blackwater Treatment System with Effluent Transport

Sanitation System 7: Blackwater Treatment System with Effluent Transport

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge

Greywater T.1 Settler T.2 Imhoff Tank T.3 ABR T.4 Anaerobic Filter T.5 WSP Faeces D.6 Irrigation C.4 Simplified T.6 Aerated Pond U.4 Pour Flush Toilet S.9 Septic Tank D.9 Fish Pond Sewer T.7 FWS CW U.5 Cistern Flush Blackwater S.10 ABR Effluent Effluent D.10 Plant Pond C.5 Solids-Free T.8 HSF CW Toilet S.11 Anaerobic Filter Sewer D.11 Disposal/ T.9 VF CW Urine Recharge T.10 Trickling Filter Pre-Treatment T.11 UASB Filtration/Disinfection C.2 Human-Powered T.12 Activated Sludge

Emptying and PRE POST Transport Flushwater Sludge C.3 Motorized T.13 Sedimentation/ Emptying and Thickening Transport T.14 Unplanted Drying Beds D.5 Application Sludge Surface Disposal Anal Cleansing T.15 Planted Drying D.12 Water Beds and Storage Pre-Treatment T.16 Co-Composting C.7 Transfer Station T.17 Biogas Reactor PRE

Dry Cleansing D.12 Surface Disposal Material and Storage System 7: Blackwater Treatment System with Effluent Transport

C5: SETTLED (SOLIDS FREE) SEWER C3: MOTORIZED EMPTYING AND TRANSPORT T6: HORIZONTAL SUBSURFACE FLOW CW 95

inlet pipe and gravel for effluent outlet wastewater distribution (height variable)

wetland plants (macrophytes)

sludge

wet well and cover

inlet

slope 1% septic tank outlet liner rhizome network small gravel

This system is characterized by the use of a house- Considerations This system is especially appropriate hold-level technology to remove and digest settleable for urban settlements where the soil is not suitable for solids from the Blackwater, and a Simplified (C.4) or the infiltration of Effluent. Since the sewer network is Solids-Free (C.5) Sewer system to transport the Efflu- shallow and (ideally) watertight, it is also applicable for ent to a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility. Inputs areas with high groundwater tables. This system can be to the system can include Faeces, Urine, Flushwater, used as a way of upgrading existing, under-performing Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing Materials and Collection and Storage/Treatment technologies (e.g., Greywater. Septic Tanks) by providing improved treatment. This system is comparable to System 6 (Blackwa- The success of this system depends on high user com- ter Treatment System with Infiltration) except that mitment concerning the operation and maintenance the management of the Effluent generated during of the sewer network. A person or organization can be Collection and Storage/Treatment of the Blackwa- made responsible on behalf of the users. There must ter is different: the Effluent from Septic Tanks (S.9), be an affordable and systematic method for desludging Anaerobic Baffled Reactors (S.10) or Anaerobic Filters the interceptors since one user’s improperly maintained (S.11) is transported to a (Semi-) Centralized Treat- tank could adversely impact the entire sewer network. ment facility via a Simplified or a Solids-Free Sewer. Also important is a well-functioning and properly main- The Collection and Storage/Treatment units serve as tained treatment facility. In some cases this will be “interceptor tanks” and allow for the use of simplified managed at the municipal or regional level. In the case small-diameter sewers, as the Effluent is free from of a more local, small-scale solution (e.g., constructed settleable solids. Similar to System 6, the Effluent can wetlands), operation and maintenance responsibilities also alternatively be discharged into the Stormwater could also be organized on the community level. drainage network for Water Disposal/Groundwater This water-based system is suitable for Anal Cleansing Recharge (D.11), although this is not the recommend- Water inputs, and, since the solids are settled and digested approach. This should only be considered if the ed onsite, easily degradable Dry Cleansing Materials can quality of the Effluent is high and transportation to a be used. However, rigid or non-degradable materials (e.g., treatment plant is not feasible. leaves, rags) could clog the system and cause problems Effluent transported to a treatment facility is treated with emptying and, therefore, should not be used. In cas- using a combination of the technologies T.1-T.12. As in es when Dry Cleansing Materials are separately collected System 6, the Sludge from the Collection and Storage/ from the flush toilets, they should be disposed of in an Treatment technology must be removed and transport- appropriate way (e.g., Surface Disposal, D.12). ed for further treatment in a dedicated Sludge treat- With the offsite transport of the Effluent to a (Semi-) ment facility (T.13-T.17). Centralized Treatment facility, the capital investment A technology selection tree for Sludge treatment plants for this system is considerable. Installation of an onsite is provided in Strande et al., 2014 (see Sector Develop- Collection and Storage/Treatment technology may be ment Tools, p. 9). (Semi-) Centralized Treatment tech- costly, but the design and installation of a Simplified or nologies (T.1-T.17) produce both Effluent and Sludge, Solids-Free Sewer will be considerably less expensive which may require further treatment prior to Use and/ than a Conventional Gravity Sewer network. The offsite or Disposal. treatment plant itself is also an important cost factor, Options for the Use and/or Disposal of the treated Efflu- particularly, if there is no pre-existing facility to which ent include Irrigation (D.6), Fish Ponds (D.9), Floating the sewer can be connected. Plant Ponds (D.10) or discharge to a water body (Water Guidelines for the safe use of Effluent and Sludge have Disposal/Groundwater Recharge, D.11). After adequate been published by the World Health Organization (WHO) treatment, Sludge can either be used in agriculture and are referenced on the relevant technology informa- (D.5) or brought to a Storage/Disposal site (D.12). tion sheets. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Transport System with Effluent Treatment System 7 – Blackwater 33 34 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 8 – Blackwater Transport to (Semi-) Centralized Treatment System

Sanitation System 8: Blackwater Transport to (Semi-) Centralized Treatment System

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge

Greywater T.1 Settler T.2 Imhoff Tank T.3 ABR T.4 Anaerobic Filter T.5 WSP Faeces D.6 Irrigation T.6 Aerated Pond U.4 Pour Flush Toilet C.4 Simplified D.9 Fish Pond Sewer T.7 FWS CW U.5 Cistern Flush Blackwater Effluent D.10 Plant Pond C.6 Gravity Sewer T.8 HSF CW Toilet D.11 Disposal/ T.9 VF CW Urine Recharge T.10 Trickling Filter Pre-Treatment T.11 UASB Filtration/Disinfection T.12 Activated Sludge PRE POST

Dry Cleansing D.12 Surface Disposal Material and Storage T8: TRICKLING FILTER 99 System 8: Blackwater Transport to (Semi-) Centralized Treatment System

D10: WATER DISPOSAL/GW RECHARGE 135 C6: CONVENTIONAL GRAVITY SEWER

sprinkler

water course manhole

filter treated effluent

feed pipe air

filter support sewer main outlet collection

This is a water-based sewer system in which Black- Considerations This system is especially appro- water is transported to a Centralized or Semi-Central- priate for dense, urban and peri-urban settlements ized Treatment facility. The important characteristic where there is little or no space for onsite storage of this system is that there is no Collection and Stor- technologies or emptying. The system is not well-suit- age/Treatment. Inputs to the system include Faeces, ed to rural areas with low housing densities. Since the Urine, Flushwater, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleans- sewer network is (ideally) watertight, it is also appli- ing Materials, Greywater and possibly Stormwater. cable for areas with high groundwater tables. There There are two User Interface technologies that can must be a constant supply of water to ensure that the be used for this system: a Pour Flush Toilet (U.4) or sewers do not become blocked. a Cistern Flush Toilet (U.5). A Urinal (U.3) could addi- Dry Cleansing Materials can be handled by the system tionally be used. The Blackwater that is generated at or they can be collected and separately disposed of the User Interface together with Greywater is directly (e.g., Surface Disposal, D.12). conveyed to a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facility The capital investment for this system can be very through a Simplified (C.4) or a Conventional Gravity high. Conventional Gravity Sewers require extensive Sewer network (C.6). excavation and installation that is expensive, whereas Stormwater could also be put into the Gravity Sewer Simplified Sewers are generally less expensive if the network, although this would dilute the wastewater site conditions permit a condominial design. Users and require Stormwater overflows. Therefore, local may be required to pay user fees for the system and retention and infiltration of Stormwater or a separate its maintenance. Depending on the sewer type and drainage system for rainwater are the recommended management structure (Simplified vs. Conventional, approaches. city-run vs. community-operated) there will be varying As there is no Collection and Storage/Treatment, all degrees of operation or maintenance responsibilities of the Blackwater is transported to a (Semi-) Central- for the homeowner. ized Treatment facility. The inclusion of Greywater in This system is most appropriate when there is a high the Conveyance technology helps to prevent solids willingness and ability to pay for the capital invest- from accumulating in the sewers. ment and maintenance costs and where there is a A combination of the technologies T.1-T.12 is required pre-existing treatment facility that has the capacity to for the treatment of the transported Blackwater. The accept additional flow. Sludge generated from these technologies must Guidelines for the safe use of Effluent and Sludge be further treated in a dedicated Sludge treatment have been published by the World Health Organization facility (technologies T.13-T.17) prior to Use and/or (WHO) and are referenced on the relevant technology Disposal. information sheets. Options for the Use and/or Disposal of the treated Effluent include Irrigation (D.6), Fish Ponds (D.9), Floating Plant Ponds (D.10) or discharge to a water body (Water Disposal/Groundwater Recharge, D.11). After adequate treatment, Sludge can either be used in agriculture (D.5) or brought to a Storage/Disposal site (D.12). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and System Treatment to (Semi-) Centralized Transport System 8 – Blackwater 35 36 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies System 9 – Sewerage System with Urine Diversion

Sanitation System 9: Sewerage System with Urine Diversion

D.11 Disposal/ Stormwater Stormwater Drains Recharge

Greywater T.1 Settler T.2 Imhoff Tank T.3 ABR T.4 Anaerobic Filter T.5 WSP Faeces D.6 Irrigation T.6 Aerated Pond U.6 Urine-Diverting C.4 Simplified D.9 Fish Pond Sewer T.7 FWS CW Flush Toilet Brownwater Effluent D.10 Plant Pond C.6 Gravity Sewer T.8 HSF CW U.3 Urinal D.11 Disposal/ T.9 VF CW Urine Recharge T.10 Trickling Filter Pre-Treatment T.11 UASB Filtration/Disinfection T.12 Activated Sludge PRE POST

Flushwater T.13 Sedimentation/ Thickening T.14 Unplanted Drying Beds D.5 Application Sludge Surface Disposal Anal Cleansing T.15 Planted Drying D.12 Water Beds and Storage T.16 Co-Composting T.17 Biogas Reactor C.1 Jerrycan/Tank Dry Cleansing Urine S.1 Storage Tank Stored Urine C.3 Motorized D.2 Application Material Emptying and Transport U6: FLUSH TOILET WITH URINE SEPARATION

System 9: Sewerage System with Urine Diversion

C4: SIMPLIFIED SEWERS S1: URINE STORAGE TANK/CONTAINER

inspection chamber

This is a water-based system that requires a Urine-Di- Considerations This system is only appropriate verting Flush Toilet (UDFT, U.6) and a sewer. The UDFT is when there is a need for the separated Urine and/ a special User Interface that allows for the separate col- or when there is a desire to limit water consumption lection of Urine without water, although it uses water to by using a low-flush UDFT (although the system still flush Faeces. Inputs to the system can include Faeces, requires a constant source of water). There may also Urine, Flushwater, Anal Cleansing Water, Dry Cleansing be benefits to the treatment plant if it is normally Materials, Greywater and possibly Stormwater. overloaded; the reduced nutrient load (by removing The main User Interface technology for this system the Urine) could optimize treatment. However, if the is the UDFT (U.6). A Urinal (U.3) can be an additional plant is currently underloaded (i.e., it has been overde- installation for the effective collection of Urine. Brown- signed), then this system could further aggravate the water and Urine are separated at the User Interface. problem. Depending on the type of sewers used, this Brownwater bypasses a Collection and Storage/Treat- system can be adapted for both dense urban and ment technology and is conveyed directly to a (Semi-) peri-urban areas. It is not well-suited to rural areas Centralized Treatment facility using a Simplified (C.4) with low housing densities. Since the sewer network or a Conventional Gravity Sewer network (C.6). Grey- is (ideally) watertight, it is also applicable for areas water is also transported in the sewer and is not sepa- with high groundwater tables. rately treated. Dry Cleansing Materials can be handled by the system Stormwater could also be put into the Gravity Sewer or they can be collected and separately disposed of network, although this would dilute the wastewater (e.g., Surface Disposal, D.12). and require Stormwater overflows. Therefore, local UDFTs are not common and the capital cost for this retention and infiltration of Stormwater or a separate system can be very high. This is partly due to the fact drainage system for rainwater are the recommended that there is limited competition in the User Interface approaches. market and also because high quality workmanship is Urine diverted at the User Interface is collected in a required for the dual plumbing system. Conventional Storage Tank (S.1). Stored Urine can be handled easily Gravity Sewers require extensive excavation and instal- and with little risk because it is nearly sterile. With its lation which is expensive, whereas Simplified Sew- high nutrient content it can be used as a good liquid ers are generally less expensive if the site conditions fertilizer. Stored Urine can be transported for Applica- permit a condominial design. Users may be required tion in agriculture (D.2) either using Jerrycans or a Tank to pay user fees for the system and its maintenance. (C.1), or a Motorized Emptying and Transport technol- Depending on the sewer type and management struc- ogy (C.3) – the same way that bulk water or Sludge is ture (Simplified vs. Conventional, city-run vs. commu- transported to fields. nity-operated, Urine transport and Application) there Brownwater is treated at a (Semi-) Centralized Treat- will be varying degrees of operation or maintenance ment facility using a combination of the technologies responsibilities for the homeowner. T.1-T.12. The Sludge generated from these technol- This system is most appropriate when there is a high ogies must be further treated in a dedicated Sludge willingness and ability to pay for the capital investment treatment facility (technologies T.13-T.17) prior to Use and maintenance costs and where there is a pre-exist- and/or Disposal. Options for the Use and/or Dispos- ing treatment facility that has the capacity to accept al of the treated Effluent include Irrigation (D.6), Fish additional flow. Ponds (D.9), Floating Plant Ponds (D.10) or discharge to Guidelines for the safe use of Urine, Effluent and Sludge a water body (Water Disposal/Groundwater Recharge, have been published by the World Health Organization D.11). After adequate treatment, Sludge can either be (WHO) and are referenced on the relevant technology used in agriculture (D.5) or brought to a Storage/Dis- information sheets. posal site (D.12). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and System with Urine Diversion System 9 – Sewerage 37 38 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Part 2: Functional Groups with Technology Information Sheets Part 2: Functional Groups with Technology Information Sheets

The second part of the Compendium provides an over- The technologies are arranged and colour-coded view of the different sanitation technologies within according to the associated functional group: each functional group by explaining how they work, where they can be used and their advantages and dis- U User Interface (Technologies U.1-U.6): Red advantages. S Collection and Storage/Treatment For each technology described in the system tem- (Technologies S.1-S.12): Orange plates, there is a technology information sheet that includes an illustration, a summary of the tech- C Conveyance (Technologies C.1-C.7): Yellow nology, and a discussion of its appropriate applications and limitations. An explanation of how to read T (Semi-) Centralized Treatment the technology information sheets is given on the (Technologies PRE, T.1-T.17, POST): Green following two pages. D Use and/or Disposal (Technologies D.1-D.13): Blue The double-page description of the technologies is not intended to be a design manual or technical ref- Each technology within a given functional group is erence; rather, it is meant to be a starting point for assigned a reference code with a single letter and further detailed design. Moreover, the technology number; the letter corresponds to the functional descriptions are to serve as a source of inspiration group (e.g., U for User Interface) and the number, and discussion amongst engineers and planners who going from lowest to highest, indicates approximately may not have previously considered all of the feasible how resource intensive (i.e., economic, material and options. human) the technology is compared to the other technologies within the group.

The closing section introduces newly emerging technologies, which although still under development and being tested, show great promise for future application. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Information Sheets Technology with Functional Groups Part 2: 39 Reading the Technology Information Sheets

The following figure is an example of the heading of a technology information sheet.

Applicable to: S.8 Composting Chamber System 2 2

Application Level: Management Level: Inputs: Excreta Faeces Organics 3 4 (+ Dry Cleansing Materials) 5  Household  Household  Neighbourhood  Shared Outputs: Compost Effluent City  Public 6

1 The title with colour, letter and number code. It is up to the Compendium user to decide on the appro- The colour code (orange) and the letter (S) indicate that priate level for the specific situation that he/she is the technology belongs to the functional group Collec- working on. tion and Storage/Treatment (S). The number (8) indi- The Application Level graphic is only meant to be a rough cates that it is the eighth technology within that func- guide to be used in the preliminary planning stage. tional group. The technologies within the functional group User Inter- Each technology description page has a similar colour, face do not include an Application Level since they can letter and number code, allowing for easy access and only service a limited number of people. cross-referencing. 4 Management Level describes the organization- 2 Applicable to System 2. This indicates in which al style best used for the operation and maintenance system template the technology can be found. In this (O&M) of the given technology: case, the Composting Chamber can be found (and only • Household implies that the household, e.g., the found) in System 2. Other technologies may be applica- family, is responsible for all O&M. ble to more than one system. • Shared means that a group of users (e.g., at a school, a community-based organization, or market 3 Application Level. Three spatial levels are defined vendors) handles the O&M by ensuring that a per- under this heading: son or a committee is responsible for it on behalf • Household implies that the technology is appropri- of all users. Shared facilities are defined by the fact ate for one or several households. that the community of users decides who is allowed • Neighbourhood means that the technology is appro- to use the facility and what their responsibilities are; priate for anywhere between several and several it is a self-defined group of users. hundred households. • Public implies institutional or government run facili- • City implies that the technology is appropriate at the ties, and all O&M is assumed by the agency operat- city-wide level (either one unit for the whole city, or ing the facility. Usually, only users who can pay for many units for different parts of the city). the service are permitted to use public facilities. Stars are used to indicate how appropriate each level is The Composting Chamber in this example can be man- for the given technology: aged by all three styles, even though it is less suitable • two stars means suitable, for public installations. • one star means less suitable, and The technologies in the functional group User Interface • no star means not suitable. do not include a Management Level since maintenance Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Information Sheets Technology Reading the 40 r Cenig aeil my lo e nldd (the included be also may Materials Cleansing Dry Chamber. Composting the by processed be can that as User Interface) and Organics are the main products In this example, Excreta or Faeces (if the UDDT is used together. mixed are and technology given the in included are + the of side either on products the of both words: otherIn product(s). mixed preceding thewithis + the the by indicated is this product, another with mixed occurs product a Where dependingontheproducts, designorcontext. products Products ucts orchoice mainproducts. ofmandatory Hence, the regular icons therepresent necessary. are all not which of (possibilities) options or alternatives represent products these technologies, technology. a some intoFor go typically will that inputs The icons shown en technology. simply onthe UserInterface. not and technologies, subsequent the on dependent is 5

refers to the products that flow into the giv into flow the that products tothe refers Inputs that may or may not be used or occur as input diinl (optional) additional are () parentheses in without without parentheses are the regular . The product following product The +. plus mandatory - prod mandatory - it isnot listed. therefore, Chamber; Composting the into discharged must Water Cleansing Anal +). the by cated (indi- products previous the with along Chamber ing the and, User therefore,Interface enter the Compost - Materials are not separated from Excreta or Faeces at Cleansing Dry used). are Materials Cleansing Dry ble - biodegrada and wipers are users the case in input al parentheses indicate that this is an additional, option- Products Products outputs that typicallycomeoutofatechnology. The icons shown given technology. separate Compost andEffluent (leachate). products: In this example, the Composting Chamber produces two emanate the from given technology inamixed form. + the of side either on products the of both + is mixed with the preceding product(s). In other words: this is indicated by the When these products occur depending onthe designorcontext. products that may or may not occur as output products, 6

refers to the products that flow out of the of out flow that products the to refers Outputs additional are () parentheses in without without parentheses are the regular plus +. The product following the mixed with another product, (optional) not be be

41 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Reading the Technology Information Sheets U

42 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group U: User Interface • • • • • following factors: In any given context, the technology choice generally dependsonthe U.6 U.5 U.4 U.3 U.2 U.1 Collection andStorage/Treatment orConveyance technology. generate different output products. This influencesthe subsequent type of technologies Interface User (U.4-U.6). Different properlyfunction waterto of supply regular a need that technologies water-based (U.1-U.3)and ter wa- without operate that technologies dry interfaces: of types are main two There contamination. faecal to exposure prevent to contact human from separated hygienically is excreta human that guarantee must face user.Inter the byUser used The urinal or pan, pedestal,toilet, of type the interacts,user i.e., technologiesdescribes which the section the with This Conveyance technology Compatibility with the subsequent CollectionandStorage/Treatment or Local availability ofmaterials Special needsofusergroups (sittingorsquatting, washing oftheHabits andpreferences users orwiping) Availability ofwater for flushing Urine-Diverting FlushToiletUrine-Diverting (UDFT) Cistern FlushToilet Pour FlushToilet Urinal Toilet Dry Urine-Diverting (UDDT) ToiletDry - User Interface

43 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U Functional Group U: User Interface U

44 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .1 Functional Group U: User Interface esos a as b aalbe Woe o metal or Wooden available. be also may versions steel stainless and porcelain Fibreglass, available). are cement and sand that (providing concrete with locally made be can slabs squatting and Pedestals prevent unwanted insectsorrodents. from intrusion to lid a with closed be can hole The overflow). to it cause may (which pit the infiltrating stormwater from prevents and user the for safe both is it that so pit theto sized well be should base pedestal or slab The andmovedlifted onepit to from another. be can it that way a such in designed be should slab orthe overused, pedestal placed two if are pits pit; a usually is toilet dry The Design Considerations or combinationsoftechnologies (especiallypits). toilet ature, a dry may refer to a variety of technologies, literother In squats. or sits user the overwhich device In this compendium, a dry toilet refers specifically to the ces) fall through adrop hole. fae - and urine (both excreta cases, both In squats. over pan user squat the a which or sit, can user the ter. The dry toilet may be a raised pedestal on which A dry toilet is a toilet that operates without flushwa- Dry ToiletDry option 1 U1: DR Y TO I LET

slab - option 2 Outputs: Inputs: (+ should not except need repairs in the event that it cracks. toilet dry the therefore, parts; mechanical no are There gen/disease andto transmission limitodours. patho- preventto dry keptand be clean should surface standing or sitting The Operation &Maintenance Treatment technology connected to them. be a problem depending on the Collection and Storage/ may odours seal, water a have not do toilets dry Since slab may bethe acceptable most option. squatting well-kept a so and people many for position Health Aspects/Acceptance Squatting is a natural option.simplest andphysically comfortable most no need to separate urine and faeces, they are often the is there Because children). for ones smaller (e.g., users target the of needs the meet to designed specially be can they made locally, are toilets dry When difficulty. havemay who users disabled or elderly for made be to almost for everyone to use though special consideration may need easy are toilets Dry Appropriateness and efficiently. quickly units several produce to used be can moulds (

Anal Cleansing Water) ( Dry Cleansing Materials) Dry

Faeces

Excreta (+ Systems 1,2 Applicable to:

Urine Dry Cleansing Dry Materials) Anal Cleansing Water) - - - + + + + Pros &Cons traps andappropriate coverstraps used are Vectors such hard asfliesare unlessfly to control is used The excreta pileisvisible, except adeeppit where vent pipe) or pitusedto collectexcreta isequipped with a noticeable (even normally are Odours ifthe vault wipers) washers, (sitters, squatters, forSuitable alltypesofusers costs Low andoperating capital materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable Does not ofwater source aconstant require

_ Reed, P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and P._ Morgan, R.(2007). Toilets ThatMake Compost. Low-Cost, _ CAWST (2011). Introduction to Low Cost Sanitation. Latrine B.(1997)._ Brandberg, Building.AHandbookfor Latrine Imple- Reading References &Further andmaintenance)for design, construction (Comprehensive guidewith key andchecklists information Available at: wedc.lboro.ac.uk/knowledge/booklets.html University,Loughborough UK. Leicestershire, Available at: www.ecosanres.org tute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment- Insti sheeting sand,cement,plastic only andwire) (pp.39-43)using squatting slabs(pp.7-35)andpedestals (Excellent description of how to makeand rings support Available at: www.ecosanres.org holm, SE. Context.an African Stockholm Environment Institute, Stock ToiletsSanitary ThatProduce Valuable Compost for Crops in designs) slab manualfor(Very detailed different construction Available at: www.cawst.org CA. Calgary, WaterAffordable Technologies andSanitation (CAWST), Construction. ACAWST Construction for Manual.Centre footrests, etc.)the frame, spacers, how to(Describes buildasquatting slabandthe mouldsfor Publications, London,UK.pp.55-77. mentation ofthe Sanplat System. Intermediate Technology B. (2012). An Engineer’s Guide to Latrine Slabs. WEDC, -

45 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U

Functional Group U: User Interface .1 U

46 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .2 Functional Group U: User Interface rn tns o ut ot eas teeoe metals therefore, the metals; of piping and construction theavoided in be should most rust to tends Urine dependingonuserpreference. faeces rate from urine sepa- to used be can slab squat a and pedestal a Both collection. andfaeces rate the drain from urine cleansing water to go into a third, dedicated basin sepa- anal allow that toilets separating 3-hole also are There ofthe area toilet.into the dry area in the front, and that b) urine does not splash down collection urine the clog and into fall not do faeces a) that ensure to separated well are toilet the of sections Design Considerations that It theis important two should beaddedinto defecating. the sameholeafter earth or ash lime, as such material drying follows, that technology Storage/Treatment and Collection the on Depending back.the in (hole) chutelarge a through fall and faeces while toilet, collected the of is area front the urine from drained that such built is UDDT The from faeces. the urineuser,divert the away can the effort, little with that so divider a has and water without operates that toilet a is (UDDT) toilet dry urine-diverting A Urine-Diverting Dry Dry ToiletUrine-Diverting (UDDT) option 1 U2: U for wipers RINE DIVE RT urine IN G DR Y TO option 2 I LET (UD D T) urine Outputs: Inputs: cetne ih sr. o bte acpac o the of acceptance better For users. with acceptance achieve togood essential are training and projects tion - Demonstra well. as toilet of type this accepting from others deter mistakesmay bowl) urine the and in faeces (e.g., made it, using about hesitant be may users not Atfirst, users. immediatelytoobvioussome intuitiveor is UDDT The Health Aspects/Acceptance people whoprefer to squat, etc.). children, for smaller (i.e., populations specific of needs the suit to altered be can design UDDT The plastic. or mesh wire and concrete as materials such using build, and design to simple is UDDT The Appropriateness atthe drain. odour sealshouldbeinstalled urine an pipe, the up back coming from odours prevent To accessisdifficult. slopes, andwhere mm) should be used elsewhere, especially for minimum where maintenance is easy. and Larger diameter pipes (> slopes 75 steep for sufficient is mm 50 of diameter slope, and sharp angles (90°) should be avoided. A pipe 1% a least at with installed be should pipes exist, they age tanks should be kept as short as possible; whenever stor to (pipes) connections all scaling, limit ToUDDT. (

Urine ( Urine

Anal Cleansing Water)(

option 3 Faeces for washers

Faeces (+

Anal CleansingWater) anal cleansingwater System 4 Applicable to:

Urine Dry Cleansing Dry Materials) Dry Cleansing Materials) urine - + + + + + Pros &Cons tois critical check regularly itsfunctioning. It maintenance. occasional requires also seal odour An required. ages. However, in some cases manual removal may be water to soda) 1 can part be used for removing block parts (2 solution soda caustic a or acid acetic) 24% (> Stronger scaling. and deposits mineral of build-up the prevent can water hot and/or vinegar) (e.g., acid mild a with bowl the Washing present. urine constantly is where surfaces on and pipes in up build and precipitate can salts and minerals magnesium-based and calcium- separately, collected is urine Because the not are faeces mixed with water. cleaned with water, care should be taken to ensure that is toilet the When dry. and separate remain faeces the that important is It thoroughly. more cleaned be can and removable easily are toilets Some bowls. inner the and seat the down wipe to used be may cloth damp a Instead, cleaning. toiletfor the in poured be not should Water stains. of formation the minimize to and odours All of the surfaces should be cleaned regularly to prevent blockages andcleaning problems. causing section, urine the in deposited accidentally be can Faeces maintenance. and cleaning extra in result may which perfectly, streams both separating difficulty work for everyone and, therefore, some users may have will design No urine. liquid and faeces solid the arate sep- to need the and water of lack the both of because toilets other to compared clean keep to difficult more slightly is UDDT A Operation &Maintenance men to andurinate. stand allowing (U.3), Urinal a with combined be can toiletthe system andto avoid in the collection urine bowl, faeces washers, wipers) washers, (sitters, squatters, forSuitable alltypesofusers costs Low andoperating capital materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable correctly maintained ifusedand with problems No real fliesorodours Does not ofwater source aconstant require

P._ Morgan, R.(2007). Toilets ThatMake Compost. Low-Cost, Reading References &Further - - - - - M.(Eds.)(2004). U. andSimpson-Hébert, _ Winblad, H.(2012). C.,von Münch, E.andHoffmann, _ Rieck, Technol- Sanitation Solutions.Examples (2006).Smart of _ NWP Münch, E.andWinker,_ von M.(2011). Technology Review P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and

squat plate) bucketusing aplastic andhow to aurine-diverting construct (Provides step-by step onhow to instruction buildaUDDT Available at: www.ecosanres.org holm, SE. Context.an African Stockholm Environment Institute, Stock ToiletsSanitary ThatProduce Valuable Compost for Crops in Available at: www.ecosanres.org Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, SE. Ecological Sanitation. Revised andEnlarged Edition. Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. GmbH, Eschborn, fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ) Gesellschaft of Design,Operation, Management andCosts. Deutsche ogy Review Toilets Dry ofUrine-Diverting (UDDTs). Overview Available at: www.ircwash.org TheHague,NL. Netherlands Water Partnership, Transportation, Treatment andUseofSanitation Products. Innovative, Technologies Low-Cost for Toilets, Collection, Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Toilets, Storage Urine andReuse Systems. für Gesellschaft Components Such asWaterless Diversion Urine Urinals, Diversionof Urine Diversion Components. ofUrine Overview Available at: www.ecosanres.org tute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment- Insti collection ofurine aseparateMen usuallyrequire for Urinal optimum The excreta pileisvisible toIs prone misuseandcloggingwith faeces Requires andacceptance training to beusedcorrectly Prefabricated modelsnot available everywhere -

47 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U

Functional Group U: User Interface .2 U

48 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .3 Functional Group U: User Interface a basicliquid seal. provide to tank urine the in submerged be should pipe collection the designs, urinal waterless simple in loss nitrogen and odours minimize To favoured. be should technologies waterless or Water-saving out- models. in dated flushwater of L 20 almost to designs Lin 2 current than less from ranges flush per use water the urinals, water-based For Design Considerations (with awater-seal). is odours limiting and cleaning waterfor used mainly is it used, If accordingly. developed be can plumbing the and water without or with used be can urinal The which the usersquats. over slabs squat or units, wall-mounted vertical either urine to a collection technology. For the men, urinals can be conducts that area catchment or channel sloped a and foot-steps raised of consist women for Urinals creasingly popular. in- becoming are urinals waterless but flushing, for water use urinals Most developed. been also have women for models although Urinalsmen, for generally are urine. collecting for only used is urinal A Urinal U3: U option 1 RINAL Inputs: Outputs: used more efficiently.used more or number in reduced be can toilets remaining the and time) or location appropriate more a at discharged or used either (and collected be can urine of volumelarge wastewaterof load discharged theat site. thisIn way, a to improve the the andreduce facilities point sanitation gatherings, other and concerts festivals, large for at developed use been have urinals waterless Portable systems (e.g.,UDDT, U.2). dry of misuse the prevent to useful is urinal a of vision - pro the cases, some In facilities. public within as well as homes in used be can Urinals Appropriateness for faeces. used be to toilet a provide also to important is it urine exclusively for is urinal thefacility. theBecause of ness improveuser-guidancehelp of can thistype cleanli- the reduced; be can splashing or spraying of amount the drain, the near fly painted or target, small a putting By or asealingliquid. brane, an with odour seal that may have a mechanical closure, a mem- equipped come urinals Some complexities. and styles of range a in available are urinals Waterless option 2

Urine ( Urine

Urine (+ Urine Flushwater ) Systems 4,5,9 Applicable to: Flushwater) - - + + + Pros &Cons functioning ofthe odourseal. checkthe to regularly critical is it waterlessFor urinals, cases manualremoval may berequired. blockages.removing However,for used be some can in or a caustic soda solution (2 waterparts to 1 soda) part acid acetic) 24% (> Stronger scaling. and deposits eral min- of build-up the prevent can water hot and/or gar) vine- (e.g., acid mild a with bowl the Washing present. constantly is urine where surfaces on and pipes in up build and precipitate can salts and minerals um-based Particularly,waterlessin magnesi- and calcium- urinals, ofstains. the formation tominimize and to wall)preventodours and slab (bowl, regularly cleaned be should surfaces the of All urinals. waterless for especially frequently, done be should but Operation & Maintenance Maintenance is simple, change ofbehaviour. any for call generally not do they as have urinals, waterless accepted Men comfortable. more feel women makes and odours unwanted reduces which public, in men have access to a urinal, they may urinate less often When community. a of well-being the on impact large a have can urinals design, and construction in simple Although Interface. User accepted easily and fortable com- a is urinal The Health Aspects/Acceptance Models for women not are widelyavailable correctly maintained may withProblems odours occurifnot usedand costs Low andoperating capital materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable of water Waterless donot urinals source aconstant require

Münch, E.andDahm,P._ von (2009).Waterless A Urinals: andDuncker, A. _ Austin, L.(2002).Urine-Diversion. Ecologi - Reading References &Further Smart Sanitation Solutions.Examples (2006). Smart of _ NWP Münch, E.andWinker,_ von M.(2011). Technology Review 34 Proposal to Save Water andRecover Nutrients Urine inAfrica. container) for usinga5Lplastic (Directions makingasimple urinal cal Sanitation Systems inSouth CSIR,Pretoria, Africa. ZA. Available at: wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk Available at: www.ircwash.org TheHague,NL. Netherlands Water Partnership, Transportation, Treatment andUseofSanitation Products. Innovative, Technologies Low-Cost for Toilets, Collection, Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Toilets, Storage Urine andReuse Systems. für Gesellschaft Components Such asWaterless Diversion Urine Urinals, Diversionof Urine Diversion Components. ofUrine Overview th WEDCInternational Conference. Addis ET. Ababa,

49 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U

Functional Group U: User Interface .3 U

50 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .4 Functional Group U: User Interface (concrete may clog more easily if it is rough or textured). or ceramic to prevent clogs and to make cleaning easier plastic of out made be Watershould 25°. seals least at tom of the pour flush toilet or pan should have a slope of bot- the at seal water The Design Considerations pourflush toilets andpans. affordable mass-producing at efficient increasingly become have manufacturers local demand, to Due mode. flush pour the in used be can pans squatting and pedestals Both water seal. curved the over and up excreta the move to sufficient be must helps) often height a from (pouring water the of force the and of water quantity The sufficient. ally flush the toilet of excreta; approximately 2 to 3 L is usu- to bowl the into poured is Water pipe. the up back ing com- from flies and odours prevents that seal water a has toilet flush pour Toilet,the Flush Cistern a like Just Toilet canbecomeapourflush toilet. Flush Cistern any continuous, not is supply water above.the cistern When the from coming of instead user, the by in poured is water the except that (U.5) A pour flush toilet is like a regular Cistern Flush Toilet Pour Flush ToiletPour U4: PO UR FL USH TO I seal depth LET

slab Outputs: ( Inputs: should be clean and comfortable to use. should beclean andcomfortable toilet the and odours no almost be should there well, working is seal water the that Provided accepted. well generally is it Thus, users. previous of excreta the ing smell- or seeing from users prevents pan) squatting (or toilet flush pour The Health Aspects/Acceptance both publicandprivate applications. for appropriatetoilet is of type available,thiswater is If nance. mainte- more require thus, and, easily more clog may toilet flush pour the used, is water of amount smaller a because However, Toilet. Flush Cistern traditional a than water less (much) requires toilet flush pour The available. water of supply constant a is there when ate for those who cleanse with water. Yet, it is only - appropri as well as slab), or (pedestal squat or sit who those for flush pour The toilet appropriate is Appropriateness approximately 7cmindiameter. be should trap The excreta. the flush to required water the minimize to cm 2 approximately is head seal water the of depth optimal The flushing. for needed is water much how determines seal water the of S-shape The

Anal Cleansing Water)(

Faeces Blackwater Systems 1,3,5-8 Applicable to: Urine Urine Dry Cleansing Dry Materials) Flushwater - - - + + + + Pros &Cons separately andnot flusheddown the toilet. collected be hygiene menstrual for used products and materials cleansing dry that recommended is it ging, clog- to prevent and flushing for requirements water reduce To stains. of buildup the prevent and hygiene maintain to regularly cleaned be should it toilet, based water- a is it that fact the repair.Despite require rarely mechanical parts, pour flush toilets are quiterobust and no are there Because Operation &Maintenance seal cleansing materials may clog the water dry Coarse not available everywhere Requires materials andskillsfor that production are water and/orcollected rainwater) Requires ofwater source aconstant (canberecycled ofwaterprice dependonthe costs Low operating costs; capital wipers) washers, (sitters, squatters, forSuitable alltypesofusers next userarrives The excreta flushed ofoneuserare away before the The water prevents sealeffectively odours _ Roy, K.,Chatterjee, A. P. K.,Gupta, S.T., Khare, K.N., Rau, D.(1996)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, D.(1985)._ Mara, TheDesignofPour-Flush UNDP Latrines. Reading References &Further connections) (Provides specificationsfor pour flushtoilets and Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home The World BankandUNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. INT/81/047, inIndia.UNDPInterregional Project Latrines struction andMaintenance Pour-Flush ofLow-Cost Waterseal B. andSingh,R.S.(1984). Manualonthe Design,Con- flush toilet isincluded.) description ofhow to modifyapourflushtoilet to acistern A designcriteria. with dimensionsandcritical and trap (Provides detailed squat pan ofIndianglass-fibre drawings Chichester, UK. Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home UNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. INT/81/047,Interregional Project TheWorld Bank and

51 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U

Functional Group U: User Interface .4 U

52 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .5 Functional Group U: User Interface A good plumber is required to install a flush toilet. The The toilet. flush a install to required is plumber good A which negates the intended saving ofwater. bowl, the clean adequately to times more or two flush to has user the consequently, and, bowl the empty to sufficient not is flush per used water of volume the es, used with as little as 3 L of water per flush. In some cas- be can that available currently toilets flush low-volume different are There L. 20 to up of quantities flushwater for were designed models older whereas flush, per L 9 to 6 use toilets Modern Design Considerations them away.carry and excreta, the with mix bowl, the into run to water lever.a pulling byor pushing released is allowsThis the plumbing. toiletbowl abovethe cistern the in stored Wateris that the through up back coming from odours prevent to seal water sophisticated a incorporates it that is toilet flush cistern the of feature attractive The bowl into which excreta the are deposited. a and excreta the flushing for water the supplies that tank water a of consists toilet flush The face. Inter User factory-made mass-produced, a is and The cistern flush toilet isusually madeofporcelain Cistern Flush Toilet Cistern U5: CIST option 1 ERN FL USH TO I LET

- Outputs: ( Inputs: ed inaseparate bin. collect- be should products hygiene Menstrual fittings. or parts mechanical some of repair or replacement the for required is Maintenance stains. of buildup the vent - pre and hygiene maintain to regularly clean scrubbed be should toilet the bowl, the rinses continuously ter flushwa - Although Operation &Maintenance toilet tofortable useprovided it is kept clean. com- and safe a is It Health Aspects/Acceptance private applications. and public both for suitable is toilet flush cistern The Conveyance technology to receive the blackwater. Storage/Treatment and Collection a or and flushing for water of source constant a both to connected be must available are accessories locally. flush cistern The toilet hardware and connections the of all unless considered notflush be cisterntoilet should A Appropriateness sealed properly, therefore, minimizingleakage. and connected are valves all that ensure will plumber

Anal Cleansing Water)(

option 2 Faeces Blackwater Systems 6-8 Applicable to: Urine Urine Dry Cleansing Dry Materials) Flushwater - - - + + + Pros &Cons materials Cannot locallywith bebuilt and/orrepaired available Requires ofwater source aconstant ofwaterprice dependonthe costs operating costs; High capital andwashers) wipers (sitters, squatters, forSuitable alltypesofusers ifusedcorrectly with problems No real odours next userarrives The excreta flushed ofoneuserare away before the D.(2007). Toilets:_ Vandervort, Installation andRepair. B.(2005).AssemblingandInstalling aNew_ Maki, Toilet. Reading References &Further leaking toilet andother toilet essentials) to other tools, such ashow to atoilet, install how to fixa ofthe toilet each indetail part (Describes and provides links Available at: www.hometips.com/bathroom_toilets.html HomeTips.com. step-by-step instructions) how to(Describes atoilet install with fullcolourphotos and Available at: www.hammerzone.com Hammerzone.com.

53 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U

Functional Group U: User Interface .5 U

54 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .6 Functional Group U: User Interface they exist, pipes should be installed with at least a 1% 1% a least at with installed be should pipes exist, they whenever possible; as short as kept be should tanks storage to (pipes) connections all scaling, Tolimit sion. - corro prevent to used be should pipes plastic urine, of discharge the For removed. easily and prevented be they thatcan so mayoccur clogs where and how of ing - understand an with carefully installed be should toilet water). The flushing and material cleansing dry (faeces, plumbing, i.e., separate piping for urine and brownwater dual requires system The Design Considerations with water to betreated. flushed are faeces the while processing, or use further is for tank a storage toilet into flows urine The the flushed. when bowl urine-collection the rinse to used is water of amount small a but water,without ed collect- is urine The back. the in collected are faeces is Urine collected in in thea drain of front the toilet and faeces. Both sittingandsquatting modelsexist. sections so that the urine can be separated two from the has bowl toilet The bowl. the in diversion the appearance to a Cistern Flush Toilet (U.5) except for in similar is (UDFT) toilet flush urine-diverting The U6: FL Urine-Diverting Flush Urine-Diverting Toilet (UDFT) USH TO I LET WITH URINE SEP AR A TION Outputs: ( Inputs: and for promoting acceptance; if users understand why understand forpromotingand acceptance;users if use proper ensuring for essential are diagrams and/or cards Information Health Aspects/Acceptance expertise. cial, andrequires - cru is pipes urine the of installation and design proper the Particularly,Toilets. Flush Cistern for than plicated com- more is plumbing the collection, brownwater and urine for pipes separate requires technology this Since clogging. minimize and use proper ensure to settings public in required is awareness and training significant although applications, private and public for suitable are UDFTs recommended. are men for (U.3) Urinals efficiency, diversion improve To urine. collected the for use a and brownwater the for technology treatment a flushing, for water enough is there when adequate is UDFT A Appropriateness accessisdifficult. slopes, andwhere mm) should be used elsewhere, especially for minimum where maintenance is easy. and Larger diameter pipes (> slopes 75 steep for sufficient is mm 50 of diameter slope, and sharp angles (90°) should be avoided. A pipe

Anal Cleansing Water)(

Faeces Brownwater Systems 5,9 Applicable to: Urine Urine Dry Cleansing Dry Materials)

Urine Urine Flushwater ------+ + + Pros &Cons es manualremoval may berequired. be used for removing blockages. However, in some cas- water caustic soda solution (2 parts tosoda) can 1 part a or acid acetic) 24% (> Stronger scaling. and deposits mineral of build-up the prevent can water hot and/or vinegar) (e.g., acid mild a with bowl theWashing pipes. and salts can precipitate and build up in the fittings and minerals magnesium-based and calcium- separately, collected is urine Because forming. from prevent stains and clean bowl(s) the keep to important is cleaning er Operation &Maintenance As with any toilet, - prop that there noodours. are ensure will plumbing properly. Correct UDFT the use to willing more be will they separated, being is urine the

collection of urine collection ofurine aseparateMen usuallyrequire for Urinal optimum Requires ofwater source aconstant toIs prone misuseandclogging correctly Requires andacceptance training to beused Labour-intensive maintenance and maintenance dependonparts costs operating costs; High capital Limited availability; cannot be built locally or repaired Flush Toilet Looks like, like, andcanbeusedalmost aCistern ifusedcorrectly with problems No real odours Toilet Requires lesswater Cistern than Flush atraditional _ Winker, (2011). M.andSaadoun,A. andBrownwater Urine Münch, E.andWinker,_ von M.(2011). Technology Review T. J.(2007). andLienert, _ Larsen, A. Novaquatis Final Report. Johans- Stintzing, A., E.,Emilsson,K.,Richert _ Kvarnström, Reading References &Further Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Alliance (SuSanA),Eschborn, Sanitation Sustainable Germany –CaseStudy ofSustainable Sanitation Projects. Separation atGTZ MainOfficeBuildingEschborn, Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Toilets, Storage Urine andReuse Systems. für Gesellschaft Components Such asWaterless Diversion Urine Urinals, Diversionof Urine Diversion Components. ofUrine Overview Available at: www.novaquatis.eawag.ch CH. Eawag, Dübendorf, NoMix –ANew Approach to Water Urban Management. Available at: www.ecosanres.org Stockholm,Ecosan PublicationsSeries, SE. Towards Sustainable 2006–1, Sanitation. Report EcoSanRes: P. Diversion: J.-O.(2006).Urine OneStep andDrangert, L.,Ridderstolpe, Christensen, D., Qvarnström, J.,Hellström, son, M.,Jönsson,H.,afPetersens, E.,Schönning, C.,

55 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies U

Functional Group U: User Interface .6 S

56 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment • • • • • • • • • following factors: In any given context, the technology choice generally dependsonthe S.12 S.11 S.10 S.9 S.8 S.7 S.6 S.5 S.4 S.3 S.2 S.1 they canbemanually emptied. these technologies, there is a reduced threat of contamination. Therefore, of design the in implicit periodstorage the of Because (S.4-S.7). nologies gy input). Four of the featured technologies are alternating pit/vault tech- ment provided by treat- S technologies The is usually passive conditions. (e.g., requiring and no ener time storage the on depending treatment, of degree some provide also latter The storage. and collection for designed specifically are others while treatment, for designed specifically are here ucts generated at the User Interface. Some of the technologies presented prod- the store and collect that technologies the describes section This User preferences Management considerations resources Financial Availability oftechnologies for subsequent transport outputproducts Desired Local availability ofmaterials Type andquantity ofinput products Soil andgroundwater characteristics Availability ofspace Biogas Reactor FilterAnaerobic Baffled Anaerobic Reactor (ABR) Septic Tank Composting Chamber Dehydration Vaults Twin Pitsfor Pour Flush Fossa Alterna Double Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP) Single Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP) Single Pit StorageUrine Tank/Container - Collection andStorage/Treatment

57 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment S .1 58 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment tity may vary significantly depending on the climate be should tanks storage Mobile consumption. fluid and on depending significantly vary may tity quan- this however, day; a urine of L 1.2 about erates gen - person a average, On Design Considerations to, the pointofuse(i.e.,the farm). close or at, tank storage centralized another to ported - trans and used be can tanks storage volume Smaller out storage. with- directly used be can it only,consumption hold house- own their for crops fertilize to used is urine family’s a If guidelines). application and storage ic specif- for guidelines WHO (see use before month 1 least at for stored be should urine all but fertilizer, asused be would it which for crop intendedthe and storage of temperature the to correspond urine for required to sanitize the urine. The storage guidelines time the and users of number the accommodate to The urine storage tank should be appropriately sized emptied into another for container transport. or moved be then must tank storage The tanks. or containers in onsite stored be C.1),can see it cans, Jerry (i.e., technology Conveyance a using ported trans - or immediately used be cannot urine When Application Level: Urine Storage Urine Tank /Container    City Neighbourhood Household S1: URINE Management Level:    Household Public Shared ST OR AG E TA N - K/CONTA Outputs: Inputs: avoid the backflow ofair. of the tank. This will prevent the urine from spraying and bottom the near released be and should flow pipe a through urine down the i.e., bottom, the from filled be should tank the loss, nitrogen and odours minimize To in caseofblockages. accessible easily be should They pipes). underground 110to for (up mm diameters large and angles, sharp no 1%), (> slope steep a have should Pipes accumulate. will precipitates since pipe the of length the minimize to taken be should care urinal, or toilet the If the storage tank is directly connected with a pipe to sions, butthey both needto equalized. bepressure pipes collection ventilatedbe should to avoid emis- ammonia odorous the nor tank, storage the Neither and/or cleaned be can pumped out. it that so enough large Anyopening an have should storage tank. urine for used tank the of bottom the on form will phates) phos- magnesium and calcium (primarily minerals Over time, a layer of organic sludge and precipitated stored urine. of pH high the by corroded be easily can it as avoided be should Metal plastic. or concrete of comprised be can ones permanent but fibreglass, or plastic of made INER

Urine Urine Stored Urine Systems 4,5,9 Applicable to:

culty) ordissolved with acid(24% astrong acetic). diffi- with (sometimes removed manually be can pipes connecting in or tank the in build-up salt and Mineral age conditions. stor the and urine the of composition the on depend will period desludging The desludging. require may it but if a tap is used and the tank is never fully emptied,urine, the with along emptied be usually will sludge the emptied, is tank storage the When tank. storage the of bottom the on accumulate will sludge viscous A vacuum. the to due implode not does tank the that ensure to rate sufficient a at maintained be must air theinflowC.3), of(see emptiedvacuum a truck using is tank storage the If Operation &Maintenance complete sanitization. with storage times greater than 6 months provides near transmission from stored urine is low. Extended storage chemicals or mechanical processes. The risk of disease of addition the without urine sanitize to way best the is storage Long-term Health Aspects/Acceptance space available, andsoil. climate, the on depending ground below and ground above outdoors, indoors, installed be can tanks age stor Urine loss. - pre nitrogen and to infiltration leaks, vent well-sealed be should tanks every virtually environment; in used be can tanks storage Urine ofpollutionandanuisance. become asource stored urine. When there is no such need, the urine can the by supplied be can which agriculture for fertilizer from nutrients for need most a is there are where appropriate tanks storage Urine Appropriateness - - - - - + + + + + + Pros &Cons (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO Münch, E.andWinker,_ von M.(2011). Technology Review Johans- Stintzing, A., E.,Emilsson,K.,Richert _ Kvarnström, Reading References &Further Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Toilets, Storage Urine andReuse Systems. für Gesellschaft Components Such asWaterless Diversion Urine Urinals, Diversionof Urine Diversion Components. ofUrine Overview Available at: www.ecosanres.org Stockholm,Ecosan PublicationsSeries, SE. Towards Sustainable 2006–1, Sanitation. Report EcoSanRes: P. Diversion: J.-O.(2006).Urine OneStep andDrangert, L.,Ridderstolpe, Christensen, D.,Qvarnström, J.,Hellström, son, M.,Jönsson,H.,afPetersens, E.,Schönning, C., tank size) tank May emptying frequent require (dependingon material ofthe tank) canbehigh(dependingonthe costs Capital sizeand tank Mild to odourwhenopeningandemptying strong No orlowifself-emptied costs operating required Small landarea Stored canbeusedasafertilizer urine Low ofpathogen risk transmission materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable technologySimple androbust

59 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .1 S .2 60 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment of thumb). If the pit is to be reused, it should be lined. lined. be should it reused, be to is pit the If thumb). of pit should be at least 2 m above groundwater level (rule the of bottom the contamination, groundwater prevent To emptying. without years more or 20 last may pits some dug, are they deep how on Depending collapse. of risk increased an is there m, 1.5 exceeds diameter pit the diameter.If in m 1 and deep m 3 least at is pit the Typically, L. 1,000 least at contain to designed be should pit the of volume The used. are paper or leaves 90 L per cleansing person/yearmaterials if suchdry as mulate at a rate of 40 to 60 L per person/year and up to accu- solids average, On Design Considerations organic fraction. pit and wall, while of microbial action the degrades part and the of bottom the through soil the into percolate Urine water degradation. and leaching of rate accumulation: the limit processes two fills, pit single the As provides to superstructure. the support and collapsing from it prevents pit the Lining pit. a into deposited are solids) or (water materials ing cleans- anal with along Excreta, technologies. tion The single pit is one of the most widely used - sanita Application Level: Single Pit   City Neighbourhood Household S2: SING > 3m 20-40cm LE Management Level:   PI Household Public Shared T Outputs: (+ Inputs: unlined shallow pit that may be appropriate for areas areas for appropriate be may that pit shallow unlined the is variation Another rain. heavy during pit the into order to in frequent flowing water is keep from flooding where area an in constructed be also can pit raised A blocks. or rings concrete of use the with upwards pit the building by extended be can pit shallow the native: water level is too pit high, can a be raised a viable alter - ground the or pit deep a dig to possible not is it When contamination. is normally recommended to limit exposure to microbial m 30 of distance horizontal minimum A source. water a and pit a between necessary distance the estimate to difficult is it thus, and, factors environmental other al varies with soil type, distance travelled, moisture and prior to contact with groundwater. The degree of remov In thisthe way,soil surface. pathogens can be removed unsaturated soil matrix, pathogenic germs are sorbed to the through migrates and pit the from leaches liquid As to allow for ofliquids the outof infiltration the pit. not be lined. The bottom of the pit should remain unlined deposits or loose organic materials), the whole pit need gravel or sand of presence no (i.e., stable is soil the If ber, concrete, plastered stones, onto or mortar the soil. tim- rot-resistant brick, include can materials lining Pit

Anal Cleansing Water) (+

Excreta

Sludge System 1 Applicable to: Blackwater support ring Dry Dry Cleansing Materials) Faeces - - advisable if plenty of land area isavailable.advisable ifplentyoflandarea only is which decommissioned, and covered pit vious - pre the and pit new a tomoved be can plate squatting and superstructure the b) or reused and out pumped a) be However,can clean. it facility full the is pit the when tenance keeping from associated with asingle pitapart main- daily no is There Operation &Maintenance and to convenience ensure andsafety. nuisances odour and fly minimize to homes from tance Single pits should be constructed at an appropriate dis- • • • health risks: improvement to opendefecation; however, poses itstill Health Aspects/Acceptance Asingle pitisan frequently. flood that areas for or dig), to difficult are (that soils compacted or rocky for suited not are They table. ter groundwa- low a is there where and scarce is water when appropriate especially are pits Single tration. infil- for space insufficient have and/or empty to cult diffi- often theypopulated are areas densely in areas; peri-urban and rural for appropriate are pits Single to the userislimited. However,since the excreta are contained, pathogen transmission significant. not is degradation organic and reduction pathogen therefore, and, limited are erwise) pit (aerobic, anaerobic, dehydration, composting or oth- single a in processes Treatment Appropriateness collectedare inthe pitandleaching canbeminimized. faeces only used, is Interface User urine-diverting a If comfort. whileincreasing sance offliesandodours, more slightly nui- the reduces greatly expensivebut pit, single a than is S.3) (VIP, Pit Improved Ventilated A can beplanted D.1). (seeArborloo, tree small a and soil, and leaves with covered be can it full, is pit shallow the When difficult. is digging where during floods. floods. during susceptiblePits are to and/oroverflowing failure Stagnant water inpitsmay promote insectbreeding; Leachate cancontaminate groundwater; - - - - + + + Pros &Cons Institute (1996)._ Robens Fact Sheets onEnvironmental J.(1995)._ Pickford, Low Cost Sanitation. ASurvey ofPrac- J.P._ Graham, andPolizzotto, M.L.(2013). and PitLatrines R.,Pickford, J.andReed,_ Franceys, R.(1992). AGuideto the B.(1997)._ Brandberg, Building.AHandbookfor Latrine Imple- (2001)._ ARGOSS Guidelinesfor Assessingthe Riskto Reading References &Further Available at: www.who.int Surrey, UKandWHO, Geneva, CH. Sanitation. Fact Sheet 3.4:Simple of University PitLatrines. onhow(Information to calculate pitsizeandtechnology life) London, UK. Intermediatetical Experience. Technology Publications, Available at: www.ehponline.org Environmental Health Sciences,Research Triangle US. Park, Environmental Health Perspectives, National Institute of Their Impacts onGroundwater Quality: ASystematic Review. andexamplegeneral construction designcalculations) rates, onaccumulationrates,(For infiltration information Available at: www.susana.org/library Development ofon-Site Sanitation. WHO,Geneva, CH. how to avoid mistakes) and problems ofcommonconstruction (A goodsummary Publications, London,UK. mentation ofthe Sanplat System. Intermediate Technology Available at: www.bgs.ac.uk CR/01/142, CommissionedReport, Survey Keyworth, UK. Groundwater from on-Site Sanitation. Geological British priate discharge - and/orappro treatment Sludge secondary requires costs tal toCosts empty may besignificantcompared to capi- ofgroundwatercontamination Low inBOD andpathogens reduction with possible noticeable normally are Flies andodours required Small landarea als andpitdepth Low (butvariable) dependingonmateri costs capital - materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable

61 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .2 S .3 62 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment such as trees or houses, do not interfere with the air air the with interfere not do houses, or trees as such into the atmosphere. Care should be taken that objects, escapes and pipe ventthe inside movesup pit, intothe Interface User the through drawn is Air circulation. air an induces and pipe vent the within pressure suction a creates top the over passing Wind superstructure. let toi- reach the of point highest and the above mm 300 mm than 110 more least at of diameter internal an have should pipe vent Design ConsiderationsThe forescape andminimizesthe flies. attraction to odours allows also ventilation The die. and screen fly- the by trapped are they escape, to try and light the towards fly they When pipe. ventilation the of top the at light the to attracted are pit the in hatch that Flies some other water-based technologies. be completely smell free, and more pleasant to use than can VIPs single well-designed simplicity, their Despite towards light. the escape they as flies for trap a as acts and odours vents pipe ventilation the through airflow tinuous con- because (S.2) Pit Single improvement the over an is It pit. improved ventilated a is VIP single The S3: SING Application Level: Single Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP)   City Neighbourhood Household LE PI T VI P

> 30cm Management Level:    Household Public Shared Outputs: (+ Inputs: water source. A minimum horizontal distance of 30 m m 30 of distance horizontal minimum A source. water a and pit a between necessary distance the estimate to difficult is it thus, and, factors environmental other al varies with soil type, distance travelled, moisture and prior to contact with groundwater. The degree of remov In thisthe way,soil surface. pathogens can be removed unsaturated soil matrix, pathogenic germs are sorbed to the through migrates and pit the from leaches liquid As up to years. 20ormore last can pits Deep users. of number the on depending diameter,in 1.5tom 1 and deep m 3 least at is pit the Typically, effective. most the be to proven have mm, freely.1.2of hole-size witha screens, Aluminium to 1.5 circulate to air allow and dust with clogging prevent to enough large be must screen fly the of size mesh The intheremain superstructure. not and vent the into up and pit the into down pulled be should smoke the Interface; User the over held be can lit cigarette a ventilation, the of efficacy the test To pit. the of out and up odours and air the pulls that updraft an creates (warm) vent the and (cool) pit the by painting the pipe black. betweenThe heat difference improved be can effectiveness its wind, little is there where but areas, windy in best worksvent The stream.

Anal Cleansing Water) (+

Excreta

air currents fly screen Sludge > 1 1cm

vent pipe System 1 Applicable to: Blackwater Dry Dry Cleansing Materials) Faeces - • • • option. However, exist: somehealth concerns andwell accepted clean,comfortable, sanitation a very Health Aspects/Acceptance Asingle VIPcanbe thatareas floodfrequently. rocky or compacted soils (that difficultare to dig) or for for suited not are They ventilation. effective ensure to breeze good a with area an in located table. be should groundwater They low a is there where and scarce is water when appropriate especially are VIPs tration. infil- for space insufficient have and/or empty to cult diffi- often are they areas peri-urban populated densely in and areas; rural for appropriate are VIPs Single ecation. a significantimprovement over Single Pitsoropendef- is technology This limited. is user the to transmission pathogen contained, are excreta the since However, significant. not is degradation organic pathogen and therefore, reduction and, limited, are otherwise) or composting, dehydration, anaerobic, (aerobic, VIP gle sin- the in processes Treatment Appropriateness collectedare inthe pitandleaching canbeminimized. faeces only used, is Interface User urine-diverting a If anddegrade. mature drain, to allowed are pit full the of contents the use, in VIP Double is one while that so extrapit an has VIP Double A (S.4). a to upgraded be can toilet VIP single A into the heavy pitduring rain. order to in frequent flowing water is keep from flooding where area an in constructed be also can pit raised A blocks. or rings concrete of use the with upwards pit the building by extended be can pit shallow the native: water level is too pit high, can a be raised a viable alter - ground the or pit deep a dig to possible not is it When nation. - contami microbial to exposure limit to recommended bottom of the pit and the groundwater is normally table betweenm the 2 waterand a source and betweenpit a by ventilation. Health risks not fliesare from completelyremoved floods; during susceptiblePits are to and/or overflowing failure Leachate cancontaminate groundwater; - - - - + + + + Pros &Cons to agoodflow ensure ofair. er debris should be removed from the ventilation screen nance is required. Dead flies, spider webs, dust and oth- mainte- and cleaning regular odours, and flies of free VIP single theTo keep Operation &Maintenance D.(1983). andMara, B.A. _ Ryan, Ventilated Improved Pit P._ Morgan, R.(2011). TheBlairVIPtoilet. Manualfor Upgrade- P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and D.(1996)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, Chich- D.(1984)._ Mara, TheDesignofVentilated Improved Pit Reading References &Further See S.2for materials. additionalreading Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home ton, D.C.,US. INT/81/047,Project TheWorld BankandUNDP, Washing- VentLatrines: PipeDesign Guidelines.UNDPInterregional (Provides information) detailed designandconstruction Available at: www.ecosanres.org Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, SE. able BVIP Modelwith Spiral Superstructure andTubular Vent. Available at: www.ecosanres.org tute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment- Insti (Provides detailed designinformation) ester, UK. Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home World BankandUNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. INT/81/047, UNDPInterregional Project Latrines. The priate discharge - and/orappro treatment Sludge secondary requires costs tal toCosts empty may be significantcompared to capi- ofgroundwatercontamination Low inBOD andpathogens reduction with possible required Small landarea als andpitdepth Low (butvariable) dependingonmateri costs capital - materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable to non-ventilated pits) reduced (compared significantly are Flies andodours

63 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .3 S .4 64 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment The two pits in the double VIP are continually used continually are VIP double the in pipe.pits two The dedicated own its with equipped be can pit pipe moved back and forth between the pits, or each ventilation one using accomplished be can pits two people from falling into the pit. The ventilation of the covered and sealed to be fully prevent water, garbage and animals, or should filled being not is that pit to move from one pit to the other. In either case, the designed be may it or holes bothover extend either may superstructure The Design Considerations and humus-like. sanitized partially is pit the within material the filling), of yearsseveral after years 2 or 1 least (at time resting removed. the extended Due to is pit first the contentof ta is 50 cm from the top of the pit), it is covered, and the degrades. When the second pit is almost full (the excre- tent of the second rests, drains, reduces in volume, and con- the while used, be can pit one pits, two using By permits safer andeasieremptying. and continuously used be to it allows that pit ond sec- a of advantage added the with (S.3) VIP Single the as design same the almost has VIP double The 1 S4: DO Application Level: Double Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP)   City Neighbourhood Household UBL E PI T VI P Management Level:    Household Public Shared Outputs: (+ Inputs: cerns exist: cerns con- health some However, atechnology. water-based than so more even cases some in option, itation san- accepted well and comfortable clean, very a be can VIP double The Health Aspects/Acceptance frequently. flood that areas for or dig) to difficult are (that soils compacted or rocky for suited not are They tilation. ven- proper for allow to breeze good a with area an in located be should They table. groundwater low a appropriate when water is scarce and where there is especially are VIPs Double required. is pit service of out the for cover adequate an Therefore, concurrently. not and sequentially used are pits two the if properly work only will technology VIP double The accesstotruck the pitsisnot necessary. vacuum so out), pumped not out, dug is (it emptied ly manual- is material soil-like the time, resting the After areas. peri-urban denser, for VIP Single the than ate - appropri more is VIP double The Appropriateness longevity. ensure to supported and lined well be should and 2

Anal Cleansing Water) (+ >1 pit humus 1cm ventpipe Excreta PitHumus fly screen System 2 Applicable to: Faeces currents Dry Dry Cleansing Materials) air

> 30cm

- - - + + + + + + Pros &Cons alternatinga proper schedule bemaintained. must pit should be well sealed to reduce water infiltration and service of out The air. of flow good a ensure to screen ventilation the from removed be should debris and other dust webs, spider flies, Dead required. is nance mainte- and cleaning regular odours, and flies of free Operation & Maintenance To keep the double VIP • • • operating costs ifself-emptied costs operating than costs Higher capital Single VIP;butreduced Possible ofgroundwater contamination Manual removal ofhumusisrequired materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable to non-ventilated pits) reduced (compared significantly are Flies andodours ditioner Potential for use of stored material faecal as soil con- reduction inpathogensSignificant Excavation ofhumusiseasierthan sludge faecal properly) Longer life than Single VIP(indefinite ifmaintained by ventilation. Health risks not fliesare from completelyremoved floods; during susceptiblePits are to and/oroverflowing failure Leachate cancontaminate groundwater;

P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and D.(1996)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, D.(1984)._ Mara, TheDesignofVentilated Improved Pit J.P._ Graham, andPolizzotto, M.L.(2013). and PitLatrines R.,Pickford, J.andReed,_ Franceys, R.(1992). AGuideto the (2001)._ ARGOSS Guidelinesfor Assessingthe Riskto Reading References &Further Available at: www.ecosanres.org Institute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment system) description ofVIPs with afocus(General onthe ventilation Chichester, UK. information) (A goodreference for detailed doubleVIPdesign Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home World BankandUNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. INT/81/047, UNDPInterregional Project Latrines. The Available at: www.ehponline.org Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle US. Park, Environmental Health Perspectives, National Institute of Their Impacts onGroundwater Quality: ASystematic Review. Available at: www.susana.org/library Development ofon-Site Sanitation. WHO,Geneva, CH. Available at: www.bgs.ac.uk CR/01/142, CommissionedReport, Survey Keyworth, UK. Groundwater from on-Site Sanitation. Geological British

65 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .4 S .5 66 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment use much faster than inaDoubleVIP. accelerated, and the content is ready for excavation and carbon-rich bulking material, the degradation process is added the of manually.removedBecause easily be can that mixture earth-like dry, a into degrade will pit full filling, is pit second ideally,which, takeshould year. one the in material The the while degrades pit full The makes the alkaline. mixslightlymore and odours reduces flies, control to helps ash tionally, Addi- conditions. aerobic for allows which increased, is space pore the Also, process. degradation the in help which bacteria and fungi worms, like organisms of ety tion (not urination). The soil and leaves introduce a vari- defeca- after pit the to added be should materialCover ash, and/orleaves). and requires a constant input of cover material (soil, m 1.5 of depth maximum a to dug is Alterna Fossa The conditioner. soil nutrient-rich a as used be can that product earth-like an make to designed is na Alter Fossa the excreta, treat partially and store collect, to designed just is which (S.4) VIP Double terless (dry) double pit technology. Compared to the wa - alternating, cycle short a is Alterna Fossa The 12 S5: FOS Application Level: Fossa Alterna   City Neighbourhood Household SA AL T ERN

max. 1.50m A Management Level:    Household Public Shared soil - Outputs: (+ Inputs: entirely above ground to avoid water intrusion and and intrusion water groundwater pollution. Raising the pits could also be an avoid to ground above entirely built or raised be could Alterna Fossa the high, too is table groundwater the where and areas flood-prone In further, aventilation pipecanbeadded. even smells Tothe reduced. reduce are excreta,smells the cover continuously to used is material cover Since application. for valued highly is urine the when or urine the absorb sufficiently cannot soil the when stances - circum in only but Alterna, Fossa the with used be can (U.2) UDDT A degradation. for required is that oxygen the of bacteria aerobic the deprives and spaces pore the fills also it but pathogens, and vectors of opment devel- the encourages Water tolerated). be can water cleansing anal of amounts (small added be not should water but urine, for used be should Alterna Fossa The pitisrequired. the outofservice for cover adequate an Therefore, concurrently.not and sequentially used are pits two the if properly work only year.one for six of ily technologyFossaAlterna The will shallow (1 to 1.5 m), each of them can be used by a - fam are pits the though Even users. of number the and size its on depending months 24 to 12 of period a over fill would pit Alterna Fossa A Design Considerations

Anal Cleansing Water) (+ Excreta PitHumus 3 System 2 Applicable to: Faeces Dry Dry Cleansing Materials) Organics use ofspace. the optimise to order in pit the of sides the to be pushed should hole toilet the beneath material mounded the Occasionally, added. be should leaves and/or ash, soil, of amount small a topit, thefaeces of addition the availability.oxygenFollowing and porosity the increase to added be should leavesPeriodically, more pit. the of into use, a layer of leaves should be put onto the bottom Operation &Maintenance When the first pit is put humus the derived the from Fossa Alterna. with taken be should compost handling when taken are that precautions same The handle. to of at least one year makes the material safer and easier duration the for pit the in sealed contents the Keeping pit. double a emptying to comparison in Alterna Fossa a empty can one easily how show to used be can units Demonstration advantages. the of appreciation good a have should people one, use to opportunity the given if VIP,although Double a and Alterna Fossa the between to a minimum. Users may not understand the difference kept are odours and flies leaves, and/or ash, soil, with faeces covering By Health Aspects/Acceptance quently, except ifthe raised. pitsare fre- flood that areas for or difficult dig) (thatare to soils compacted or rocky for suited not is Alterna Fossa The access to the pitsisnot necessary. truck vacuum thus, out); pumped not out, dug is (it na Alter Fossa the from emptied manually is material The bic for degradation. - aero remain must conditions the and shallow is pit the as greywater for appropriate not is Alterna Fossa The of the humicmaterial stabilized asasoilamendment. areas that have poor soil and could benefit from the use for solution useful a is water-scarcetoIt environments. suitable especially is It areas. peri-urban and rural for appropriate is Alterna Fossa The Appropriateness Pits shouldnot belinedifusedasanArborloo. option. Disposal alternative an the be can desired, (D.1) Arborloo not emptying and abundant is space If difficult to dig. are that soils compacted and ground rocky for option - - - - + + + + + + + Pros &Cons once ayear. the contents should not be emptied thanmore often pits, the of dimensions the on Depending ination. - contam of threat reduced a presents and offensive not is removed is that material The compact. less soil, ash, and/or leaves means that the contents are ofaddition the shallowerand are pits the otherpits; emptying than easier is Alterna Fossa the Emptying is putinto the pit. garbageno that important extremely is it Therefore, conditioner. soil a as used be to meant is Fossa Alterna the in material the emptied, or covered be willwhich Ventilated S.3) or Unlike(S.2, Single Pit a P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and P._ Morgan, R.(2007). Toilets ThatMake Compost. Low-Cost, Reading References &Further

Available at: www.ecosanres.org tute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment- Insti Available at: www.ecosanres.org holm, SE. Context.an African Stockholm Environment Institute, Stock ToiletsSanitary ThatProduce Valuable Compost for Crops in product ofthe Garbage may end-useopportunities ruin Manual removal ofhumusisrequired Requires ofcover source constant material als; noorlowifself-emptied costs operating Low (butvariable) dependingonmateri costs capital - materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable to non-ventilated pits) reduced (compared significantly are Flies andodours for useassoilconditioner Generates humuswith nutrient-rich goodpotential reduction inpathogensSignificant Excavation ofhumusiseasierthan sludge faecal unlimited virtually usedalternately,Because doublepitsare their life is

67 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .5 S .6 68 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment and it is not necessary to add soil or organic material organic or soil add to necessary not is it and VIP (S.4) or Fossa Alterna (S.5) is that it allows for water between this technology theand difference Double The travelled, distance andothermoisture type, environmental factors. soil with varies removal of be groundwater.withto removed contact prior can degree The pathogens way, this In surface. soil the onto sorbed are germs pathogenic matrix, soil unsaturated the through migrates and pit the from leaches liquid As pit isresting. full other the filling, is pit one While time. a at used is use. No matter how the system is designed, only in one pit is one which on depending side to side from move can be permanently constructed over both pits or it can superstructure The them. from distance a at or pits the over directly located be can toilet the ways; various in The twin pits for pour flush technology can be designed and canbemanually removed ashovel. with soil. Over time, the solids are sufficiently dewatered and allowed to slowly infiltrate intothe surrounding (and in some cases greywater) is collected in the pits blackwater The (U.4).Toilet Flush Pour a to nected This technology consists of two alternating pits con- S6: TW Application Level: Twin PitsforPourTwin Flush   City Neighbourhood Household IN PI T PO UR -FL USH Management Level:    LA Household Public Shared T seal RINE (TPPFL) l leach pit leach pit each p i t Inputs: groundwater properties are often unknown, it is difficult and soil As bedrock. the in cracks table, or water fissures and/or variable or high a with areas in located are pits when pollution groundwater of risk a is There the superstructure. tion andto support 30 cm should be fully mortared to prevent direct - infiltra pit walls should be lined to prevent collapse and the top the of depth full the Therefore, stability. its impact can pit the within Water supports. structural impact atively neg- can leachate as foundation structural any from m 1 over constructed be pits the that recommended also is It use. in one the and pit maturing the between tion - cross-contamina minimize to other each from apart m 1 constructed be pits twin the that recommended is It itized, soil-like material that canbemanuallyexcavated. san- into partially toa time enough transform pit thefull erated over one or two years. This allows the contents of gen- waste of volume a accommodate to size adequate an of be should pits The Design Considerations excavated safely. recommended) to degrade the material before it can be the full pits require a longer retention time (two years is technology, (wet) water-based a is this As pits. the to Outputs: Blackwater ( Pit Humus PitHumus System 3 Applicable to:

Greywater) • • • exist: cerns con- health however,some option; commonly sanitation accepted a is It Health Aspects/Acceptance not for required vacuum trucks to accessthem. is space therefore, out), pumped not dug, is (it pits the The dewatered, solid material is manually emptied from thefrom pitandpossiblygroundwater contamination. leaching excessive in result may greywater and/or ter However,flushwait. - of control toquantities large place in is system management other no and small, relatively in the twin pits, especially if the greywater quantities are Greywater can be co-managed along with the blackwater there orwhere isfrequentflooding. table groundwater high a with areas for suitable not is ogy technolThis - appropriate.not are packedsoils rocky or tightly clay, capacity; absorptive good a have must soil the properly, drain to pits the for order In saturated). liquid and the ground could become water-logged (over matrix may not be of sufficient capacity to absorb all the soil the as notrecommended is area small a in wetpits almost every type of housing density. However, too many for appropriate is technology this available, is water as long As latrines. pit new build continuously to possible manent technology appropriate for areas where it is not per a are flush pour for pits Twin Appropriateness the not junctionandpipesare easilyaccessible. that ensuring by minimized is misuse and failure of risk The earth. with covered and mortar light with place in connected to the pit in use by a single straight pipe fixed Alternatively, the Pour Flush Toilet could also be directly of-use pit should be closed (e.g. with cement or bricks). time, the idle pipe of the junction connecting to the out- any at used is pits two the of one only that ensure To nation. - contami microbial to source water the exposing limit to thembetween m 30 of distance horizontal minimum a have to recommended normally is It source. water a and pit a between necessary distance the estimate to during floods. during susceptiblePits are to and/oroverflowing failure Stagnant water inpitsmay promote insectbreeding; Leachate cancontaminate groundwater; - - - - - + + + + + + + + Pros &Cons protection. personal and proper shovels handled long using manually done is Emptying seasons. rainy during flood not do they that ensure to mended two year time), resting and must care be taken - recom the (after emptied regularly be must pits The Operation &Maintenance _ Roy, K.,Chatterjee, A. P. K.,Gupta, S.T., Khare, K.N., Rau, D.(1996)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, Chich- D.(1985)._ Mara, TheDesignofPour-Flush UNDP Latrines. R.,Pickford, J.andReed,_ Franceys, R.(1992). AGuideto the Reading References &Further Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home The World BankandUNDP, Washington, D.C., US. inIndia. Latrines struction andMaintenance Pour-Flush ofLow-Cost Waterseal B. andSingh,R.S.(1984). Manualonthe Design,Con- ester, UK. Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home UNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. INT/81/047,Interregional Project TheWorld Bankand Available at: www.susana.org/library Development ofon-Site Sanitation. WHO,Geneva, CH. more leachatemore than with waterless systems ofgroundwaterHigher risk dueto contamination used are Clogging isfrequentwhenbulkycleansingmaterials Manual removal ofhumusisrequired required Small landarea als; noorlowifself-emptied costs operating Low (butvariable) dependingonmateri costs capital - materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable to pitswithout awater seal) reduced (compared significantly are Flies andodours ditioner Potential for use of stored material faecal as soil con- reduction inpathogensSignificant Excavation ofhumusiseasierthan sludge faecal unlimited virtually usedalternately,Because doublepitsare their life is INT/81/047,UNDP Interregional Project

69 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .6 S .7 70 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment - superstruc separate a with or indoors constructed be can vaults Dehydration Design Considerations be usedto cover each use. after faeces should sawdust or soil dry lime, ash, of amount small a To prevent flies, minimize odours and encourage drying, oneisemptiedfirst andputback into service. the full, is vault second the When volume. in decrease and sec- dry vault the first the in While faeces the up, vault. fills vault second ond the to moved is U.2) (UDDT,Toilet Dry Urine-Diverting the full, is vault one When fills. vault other the while vault one in dehydrate to faeces the allows vaults alternating two of use The smells minimized. moisture, organisms cannot grow, pathogens of are destroyed and absence the In quickly. dry they uids, liq- other and urine with mixed not are faeces When from vaults. the away diverted are water cleansing anal and urine when and entering, from moisture preventexternal to watertight ventilated, well are vaults the when dehydrate only will Faeces faeces. (dehydrate) dry and store collect, to used are vaults Dehydration S7: DE Application Level: Dehydration Vaults  view A  City Neighbourhood Household HYDR A TION VA UL Management Level:   TS  Household Public Shared

> 30cm section Outputs: Inputs: because of the small land area required, minimal odours in almost every setting, from rural to dense urban areas, Appropriateness Dehydration vaults can be installed for easyemptying andaccessto the pipes. urine recommended is cm 80 to 60 of height chamber imum min- A months. 6 every volume storage of L 50 around materials. It can be assumed that one person will require cleansing dry and visitors possibly and faeces, of bution - distri non-even the airflow, material, cover for account should dimensions vault The vault. out-of-service the in time dehydration and storage month 6 a in results This to sized is vault accommodate at least 6 each months of faeces accumulation. treatment, alkaline of case In 1.5 to 2years for colderclimates. least 1 year for warm climates (>20 °C average) and for at for be should storage the otherwise treatment), line (alka- material cover as used are lime or ash if months 6 of time storage minimum a recommends WHO The cannot enter.crete runoff to that ensure surface con- or brickwork sealed of made be should They tion. ventila- the of functioning proper for airtight be should chambers The odours. and flies control and vaults the from humidity remove to required is pipe vent A ture. urine tank Faeces (+ diversion urine Dried Faeces Dried System 4 Applicable to: Dry Cleansing Dry Materials) fly screen > 1 1cm

vent pipe

view A the faeces. dried with contact avoid to used be should a (cloth) facemask possibly and gloves shovel, a vaults, the empty To soil orsawdust canbeaddedto helpabsorbthe liquid. into the dehydration vault. If this happens, extra ash, lime, Care should be taken to ensure that no water or urine gets of the chamber. sides the to pushed be should toilet the beneath lated accumu- have that faeces the Occasionally, materials. ed to separately collect and dispose of the dry cleansing recommend- is it treatment, further without fields onto applied be to intended is material the Whenever bers. cham- the in decompose not will dry materials vaults, cleansing the in degraded not but dried, are which faeces the like Just Operation &Maintenance on-going. along with are logistics, the corresponding (or cartridges) for safe and transportation easy cleaning, ever, research and field tests of sealedfaeces containers alternating chambers is, therefore, recommended. How of use The designs. vault double to compared vaults gle sin- in higher inherently is matter faecal of handling the ces on top are still fresh. Hence, the risk associated with - fae the emptying, needs container full the When drate. dehy sufficiently to faeces allow not do bins or vaults dehydration Single remains. risk health low However,a getwet. not did theythat provided handle, to safe tively - rela and dry very be should faeces the time, storage recommended the After odours. or flies with problems any be not should there dry, kept are vaults the When ate itsbenefits. - appreci and works technology the how understand to however, trained gy.crucial, well is are It users the that technolo- easy-to-use and comfortable, clean, a be can vaults Dehydration Health Aspects/Acceptance ed becausethey builtto are bewatertight. They are also suitable in areas that are frequently flood- and rocky areas or where the groundwater table is high. water-scarce for appropriate especially are vaults tion Dehydra- locally. it use to opportunity and/or interest an have not do normally users urban since urine) (and for the dried faeces service nology relies on a transport tech- this context, urban an in used If use. of ease and - - - - - + + + + + + + Pros &Cons (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO Eco- M.(Eds.)(2004). U. andSimpson-Hébert, _ Winblad, H.(2012). C.,von Münch, E.andHoffmann, _ Rieck, Technol- _ Deegener, S.,Samwel, M.andGabizon,S.(2006).Urine Reading References &Further Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use Chapterespecially 3) designsandadaptations,(A general descriptionofvarious Available at: www.ecosanres.org Environment Institute, Stockholm, SE. logical Sanitation. Revised andEnlarged Edition.Stockholm Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. GmbH, Eschborn, fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ) Gesellschaft of Design,Operation, Management andCosts. Deutsche ogy Review Toilets Dry ofUrine-Diverting (UDDTs). Overview superstructure) (Photos andexplanation ofhow to buildadoublevault and Available at: www.wecf.de Munich, DE. Women for inEurope aCommonFuture, Utrecht, NLand Toilets.Diverting Operation Principles, andConstruction. Manual removal isrequired faeces ofdried Requires ofcover source constant material correctly Requires andacceptance training to beused als; noorlowifself-emptied costs operating Low (butvariable) dependingonmateri costs capital - the groundwater ishigh table orwhere forSuitable areas rocky and/orfloodprone materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable (i.e.,kept correctly maintained dry) ifusedand with problems No real fliesorodours Potential assoilconditioner faeces for useofdried reduction inpathogensSignificant unlimited is virtually Because doublevaults usedalternately, are their life

71 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .7 S .8 72 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment In practice, these optimal conditions are difficult to difficult are conditions optimal these practice, In asacarbonsource. rial retically) which can be adjusted by adding bulking mate- (theo- ratio C:N 25:1 a (d) and dimensioning); chamber proper (achievedby °C 50 to 40 of temperature (heap) internal (c) content); moisture 70% to 45 (ideally ture mois- proper (b) aeration; passive or activeby provided oxygen, sufficient (a) system: the of functioning good the ensure that factors four are There chamber. the in material bulking mixed are paper) or ash sawdust, chips, wood as (such and waste food organics, Excreta, access doorto remove the product. mature an (4) and system; collection leachate a (3) escape; to rvd oye ad lo gss (CO gases allow and oxygen to provide unit ventilation a (2) chamber); (storage reactor a (1) parts: main four requires usually technology This can be safely handled and used as a soil conditioner. that product inoffensive stable, a is Compost post. com- into organicsexcretaconvert toand designed is chamber composting A conditions. aerobic der un- fungi) and bacteria (mainly microorganisms by decomposed biologically are components gradable biode- which by process the to refers Composting Application Level: S8: COMPOSTING CHAMBER S8: COMPOSTING Composting Chamber   City Neighbourhood Household partition wall withdrawal organics addition maintenance and door for sieve ordrainagelayer Management Level:    Household Public Shared 2 wtr vapour) water , and waterless, it is especially suited in areas where land Appropriateness improve the quality ofthe compost. Toileting Dry (UDDT, U.2) or Urinal (U.3) can, therefore, - Urine-Divert a of use The chamber. the in processes microbial the inhibits urine from ammonia Excessive age system is important to ensure the removal of leachate. - drain A product. final the to access facilitate withdrawal compost for chamber bottoma sloped and A time. dation - degra and storage increased for allow to compartments multiple or mixer, mechanical a fan, ventilation small a beneficial complex More for aeration. be designs can include can heap the under ducts) (air channels Ventilation calculate the chamber required volume. to used be can L/person/year 300 of value design A superstructure. separate a with or indoors ground, below or above - construct ed and configurations various in designed be Design Considerations A composting chamber can ther treatment. fur and requires sanitized, and stabilized sufficiently not often is product output the result, a As maintain. Outputs: (+ Inputs: Dry CleansingMaterials) Dry excess liquiddrain fan vent pipe air ducts Excreta Compost Since this technology is compact compact is technology this Since System 2 Applicable to: Faeces Effluent Organics Organics - With time, salt or other solids may build up in the tank tank the in up build may solids other or salt time, With Co-Composting, seeT.16). (e.g., safe hygienically become to treatment further mayremoved.material require be The should compost chamber should be emptied every 2 composting to 10 years. Only the the mature design, the on Depending water shouldbeaddedto the obtain humidity. required bulking material should be additional added. If a UDDT is humid, used, some and compact too becomes chamber the in material the If hand. one’s in water of drops few a only leave should compostRather, sponge.the wet likea feel it should nor dry, feel or crumble not should it post, com- of handful a squeezing When chamber. the within level moisture the check to made be can test squeeze A time to the timewillboost oxygen supply. from material the Turningavailability. carbon the ance bal- and pile the of aeration the improve liquid, excess absorb to added is material bulking of amount small a defecation, each After reduction. pathogen achieve to high remains pile compost the of temperature the that such be must unit the of volume the and balanced well be must theratio C:N controlled, be must moisture The ory, composting chambers are not that easy to operate. Operation & Maintenance Although simple in the- composted material.with (partially) advisable to wear protective clothing to prevent contact is it product, final the removing When insects. other or good ventilation, there should be no problems with flies and not material bulking ample is there If should odours. produce chamber composting well-functioning A to handle the material the during first year. have not will users the designed, well is chamber composting the If Health Aspects/Acceptance degradation. lems andimproper - prob odour cause will conditions anaerobic wet, too becomes reactor the if greywater; or water cleansing anal of collection the for used be cannot technology This processes. microbial the impede not do peratures tem- low that ensure to indoors be should chamber ing compost- a climates, cold In high. is table groundwater post. It can also be installed in rocky areas, or where the com- for need a is there when or limited,water are and ------+ + + + + + Pros &Cons water out. and/orscraped hot with dissolved be can These system. drainage or J.(2005).TheHumanure Handbook. AGuideto _ Jenkins, B.(2013). andVinnerås, G.B.,Baldwin,S.A. _ Hill, Com- D.andSteinfeld, Porto, C.(1999)._ Del TheComposting Toilet _ Berger, W. (2011). Technology Review ofComposting Toilets. Reading References &Further EPA_ U.S. (1999). Water Efficiency Technology Fact Sheet. Composting Human Manure. 3 (2013): 29-35. ofEnvironmental ManagementEnd-Product. Journal 119 Inhibits Microbial Activity yet IsInsufficientinSanitizing the posting Toilets aMisnomer:Excessive Ammoniafrom Urine US. tion Prevention MA, (CEPP),Concord, Sewer andSeptic Systems. TheCenter for EcologicalPollu- Maintaining Composting Toilet Systems, anAlternative to System Book. APractical Guideto Choosing,Planningand Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. (GIZ) GmbH,Eschborn, fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit Diversion). Gesellschaft ofCompostingBasic Overview Toilets (with orwithout Urine Available at: www.epa.gov Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. Composting Toilets. EPA U.S. Environmental 832-F-99-066. Grove City, PA, US. Manual removal ofcompost isrequired Requires oforganics source constant andelectricity May somespecializedparts require Requires designandconstruction expert discharge Leachate and/orappropriate treatment requires before use treatment further Compost mightrequire monitoring andmaintenance for personnel Requires well-traineduserorservice Low ifself-emptied costs operating life Long service Organic solidwaste canbemanaged concurrently correctly maintained ifusedand with problems No real fliesorodours Compost canbeusedasasoilconditioner reduction inpathogensSignificant rd Ed.JenkinsPublishing,

73 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .8 S .9 74 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment t es to hmes Te is cabr hud be should chamber first The chambers. two least at have should tank septic A Design Considerations maintenance andclimaticconditions. and operation on depending greatly vary efficiencies although tank, septic maintained and well-designed a in expected be can coli E. of removal 1-log a and BOD of 40% to 30 solids, of 50% of removal the Generally, Solids-Free Sewer (C.5). a via technology treatment another to transported or dispersed by using a Soak Pit (D.7) or Leach Field (D.8), be must tank septic the of effluent The removed. ically - period be must scum and sludgeaccumulated the and decomposition, of rate the than faster is accumulation of rate the However, anaerobically. degraded are tom bot- the to settle that solids the time, Over top. the to to the bottom, while scum (mostly oil and grease) floats sink particles heavy and tank the through flows Liquid organics, treatment butthe isonly moderate. and solids reduce processes anaerobic and Settling treatment. primary for flows greywater and water crete, fibreglass, PVC or plastic,through which black con- of made chamber watertight a is tank septic A S9: SEP Application Level: Septic Tank   City Neighbourhood Household inlet TIC TA NK

inlet Management Level: -T    Household Public Shared sludge sedimentation zone scum access covers - Outputs: Inputs: applied at the household level. Larger, multi-chamber multi-chamber Larger, level. household the at applied This technologyAppropriateness is most commonly The Aquaprivy hasalow efficiency. treatment it. into fall excreta the that so toilet the below directly Aquaprivy. This is a simple storage and settling an tank that is located called is tank septic the of variation A ate treatment. Themoder achieve to hours 48 wastewater.be should time retention the of characteristics the and cy frequen- desludging the temperature, annual average the capita, per used water of amount the users, of number the on depends tank septic a of design The gases. harmful vented for controlled release of odorous and potentially be should tanks Septic maintenance. for necessary ports) is access (through chambers all to Accessibility and solidsthat discharged. are scum the reduces further pipe outlet T-shaped A ent. to prevent scum and solids from escaping with the efflu- is chambers, the between separation the or baffle, The length. Most of the solids settle out in the first chamber. total the of thirds two are be should it therechambers, two only when and length, total the of 50% least at Greywater Blackwater Effluent Systems 6,7 Applicable to: Sludge Brownwater vent outlet - ensure thatensure they watertight. are Septic tanks should be checked from time to time to Emptying (C.2) canalsobeanoption. Human-Powered but (C.3), technology Transport and Emptying Motorized a using by done best is This years. 5 to 2 every emptied be should tanks septic Generally, well. functioning is tank the that ensure to monitored and be to Scum need levels tank. sludge septic the into chemicals harsh dischargeto takennot be should care ecology,cate deli- the of Because Operation &Maintenance noxious andflammable gases mayreleased. be Users should be careful when opening the tank because genic organisms. patholevels- of high they contain as care with handled be must sludge and scum Effluent, effluent. or influent ating conditions, users do not come in contact with the oper normal Under Health Aspects/Acceptance and pathogens. nutrients removing at efficient not are They climates. colder in cli- lower be of will efficiency type the although mate, every in installed be can tanks Septic tying difficult. emp- makes which bathroom, or kitchen the under home, the in installed are tanks septic Often, tion. loca- the access to able be should truck vacuum a Because the septic tank must be regularly desludged, therewhere isfrequentflooding. or tables groundwater high with areas in them struct con- to recommended not is it watertight, are tanks septic though Even site. Disposal Treatmentor quent subse- a to transported is effluent the which through technology, Conveyance of type some to connected be should tanks septic the Instead, risk. health ous - seri a posing surface, the to up andwastewater rise may contaminated, and oversaturated become will onsite ground the otherwise, used, be not should infiltration areas, populated densely in used are septic tanks If effluent. the transporting way or a dispersing is of there where appropriate is tank septic A or publicbuildings(e.g.,schools). septic tanks can be designed for groups of houses and/ - R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further - - - + + + + + Pros &Cons (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., C.andRajput, V._ Polprasert, S.(1982). Environmental San- (2008).Septic Tank_ Oxfam Guidelines.Technical Brief. D.(1996)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, Chich- Hill, New York, US. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised (Comprehensive designmanual) 68-74. Center, Information Sanitation mental AIT, Bangkok, TH.pp. itation Reviews. Septic Tank andSeptic Systems. Environ - Available at: policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk GB,Oxford,Oxfam UK. design solutions–Chapter 6) (Sizing, volume andemptying calculationsandexample ester, UK. appropriate discharge and/or treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Regular beensured desludgingmust Low inpathogens, reduction solidsandorganics (canbebuiltunderground) required Small landarea life Long service Low costs operating isrequired energy No electrical technologySimple androbust -

75 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .9 S .10 76 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment cl ein aaees nld a yrui retention hydraulic a include parameters design ical Typical inflows range from 2 to 200 m to 2 from range inflows Typical prefabricated, used. where modularunits are or settling, primary for technology another with ABR the combine that plants Treatment Centralized (Semi-) for interest T.3)particular in of shown are (as partment com- settling a without Tanks).Designs Septic existing (T.1) (e.g., Settlertechnology rate preceding another or sepa- a in place take also can sedimentation primary but compartment, settling integrated an have typically units stand-alone Small-scale, ABR. actual the of front in chamber sedimentation a in removed are solids ble settlea- of majority The Design Considerations tional Septic Tank. convena removaltoin its - superior far is whichto 90%, digestion of organic matter. BOD may be byreduced up and removal enhanced provide chambers upflow The improved treatment. tact time with the active biomass (sludge) results in the wastewater is forced to flow. The increased con- Septic Tank (S.9) with a series of baffles under improved which an is (ABR) reactor baffled anaerobic An S1 Application Level: Anaerobic BaffledReactor(ABR) inlet  0: ANAE  City Neighbourhood Household inlet ROB -T sludge zone sedimentation scum settler IC BA FFL Management Level:   ED  Household Public Shared RE ACT 3 - Crit day. per baffle OR (A BR) access covers Outputs: larly from the from settler).larly location because the the sludge must be regularly removed- (particu access to able be should a truck However, vacuum area. small a requires and underground installed commonly most is tank the since limited be may land where areas for suitable is technology This ance technology, such asaSimplified Sewer (C.4). Conveypre-existing a is there when appropriate is ABR centralized (semi-) A generated. is greywater and water appropriate where a relatively constant amount of black evenor most is bourhoods biggerIt in catchmentareas. and can be applied at the household level, in small neigh- Appropriateness ous andpotentially gases. harmful should be vented to allow for controlled release of odor tank The amount. insufficient its of because collected not is digestion anaerobic through ABR an in produced ports) is necessary for maintenance. Usually, the biogas access (through chambers all to Accessibility baffles. or pipes vertical with either designed be can chambers the between connection The 6). to (3 chambers upflow of number the and m/h 0.6 below wastewater velocity the of upflow hours, 72 to 48 between (HRT) time Inputs: anaerobic baffledreactor(A Greywater Blackwater Effluent This technology is easily adaptable adaptable easily is technology This BR) Systems 6,7 Applicable to: Sludge Brownwater vent outlet - - - + + + + + + + Pros &Cons to time to thatensure they watertight. are time from checked be should tanks ABR well asonthe designofthe ABR. steps, as thepre-treatment chosen on depends quency - fre desludging The (C.3). technologyTransport and ing Empty Motorized a using done best is This years. 3 to 1 every scum and sludge accumulated of removal the to limited is maintenance and required, not is general in operation Process well. functioning is tank the that Scum and sludge levels need to be monitored to ensure charge chemicals into harsh the ABR. dis- to not taken be should care ecology, delicate the adaptand totiply wastewater.theincoming of Because sludge. The added stock of active bacteria can then mul- TankSeptic or dung cow fresh adding by e.g., bacteria, time, start-up the ABR can be inoculated with anaerobic reduce reactor. To the in established be biomass to needs first anaerobic growing slow the since capacity start-up period of several months to reach full treatment a requires ABR Operation &MaintenanceAn such donot that odours bother communitymembers. facility the locate and design to taken be should Care step. polishing further a in removed be tohave may that compounds odorous contains effluent The organisms. ic handled with care as they contain high levels be of pathogen- must sludge and scum Effluent, effluent. or influent the with contact in come not do users conditions, ating oper normal Under Health Aspects/Acceptance treatment. further ent usuallyrequires efficient atremoving nutrients and pathogens. The efflu - not are They climates. colder in lower is efficiency the ABRs can be installed type in of every climate, although ground) Moderate (canbe builtunder requirement area Low sludge the production; sludge isstabilized ofBOD High reduction life Long service Low costs operating isrequired energy No electrical Resistant to organic andhydraulic shock loads - - - V. Beard, A., _ Bachmann, L.andMcCarty,P. L.(1985). Per Reading References &Further - - - (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., _ Stuckey, D.C.(2010). Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) for K.M.,Pillay,_ Foxon, S.,Lalbahadur, T., Rodda, Holder, N., K.M.,Buckley,_ Foxon, C.J.,Dama,P., Brouckaert, C.A., _ Barber, W. P. andStuckey, D.C.(1999). TheUseofthe Water Research 19 (1):99-106. formance Characteristics ofthe Anaerobic Baffled Reactor. ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised College(Ed.), Imperial London,UK. Press, nology. ApplicationsandNew Developments, H.P. Fang Wastewater Treatment. In:Environmental Tech Anaerobic - Available at: www.wrc.org.za Water SA 30(5)(SpecialEdition). (ABR): AnAppropriate Technology for on-Site Sanitation. F. andBuckley, TheAnaerobic (2004). Baffled C.A. Reactor Available at: www.wrc.org.za Pretoria, ZA. 1248/01/06, No WRC Report Water Research Commission, fled Reactor for Sanitation inDense Settlements.Peri-urban hadur, T. andBux,F. (2006).Evaluation ofthe Anaerobic Baf- Mtembu, Z.,Rodda, Smith, N., M.,Pillay, S.,Arjun, Lalba- N., Review. Water Research 33(7):1559-1578. Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) for Wastewater Treatment: A appropriate discharge and/or treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Low ofpathogens reduction andnutrients Requires design andconstruction expert - -

77 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .10 S .11 78 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment combine the anaerobic filter with other technologies, technologies, such asthe Baffled Anaerobic Reactor other (ABR, T.3). with filter anaerobic the combine that plants Treatment Centralized (Semi-) for interest lar - particu of are T.4) in shown (as compartment settling a without Tanks).Designs Septic existing (e.g., technology take place in a separate Settler (T.1) or another preceding settling compartment, but primary sedimentation can also Small-scale, stand-alone units typically have an integrated filter. anaerobic the of front in chamber sedimentation a removed in filter. are the solids settleable of majority The clog may that garbage and solids remove to essential is treatment primary and Pre- Design Considerations not exceed 15% interms oftotal nitrogen (TN). and 80%. Nitrogen removal is limited and does normally 50% between typically is but 90%, as high as be can al With this technology, suspended solids and BOD remov filter material. the of surface the to attached is that biomass tive ac- the by degraded is matter organic and trapped are particles filter, the through flows wastewater As series. in chambers filtration more or one with reactor biological fixed-bed a is filter anaerobic An S1 Application Level: Anaerobic Filter  1: ANAE  City Neighbourhood Household inlet ROB inlet IC -T FIL settler sludge zone sedimentation scum TE R Management Level:    Household Public Shared - baffle access covers Outputs: Inputs: should provide between 90 to 300 m 300 to 90 betweenprovide should bio- Ideally,materialit. the degrades attachedeffectively that mass the and matter organic the between contact increased ensures area surface The clogging. prevent to enough large pores with grow, to bacteria for area surface large a have should filter ideal The ommended. rec- is hours 36 of to HRT 12 An performance. filter influencing parameter design important most the is even flowregime. The hydraulicretention time (HRT) an guarantee to m 0.3 least at by media filter the er mass will be washed out. The water level should cov bio- fixed in the upflow that risk less is there because operated mode usually are filters Anaerobic h tn sol b vne t alw o controlled for allow andpotentially ofodorous release gases. harmful to vented be should tank The maintenance. for necessary is ports) access (through chambers all to Accessibility baffles. or pipes vertical with either designed be can chambers the between pieces, depending on local availability. The connection plastic formed specially or pumice, cinder, bricks, or rocks crushed gravel, include used commonly rials diameter.Mate- in mm 55 12to from range sizes rial per m anaerobic filterunits Greywater 3 of occupied reactor volume. Typical filter mate- Blackwater Effluent filter Systems 6,7 Applicable to: Sludge Brownwater vent outlet 2 of surface area surface of filter support - clog pores. When the efficiency decreases, the filter the decreases, efficiency the When pores. clog eventually and off break thick, too become will mass clog the pores of the filter. As well, thegrowing bacterial will solids time, Over well. functioning is tank the that Scum and sludge levels need to be monitored to ensure chemicals into the filter. anaerobic harsh discharge to not taken be should care ecology, delicate the of Because time. over increased gradually be should flow The material. filter Tankthe onto sludge Septic spraying by e.g., bacteria, anaerobic with lated inocu- be can filter the time, start-up To reduce media. filter the on established be to needs first biomass obic anaer growing slow the since capacity treatment reach full to months 9 to 6 of period start-up a requires filter anaerobic An Operation &Maintenance members. community bother not do odours that such facility the locate and design totaken be should Care step. ishing pol- further a in removed be to have may that pounds com- odorous contains effluent The organisms. ogenic path- of levels high contain they as care with handled be must sludge and scum Effluent, effluent. or influent the with contact in notcome do users conditions, ating oper normal Under Health Aspects/Acceptance treatment. further ent usuallyrequires plete removal of worm eggs may be achieved. The efflu- com- however, material, filter the on Depending gens. patho- and nutrients removing at efficient not are They mate, although the efficiency ofcli- is lowertype in colder climates. every in installed be can filters Anaerobic for desludging. vacuum isimportant truck Accessibility area. small bya requires and underground installed commonly most is tank the since limited be may land where areas for suitable is technology This ment step, orfor polishing. the- rateorganicloading treat forsubsequentaerobic a reduce to treatment, secondary for used be can filter anaerobic The generated. is greywater and blackwater most appropriate where a relatively constant amount of neighbourhoods or even in bigger catchment areas. It is level,thehousehold at applied small be in can and able adapt- easily is technology This Appropriateness ------+ + + + + + Pros &Cons time to that ensure they watertight. are to time from checked be should tanks filter Anaerobic ing the filter material. clean- and byremoving (backwashing)or mode reverse systemin the running by done is This cleaned. be must (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., (2005). C.A. M.anddeLemosChernicharo, Sperling, _ von andDiener, A. S.(2006).Greywater_ Morel, Management in Reading References &Further calculations) includingExcel spreadsheets for design (Design summary ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC,Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised (Detailed design instructions) Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org Volume One.IWA Publishing,London,UK.pp.728-804. Biological Wastewater Treatment inWarm Climate Regions, –p.28) including casestudies summary (Short Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec), Dübendorf, (Department ment Systems for HouseholdsorNeighbourhoods. Eawag Low Review andMiddle-IncomeCountries. Treat ofDifferent - cumbersome Removing andcleaningthe clogged filter mediais treatment andprimary Risk ofclogging,dependingonpre- appropriate discharge and/or treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Low ofpathogens reduction andnutrients Requires designandconstruction expert ground) Moderate (canbebuiltunder requirement area Low sludge the production; sludge isstabilized ofBOD andsolids High reduction life Long service Low costs operating isrequired energy No electrical - -

79 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .11 S .12 80 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment ume of the reactor is constant. As gas is generated it generated is gas As constant. is reactor the of ume vol- the dome, fixed the In digesters. dome floating or dome fixed as built be can They generated. waste of soil characteristics, available resources and the volume space, on depending tanks, ground, below or above installed prefabricated or domes brick-constructed be can reactors Biogas Design Considerations inactivated. andpathogensodourless partly are almost nutrients, and organics in rich is digestate The rises. it as slurry the chamber,mixing the of top the at collects and slurry the in forms gas reactor.The the in processes fermentation the in produced biogas the of waste.facilitates thecollection also biodegradable It or and/ blackwater,sludge, of degradation anaerobic the facilitates that chamber airtight an is reactor biogas A electricity orlight. heat, convertedto be can which gases trace other gy. Biogas is a mix of methane, carbon dioxide and ener for used be can that biogas (b) and fertilizer a as used be can that (digestate) slurry digested a (a) produces that technology treatment anaerobic an is digester anaerobic or reactor biogas A S1 Application Level: Biogas Reactor    2: B inlet City Neighbourhood Household IOGAS RE ACT OR biogas pipe Management Level:    Household Public Shared slurr biogas seal y -

Inputs: Outputs: for institutional or public toilet applications. Because Because applications. toilet public or institutional for L 100,000 to up family single a for L 1,000 from vary can Sizes bricks. or containers plastic of out made be can reactors level, household the At materials. organic - pri vatetoilets for public point or access additional withan to connected directly are reactors biogas Often, this countries). isonlyfoundpractice, inindustrialized in (although reactor the heating by achieved be only 57 °C would ensure to the pathogens destruction, but 50 can of temperature thermophilic A 38 °C. to 30 of range temperature mesophilic the in operated are tors - reac biogas Normally, considered. be should days 60 perate climates. For highlypathogenic inputs, aHRT of 15 least at be days hotin climates days 25 and temin - The hydraulic retention time (HRT) in the reactor should can beused. the reactors should be installed close to where the gas expand (like a balloon). To minimize distribution losses, can it Alternatively, gas. of the withdrawal and production with falls and rises dome the reactor, dome ing float- a In pipes. through biogas the transport to used reactor. into flows back the be can pressure slurry The the removed, is gas the When chamber.expansion an into upward slurry the displaces and pressure a exerts Brownwater Sludge Sludge Organics expansion chamber digestate Blackwater System 5 Applicable to: Biogas access cover outlet

reactor 5to shouldbeemptied onceevery 10 years. the inputs, the and be design the on Depending should removed. bottom the to settled have that sand regularly and and carefully prevented. leaksGrit are and corrosion that be so cleaned should equipment Gas and mixed with water ordigestate to prior feeding. shredded be should substrate as used waste Organic sludge. Tank Septic or dung cow adding by e.g., teria, bac- reactor,anaerobic theinoculatedwith be should it ly designed and built, repairs should be minimal. To start Operation &Maintenance If the reactor is proper to humanhealth. flammable gases that, if mismanaged, could be harmful the with associated dangers also are There required. be might treatment further end-use, its infection. on Depending of risk a carries still but sanitized is partially digestate The Health Aspects/Acceptance be longer and the design volume substantially increased. to 15needs belowHRT °C.lowthe Consequently, very is biogas into conversion matter organic of rate the as Biogas reactors are less appropriate for colder climates to andshouldbeavoided degrade inthe substrate. difficult are straw and HRT.material Woodthe reduces stock. Greywater should not be added as it substantially hold with manure if the latter is the main source of feed - be efficient to co-digest blackwater from a single house- animal as such can It waste. household marketor material, organic and manure organic in rich are which biogas substrates, concentrated with obtained of are production levels highest The input. only the is water black if achieved be cannot production gas significant However, biogas. of benefit added the with but ment, - treat of level similar a offers it Tanksince Septic (S.9), a to alternative an as used is reactor biogas a Often, plants. It is best used where regular feeding is possible. treatment wastewater large at sludge of stabilization the for or neighbourhoods small level,in household the at applied be can technology This Appropriateness away the from site. transport and/or use storage, its for made provisions be must there continuous, is production digestate the - - (1996)._ CMS Biogas Technology: ATraining Manualfor Exten- Reading References &Further - - - + + + + + + Pros &Cons Y.,_ Vögeli, Diener, A., C.R., Gallardo, Lohri, S.andZurbrügg, (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., H.-P._ Mang, andLi,Z.(2010). Technology Review ofBiogas (1998)._ GTZ Biogas Digest. Volume I-IV. andAdvi Information - Available at: www.fao.org Kathmandu, NP.Services, sion. FAO/TCP/NEP/4451-T. Consolidated Management Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, (Department PracticalCountries. Information andCaseStudies. Eawag C. (2014). Anaerobic Digestion ofBiowaste inDeveloping ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. (GIZ) GmbH,Eschborn, für Internationale Zusammenarbeit Gesellschaft Countries. Water, orfor Excreta Treatment andReuse inDeveloping –BiogasSanitation. Sanitation Draft for Blackwater, Brown Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Eschborn, fürTechnischeGesellschaft Zusammenarbeit(GTZ) GmbH, onAppropriate Technology Service (ISAT).sory Deutsche Limited gas below production 15 °C treatment further require Incomplete pathogen removal, the digestate might Requires design andskilledconstruction expert Low costs operating life Long service ofnutrients Conservation required energy No electrical be builtunderground) can ofthe (most required structure Small landarea ofrenewableGeneration energy -

81 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies S Functional Group S: Collection and Storage/Treatment .12 C

82 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group C: Conveyance • • • • • • • • following factors: In any given context, the technology choice generally dependsonthe C.7 C.6 C.5 C.4 C.3 C.2 C.1 motorized/ container-based or human-powered emptying technologies (C.1-C.3, andtransport C.7). (C.4-C.6), technologies sewer-based either are They technology. Disposal and/or Use Treatment, (Semi-) Centralized offsite subsequent a to them transporting and/or removing by technology Storage/Treatment and Collection onsite or Interface User the at generated products the with deal section this in technologies The Management considerations provider Availability ofaservice resources Financial Soil andgroundwater characteristics Topography Accessibility toDistance cover Type andquantityto ofproducts betransported Transfer Station HoldingTank) (Underground Conventional Gravity Sewer Solids-Free Sewer Simplified Sewer Motorized Emptying andTransport Human-Powered Emptying andTransport Jerrycan/Tank Conveyance

83 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C Functional Group C: Conveyance C

84 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .1 Functional Group C: Conveyance They shouldbeeasilyaccessible incaseofblockages. steep slope (> 1%), no sharp angles, and large diameters. a have should Pipes accumulate. will precipitates since length its minimize totaken be should care pipe, a with If theis directly jerrycan connected to the toilet or urinal either bestored onsite orimmediately transported. L jerrycan with urine in approximately 3 to 4 days. It can 20 a fill toexpected be can 5 of family A consumption. fluid and on climate depending significantly vary may erates about 1.2 L of urine a day; however, this quantity gen- person a average, On Design Considerations don- keys, orsmalltrucks. carts bicycles, e.g., using jerrycans, of transport and mon, a micro-enterprise may specialize in the collection storage facility. Where urine-diversion systems are com- central a to or fields agricultural to transportation for storedStorage within theurine Tanks/Containers (S.1) filled theybe or can jerrycans collectedin be can Urine urine. transport or store safely to used be can they sealed, When ly available and can be easily carried by one person. Jerrycans are light, plastic containers that are readi- Application Level: Jerrycan / Tank Jerrycan  City Neighbourhood Household Management Level:    Household Public Shared C1: JERR YCAN /T AN Inputs/Outputs: when itisneeded for agriculture. completely not are filled. In monthswarmer thestored urine can be used they as long as freezes) urine (where environments cold in used be can Jerrycans and Transport (C.3). can be emptied by that such means as tank Motorized Emptying storage urine large a have to appropriate more be may it example, for systems, urine-diverting with communities or compounds For necessary. is system distribution and collection efficient and ized - formal more a Otherwise, produced. are urine of ties quanti- small relatively together, where close and are fields) and homes (i.e., use and generation of points the where areas for appropriate only is transport of is inexpensive, easy to clean and re-useable. This type It distances. overshort urine transporting wayof tive Appropriateness A well-sealed jerrycan is an - effec toported the fields. be filled into jerrycans (e.g., using then a small pump) and can - trans urine stored The urine. the of collection primary for considered be should Tank/Container age Stor large a of use the emptied, or exchanged befre- quently to need and up fill quickly jerrycans Because K Urine Urine Stored Urine

Systems 4,5,9 Applicable to: - - - - + + + + + Pros &Cons injerrycans. transported be should greywater) or blackwater as (such liquids er oth- of no difficulties, transportation and Because concerns safety washed. frequently be should jerrycans odours, unpleasant and accumulation sludge growth, bacterial minimize To Operation &Maintenance income. their increasing and/or nutrition their improving tion, - produc agricultural increased with rewarded be may Families who invest the time to free. transport and use their own for urine households from collected be may it and value economic an has urine locations, some In emptying apit. ty, it is likely to be more convenient and less costly than a mayjerrycan carrying not be the most pleasant activi- well. also poseslittlehealth asthey While risk sealvery jerrycans Carrying sterile. normally is risks urine health because low incur jerrycans empty or who exchange people The Health Aspects/Acceptance cans (depending onstorage conditions) Mild to odourwhenfillingandemptying strong jerry Spills may happen Heavy to carry Low ofpathogen risk transmission Easy to cleanandreusable generation Potential for andincome localjobcreation Very costs low andoperating capital widelyavailable are androbust Jerrycans

- (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO H.(2012). C.,von Münch, E.andHoffmann, _ Rieck, Technol- Gensch, R.,Jönsson, H., Stenström, A., T. and A., _ Richert, Münch, E.andWinker,_ von M.(2011). Technology Review Reading References &Further Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. GmbH, Eschborn, fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ) Gesellschaft of Design,Operation, Management andCosts. Deutsche ogy Review Toilets Dry ofUrine-Diverting (UDDTs). Overview Available at: www.susana.org/library Institute, Stockholm, SE. in Crop Production. EcoSanRes, Stockholm Environment Dagerskog, L.(2010). Practical Guidanceonthe Useof Urine Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Toilets, Storage Urine andReuse Systems. für Gesellschaft Components Such asWaterless Diversion Urine Urinals, Diversionof Urine Diversion Components. ofUrine Overview

85 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .1 C

86 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .2 Functional Group C: Conveyance economics, other emptying techniques not are possible. or safety access, of because where, emptying sludge for have shown promise as being low-cost, effective solutions and inventions new relatively are pumps sludge Manual fumes, andexposure to unsanitized sludge. buckets because of the high risk of collapsing pits, toxic emp- with not and truck, vacuum a or pump be hand a with tied should it watery or viscous is sludge When be removed with avacuum orapump. cannot and solid is material the because shovel a with emptied be must technologies These (S.7). Vaults tion Dehydra- or (S.5) Alterna Fossa the example, for ually, Some sanitation technologies can only be emptied man- 2) 1) be doneinoneoftwo ways: tankscan and vaults pits, of emptyingHuman-powered generated inonsite facilities. sanitation products solid and sludge transport and/or empty manually can people which by ways different the to refers transport and emptying Human-powered C2: HUM Application Level: Human-Powered Emptyingand Transport   the MDHPorthe MAPET). designed for sludge (e.g., the Gulper, the Rammer, manuallyoperated pump specially using aportable, using buckets andshovels, or City Neighbourhood Household AN-PO W ERED Management Level: EMP    Household Public Shared TY IN G AN D TR ANSPO Inputs/Outputs: The pumping of sludge, which contains coarse solid solid coarse wastes or grease, can lead to contains clogging of the device, and which sludge, of pumping The difficult. more much emptying makes pit the in refuse Domestic sludge. viscous degree, certain a to and, uid liq- for used be can pumps Hand Appropriateness can pump upto aheightof3m. Depending on the consistency of the sludge, the MAPET suckedsludgeis and tank vacuumtheintotank. theup of out sucked is air turned, is pump hand the of wheel the When pit. the from sludge suck to used is and tank tank mounted on a pushcart. A hose is connected to the vacuum a to connected pump operated manually a of consists Technology) Emptying Pit (MAnual MAPET A with steel andvalves rods inaPVC casing. made locally be can pumps Hand operator. the to ger bags and or removedcarts, from the site with little dan- barrels, in collected be can sludge The spout. charge dis- the through discharged then is and up pumped is sludge the handle, As the pulls and surface. pushes the operator the at remains operator the while tank pit/ the into lowered is pipe the of bottom the pumps: as the Gulper, work on the same concept as water hand such pumps, hand Sludge Design Considerations Compost Sludge RT

Dried Faeces Dried

Pit Humus PitHumus Systems 1-4,6,7 Applicable to: boots overall gloves facemask with the sludge. contact prevent to tools and clothing protective their who manually empty latrines should clean and maintain Workers disinfection). and repairing (cleaning, nance mainte - daily require pumps sludge operated Manually emptying may be required more frequently (once a year). However, therefore, and, pit latrine. entire the empty cannot pumps hand the empty to pump sludge manual a use to cost-effective more be may it slab, the ishing If manual access to the contents of a pit requires demol- units, aswell asadditionalhealth threats to the workers. however, recommended, not because it causes difficulties in the subsequent treatment is This odours. avoid to process emptying pit the during oil or chemicals add to practice common a is It Operation &Maintenance one working with sludge. every for required be should vaccinations and exams medical Regularfacemasks. and overalls boots,gloves, with protected is adequately are emptying workers manual that ensuring of aspect important most The ofemptyingize the manually. practice latrines legal- to helping as well as licences, and permits viding - pro by environment enabling an create and labourers the of work the legitimize to strive should programmes Government-run community. the to service important an providing dealing as viewed be workersmay emptying manual with support, political and factors tural cul- on Depending Health Aspects/Acceptance sible whenthere isaTransfer Station (C.7)nearby. fea- technologiesmore These are traveldistances. long to able be not may vehicles smaller while alleys, and streets narrow within manoeuvre to able be not may vehicles Large point. discharge the to distance feasible the determines vehicle transport of size and type the although settlements, informal and urban dense, to ed vacuumemptying truck too is costly. They well suit- are where or trucks, vacuum by accessible not or served not are that areas for appropriate are pumps sludge ed sustainable business in opportunity a some regions. Manually - operat be to prove could and method bucket the over improvement significant a is pump hand The chemical additives can pipes, corrode pumps and tanks. - - - - - + + + + Pros &Cons J.andShaw, R.(1997)._ Pickford, Technical No. Brief 54: (2008).ManualDesludgingHandPump (MDHP) _ Oxfam _ Muller, M.andRijnsburger, J.(1994). MAPET. Manual atWork (2007)._ Ideas –aManualLatrine/Drain The‘Gulper’ PitEmptying K.(2005).Bringing outofthe Darkness: _ Eales, Reading References &Further Available at: www.lboro.ac.uk/well UK. Leicestershire, Emptying University, WEDC,Loughborough PitLatrines. (Manual for the MDHP) Available at: www.desludging.org Resources. GB,Oxford, Oxfam UK. Available at: www.washdoc.info Gouda, NL. Dar esSalaam,Tanzania. 1988–1992. WASTE Consultants, with Locally Manufactured HandpumpService Equipment in Pilot Implementation ofaNeighbourhood BasedPitEmptying EmptyingPit-latrine Technology Project. Development and providers) aboutatest(Case study ofthe Gulperby service informal Available at: www.ideas-at-work.org Pit Pump. IdeasatWork, PhnomPenh, KH. oftwo manualemptying(A comparison projects) Available at: www.bpdws.org Water London,UK. andSanitation, Kibera, Kenya. for Development in BuildingPartnerships A Comparison ofApproaches inDurban,South and Africa, Some devices may (welding) specializedrepair require Garbage inpitsmay block pipe hours/days dependingontheir size consuming:emptyingTime pitsoutcantake several risks andgenerate smells offensive Spills canhappenwhich couldposepotential health sewers to without areas/communities Provides services distance ing ontransport Low depend- costs variable costs; capital operating locally available materials with Simple handpumps canbebuiltandrepaired tion Potential for andincomegenera localjobcreation -

87 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .2 C

88 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .3 Functional Group C: Conveyance but capacities vary. Smaller vehicles for densely populat- densely for vehicles Smaller vary. capacities but pick-ups and tractor trailers can transport around 1.5 around m transport can pick-upstrailers tractor and Modified pumps. and tanks by holding with them equipping transport sludge for adapted commonly are trucks Generally, the storage storage capacity of a vacuum truck is between 3 and 12 m the Generally, Design Considerations and cannegotiate pathways. narrow pump a and tank sludge small a carry Kedoteng or sta limited with access. Designs such as the Vacutug, Dung areas Beetle, Mol - populated densely for developed been have machines or vehicles motorized Alternative to asavacuum truck. tank on the vehicle. This type of design is often referred S.9) or pit, and the sludge is pumped up into the holding hose that is lowered down into a tank (e.g., Septic Tank, a to connected is which pump a with fitted is truck A ortransported. manually lifted not is sludge the but hose, operate the manoeuvre to and pump required are Humans urine. and sludge faecal transporting and emptying for tank storage a and pump motorized a with equipped cle vehi- a to refers transport and emptying Motorized C3: MO Application Level: Motorized Emptyingand Motorized Transport    City Neighbourhood Household TO RIZED EMPT YI sludge Management Level:  NG AN  Household Public Shared D TR AN 3 . Local . Local SPOR 3 , T Transfer Stations (C.7) and adequate treatment are also ment site must be within reach from the areas. serviced not offset the cost of fuel and time. Therefore, the - treat the of periphery a city) since the income generated may in (e.g., areas remote to These trips make rarely authorities. can trucks sanitation and municipalities for norm the remain they roads, non-driveable or narrow Although large vacuum trucks cannot access areas with for large Septic Tanks. required be may truckloads Multiple pump. or pipe the clog and difficult more much emptying make sand and Garbage costly. and inefficient be may this but easily, to sary thin the solids with water so that they flow more cannot be easily pumped. In these situations it is neces- it that dense so be can sludge technology,the Storage Appropriateness vacuum pump can be to the pit, the easier it is to empty. located within 30 m of the pit. In general, the closer the m (depending on the strength of the pump) and must be 3 to 2 of depth a to down suck only usually can Pumps drives andcanreach speedsofupto 12 km/h. based motorcycle or tractor two-wheel example, for use, vehicles These L. 800 to 500 of capacities have areas ed Inputs/Outputs: Effluent Sludge Blackwater Urine Urine

Depending on the Collection and and Collection the on Depending Systems 1,4-7,9 Applicable to: Stored Urine sludge tank. the corrode to tend they because recommended not is desludging for additives chemical of addition The for major repairs. cause the often is maintenancepreventive of lack The equipment. and tires parts, replacement expensive of be conscientioustomust save money for the purchase operator. Truckowners truck a by incurred costs total the of thirds two than more for account can that costs fuel and maintenance high resulting the by offset are savings the but used, often trucks are older Therefore, obtain. to difficult sometimes and expensive very are mechanic to repair broken pumps or trucks. New trucks in some regions it is difficult to locate spare parts and a Thus, Europe. or Asia America, North in manufactured are trucks pump Operation &MaintenanceMost collected sludge. the dump to locations appropriate finding with culties diffi- face may and community the by accepted always not are operators truck Still, technology. Storage and Collection the maintain to helps and emptying manual over improvement health significant a presents truck vacuum a of use The Health Aspects/Acceptance management chain. sludge faecal whole the covertogetherto work should providers service municipal and Private facility. tified cer a at sludge the discharge not do they if so do to afford only may but ones, public than less charge may operators Private significantly. vary may service of el may operate vacuum trucks, although the price and lev Both the sanitation authority and private entrepreneurs to business. aprofitable run sustainably nance costs. However, the capital costs are still too high mainte- and operating the recover to able are Vacutug Under favourable small circumstances, vehicles like the viable. commercially becoming from them prevented have constraints market and demand Moreover, lanes. narrow very and roads poor slopes, negotiate to ability their emptying effectiveness and travel speed, and their ing designs for dense urban areas are limited in terms of equipment. Field experiences have shown that the exist- crucial for service providers using small-scale motorized ------+ + + + Pros &Cons L., Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D. (Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, M.(2009).Investigation_ O’Riordan, into Methods ofPit S.andKoné, D.(2012)._ Chowdhry, BusinessAnalysis of R.(1985). andSchertenleib, A. _ Boesch, PitEmptying on-Site Reading References &Further all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed bookcompiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing, London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Vacutug) (Includes adetailed analysis offieldexperiences with the Available at: www.susana.org/library Pretoria, ZA. WRCLatrines. 1745, Project Water Research Commission, Emptying.Latrine Management ofSludge Accumulation inVIP Available at: www.susana.org/library Seattle, US. andAsia.Bill&MelindaGates inAfrica Foundation, Services Fecal Sludge Management: Emptying andTransportation sludge types,andmaintenance)mance with different oftechnical components, perfor (Comprehensive summary Available at: www.sandec.ch forCentre CH. Waste Disposal,Dübendorf, Equipment inGaborone (Botswana). International Reference Excreta DisposalSystems. Field Tests with Mechanized May have difficultieswith access and materials mayNot belocallyavailable allparts households for poor avacuumHiring may truck beunaffordable depending onuseandmaintenance Very costs variable costs; highcapital operating suction lift Cannot completely empty deeppitsdueto limited Garbage inpitsmay block hose with water ormanuallyremoved) Cannot pump thick, sludge dried bethinned (must to unsewered areas Provides anessentialservice tion Potential for andincomegenera localjobcreation - possiblewith large vacuum trucksEfficient transport Fast, hygienic sludge andgenerally removal effective -

89 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .3 C

90 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .4 Functional Group C: Conveyance tional Sewers that are designed to ensure a minimum minimum a ensure to designed are that Sewers Conven- tional to contrast In Design Considerations excavation isrequired. little and depth shallow a at laid be can they loads, fic are installed where they are not subjected to heavy - traf sewers simplified Since (sidewalks). pavements neath under or traffic, heavy for narrow too are which ways, dominial sewers. The pipes can also be routed in access con- as to referred often are they condominium, the in with- installed typically are sewers simplified Because pipes. beneath shorter and fewer than for allowing road, rather central the yards, front or back the either through boundaries, usually laid withinare the property pipes betterThe situation. adaptedare thatlocal to the conservative design standards and with design features unnecessarily without but Sewerage, Gravity ventional Con- as same the is sewerage simplified Conceptually, er allows for amore flexible designatlower costs. than Conventional Sewers (C.6). The simplified sew gradient flatter a at and depth shallower a at laid pipes diameter smaller using constructed is that network a sewerage describes sewer simplified A C4: SIMPLI Application Level: Simplified Sewer   City Neighbourhood Household FIED SE WE RS Management Level:  

 Household Public Shared inspection chambe - - Inputs/Outputs: is based on a minimum tractive tension of 1 N/m sewers simplified of design the velocity, self-cleansing nections should be discouraged. However, in practice practice in However, discouraged. be should nections to sewer the ensure adequate hydraulic loading, into but stormwater con- discharged be should Greywater tois recommended prevent clogging. grease, the installation of grease traps (see PRE, p. and 100) oil of amount appreciable an contains kitchen greywater Where connection. house each at used also are boxes Inspection sufficient. are cleanouts) (or bers junction or change in direction, simple inspection cham- each At needed. not normally are manholes Expensive that they placedaway are traffic. from mains; they can also be laid at a shallow depth, provided sewer to applied be also can design simplified The ical. typ- are cm 65 sidewalks, Below 40 to of covers traffic. of amount the on mainly depends laid be should they PVC pipes are recommended to use. The depth at which L/person/day. wastewater a 60 with of flow users 2,800 around serve will m 200 in m 1 of gradient a at laid sewer mm 100 a example, For sufficient. usually is 0.5% of gradient A required. 100is diametersewerof mm minimum a and at peak flow. The minimum peak flow should be 1.5 L/s r Greywater Blackwater

Effluent Effluent Brownwater Systems 7-9 Applicable to: 2 (1 Pa) can be hired tocan behired dothe maintenance. committee users or contractor private a Alternatively, repair. to costly and severe become they before lems may not be feasible because users may not detect - prob condominial of part the sewer. However, in practice this sible for the maintenance of pre-treatment units and the - respon be will community.households Ideally,the and definedresponsibilities between the sewerage authority system. The operation of the system depends on clearly emptiedperiodically to prevent overflowing grit into the be must chambers Inspection pipe. the through wire rigid a forcing and cleanouts be the opening by usually removed can Blockages blockages. against insure to isrecommended pipes the of flushing Occasional solids. other and trash by clogging avoid to and turbed undis- is flow the that ensure to essential are users ble - responsi and Trained Operation &Maintenance removing blockages inspectionchambers. andmaintaining with associated risks health the regarding trained well wastewater.be must transporting Users of means hygienic and safe a are sewers maintained, and constructed well If Health Aspects/Acceptance than Conventional Sewerage. less expensive 50% and between 20 sewerage is plified sim- Regardless, conditions. favourable in than significantly higher is sewers installing of cost the stances, - circum these Under difficult. be may excavation table high, groundwater the or rocky is ground the Where 60L/person/day).supply (atleast sity (about 150 people per hectare) and a reliable water den- population sufficient a is there where option an as considered be should They limited. is technologies ite especially appropriate for dense urban areas where space for ons- are and settlements of types all almost in Appropriateness may stormwater from result inflow. that flow extra the should, account into plant) take therefore, treatment (and sewers the of design The drainage. storm for alternative no is there where especially flows, stormwater all exclude to difficult is it Simplified sewers can be installed installed be can sewers Simplified - - - + + + + + Pros &Cons G.(1995)._ Watson, GoodSewers Cheap?Agency-Customer andTayler, D.D.,Sleigh,A. _ Mara, K.(2001). PC-Based D.(2005).Sanitation for AllinPeriurban Areas? _ Mara, D.(1996b)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, D. _ Mara, Otis,R.andAzevedo Wright, Netto, A., A., J. _ Bakalian, Reading References &Further oflarge-scale inBrazil) projects (A summary Available at: www.wsp.org Division,TheWorldSanitation Bank, Washington, D.C.,US. Interactions Sanitation Urban inLow-Cost inBrazil. Water and toprogram beusedas adesignaid) anddesignincludinga (Comprehensive coverage oftheory Available at: www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/Sewerage/ Simplified Sewer ofLeeds,UK. Design.University in urbansanitation) the technology summarizing anditspotential(An article role Waternology: 5(6):57-65. Supply Only IfWe UseSimplified Sewerage. Water Science&Tech- includingdesignexamples) (Comprehensive summary Chichester, UK.pp.109-139. studies) systems andcase low-cost (Assessment ofdifferent (Design guidelinesfor manualcalculations) Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home Bank Water Washington, Program, andSanitation D.C.,US. (1994). Simplified Sewerage: DesignGuidelines.UNDP-World groundwater difficult andare infiltration toidentify Leakages ofwastewater posearisk exfiltration and Requires designandconstruction expert frequently than aConventional Gravity Sewer Requires andremovals repairs ofblockages more units treatment Does not onsite require primary Greywater canbemanaged concurrently Can beextended asacommunitygrows costs operating Lower than costs capital Conventional Sewers; low than Conventional Sewers Can belaidatashallower depth andflatter gradient D. (1996a). Sewerage. Low-Cost Wiley, Chichester, UK.

91 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .4 C

92 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .5 Functional Group C: Conveyance orcl dsge ad prtd ti tp o sewer of type this operated, and designed are correctly interceptors the If Design Considerations flow. (full-bore) open channel andpressure the ground contours, the flow is allowed to vary between follows roughly sewer the topography.When the follow and slopes) negative (i.e., gradients inflective have can points, inspection few require They needed. is tension self-cleansing, i.e., no minimum flow velocity or tractive tions and clogging, solids-free sewers do not have to be deposi- of risk little is there Because discharges. peak pipes. The solids interceptor also functions to attenuate (S.9), captures settleable that particles could clog small Tank Septic single-chamber a typically interceptor, An level. the household at treatment primary efficient is sewers solids-free for precondition effluent A tank sewers. gravity septic or gravity, variable-grade bore, Solids-free sewers are also referred to as settled, small- minimum wastewater flow orslope to function. a require not does and depth shallow a at installed solids-free wastewaterSeptic(suchTankas be can It effluent). and pre-treated transports that pipes small-diameter of network a is sewer solids-free A C5: SE Application Level: Solids-Free Sewer   City Neighbourhood Household T TLE D ( SOLI DS FREE) Management Level:    Household Public Shared S septic tank EWE R Inputs/Outputs: rudae i te ees bt i patc, some practice, in but, sewers, the in groundwater andstorm-any be not Ideally,should ositions. there dep- exceed grit toblockagesto due lead and capacity pipe could it as excluded be must Stormwater more entering. be from stormwater prevent to sealed tightly can cleanouts manholes, to size. pipe Compared or direction in changes major or tions, intersec- points, high ends, upstream at installed and are sufficient are points flushing or Cleanouts for mechanical cleaning equipment is not necessary. Expensive manholes are not needed because access diameter to of75mmisrequired facilitate cleaning. minimum A tolerance. greaterconstruction forallowing tion points. The alignment may curve to avoid obstacles, form gradient with a straight alignment between inspec- uni- a on installed be tohave not do sewers Solids-free ventilated. be must pipes the flow, pressure with tions sec- in points tank. high into back flow At the will liquid than the hydraulic head within the sewer, the otherwise higher be must tank interceptor any in level water the upstream end. In sections where there is pressure flow, the than lower is sewer the of end downstream the as long as possible, are gradients inflective Even slopes. minimum or velocities self-cleansing require not does Effluent Effluent

System 7 Applicable to: of the system, particularly, to ensure that the inter the that ensure to particularly, system, the of committee should be responsible for the management users or contractor private authority,seweragea The andsolidswouldbe installed enter the system. connections, since it is likely that interceptors would not illegal prevent to taken be should precautions Special against blockages. sewer.Periodic flushing of the pipes isrecommended to the insure of performance optimal ensure to critical Tanks is Septic the of desludging Regular solids. other and trash by clogging avoid to essential are users ble - responsi and Trained Operation &Maintenance removing blockages interceptor andmaintaining tanks. with associated risks health the regarding trained well wastewater.be must transporting Users of means hygienic and safe a are sewers maintained, and constructed well If Health Aspects/Acceptance ConventionalSewer (C.6). a than cost lower considerably at built be can it materials, fewer of use the and excavations shallow of Because grows. population the as extended easily be can that option flexible a is technology This con- water sumption islimited. domestic where used be also can sewer asolids-free (C.4) Sewer Simplified a to opposed As density housing and/or water use). increased to due (e.g., appropriate longer no is infiltration connected where Tanks Septic be existing to can sewer solids-free A soil. rocky or terrain undulating is there where suitable also is It ter). groundwa - high or capacity infiltration low to due (e.g., where effluents cannot be disposed ofotherwise onsite or (D.8), Field Leach a for space no is there where ate - appropri most is It settings. rural or low-density in ate to medium-density (peri-)urban areas and less - appropri suited best is sewer of type This Appropriateness ofleakages.risk the minimize can pipes PVC of use The system. the designing when made be therefore, must, inflow ter stormwa - and infiltration groundwater expected.of Estimates be must joints pipe sealed imperfectly ------+ + + + + Pros &Cons connections. preventtoillegal and desludged regularly are ceptors D.(1985). R.J.and Mara, _ Otis, TheDesignofSmallBore D.(1996b)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, _ R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Netto,_ Azevedo J.andReid, R.(1992). Innovative andLow- Reading References &Further Mara, systems andcasestudies) low-cost (Assessment ofdifferent tenance) and main- ofdesign,installation (Comprehensive summary Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home The World BankandUNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. Sewer Systems. INT/81/047, UNDPInterregional Project includingdesignexamples) (Comprehensive summary Chichester, UK.pp.93-108. tions) - considera of designandconstruction summary (A short Hill, New York, US.pp.355-364. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- –Chapter andcomponent diagrams 5) summary (A short Organization, Washington, D.C.,US. Health Pan American 29, Environmental Health Program, Cost Technologies UtilizedinSewerage. Technical No. Series groundwater difficult andare infiltration toidentify Leakages ofwastewater posearisk exfiltration and Requires designandconstruction expert frequently than aconventional gravity sewer Requires andremovals repairs ofblockages more Requires andacceptance training to beusedcorrectly clogging Interceptors desludgingto regular require prevent Space for interceptors isrequired Greywater canbemanaged concurrently Can beextended asacommunitygrows low costs operating ers; Lower than costs capital conventional gravity sew waterCan beusedwhere supplyislimited Does notorflow aminimumgradient require velocity D. D. (1996a). Low-Cost Sewerage.Low-Cost Wiley, Chichester, - UK.

93 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .5 C

94 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .6 Functional Group C: Conveyance tions. When a downhill grade cannot be maintained, a a maintained, be cannot grade downhill a When tions. excava- deep require can which flows, self-cleansing maintain to be sewer the must of length the gradient along guaranteed downhill constant A adopted. be should conditions weather dry peak during m/s 0.7 to 0.6 of velocity minimum a diameters, sewer typical For accumulate). to particles allow not velocity will that flow a (i.e., self-cleansing maintains it that so however, designed, be must sewer The discharged. is it before treatment mary or storage of the household wastewater - pri pre-treatment, onsite require not do normally ers sew gravity Conventional Design Considerations and householdlevel). neighbourhood the at (networks networks tertiary and (main primary sewer lines along main roads), secondary many branches. Typically, the network is subdivided into conventionalThe gravity sewer system withdesigned is ity, usinggravity (andpumps whennecessary). households to a (Semi-) Centralized Treatment facil- individual stormwaterfrom cases, many in and, ter underground pipes that convey blackwater, greywa- of networks large are sewers gravity Conventional C6: CONVE Application Level: Conventional Gravity Sewer   City Neighbourhood Household NTIONAL GR Management Level:  A VIT Household Public Shared Y S EWE R - Inputs/Outputs: infiltration ofstormwater or a separate drainage system and retention Rather,local art. the of state considered rain during events. However, combined sewers should no longer be plants treatment of surcharge hydraulic combined sewer), sewer overflows arerequired to avoid a as (known stormwater carries also sewer the When ging andthe loadofthe wastewater plant. treatment charge into the sewer system to reduce the risk of clog- may treatment before dis- berequired andprimary pre- onsite restaurants), or industry (e.g., wastewater luted pol- highly discharge users connected that case the In stormwater inflowgroundwater or infiltration. of source a become not do they that such designed be should Manholes horizontally). and (vertically direction pipeline in changes at and intersections pipe sewer,at the above intervals set at placed are manholes Access PVC, pipes. iron andductileorcast and peak flows. Commonly used materials average are concrete, projected the on depends diameter pipe the topography.the and basement) of a selection (e.g., The on the groundwater table, the lowest point to be served depends also depth The loads. traffic by caused ages laid beneath roads, at depths of 1.5 to 3 m to avoid dam- are sewers Primary installed. be must station pumping Greywater ( Blackwater

sewer main Stormwater) Brownwater Systems 8,9 Applicable to: manhole gases and should be maintained only by professionals, professionals, by only maintained be should and gases toxicof because dangerous be can Sewers bailing. and jetting flushing, rodding, include sewers gravity tional grease disposal. Common cleaning methods for and conven- oil proper about users the inform to important is it grease, by caused clogging avoidTo lines. the block and manholes the in accumulate may rags) or sticks routine inspection and sewer cleaning. Debris (e.g., grit, for used are Manholes Operation &Maintenance the downstream facility. by provided treatment the by determined are impacts environmental and health ultimate the treatment, for er, becausethewaste isconveyed location tooffsite an Howevuser.the for comfort and hygiene of level high a provides wastewater.technology This transporting of means hygienic and safe a are sewers maintained, and constructed well If Health Aspects/Acceptance large water andconstant flow freezing. resists the and ground the into deep dug are they as climates cold Conventionalconstructedin be can sewersgravity ofthe sewer.the performance compromise and exfiltration, wastewater or infiltration pipe joints, which may become a source of groundwater or walls manhole in cracks cause may shifting Ground beinplace. must system management professional a owners, property and companies construction authorities, between tion a sewer line is disruptive of and requires extensive - coordina installation the because and, build to expensive are sewers gravity Conventional traffic. and activities urban disrupts it because complicated is areas urban dense, in systems sewer conventional of Construction knowledge. expert require maintenance and operation construction, Planning, facility. Treatment Centralized (Semi-) a to wastewater transport to appropriate very are sewers gravity conventional volumes, large carry to designed be can they Because Appropriateness ment efficiency for lessdiluted wastewater. - treat higher a is there and build, to cheaper therefore, is, and dimensions smaller requires then system ment wastewater- treat The recommended. are rainwater for ------+ + + Pros &Cons tection shouldalways beusedwhenentering asewer. - pro Proper members. community of group well-trained a to over handed be might networks tertiary of nance mainte- the communities, well-organised in although, EPA_ U.S. (2002).CollectionSystems Technology Fact Sheet. _ Tchobanoglous, G.(1981). Wastewater Collec- Engineering: _ Bizier, P. (Ed.)(2007). Sewer Gravity Sanitary Designand Reading References &Further nance) andmainte onoperation - andinformation design criteria (Good description ofthe technology, detailed includingmore Available at: www.epa.gov Protectionmental Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. Sewers, Conventional Gravity. 832-F-02-007. U.S. Environ- tion andPumping ofWastewater. New York, McGraw-Hill, US. choosing adesignmanual) shouldbeassessedbefore local codesandstandards although America, designtext(A standard usedinNorth Newcan Society York, ofCivilEngineers, US. - FD-5.Ameri 60,WEFMOP No. No. Practice on Engineering Construction. SecondEdition.ASCE Manuals andReports groundwater difficult andare infiltration toidentify Leakages ofwastewater posearisk exfiltration and nance andmainteRequires design,construction - expert es andgrows Difficult andcostly to extend asacommunity chang- Requires deepexcavations the depositionofsolidsinthe sewer A minimumvelocity to bemaintained must prevent nance costs andmainteVery highoperation costs; highcapital - volumes offlow andotherCan handlegrit solids,aswell aslarge concurrently Greywater andpossiblystormwater canbemanaged Solids-Free Sewers Less maintenance to compared Simplified and

95 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .6 C

96 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .7 Functional Group C: Conveyance tank. The dumping point should be built low enough to enough low built be should point dumping The tank. storage a and hoses, discharge for point connection a carts, sludge or trucks vacuum for place parking a of consists station transfer Design ConsiderationsA especially, ifthey not are well maintained. nuisance, a become could odours otherwise located, carefully be to have stations transfer settings, urban In themaintaining facility. and operating of costs the tooffset station transfer the sewerage authorities may charge for permits to dump at or facility.Municipalities treatment suitable a to sludge full, a vacuum truck empties the contents and takes the is station transfer the When site. disposal or treatment remote a at it discharge to travelling or it dumping ly illegal- than rather station transfer local a at sludge the Sludge Emptying Equipment (see C.2 and C.3) discharge Motorized small-scale or Human-Powered of Operators C8: S quired to empty transfer stations when they are full. Centralized Treatment facility. A (Semi-) vacuum truck is re - a to transported easily be cannot it when sludge faecal for points dumping intermediate as act tanks holding underground or Transferstations C7: TR Application Level: Transfer Station(UndergroundHolding Tank)   City Neighbourhood Household EWE AN SFER R DI SC STATION HAR GE Management Level:  STATION

 Household Public Shared

outlet Inputs/Outputs: bly operate the andmaintain stations. transfer high of because costs, while still generating enough income to - sustaina excluded not are service most the who need those that so designed carefully be must fees access charging or permits issuing for system The and plan loads. adapt to differing accurately more and information detailed collect can individuals operator the way, the this In there. about dump who data collect as and well type as origin, input quantity, track to data devices digital recording with equipped be can stations Transfer peakloads. ment plant,and/orreduce wastewater- treat the of and sewer the of performance the optimize to pumping) by (e.g., intervals timed at or directly either main sewer the into released is SDS the into emptied Sludge main. sewer gravity conventional a to connected directly is but station, transfer a like is which (SDS), station discharge sewer the is variation A water infiltration. and/or surface leaching prevent to constructed well be must tank ing hold- The vehicles. for facility washing a and (garbage) debris large remove to screen trash a vent, a include should station transfer the Additionally, carts. sludge their empty manually labourers when spills minimize Sludge inlet inlet sludge sludge

Systems 1,6,7 Applicable to: pump sewer and other vectors becoming nuisances. from flies odours, minimize to cleaned regularly be should better than an overflowing pit. The pad and loading area station; if the holding tank fills up and overflows, it isno should be a well-organized system to empty the transfer There tank. holding the from removed periodically be also must consolidatedsludge and back-ups. grit Sand, prevent and flow constant a ensure to cleaned quently - fre be must Screens Operation &Maintenance lems to nearby residents. - prob and odours minimize and efficiency maximize to chosen carefully be must location improved.The cantly signifi- be can community a of overallhealththe mized, mini- is dumping illegal and emptied regularly are pits When pits. their empty to motivated more are owners home- and sludge, dump illegally to forced longer no are providers service small-scale or independent tion, - sta transfer a providing By disposal. sludge faecal for a community by providing an inexpensive, local solution have the potential to significantly increase the health of stations Transfer Health Aspects/Acceptance set any nuisances. - off greatly dumping illegal open-air to compared them from gained benefits the However, residents. local to problem a become could odours maintenance, their on Depending use. to easy and convenient, accessible, ily Transfer shouldbelocated stations they where eas- are islight. treatment plant atnightwhentraffic the to go and tanks the empty can trucks large while can dischargeday, the during stations transfer at providers sludge service Local jams. in traffic times waiting and distances transport decreasing by operators truck by incurred costs the reduce can they cities, big In place. takes emptying sludge scale small- where adequate especially are stations Transfer market. emptying the promote and dumping sludge illegal of ple transfer stations may help to reduce the incidence multi- sludge.discharge faecal forEstablishing points alternativeno are there where areas urban dense, for TransferAppropriateness stations are appropriate Development Fund (2005).Accra_ African Sewerage Reading References &Further - - + + + + Pros &Cons EPA_ U.S. (1994). Guideto Septage Treatment andDisposal. L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, S.andKoné, D.(2012)._ Chowdhry, BusinessAnalysis of L.andScott, N. R.E.(2008).Faecal_ Boot, Sludge inAccra, Available at: www.afdb.org andWest Central Regions. CI. Abidjan, Department Improvement Project (ASIP).Appraisal Infrastructure Report. Available at: www.epa.gov cy, OfficeofResearch andDevelopment, OH,US. EPA/625/R-94/002. U.S. Environmental Protection- Agen Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.susana.org/library Seattle, US. andAsia.Bill &MelindaGates inAfrica Foundation, Services Fecal Sludge Management: Emptying andTransportation ance. Wageningen, NL. Challenge: New Sanitation Concepts andModelsofGovern- Ghana: Problems Provision. ofUrban Proceedings: Sanitation

Can leadto ifnot maintained odours properly Requires design andconstruction expert tion Potential for andincomegenera localjobcreation - with accesspermits canbeoffset Costs May the reduce illegal dumpingsludge offaecal with slowers vehicles involved are provid- small-scaleservice efficient, especiallywhere Makes to the plantmore treatment sludge transport

97 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies C

Functional Group C: Conveyance .7 T

98 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment • • • • • • • • • following factors: In any given context, the technology choice generally dependsonthe treatment). andsecondary treatment primary pre-treatment, achieve for to configuration multiple-stage a order (e.g., objective treatment overall in desired the technologies these of combination meaningful a must create engineer the scheme, Treatment Centralized (Semi-) a designing When POST T.17 T.16 T.15 T.14 T.13 T.12 T.11 T.10 T.9 T.8 T.7 T.6 T.5 T.4 T.3 T.2 T.1 PRE mation sheets PREandPOST), even they though are not always required. infor (technology described also for are Technologies post-treatment Sludge. and pre-treatment of treatment the for mainly T.13-T.17 are as where- Effluent, or Brownwater,Blackwater,Greywater of treatment the for T.1-T.12 primarily groups: are two into divided are technologies The er-scale technologies Slevel. atthe small- for than higher generally are group functional this within nologies tech - the of requirements energy and maintenance, operation, the ever, How (S). technologies treatment household-level small with compared when especially pathogens, and organics nutrients, of removalimproved cases, most in provide, and flow of volumes increased accommodate to designed are They applications). level city centralized, to level bourhood for large user groups (i.e., from semi-centralized applications at the neigh- appropriate generally technologies treatment the describes section This Management considerations Skills andcapacity(for designandoperation) Availability ofelectricity source ofaconstant Soil andgroundwater characteristics Availability ofspace Local availability ofmaterials resources Financial (end-useand/orlegal outputproduct qualityDesired requirements) Type andquantity to ofproducts betreated developments) (includingfuture Tertiary Filtration andDisinfection Filtration Tertiary Biogas Reactor Co-Composting Beds Planted Drying Beds Unplanted Drying Sedimentation/Thickening Ponds Activated Sludge Upflow Sludge Anaerobic Blanket Reactor (UASB) Trickling Filter Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland Flow Constructed Wetland Subsurface Horizontal ConstructedFree-Water Wetland Surface Aerated Pond Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP) FilterAnaerobic Baffled Anaerobic Reactor (ABR) TankImhoff Settler Pre-Treatment Technologies Technologies for the treatment of Sludge T.13-T.17 water, Brownwater, Greywater or Effluent Black of treatment the Technologiesfor T.1-T.12 - - - (Semi-) Centralized Treatment (Semi-)

99 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment PRE

100 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment i g screen PRE: screens, filters and water seals can prevent solids from from solids prevent can seals water and filters screens, appropriate with like the and showers sinks, Equipping ed separately and not disposed of in sanitation systems. collect- be should oil cooking and waste solid example, For low. requirements pre-treatment keep and pollution loads reduce can level building or household the at measures control source technical and Behavioural tling andfiltration. set- flotation, screening, as such mechanisms, removal physical use technologies Pre-treatment system. ment - treat a of durability the for crucial is substances these of removal early and prevention Therefore, wear. and impair can solids clogging efficiency through treatment and/or transport suspended and sand grease, Oil, and extend life the infrastructure. sanitation ofthe parts mechanical of abrasion reduce help also can They blockages. subsequent minimize and solids of accumulation the retard can units pre-treatment trash). and Built before a Conveyance fibres or Treatment technology, sand, (e.g., solids various and grease, oil, as such constituents, sludge or water waste- of removal preliminary the is Pre-treatment nd Application Level: rease trapfor Pre-Treatment Technologies   i v  i dual a City Neighbourhood Household Pre pp -T l i cat reatment i inlet on s and grease fats, oil access cover Management Level:    Household Public Shared outlet screenings inlet grease removaltank aerated gritand Inputs: Outputs: as plastics, rags and other trash, from entering a sew a entering from trash, other and rags plastics, as such solids, coarse preventto aims Screening Screen (S.9). Tanks Septic to similar sedimentation, through solids settleable other and grit remove also can traps grease enough, large be to designed If months. 12 to 6 every out pumped be to designed is but cost, capital higher a interceptor has grease larger a whereas month), a once to week a (once frequently cleaned be must but cost, low relatively is trap grease under-the-sink An doors. grease, a bigger grease interceptor can be installed out - and oil of amounts largeror, for sink, the under directly located be either can trap grease A effluent. the from components floating separate and surface water the at turbulence prevent and outlet the inlet at tees or fles work, concrete or plastic, with an odour-tight cover. Baf- and collected easily removed. Grease traps are chambers made out of brick be can it that so grease and oil trap to is trap grease the of goal The Grease Trap neous material entering from the sewer. extrapreventto- covers manhole with closed alwaysbe entering the system. Sewer inspection chambers should Greywater Greywater particle grit

Blackwater Blackwater fats, oilandgrease Sludge Sludge

Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Brownwater

grit Pre-Treatment Products Brownwater air ( compressed optional ) outlet - - with safety clothes, i.e.,boots andgloves, isessential. oneself protecting adequately therefore, substances; toxic or pathogens with contact in come may cleaning the in involved people The costly. is it though option best the be mayremoval the do to professionals Hiring regularly.done maybe not it this, doing for responsible pleasant and, if households or community members are not is technologies pre-treatment from grease and ids sol- of removal The Health Aspects/Acceptance devices.with linttrap particles with their wastewater, they should be equipped and fibres fabric of amounts high release laundries As sewer system. the enter may stormwater and/or paved not are roads sion in wastewater treatment plants, particularly, where - abra and deposits sand prevent helps chamber grit A be also can boxes, applied atstrategic locationslike market drains. mesh e.g., traps, Trash plants. treatment of entrance the at as well as system, sewer a enter may waste solid where essential is Screening of greywater). treatment the for wetland of constructed a (e.g., clogging risk immediate an is there where important cially espe - is removal Grease sites. industrial or restaurants households, single at installed be can They charged. dis- are grease and oil of amounts considerable where applied be should traps Grease Appropriateness insuspension. remain particles organic principally lighter, while out, settle to particles or vortex chambers. All of these designs allow heavy grit general types of grit chambers: horizontal-flow, aerated, three are by settling.There fractions heavyinorganic of sand, grit chambers (or sand traps) allow for the removal ogies could be hindered or damaged by the presence of Chamber Grit Where subsequent treatment technol - removal and,correspondingly, asmallerdesign. solids frequent more a for allowslatter raked. The cally mechani- or hand by cleaned be cleaning can Screens patterns. on depending mm, 40 to 15 is usually bars betweenthe spacing racks.The bar or screens inclined by trapped get Solids plant. treatment or system age _ Wastewater Solutionsfor Development. (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B.(Ed.),Sasse,L., - - + + + Pros &Cons (e.g., biodieselorco-digestion), orrecycled for re-use. production energy for used be may it grease, the of case In way. sound environmentally an in waste solid as of disposed be should products pre-treatment The downstream system. elementsofasanitation maintained of failure totheeventually lead can units pre-treatment Insufficiently material. accumulated the of degradation the from result can odours strong low, too is maintenance frequency the If functioning. proper monitoredties must be regularly and cleaned to ensure Operation &Maintenance All pre-treatment - facili _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). D. M. andLigon,G.C.(2014)._ Robbins, How to Design andDiener, A. S.(2006).Greywater_ Morel, Management in R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further 2014) accessed February (last and-grease http://watsanexp.ning.com/page/pretreatment- ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC,Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & IWACountries. Publishing,London,UK. Wastewater Systems for LocalConditionsinDeveloping Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec), Dübendorf, (Department ment Systems for HouseholdsorNeighbourhoods. Eawag Low Review andMiddle-IncomeCountries. Treat ofDifferent - Hill, New York, US. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- The removal isnot ofsolidsandgrease pleasant Frequent maintenance required Higher lifetime hardware ofsanitation anddurability and/or Treatment technologies Reduced subsequent of impairing Conveyance risk Relatively costs low andoperating capital th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US. - PRE 101 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T

102 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .1 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment TX SE ak o itgae it cmie tetet units. havea Compendium this in technologiesotherSeveral treatment combined into integrated or tanks beindependent can They functions. additional filling ful- sometimes forms, of variety a take may Settlers cesses. constituents do not impair subsequent treatment - pro material organic(20-40% BOD removal) and ensure that these and removal) (50-70% solids reduction suspended initial in significant a achieve can Settlers technology.pre-treatment as clarifiers, whichprimary are typically installed aftera settlers of use the discusses sheet information nology tech- This thickening. sludge for or tion/precipitation, coagula- chemical after T.12), (see treatment Sludge Activated in clarification secondary for 100), p. PRE, (see grit of removal the for used also is Sedimentation lighter water than float the surface. to constituents while bottom, the to sink to particles settleable allows settler a in velocity flow low The clarifier. or basin/tank, settling or sedimentation a as to referred be also may It sedimentation. by ids for technology treatment wastewater; it is primary designed to remove suspended sol- a is settler A Application Level: Settler   City Neighbourhood Household T TLE R DR AW inlet IN G 2 Management Level:   Household Public Shared sedimentation zone sludge scum extracted sludge Outputs: Inputs: • • • • • • • settling: ment for primary - compart a include or function sedimentation primary

tor tanks atthe buildinglevel. the Solids-Free Sewer (C.5),which includesintercep - designed for the sludge offaecal solid-liquid separation the Sedimentation/Thickening Ponds (T.13), which are pondis anaerobic for settlingthe first the Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP, T.5), ofwhich toreturning the uppersection. inthe lowersludge entering/ sectionfrom particles the digestion ofthe settled sludge, prevent gases or Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB, T.11), designedfor Tankthe Imhoff (T.2) andthe Upflow Anaerobic and biogas production. asasettlersidered designedfor digestion anaerobic the Biogas Reactor (S.12/T.17), which canbecon- plants orinthe caseofprefabricated, modularunits. also bebuiltseparately, e.g.,inmunicipaltreatment However, compartment. tler asthe first the settler may FilterAnaerobic (S.11/T.4) both usuallyincludeaset- the Baffled Anaerobic Reactor (S.10/T.3) and the sludge. frequency leadsto ofthe degradation anaerobic the Septic Tank the (S.9),where low sludge removal Greywater Blackwater Effluent Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: outlet Sludge Brownwater liminary removal of liminary solids in order to function properly. tler. Many treatment technologies, however, require - pre sedimentation (listed above) do not need a separate set- Technologies that already include some type of primary with orwithout biogas production. process, anaerobic an of desirability the and capacities management the strength, wastewater the installation, the of type and size the by governed is solids the tle set- to technology a of choice The Appropriateness orthearea, useofchemical coagulants. settling the increase which tubes, and (lamellae) plates inclined of installation the include Examples settlers. of performance the enhance to exist possibilities Several lead to short-circuiting. can phenomena These stratification. thermal climates, hot in density and, differentials, temperature and to due currents convection thermal circulation, duced wind-in- by reduced be may It rate. withdrawal sludge like and torswastewater time retention characteristics, onfac- depends settler primary the of efficiency The done either manuallyorby acollectionmechanism. be also can removal Scum removal. sludge facilitates bottom tank sloped sufficiently A facilities. treatment the base of the tank, from where it is pumped to sludge in hopper sludge a towards solids settled the scrape continually that collectors mechanical with equipped using a bottom are often outlet.clarifiers Large primary done be gravity by or pump, vacuum airlift, can pump, hand a using desludging design, the on Depending system or (baffles, weirs T-shaped pipes)isimportant. construction with an efficient distribution and collection outlet and inlet good a basin, the inside scum retain to to prevent eddy currents and as short-circuiting, well as order In flow. peak at performance satisfactory ensure to designed be should tank The step. biological lowing needed if the BOD level should not be too low for the fol- is time Less 1.5-2.5h. of time retention hydraulic a for designed typically tanks are thatrectangular or circular ty and turbulence of the wastewater stream. Settlers are tler is to facilitate sedimentation by reducing the veloci- seta of - purpose main The Design Considerations

- - - + + + Pros &Cons tant. posal, either with the sludge or separately, is also impor - treatment/dis adequate and removal scum Frequent stage.treatment next the to pass may and remove to difficult is bubbles the by gas to settledSludgesolids. the surface transported of part re-suspending by process sedimentation the hamper can which gas of release and build-up the and conditions septic prevent to necessary is removal sludge regular processes, anaerobic for designed not are that settlers In Operation &Maintenance withcome incontact the effluent,scumorsludge. may who workers for necessary is clothing protective Appropriate disposal. adequate and treatment further require they organisms; pathogenic of levels high tain Sludge and scum must be handled with care as they con- of odorous gases, frequent sludge removal is necessary. Health Aspects/Acceptance To prevent the release into the environment. discharged directly be would otherwise that solids ic water retention tanks to remove a of portion the organ- a filter material. Settlers can also be installed asstorm - use that technologies for importance particular of is it plants, sludge activated small in omitted often is tank sedimentation primary a of installation the Although _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). _ EPA (1997). Ireland Waste Water Treatment- Manuals–Prima Reading References &Further Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & Available at: www.epa.ie andTertiaryry, Treatment. Secondary Wexford, IE. Short-circuiting canbeaproblem Short-circuiting treatment Effluent, sludgerequire further andscum Frequent sludge removal Relatively costs low andoperating capital removalEfficient ofsuspendedsolids technologySimple androbust th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US. -

103 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .1 T

104 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .2 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment built underground with reinforced concrete. It can, how usually is tank Imhoff The Design Considerations through digestion. stabilized anaerobic and partially in the sludge digestion and compartment, is compacted layer.scum a creating surface, sludgeThe accumulates of the reactor. It transports sludge particles to the water edge the at vents gas the into rises chamber digestion and disturbing the settling process. Gas produced in the up rising from gas foul preventing while compartment, digestion the into settle to solids allowing bottom, the at slot a and walls V-shaped with shape rectangular or and design conditions. The settling compartment has a circular the on depending – stabilization sludge good potentially to leads and 50%, to 70%, 25 toof reduction 50 COD of reduction solids suspended a causes that settler effective and robust a is tank Imhoff The gas vents. with chamber digestion sludge tapering a above compartment settling V-shaped a of consists It sludge. settled the of digestion and separation solid-liquid wastewater,for raw designed for ogy technol - treatment primary a is tank Imhoff The Application Level: Imhoff Tank   City Neighbourhood Household T2: IM pipe outlet sludge cleanout Management Level: HOF  Household Public Shared F TA NK compartment settling flow tank/ compartment digestion sludge gas vents - Outputs: Inputs: sludge retention time and, therefore, a greater volume greater a therefore, and, time retention sludge sufficient anaerobic digestion. In colder climates longer forto4 12 months sludge storage tocapacity allow for designed usually is chamber digestion The perature. tem - the and frequency) desludging the to(linked tion - stabiliza sludge of degree targeted the on equivalent, population per production sludge on mainly depends compartment digestion anaerobic the of Dimensioning removed. be can it where centre the to down slide to sludge the allows This more. or 45° of inclination an walls of the sludge digestion should compartment have The wide. mm 150300 be to can opening slot the and horizontal 1 to vertical 1.75to1.25 sloped typically is compartment settling the of bottom The m. 9.5 to 7 reach may surface water the to bottom the from tank the in depth water total The system. the leaving scum from prevent and velocity reduce to outlet the and inlet the at used are baffles or pipes T-shaped charge. dis- or treatment further for effluent aerobic an serve - pre to hours 4 to 2 than more not usually is time tion tanks are also available on the market. Hydraulic reten- Imhoff prefabricated Small influent. the of up pumping requires still it although gravity, to due easier removal sludge makes which ground, above built be also ever, Greywater Blackwater Effluent bubbles gas scum Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Sludge Brownwater + + + + + Pros &Cons atalltimes. ensured be to has chamber settling the of slot sludge the and blanket the between cm 50 of clearance minimum A design. the to according removed be should partment Stabilized sludge from the bottom of the digestion com- compartment theand gas vents tohas removedbe necessary. if daily settling the in scum while weekly, out in charge. Flow paths have to be kept open and cleaned are personnel trained if cost, low at possible are nance mainte- and Operation Operation &Maintenance the effluent,scumorsludge. with contact in come may who workers for necessary is clothing protective Appropriate treated. be should outputs all and low locally.is removalPathogen odours generate however,may, quantities low in produced es Gas- filters. trickling or wetlands constructed ponds, takes subsequentif ment treatment open in e.g., place, - treat primary for option good a is it odourless, almost is effluent the As Health Aspects/Acceptance prone. flood not is location the and low is table groundwater the if underground built be can it high, very is tank the tanksImhoff can be used in warm and cold climates. As organic low.shock are loads.Spacerequirements against resistant are and loads organic high treat to able are They equivalents. population 20,000 and 50 between flows wastewater mixed or domestic Appropriateness Imhoff tanks are recommended for vent material the disturbing from coarse system. p. 100) tank to is recommended before thepre Imhoff PRE, (see chamber grit or screen bar A pumps. mobile and trucks vacuum for provided access or installed be to have pump and pipe a desludging, For needed. is Low costs operating The effluentis not septic (with low odour) required Small landarea Resistant against organic shock loads combined inonesingle unit andsludge Solid-liquid separation are stabilization O.,Boutin,C.,Duchène, C.,Lakel, Ph.,Lagrange, _ Alexandre, Reading References &Further - - - - (Ed.)(2008).PhilippinesSanitation Sourcebook and _ WSP (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., R.C.(2009).Honduras Wastewater_ McLean, Treatment: (2006).Rehabilitation A. Tank ofthe Imhoff _ Herrera, Treat- Available at: www.fndae.fr FNDAE Lyon, n°22,Cemagref, FR. adaptées auxpetites collectivités. Documenttechnique D.(1998). andOrditz, A. Liénard, A., Filières d’épuration tank.)about 23selected options, includingthe Imhoff technologies for decisionmakers. sheets fact Presents sanitation decentralized aboutlow-cost (Basic information Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home D.C., US. Decision Aid.Water Washington, Program, andSanitation calculations.) andExcelincludes casestudies spreadsheets for design wastewater ofdecentralized tation options. treatment It (Comprehensive handbookaboutplanningandimplemen- ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised tank) ality ofthe Imhoff includingadetailed(Case study description ofthe function- Cambridge, US. MassachusettsEngineering, Institute ofTechnology, ofCivilandEnvironmental Master thesis, Department TreatmentSecondary Technologies Tanks. for Usewith Imhoff TreatmentChemically EnhancedPrimary andSustainable Recommendationsproblems. for provided.) O&Mare tanks andinsightsinto andoperational implementation providing(Case study aboutImhoff general information Texas, Austin, US. of Architectural University andEnvironmental Engineering, ofCivil, Central Master America. thesis, Department ment PlantinLasVegas, Santa Barbara Honduras, Effluent, sludge and scum require further treatment Effluent, sludgerequire further andscum Low ofpathogens reduction Requires design andconstruction expert incaseofhighgroundwaterproblem table depthVery may high(ordeep)infrastructure; bea -

105 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .2 T

106 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .3 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment cl ein aaees nld a yrui retention hydraulic a include parameters design ical Typical inflows range from 2 to 200 m to 2 from range inflows Typical prefabricated, used. where modularunitsare the ABR with another technology for settling, primary or combine that plants Treatment Centralized (Semi-) for interest particular of are compartment settling a out with- Designs Tanks). Septic existing (e.g., technology preceding another (T.1) or Settler separate a in place shown in S.10), but sedimentation primary can also take (as compartment settling integrated an have typically units stand-alone Small-scale, ABR. actual the of front in chamber sedimentation a in removed are solids ble settlea- of majority The Design Considerations tional Septic Tank. convena removaltoin its - superior far is whichto 90%, digestion of organic matter. BOD may be byreduced up and removal enhanced provide chambers upflow The improved treatment. tact time with the active biomass (sludge) results in the wastewater is forced to flow. The increased con- Septic Tank (S.9) with a series of baffles under improved which an is (ABR) reactor baffled anaerobic An T1: ANAE Application Level: Anaerobic BaffledReactor(ABR) inlet   City Neighbourhood Household inlet ROB -T sludge zone sedimentation scum IC BA settler FFL ED Management Level:    RE Household Public Shared ACT 3 - Crit day. per OR baffle (A BR) access covers larly from the from settler).larly location because the the sludge must be regularly removed- (particu access to able be should a truck However, vacuum area. small a requires and underground installed commonly most is tank the since limited be may land where areas for suitable is technology This ance technology, such asaSimplified Sewer (C.4). Conveypre-existing a is there when appropriate is ABR centralized (semi-) A generated. is greywater and water appropriate where a relatively constant amount of black evenor most is bourhoods biggerIt in catchmentareas. and can be applied at the household level, in small neigh- adaptable easily technologyis This Appropriateness ous andpotentially gases. harmful should be vented to allow for controlled release of odor tank The amount. insufficient its of because collected not is digestion anaerobic through ABR an in produced ports) is necessary for maintenance. Usually, the biogas access (through chambers all to Accessibility baffles. or pipes vertical with either designed be can chambers the between connection The 6). to (3 chambers upflow of number the and m/h 0.6 below wastewater velocity the of upflow hours, 72 to 48 between (HRT) time Inputs: Outputs: anaerobic baffledreactor(A Brownwater Effluent Effluent Greywater BR) Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Blackwater Sludge vent outlet - - - + + + + + + + Pros &Cons to time to thatensure they watertight. are time from checked be should tanks ABR well asonthe designofthe ABR. steps, as thepre-treatment chosen on depends quency - fre desludging The (C.3). technologyTransport and ing Empty Motorized a using done best is This years. 3 to 1 every scum and sludge accumulated of removal the to limited is maintenance and required, not is general in operation Process well. functioning is tank the that Scum and sludge levels need to be monitored to ensure charge chemicals into harsh the ABR. dis- to not taken be should care ecology, delicate the adaptand totiply wastewater.theincoming of Because sludge. The added stock of active bacteria can then mul- TankSeptic or dung cow fresh adding by e.g., bacteria, time, start-up the ABR can be inoculated with anaerobic reduce reactor. To the in established be biomass to needs first anaerobic growing slow the since capacity start-up period of several a months to reach full treatment requires ABR An Operation &Maintenance such donot that odours bother communitymembers. facility the locate and design to taken be should Care step. polishing further a in removed be tohave may that compounds odorous contains effluent The organisms. ic handled with care as they contain high levels be of pathogen- must sludge and scum Effluent, effluent. or influent the with contact in come not do users conditions, ating oper normal Under Health Aspects/Acceptance treatment. further ent usuallyrequires efficient atremoving nutrients and pathogens. The efflu - not are They climates. colder in lower is efficiency the ABRs can be installed type in of every climate, although ground) Moderate (canbe builtunder requirement area Low sludge the production; sludge isstabilized ofBOD High reduction life Long service Low costs operating isrequired energy No electrical Resistant to organic andhydraulic shock loads - - - V. Beard, A., _ Bachmann, L.andMcCarty,P. L.(1985). Per Reading References &Further - - - (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., _ Stuckey, D.C.(2010). Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) for K.M.,Pillay,_ Foxon, S.,Lalbahadur, T., Rodda, Holder, N., K.M.,Buckley,_ Foxon, C.J.,Dama,P., Brouckaert, C.A., _ Barber, W. P. andStuckey, D.C.(1999). TheUseofthe Water Research 19 (1):99-106. formance Characteristics ofthe Anaerobic Baffled Reactor. ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised College(Ed.), Imperial London,UK. Press, nology. ApplicationsandNew Developments, H.P. Fang Wastewater Treatment. In:Environmental Tech Anaerobic - Available at: www.wrc.org.za Water SA 30(5)(SpecialEdition). (ABR): AnAppropriate Technology for on-Site Sanitation. F. andBuckley, TheAnaerobic (2004). Baffled C.A. Reactor Available at: www.wrc.org.za Pretoria, ZA. 1248/01/06, No WRC Report Water Research Commission, fled Reactor for Sanitation inDense Settlements.Peri-urban hadur, T. andBux,F. (2006).Evaluation ofthe Anaerobic Baf- Mtembu, Z.,Rodda, Smith, N., M.,Pillay, S.,Arjun, Lalba- N., Review. Water Research 33(7):1559-1578. Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR) for Wastewater Treatment: A appropriate discharge and/or treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Low ofpathogens reduction andnutrients Requires design andconstruction expert - - POST

107 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .3 T

108 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .4 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment plants that combine the anaerobic filter with other with filter anaerobic the combine Treatmentthat plants Centralized (Semi-) for interest ticular par of are compartment settling a without Designs Tanks). Septic existing (e.g., technology preceding (T.1)Settler separate a takein also place anotheror can sedimentation primary S.11), but in shown (as compartment settling integrated an have typically units stand-alone Small-scale, filter. anaerobic the of front in chamber sedimentation a in removed are solids settleable of majority filter. The the clog may thatgarbage and solids removeto essential is ment - treat primary and Pre- Design Considerations not exceed 15% interms oftotal nitrogen (TN). and 80%. Nitrogen removal is limited and does normally 50% between typically is but 90%, as high as be can al With this technology, suspended solids and BOD remov filter material. the of surface the to attached is that biomass tive ac- the by degraded is matter organic and trapped are particles filter, the through flows wastewater As series. in chambers filtration more or one with reactor biological fixed-bed a is filter anaerobic An T2: ANAE Application Level: Anaerobic Filter   City Neighbourhood Household inlet ROB IC inlet FIL -T TE settler sludge zone sedimentation scum R Management Level:    Household Public Shared - - baffle access covers ufc ae pr m per area surface Inputs: s eesr fr aneac. h tn sol be should tank The maintenance. for necessary is ports) access (through chambers all to Accessibility can be designed either with pipes vertical or baffles. chambers the between connection The availability. local on depending pieces, plastic formed specially or pumice, cinder, bricks, or rocks crushed gravel, include 12 to55 used commonly Materials diameter. from in mm range sizes material filter Typical Outputs: aeil hud rvd bten 0 o 0 m 300 to 90 between the provide should Ideally, material it. degrades effectively that biomass attached the and matter organic the between tact con- increased ensures area surface The clogging. bacteria to grow, with pores large enough to prevent for area surface large a have should filter ideal The mance. AnHRT of12 to isrecommended. perfor 36hours filter influencing parameter design important most the is (HRT) time retention hydraulic The regime. flow even an guarantee to m 0.3 least fil- at by media the ter cover should level water The out. washed be will biomass fixed the that risk less is there because mode upflow in operated usually are filters Anaerobic (ABR, T.3). Baffled Reactor Anaerobic the technologies,as such anaerobic filterunits Brownwater Effluent Effluent 3 Greywater f cuid eco volume. reactor occupied of filter Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Blackwater Sludge vent outlet filter support 2 of of - that the tank is functioning well. Over time, solids will will solids time, Over well. functioning is tank the that Scum and sludge levels need to be monitored to ensure chemicals into the filter. anaerobic harsh discharge to not taken be should care ecology, delicate the of Because time. over increased gradually be should flow The material. filter Tankthe onto sludge Septic spraying by e.g., bacteria, anaerobic with lated inocu- be can filter the time, start-up To reduce media. filter the on established be to needs first biomass obic anaer growing slow the since capacity treatment reach full to months 9 to 6 of period start-up a requires filter anaerobic An Operation &Maintenance members. community bother not do odours that such facility the locate and design totaken be should Care step. ishing pol- further a in removed be to have may that pounds com- odorous contains effluent The organisms. ogenic path- of levels high contain they as care with handled be must sludge and scum Effluent, effluent. or influent the with contact in notcome do users conditions, ating oper normal Under Health Aspects/Acceptance treatment. further ent usuallyrequires plete removal of worm eggs may be achieved. The efflu- com- however, material, filter the on Depending gens. patho- and nutrients removing at efficient not are They mate, although the efficiency ofcli- is lowertype in colder climates. every in installed be can filters Anaerobic for desludging. vacuum isimportant truck Accessibility area. small bya requires and underground installed commonly most is tank the since limited be may land where areas for suitable is technology This ment step, orfor polishing. the- rateorganicloading treat forsubsequentaerobic a reduce to treatment, secondary for used be can filter anaerobic The generated. is greywater and blackwater most appropriate where a relatively constant amount of neighbourhoods or even in bigger catchment areas. It is level,thehousehold at applied small be in can and able Appropriateness potentially gases. harmful vented to allow for controlled release of odorous and hs ehooy s aiy adapt- easily is technology This ------+ + + + + + Pros &Cons time to that ensure they watertight. are to time from checked be should tanks filter Anaerobic ing the filter material. clean- and byremoving (backwashing)or mode reverse systemin the running by done is This cleaned. be must filter the decreases, efficiency the When pores. clog eventually and off break thick, too become will mass clog the pores of the filter. As well, thegrowing bacterial (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B.(Ed.),Sasse,L., (2005). C.A. M.anddeLemosChernicharo, Sperling, _ von andDiener, A. S.(2006).Greywater_ Morel, Management in Reading References &Further calculations) including Excel spreadsheets for design (Design summary ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC,Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised (Detailed design instructions) Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org Volume One.IWA Publishing,London,UK.pp.728-804. Biological Wastewater Treatment inWarm Climate Regions, –p.28) including casestudies summary (Short Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, (Department ment Systems for HouseholdsorNeighbourhoods. Eawag Low Review andMiddle-Income Countries. Treat ofDifferent - cumbersome Removing andcleaningthe clogged filter mediais treatment andprimary Risk ofclogging,dependingonpre- appropriate discharge and/or treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Low ofpathogens reduction andnutrients Requires designandconstruction expert ground) Moderate (canbebuiltunder requirement area Low sludge the production; sludge isstabilized ofBOD andsolids High reduction life Long service Low costs operating isrequired energy No electrical - -

109 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .4 T

110 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .5 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T3: W of oxygenof Settleableanoxic becomes anaerobic. and or algae-driven photosynthesis. The lower layer is deprived pond the of layer receives oxygen from wind natural mixing diffusion, and top The removed. is BOD further - anaero where the pond, facultative the from to transferred effluent is pond bic the WSPs, of series a In up to 60%ofthe BOD. carbon into methane and, through this process, remove organic convert bacteria Anaerobic sludge. the inside mentation and through subsequent anaerobic digestion sedi- by occurs removal BOD and Solids anaerobic. is pond deep fairly this of depth entire The wastewater. the in load organic the reduces and stage treatment ry - prima the is pond anaerobic The pond. aerobic the to finally, and, pond facultative the to pond anaerobic the from flowing effluent with more or three of series a in For the most effective treatment, WSPs should be linked treatment anddesigncharacteristics.different with each (maturation), aerobic (3) and facultative (2) anaerobic, (1) ponds, of types three are There treatment. improved for series a in linked or ually, individ- used be can ponds The bodies. water made man- large, are (WSPs) Ponds Stabilization Waste Application Level: Waste StabilizationPonds (WSP) 0.5m - 1.5m 1m - 2.5m 2m - 5m   City Neighbourhood Household ASTE ST inlet inlet inlet liner 1 anaerobic ABIL IZ A TION Management Level:  o o  2 2 PO Household Public Shared o o ND 2 2 S (W o o 2 2 SP o o 2 2 ) 2 facultative 3 aerobicmaturation 2 facultative 1 anaerobic sludge sludge Inputs: Outputs: ally between 0.5 to 1.5 m deep. If used in combination combination in used If deep. 1.5m to 0.5 between ally tion time between 5 to 30 days. Aerobic ponds are usu- detenhavea - and m 2.5 to 1 of depth a toconstructed be should ponds Facultative days. 7 to 1 of time tion to a depth of 2 to 5 m and have a detenrelatively short - built are ponds Anaerobic Design Considerations by windmixing. natural Dissolvednight. at oxygen off provideddrop also and is day the during highest are levels oxygen dissolved the sunlight, by driven is photosynthesis Because bacteria. time dioxidecarbon consume by same produced of the respiration the at and water the into oxygen release depth for photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthetic algae full the penetrates sunlight that ensuring ponds, the of the shallowest is It treatment. of level final the vides - pro and ponds of series a in step last the usually is it because pond finishing or polishing, maturation, a as to referred commonly is pond aerobic An removal. gen patho - for designed are ponds aerobic while removal, BOD for designed are ponds facultative and Anaerobic together to achieve ofupto BOD reductions 75%. work organisms anaerobic and aerobic The pond. the of bottom the on digested are and accumulate solids Greywater ( Blackwater Effluent Sludge) Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: 3 aerobicmaturation Sludge Brownwater outlet outlet outlet riig n dwtrn te od n rmvn the sludge with loader. afront-end removing and pond the dewatering and by draining or pond the of bottom the at scraper mechanical a pump, sludge raft-mounted a using by removed be can Sludge desludging. need ever hardly ponds ration matu- and rarer even is removal sludge ponds tative - facul For volume. accumulated pond the the of third when one years, reach solids 5 to 2 every once ly approximate- desludged be must pond anaerobic The ing the water column. penetrat- from preventmosquitoeslight forand habitat should also be removed as they pond may provide a breeding the in present are that (macrophytes) plants ic Aquat- removed. regularly be should surface pond the Operation &Maintenance Scum that builds up on direct source of water for consumption or domestic use. a as or recreation for used be way no in should ponds the pathogens, in low generally is ponds aerobic from effluent Although Health Aspects/Acceptance denseorurbanareas. appropriate for very notThey spaces. are public and homes from distance a peri-urban communities that have large, unused land, at and rural for appropriate especially are They world. the around treatment wastewater of methods efficient and Appropriateness WSPs are among the most common enter the ponds. not does garbage that and area the of out stay animals and people that ensure to installed be should fence A structedthethe using pond around excavated material. con- be should berm protective a erosion, and runoff any other material.impervious To protect the pond from er can be made clay,from asphalt, or compacted earth, thegroundwater, haveshould theponds liner.a lin- The into Toleaching preventponds. the entering from bage gar and solids excess hinder to and formation scum prevent to essential is 100) p. PRE, Pre-Treatment(see pathogen removal. bic ponds can be built in series to provide a high level of Ideally,theeffluent. from phosphorus and several- aero nitrogen of majority the removing at effective is pond (see D.9), this type of with algae and/or fish harvesting - S.,Mbwette,_ Kayombo, T. Katima, J.H.Y., S.A., Ladegaard, Reading References &Further - - - - + + + + + + Pros &Cons (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., (2005). C.A. M.anddeLemosChernicharo, Sperling, _ von M.(2007). Sperling, _ von Waste Stabilisation Ponds. Bio- (Ed.)(2005).Pond Treatment A. _ Shilton, Technology. Inte- Varón, Waste D.(2004). _ Peña M.andMara, Stabilisation Available at: www.unep.org da, DaresSalaam,TZ/Copenhagen, DK. and Constructed Wetlands DesignManual.UNEP-IETC/Dani- andJorgensen,N. Waste S.E.(2004). Stabilization Ponds calculations) (Detailed description andExcel spreadsheets for design ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC,Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org Volume One.IWA Publishing,London,UK.pp.495-656. Biological Wastewater Treatment inWarm Climate Regions, Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org Publishing, London,UK. logical Wastewater Treatment Volume Series, IWA Three. London, UK. grated Environmental Technology IWA Series, Publishing, Available at: www.ircwash.org NL. Delft, Centre, and Sanitation Paper.Ponds. ThematicOverview IRC International Water Sludge removal proper requires and treatment Requires designandconstruction expert dependingonthe costs ofland High capital price Requires alarge landarea correctly and maintained ifdesigned with problems No real insectsorodours isrequired energy No electrical Low costs operating removalHigh nutrient ifcombinedwith aquaculture ofsolids,BOD andpathogensHigh reduction Resistant to organic andhydraulic shock loads - POST

111 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .5 T

112 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .6 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T4: AE To prevent leaching, the pond should have a liner. This This liner. a have should pond the leaching, Toprevent ing onthe target. treatment depend- days, 20 to 3 of time detention a have should and m 5 to 2 of depth a to built be should pond The theent from solids. sequent settling tank is required to separate the efflu- sub- a pond, the mix units aeration the Because tors. - aera the with interfere could and that particles garbage coarse remove to pre-treated and be screened should Influent Design Considerations climates. northern function inmore and not by light-driven photosynthesis, the ponds can because oxygen is introduced by the mechanical units increased degradation and increased pathogen for removal. As well, allows aeration increased The pond. maturation a than loads organic higher much erate tol- and deeper be can ponds the that means units mechanical the from aeration and mixing Increased to achieve ahighrate oforganic degradation. aerobic organisms suspended and mixed with water the keep and oxygen provide aerators Mechanical reactor. aerobic mixed, large, a is pond aerated An Application Level: Aerated Pond 2m - 6m   City Neighbourhood Household RA inlet TE D PO ND

Management Level:   Household Public Shared o 2 oxygen supplythroughaerators liner sludge o Inputs: Outputs: into the water. goes or with contact in comes one no that ensure to expanse of pathogenic wastewater; care must be taken large a is pond The Health Aspects/Acceptance topared pond. amaturation com- smaller is requirement area the and (T.5) Ponds Stabilization Waste than climates of range larger a in function can lagoons Aerated businesses. and homes withinexpensivelargeof areas locatedland away from regions for appropriate most are They environments. Aerated ponds can be used in both rural and peri-urban to anaerobic. turn pond the cause may that downtimes extended prevent to available are parts replacement that and uninterruptedis service electricity that important ly isespecial- It and levels. pathogen reduce influent significantly concentrated handle efficiently can pond aerated mechanically A Appropriateness anderosion. to protect runoff itfrom be built around the pond, using the fill that is excavated, any other impervious material. A protective berm should or earth, compacted asphalt, clay, from made be can 2 Brownwater Effluent Effluent o 2 Greywater Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Blackwater Sludge outlet ------+ + + Pros &Cons that to couldresult equipment. the aeration damage the considering especially dump, garbage a as Care should be taken to ensure that the pond is not used and ery the pond must be desludged every 2 to 5 years. is staff required to maintain and repair aeration machin- skilled Permanent, Operation &Maintenance taken into to the prevent area. entry be should measures other or signage, Fences, animals. and humans to dangerous be can units aeration The ment and/orappropriate discharge - treat Sludgerequire further andpossiblyeffluent Requires designandconstruction expert andmaterials mayNot belocally available allparts sonnel Requires and maintenance operation by skilled per oflandandelectricity price dependingonthe costs andoperating High capital isrequired electricity consumption,High energy of source aconstant Requires alarge landarea correctly and maintained ifdesigned with problems No real insectsorodours ofBOD andpathogensHigh reduction Resistant to organic andhydraulic shock loads - _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen - J.P._ Arthur, (1983). Notes onthe DesignandOperation of Reading References &Further Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & chapter)(Comprehensive summary Hill, New York, US.pp.527-558. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- (Notes onapplicabilityandeffectiveness) Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home Bank, Washington, D.C.,US. WorldCountries. BankTechnical Paper 7. No. TheWorld Waste Stabilization Ponds inWarm Climates ofDeveloping (Detailed designandexample problems) 840-854. th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US.pp. POST

113 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .6 T

114 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .7 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T5: F cause other elements to precipitate out of the wastewa- may reactions Chemical phosphorus. and nitrogen like they support (on the stems and that roots), take up nutrients microorganisms of communities the and Plants, them. to attached nutrients out, the removes also this settle and particles sediment heavier the pond, the in Once garbage. and solids of accumulation excess the prevent to pre-treated be should blackwater Raw organics andremove the from wastewater. nutrients degrade filter solids, processes biological and chemical physical, simultaneous wetland, the through flows ly slow water the As sunlight. direct to and atmosphere the to exposed ground above flow to water allows land wet- constructed Constructed surface free-water the (T.8), Wetland Flow Subsurface Horizontal the Unlike treatment processes. ortertiary secondary after treatment advanced an as used commonly is wetland constructed of type This nutrients. the lize uti - plants and organisms and destroyed, are gens - patho settle, particles wetland, the through flows slowly a water As swamp. or marsh of wetland, natural processes occurring naturally the replicate to aims wetland constructed surface free-water A Application Level: Free-Water SurfaceConstructed Wetland    City Neighbourhood Household REE water sur inlet sludge WA face TE R SURF AC Management Level: liner   E CON  Household Public Shared ST RU CT rhizome network wetland plants( ED - WETLAN Inputs: Outputs: wetlands can achieve a high removal of suspended sol- suspended of removal high achievea can wetlands constructed surface Free-water Appropriateness allow itto enter atevenly spacedintervals. to pipe, distribution a in holes drilling by or weirs using wetland, the into fed Wastewaterbe inlet. can the at ed wetland also depends on how well the water - is distribut get. The efficiency of the free-water constructed surface tar treatment the on depends series in compartments into two least flowat independent of paths. number The compartmentalized is wetland The level. ground above cm 45 to 10 of depth a to wastewater with flooded is wetland The rushes). and/or reeds cattails, (e.g., tation vegenativewithplanted - and soil rocks,withand gravel with an impermeable barrier (clay or geo-textile) covered Design Considerations The channel or basin is lined forronment complex biologicalandchemical activity. envi- an creating thus, hairs, root the surrounding ately plant roots exude (release) oxygen into the area immedi- Although the soil layer below the water is anaerobic, the and UVirradiation. decay, sedimentation organisms, higher from predation natural by water the from removed are Pathogens ter. macrophytes D ) Effluent Effluent Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Stormwater outlet Biomass - + + + Pros &Cons to cutback orthinned beperiodically out. wetlandtheblocking outlet.dams Vegetation may have beaver or garbage, branches, fallen of because up ing should ensure that water is not short-circuiting, or back maintenance Regular Operation &Maintenance ease transmission and the risk of drowning in deep water. potential the of dis- because for effluent thewith contact in coming from people prevent to taken be should Care grated into pre-existing areas. natural inte- are they when especially pleasing, aesthetically generally are wetlands constructed surface Free-water ever, gooddesignandmaintenance canprevent this. act as a potential breeding ground for mosquitoes. How Health Aspects/Acceptance The open surface can of low biologicalactivity. periods and freezing some tolerate to designed be can but climates, warm for suited best is technology This communities. aswellareas, andrural asfor peri-urban wetland, it can be appropriate for small sections of urban the water and the corresponding area requirement of the land is cheap and available. Depending on the volume of where option good a is wetland surface free-water The ter retention andtreatment. has been through treatment, secondary or for stormwa- treatment. Typically, it is used for polishing effluent that secondary as used rarely is technology this pathogens, to exposure human for potential the of Because BOD. the lower to treatment primary of type some follows it when only appropriate it makes also This wastewater. this type of wetland is only appropriate for low-strength therefore, wind; the of buffering their and shade their loads. Plants limit the dissolved oxygen in the water from nutrient and levels water variable tolerate to able is gy technolo- This metals. heavy as such pollutants, other and nutrients pathogens, of removal moderate and ids materials withCan bebuiltand repaired locallyavailable gen removal ofBOD andsolids;moderateHigh reduction patho - Aesthetically pleasingand provides animal habitat

- - R.H.andWallace, S.D.(2009).Treatment_ Kadlec, Wetlands, J.(2008). Constructed Wetlands_ Vymazal, for Wastewater EPA_ U.S. (2000).Constructed Wetlands Treatment of C.,Veenstra, S.andvan derSteen, P._ Polprasert, (2001). C.(1998). L.andPolprasert, _ Poh-Eng, Constructed Wetlands S.L.(2000).Guidelinesfor UsingFree Water_ Merz, Surface R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further - - - - + + + H.,Cooper, J.,Brix, R.H.,Knight,L.,Vymazal, P._ Kadlec, Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org and Technical 8.IWA No. Report Publishing,London,UK. trol. DesignandOperation. Processes, Scientific Performance, 2 Available at: www.moef.nic.in pp. 965-980. World Lake Conference, M.Sengupta andR.Dalwani (Eds.). Treatment: AReview. ofTaal In: Proceedings 2007: The12th Available at: www.epa.gov Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. Municipal Wastewaters. EPA/625/R-99/010. U.S. Management, Chapter NL. 6. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, Wastewater Treatment II.Natural Systems for Wastewater Center, Information Sanitation mental AIT, Bangkok, TH. for Wastewater Treatment andResource Recovery. Environ - Resources, AU. ofNatural Brisbane, land Department Constructed Wetlands to Treat MunicipalSewage. Queens- lems) chapter(Comprehensive includingsolved- prob summary Hill, New York, US.pp.582-599. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- and Requires design andconstruction expert timeto work atfullcapacity Long start-up Requires alarge landarea May facilitate mosquito breeding Low costs operating correctly tained ifdesignedandmain- with problems No real odours isrequired energy No electrical nd Ed.CRC Taylor Press, &Francis BocaRaton, Group, US. Haberl, R. (2000). Constructed Wetlands for Pollution Con-

POST

115 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .7 T

116 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .8 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T6: HO tional area (width multiplied by depth) determines the determines depth) by multiplied (width area tional - cross-sec the while width), by multiplied (length area surface the of function a is wetland the of efficiency al remov The compartmentation. and paths flow parallel of amount the of about decisions includes quality It influent. the and amount the and target treatment the on depends wetland constructed flow subsurface tal - horizon a of design The Design Considerations ofthe the filter.in maintaining permeability role important an playroots plant The well. as organics that aerobic bacteria can colonize the area and degrade so zone root theoxygen to of amount small a transfers vegetation the organics, most degrade bacteria obic anda base for the vegetation. Although facultative and anaer can attach, bacteria which upon surface fixed a solids, removing for filter a as acts media filter The ganics. or the degrade microorganisms and particles out filters material filter the basin, the through zontally wastewater hori - flows As vegetation. wetland with planted is that basin sand-filled and gravel large a A horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland is inlet Application Level: Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed SubsurfaceFlowHorizontal Constructed Wetland    City Neighbourhood Household RIZONT wastewater distribution inlet pipeandgravelfor AL SUBSURF Management Level:    slope 1% Household Public Shared AC E FL liner OW CW95 wetland plants( rhizome network - - - Any native plant with deep, wide roots that can grow grow can that roots wide deep, with plant native Any to 15 flow. to subsurface ensure cmbelow the surface 5 at maintained is wetland the in levelwater The used. tive filter materials, such as PET, have been successfully alterna- years, recent In gravel. than clogging to prone more is but acceptable, also is Sand fines. of free and toTo0.5 m. 1 thegravelclean clogging, be limit should depth of a bed to the tofill used commonly most ter)is evenly round, Small, gravelsized to(3 diame- in mm 32 optimize performance. treatment to adjusted be can surface water the that so variable be should outlet The short-circuiting. prevent to tant impor is distribution even for allows that inlet signed well-de- A flow. the distribute evenly to used be should zone inlet wide A maximized. is roots vegetation with contact in the water of path flow the that so shallow or geotextile) to prevent leaching. It should be wide and The bed should be lined with an impermeable liner (clay such andnitrification. ent processes, asBOD reduction oxygen-depend - support to cascade inlet an by aerated ging and ensure efficient treatment. The influent canbe toessential is treatment prevent clog- primary and Pre- Inputs: Outputs: about 5to 10 m of area surface a Generally, flow. possible maximum macrophytes Brownwater small gravel ) Effluent 2 Effluent per person equivalent perperson isrequired. Greywater Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: ( effluent outlet height variable Blackwater Biomass wet wellandcover ) outlet - eur rpaeet vr 1 o mr yas Mainte- years. more or 10 every replacement require will zone inlet the at material filter The film. bacterial gravel will become clogged with accumulated solids and pete with the planted wetland vegetation. With time, the com- can that weeds remove to important is it season, Operation &Maintenance During the firstgrowing or parklands. thetically pleasing and can be integrated into wild areas ConstructedSurface Wetlands (T.7). The wetland is aes- Free-Waterwith associated risk the to compared water mosquito breeding is reduced since there is no standing of risk The minimized. is wildlife and humans with isms organ- pathogenic of contact any surface, the below flows water the As filtration. and organisms, higher by predation decay, natural by accomplished is removal pathogen Significant Health Aspects/Acceptance mate. technology,this of drawback a be cli- the on depending could rates evapotranspiration high to due losses the reused, be to is effluent the activity.If biological low of periods and freezing some tolerate to designed be can it but climates, warm for suited best is technology This single households. for designed be also can It communities. rural and ban peri-ur for as well as areas, urban of sections small for appropriate be can it wetland, the of requirement area corresponding the and water the of volume the on ing good option where land is cheap and available. Depend- The horizontal flowsubsurface constructed wetland isa effluent. quality higher a achieve to looking are but Tanks,S.9), Septic (e.g., treatment primary have that communities for treatment good a is It blackwater). (i.e. wastewater domestic untreated for appropriate not is technology into flowing This wetland. the before treatment primary with settled well be should influent the therefore, and, problem common a is Clogging Appropriateness filter depth. entire the penetrate that rhizomes horizontal forms it appropriate. Phragmites australis (reed) is a is common choice because environment nutrient-rich wet, the in - EPA_ U.S. (2000).Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Munic- _ UN-HABITAT - - - - - + + + + Pros &Cons in the asthe area the roots liner. canharm notdo grow that trees Maintenanceensure also should wetland. the enters it before wastewater the in solids of concentration the reducing at effective is treatment primary that ensuring on focus should activities nance _ Kadlec, H.,Platzer, C.,Winker,_ Hoffmann, M.andvon Münch, E. R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further Available at: www.unhabitat.org ITAT Water Kathmandu, NP. for AsianCitiesProgramme. Available at: www.epa.gov Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. ipal Wastewaters. EPA/625/R-99/010. U.S. Environmental Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Wastewater Treatment. fürInternationale Gesellschaft face Flow Constructed Wetlands for Greywater andDomestic (2011). Technology Review ofConstructed Wetlands. Subsur lems) chapter(Comprehensive includingsolved- prob summary Hill, New York, US.pp.599-609. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- 2 Requires designandconstruction expert timeto work atfullcapacity Long start-up treatment andprimary Risk ofclogging,dependingonpre- removalLittle nutrient Requires alarge land area Low costs operating isrequired energy No electrical Constructed WetlandFree-Water Surface Does not have the mosquito ofthe problems gens ofBOD, suspendedsolidsandpathoHigh reduction - nd Ed.CRC Taylor Press, &Francis BocaRaton, Group, US. R. H. (2008). and Wallace, Constructed Wetlands Manual. S. D. (2009). Treatment Wetlands, UN-HAB- - POST

117 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .8 T

118 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .9 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T7: VE aerobic bacteria can colonize the area and degrade degrade and area the colonize can bacteria aerobic that so zone root the tooxygen of amount small a fers - trans vegetation The media. filter the permeate which roots, wide deep, develop to allowed is vegetation the and planted is layer top The vegetation. anda the for base can attach bacteria which upon surface fixed a solids, removing for filter a as acts media filter The oxygen through the media. porous hastimeto diffuse the and it into drawn is air drains, bed the As bed. ed the wastewater percolates down through the - unsaturat aerobic and anaerobic conditions. During a flush phase, of phases different accordingly, and, unsaturated, and saturated being of stages through goes filter the day), a times 10 to (4 wetland the dosing intermittently By flow but path, the aerobic rather conditions. and horizontal wetland is not simply directionthe of the vertical a between difference important The drainagea pipe. in collected is it where basin the of bottom the to matrix filter the through down cally - flows verti water The system. dosing mechanical a abovefrom using surface the onto dosed or poured ter bed that is drained at the bottom. Wastewater is fil- planted a is wetland constructed flow vertical A Application Level: Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland   inlet  City Neighbourhood Household R TICAL air pipe air FL OW CON gravel Management Level:    ST Household Public Shared RU liner CT ED slope 1% wetland plants( WETLAN D (VFCW) macrophytes are common plant options. Testing options. plant common are pyramidalis nochloa Inputs: Outputs: surface area of about 1 to 3 m 3 to 1 about of area surface a Generally, loads. organic and hydraulic on dependent is flowing wetland the of size and design before The wetland. the into stage treatment primary a in bewell settled should influent the Therefore, problem. mon com- a is Clogging construction. ground above an as excavation shallowor a as designed be can wetland ed Design Considerations The vertical flow- construct increased. andporosity be decreased can excessivegrowth phases, biomass dosing between phase starvation a into organisms the forcing By tions. popula- microbial dense bythe degraded and absorbed are material organic and Nutrients microorganisms. for habitat provide and filter the in permeability maintain to is vegetation of role primary However,the organics. (reed), (reed), australis Phragmites bylayers gravel.and sand of theon Depending climate, followed cm), 20 of minimum (a drainage for gravel of thefilter.in conditions obic Structurally, layer a is there connected to the drainage system can contribute to aer pipe ventilation A system. collection effluent an and er lin- impermeable an have should filter Each required. is drainage pipe Brownwater ) Effluent Effluent Greywater sp. (cattails) or (cattails) sp. Typha Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Blackwater Biomass

2 80cm per person equivalent person per outlet Echi- - wastewater before it enters the wetland. Maintenance wetland. the enters it before wastewater the in solids of concentration the reducing at effective ities should focus on ensuring treatment that is primary Maintenance activ filterreplaced. the material of parts clogged and removed be to the has material help, accumulated not does this If bed. the of conductivity lic bacterial film. mayResting intervals restore the - hydrau and solids accumulated by clogged become will gravel the time, With holes. the block might that biofilm and sludge remove to year a once cleaned be should pipes Distribution vegetation. wetland planted the with pete com- can that weeds remove to important is it season, Operation &Maintenance During the firstgrowing of the ofinfection. risk people do not come in contact with the influent because areas or parklands. Care should be taken to ensure that wild into integrated be can and aesthetic generally is systemwater. The standing no is there since low is ing breed- of mosquito risk The filtration. and organisms, higher by predation decay, natural by accomplished is removal Pathogen Health Aspects/Acceptance oflow andperiods some freezing biologicalactivity. tolerate to designed be can but climates, warm to ed suit- best are wetlands constructed flow Vertical tions. - concentra ammonium high with wastewater for cess - pro treatment the technologyin appropriate an be can they nitrify, to able are wetlands constructed flow tical ver Since available. are parts spare and supply,power constant staff, maintenance trained where appropriate most is technology this system, dosing mechanical the are of Because effluent. but quality higher a achieveto looking S.9), Tanks, Septic (e.g., treatment have that primary communities for treatment good a is land wet - constructed flow vertical The Appropriateness Flow orHorizontal Wetlandter (T.7 Surface andT.8). Free-Wa- a with combined be technologycan this train, treatment nitrification-denitrification a create to order wetlands have flow the ability to nitrify, but denitrification is limited. In vertical transfer, oxygen good to Due available plantswith the specific wastewater. locally of suitability the determine to required be may - - EPA_ U.S. (2000).Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Munic- _ UN-HABITAT (2008).Constructed Wetlands Manual.UN-HAB------+ + + + + + Pros &Cons the the roots liner. canharm should also ensure that trees do not grow in the area as R.H.andWallace, S.D.(2009).Treatment_ Kadlec, Wetlands, R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen - (2005).TheUseofVertical Flow C.A. H.andArias, _ Brix, Reading References &Further Available at: www.epa.gov Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. ipal Wastewaters. EPA/625/R-99/010. U.S. Environmental Available at: www.unhabitat.org ITAT Water Kathmandu, NP. for Asian CitiesProgramme. 2 lems) chapter(Comprehensive includingsolved- prob summary Hill, New York, US.pp.599-609. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- 25 (5):491-500. Wastewater: New DanishGuidelines.EcologicalEngineering Constructed Wetlands for on-Site Treatment ofDomestic Not all parts and materials mayNot belocallyavailable allparts timeto work atfullcapacity Long start-up required may energy ofelectrical source A constant be Flow Constructed Wetland Subsurface tal Requires maintenance frequent more than- aHorizon ly, the dosingsystem particular Requires designandconstruction, expert Low costs operating FlowHorizontal Wetland Requires or lessspacethan aFree-Water Surface Constructed Wetland Flow Subsurface Less cloggingthan inaHorizontal Constructed WetlandFree-Water Surface Does not have the mosquito ofthe problems toAbility dueto nitrify goodoxygen transfer gens ofBOD, suspendedsolidsandpathoHigh reduction - nd Ed.CRC Taylor Press, &Francis BocaRaton, Group, US. - POST

119 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .9 T

120 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .10 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment collection filter support feed pipe filter sprinkler T8: TR 2.5 m deep, but filters packed with lighter plastic filling filling packed plastic lighter filters with but deep, m 2.5 to 1 usually is filter The Design Considerations or anaerobic. anoxic be may layers inner the and biomass the within air.toHowever, exposeddepleted and oxygenis dosed being of cycles through goes media filter the way, this In sprinkler. of arotating use the with e.g., filter, the over ‘trickled’ is wastewater pre-treated incoming The ing new biomass. wastewaterwater,dioxideand tocarbon generat- while the in load organic oxidizethe media the of surface the over biofilm thin the in grow that Organisms formation. biofilm for area large a provides surface A specific high media. filter plastic pre-formed special PVC or shredded bottles, gravel, rocks, as such material, area surface specific a high with filled is filter trickling The film coveringthe filter material. pores of the filter, organics are degraded bythe bio- the through migrates water the As filter. the over tled wastewater is continuously ‘trickled’ or sprayed operates under (mostly) aerobic conditions. Pre-set- A trickling filter is a fixed-bed, biological reactor that Application Level: Trickling Filter Trickling   City Neighbourhood Household IC KLI NG FIL TE R 99 Management Level:  Household Public Shared 90 to 150 m 150 to 90 Inputs: Outputs: slough off. High-rate loading conditions will also cause cause also will conditions loading High-rate off. slough will and attached stay to ability its lose will state, nous layeroxygen;deprivedof be will enterwill it endoge an - With time, the biomass will grow thick and the attached and flushingof the filter material. improveeffluent theto for pattern wetting recirculation a with designed usually is filter trickling The collected. be to sludge excess and effluent the filter, allowing the of bottom the supports slab perforated A rate. filling maximum the at air for passageway a provide should ment performance and prevent odours. The underdrains Adequate air flow is important to ensure sufficienttreat- efficienttreatment. ensure to and clogging prevent to essential also is treatment Primary circulation. air good for provide and clogging to prone less are packing) plastic in (as pores Larger ic surface ic area surface between 45 and 60 m diameter between 7 and 10 cm. A material with a specif- ticles should be uniform and 95% of them should have a par The option. cheapest the is gravel or rock crushed light, and allows air to circulate. Whenever it is available, is ratio, volumeto surface high a has durable, and cost low- is filter material to12ideal up The be deep. can m Brownwater 2 /m Effluent Effluent 3 for plastic packing is normally used. used. normally is packing plastic for Greywater Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Blackwater Sludge 2 /m 3 for rocks and air outlet - must must be handled by backwashing and periodic flooding. and filters trickling with associated well are problems flies known filter and biofilm the on grazing Snails there power are failures. when or reduced is flow water the when night at atic - problem be may This kept moist. be must packing The should bedetermined the from fieldoperation. frequency filter. flushing the and rates dosing Optimum flush to used be can doses) (flushing rates loading lic ging and keep the biofilm thin and aerobic. High - hydrau filter must be periodically washed away to prevent clog- the on accumulates that sludge The problems. of case in pump the repair and filter the monitor to required is operator skilled A Operation &Maintenance solids treatment, all of which can still pose health risks. and discharge effluent treatment, primary and pre- for taken be must measures Appropriate businesses. and homes from away built be filter the that require lems - prob fly and Odour Health Aspects/Acceptance but specialadaptations for coldclimates required. are environments, all almost in built be can Tricklingfilters settlements. rural large, or peri-urban for suited best still are they although compact, are filters trickling T.5), Ponds, tion Stabiliza - Waste (e.g., technologies other to Compared ous supplyofpower andwastewater isrequired. continu- a general, in but designed, be can system ling trick (gravity) low-energy A clog. filter to the cause will loading solids high since clarification primary following Appropriateness andthe dischargeperature, requirements. tem- ambient the media, filter of type wastewater,the the of characteristics the on based determined is filter) the to applied be can wastewater much how (i.e., rate lodged from the filter. The hydraulic and nutrient loading mayhavethatdis- to remove anybiomass tank settling sloughing. The collected effluent should be clarified in a This technology can only be used used be only can technology This ------+ + + Pros &Cons _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). Reading References &Further EPA_ U.S. (2000).Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet. Trickling (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B.(Ed.),Sasse,L., Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & (Detailed description andexample calculations) 890-930. includingtipsfor shooting) trouble (Design summary Available at: www.epa.gov cy, Washington, D.C.,US. Filters. 832-F-00-014. U.S. Environmental Protection- Agen ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised Not all parts and materials mayNot belocallyavailable allparts treatment andprimary Risk ofclogging,dependingonpre- problematic often are Flies andodours wastewaterstant flow Requires andcon- ofelectricity source aconstant sonnel Requires andmaintenance operation by skilledper ly, the dosingsystem particular Requires designandconstruction, expert costs High capital wetlands to compared required Small landarea constructed (ammoniumEfficient nitrification oxidation) loading rates Can beoperated atarange oforganic andhydraulic th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US.pp. - - - POST

121 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .10 T

122 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .11 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T9: U washed out. are others the as accumulated preferentially are isms organ- granule-forming of sludge.regime, upflow the of Because cushion the through rises effluent the as particles smaller for filters as act turn, in which, form sludge of granules larger use, of weeks several After the slopedwalls. above area an in tank the of top the from extracted is effluent clarified The downwards. tank the of top Sloped walls deflectparts. material thatreaches the the sludge mix without the assistance of any mechanical bubbles rising The released. are dioxide) bon car and (methane gases result, a As compounds. organic degrade layersludge the in microorganisms The upflow. the their in out washed of being resist weight, because that, microorganisms of ations agglomer small i.e., diameter), in mm 3 to (1 ules - gran microbial of comprised is blanket sludge The water wastewater asthe flowsthrough it. waste- the treats and filters blanket sludge pended sus- A upward. the flows and bottom, the enters from reactor Wastewater process. tank single a is The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) Application Level: Upflow AnaerobicSludgeUpflow Blanket Reactor(UASB)   City Neighbourhood Household PFL OW ANAE bubbles gas inlet ROB IC Management Level:  SL Household Public Shared UD GE B LAN sludge granule biogas KET - - 10 Outputs: Inputs: strength or where it contains too many solids, proteins solids, many too contains it where or strength low- is influent the Where COD. of 90% to 80 removes typically process the since waste paper and pulp and processing food distillery, brewery, for used often is It new. relatively still is sewage domestic to application high organic loading rates up to 10 kg BOD/m kg 10 to up rates loading organic and high treatment wastewater industrial large-scale for process well-established a is it Although volume. tor- reac smaller a in so do can and (S.9), Tanks Septic than effluent quality higher produce to potential the sludge may take several months. The UASB reactor has granulated the developing but build, and design to ple sim- relatively is technology The electricity. or supply water constant a without communities rural or small Appropriateness Primary settling is usually not required before the UASB. suspension. in blanket sludge the keep to maintained be must m/h 1 to 0.7 of velocity upflow An energy (biogas). as used be can and dome collection gas a in collectedtopto is the rises thatgas The design. drawal with- effluent the separator,and gas-solids the system, distribution influent the are reactors UASB of design the for elements Critical Design Considerations (+ 1 Greywater) Blackwater Effluent A UASB is not appropriate for for appropriate not is UASB A outlet Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Sludge Brownwater Biogas 3 /d, its /d, ------+ + + + Pros &Cons and onlyexcess sludge isremoved 2to every 3years. infrequent is Desludging problems. of case in pumps, e.g., parts, repair and reactor the monitor to required is operator skilled A professionals. by maintained and operated be must that technology Treatment tralized Cen- a is UASB The Operation &Maintenance handled. directly ent and sludge still pose a health risk and should not be in the plant, such as adequate protective clothing. Efflu- working while measures safety and health proper take Health Aspects/Acceptance The operators should is alsoakey the performance. factor affecting or fats, the reactor may not work properly. Temperature appropriate discharge and/or treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Requires designandconstruction expert andmaterials mayNot belocally available allparts isrequired ofelectricity source A constant time Long start-up ditions (upflow andsettlingrates bebalanced) must difficult personnel; proper to maintain con- hydraulic Requires andmaintenance operation by skilled and organic loads Treatment may with beunstable variable hydraulic scrubbing) requires Biogas canbeusedfor (butusuallyfirst energy desludging required) Low sludge (and, thus, production infrequent Can withstand high organic and hydraulic loading rates ofBOD High reduction P. G.,Roersma, R.andGrin, _ Lettinga, (1983). Anaerobic Reading References &Further _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). _ Tare, V. (n.d.).UASB A. Technology andNema, –Expecta- (2005). C.A. M.anddeLemosChernicharo, Sperling, _ von andViraraghavan, B.L.N. S.,Balasuriya, _ Vigneswaran, (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B.(Ed.),Sasse,L., the process) paperdescribing (The first 25(7):1701-1723.Bioengineering Using aGranular BedUASB Reactor. Biotechnology and Treatment ofRaw Domestic Sewage atAmbientTemperatures Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse , Metcalf & (Assessment ofUASB inIndia) installations Available at: www.unapcaem.org Beijing, andMachinery, Engineering CN. for Agricultural tions andReality. United Nations AsianandPacific Centre (Detailed designinformation) Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org Volume One.IWA Publishing,London, UK.pp.741-804. Biological Wastewater Treatment inWarm Climate Regions, (Detailed description anddesign information) 1005-1016. (Good technical –Chapter overview 5) Bangkok, TH. Center,Process. Environmental Information Sanitation AIT, Wastewater Treatment –Attached Growth andSludge Blanket T. (1986). Environmental Sanitation Reviews. Anaerobic overview) (Short ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US.pp. - POST

123 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .11 T

124 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .12 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T1 is recycled from the clarifier back to the reactor. The The reactor. the to back clarifier the from recycled is sludge this of Some settling. gravity by clarifier ondary sec- the in removed be can tank, aerated the in form which particles), of sludge (agglomerations flocs The environment, andwastewater characteristics. design, reactor the on depends composition exact The present. be can organisms higher with along bacteria facultative organisms, common most the are bacteria aerobic Although water. and dioxide carbon cells, new produce to wastewater the in carbon organic the dize oxi- microorganisms The aerators. surface using by or oxygenor air tank intothebypumping provided be can mixing and Aeration tank. aeration an in aerated and can be employed to ensure that the wastewater is mixed configurationsDifferent of the activated sludge process required. is oxygen of supply well-timed and continuous a suspended, sludge activated the keep to and conditions aerobic maintain To effluent. high-quality a produce to wastewater from nutrients and remove organics degrade to microorganisms trated concen- highly of use makes that unit reactor ber An activated sludge process refers to a multi-cham- Application Level: Activated Sludge inlet  0: ACTIV  City Neighbourhood Household AT ED SL UD GE Management Level: 10  compressed air Household Public Shared 3 recirculation Inputs: Outputs: the plant. treatment is It disposal. final to important consider this step in the planning phase of or end-use for suitable product stabilized a obtain to and content its organic and reduce water to treatment requires sludge excess The days for nitrification. 18 to 3 to removal, BOD for days 5 to 3 from ranges reactor the in (SRT) time retention solids the tem - perature, the on Depending over-dimensioned. or under- is plant the if compromised severely be can efficiency Treatment volume. and composition wastewater the of estimation accurate an on based be must design The removal.for biological phosphorus as well as denitrification, and nitrification biological for designed be can reactor The materials. particulate and es that occur are effective at removing soluble, colloidal polishing step (see POST, p.136). The biological - process sometimessettleable are and followedsolids) by final a removes (that treatment primary after used usually are They system. treatment complex a of part one are es - process sludge Activated Design Considerations use. for further ifnecessary ment facility - treat discharged be can effluent treated or a in tertiary Brownwater Effluent Effluent sludge clarifier Greywater extracted sludge Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Blackwater Sludge outlet + + + + + Pros &Cons (e.g.,filamentousprocess bacteria). the impair could which organisms detrimental of ment develop - the and biomass active the kill could that ties - abnormali avoid to necessary, if adjusted, parameters control the and monitored constantly be must effluent must be constantly maintained. As well, the influent pumps) and and aerators (mixers, equipment mechanical The trouble-shooting. and maintenance for required is staff trained Operation &MaintenanceHighly butnot reduced, substantially eliminated. be directly handled. In the excess sludge pathogens are not should and risk health a poses still it quality, high of is produced effluent the Although areas. populated densely of periphery the in located generally are ities - facil Treatment Centralized odours, and requirements space of Because Health Aspects/Acceptance in colderenvironments. reduced is capacity However, treatment climate. every almost in appropriate is process sludge activated An tive for the oflarge treatment volumes offlows. - effec more is fluctuating technology this characteristics, less influent and scale of economies of Because operated andmaintained. iscorrectly facility highly the that ensures a that system management and developed electricity constant staff, well-trained a with facility Treatment Centralized a for appropriate Appropriateness An activated sludge process is only moving bioreactors. bedsandmembrane aeration, extended ditches, oxidation (SBR), batch reactors sequencing include modifications known Well design. sludge activated basic the to made been have modifications and adaptations different phosphorus, To achieve specificeffluentgoals for BOD,nitrogen and Can bemodified to meet specific discharge limits removalHigh nutrient possible ofBOD andpathogensHigh reduction (upto 99%) loading rates Can beoperated ata range oforganic andhydraulic Resistant to organic andhydraulic shock loads R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further ------_ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). (2005). C.A. M.anddeLemosChernicharo, Sperling, _ von H.F._ Ludwig, andMohit,K.(2000).Appropriate Technology includingsolved problems) (Comprehensive summary Hill, New York, US.pp.451-504. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & Available at: www.iwawaterwiki.org Volume Two. IWA Publishing, London,UK. Biological Wastewater Treatment inWarm Climate Regions, Thailand) (Assessment ofthe appropriateness ofactivated sludge for 215-219. ThailandCaseStudy.Countries, TheEnvironmentalist 20(3): for MunicipalSewerage/Excreta Management inDeveloping (Detailed designinformation) ment and/orappropriate discharge - treat Sludgerequire further andpossiblyeffluent Requires design andconstruction expert andmaterials mayNot belocallyavailable allparts problems toProne complicated chemical andmicrobiological sonnel Requires andmaintenance operation by skilledper costs andoperating High capital isrequired electricity consumption,High energy of source aconstant th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US. - POST

125 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .12 T

126 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .13 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T1 re-suspend there-suspend solids. andup bubble produced gasesthe sludgebecause of settling the hinder actually may The process degradation settle. to time more requires and degradation less undergoes it although S.9), Tanks, Septic from originating (e.g., stabilized partially already is which tothickenused be can pond of type sludgesame The this. do can ponds sedimentation/thickening in cally - anaerobi degrade to sludge the stabilized. Allowing matter or public toilet (e.g., latrine sludge) be first must In order to be properly dried, fresh sludge rich in organic dewatered. gone significant anaerobic degradation, is more easily under has that sludge Conversely, dewater. to ficult dif- is degradation, significant not undergone has and organics in rich still is which Sludge, sludge. the of characteristics the to specific be must treatment its Faecal sludge is not a uniform product and, therefore, nology. techsubsequent- a in treated further be can sludge effluent is removed and treated, whilethe thickened settling are ponds that allow sludge to thicken and dewater. ponds The thickening or Sedimentation Application Level: Sedimentation / Thickening Ponds  1: SED  grit chamber screen ramp fordesludging City Neighbourhood Household IMEN TATION / TH Management Level:  IC Household Public Shared K ENIN G PO thick supernatant scum ened sludge ND - S 10 Outputs: Inputs: the sludge settling properly andthickening. from hot and temperate climates. Excessive rain may prevent most in installed be can that option low-cost a is This to functioning. proper ensure required maintenanceis and operation forTrained staff to to handleandlessprone splashing andspraying. easier is The it although infectious, still community.is thickenedsludge the of border the at established be space located far from homes and businesses; it should available inexpensive, is there where appropriate are ponds Sedimentation/thickening Appropriateness initial concentration). the on (depending 14%to increased be can (TS) solids total a used, is cycle resting When 4-week and loading 4-week common. are cycles longer much although weeks, 5 to 4 exceed not should periods resting and loading efficiency, maximum achieve To emptied. is er oth- the while operated, be can one required; are allel Design ConsiderationsTwo tanks operating in par thickened The composted.sludge canthen orfurther bedried separately. treated and decanted be As the sludge settles and digests, the supernatant must 5 Sludge Sludge Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Effluent baffle liquid outlet ------+ + + + Pros &Cons ithassufficiently thickened.after (with a front end loader or other specialized equipment) removed mechanically be must sludge thickened The the atthe screen inlet ofthe ponds. discharged along with the sludge must be removed from sion and nuisance (flies and odours). Solid waste that is - transmis disease of potential the reduce to keptclean intensive. The discharging area must be maintained and aspect of well-functioningimportant ponds, but it is not an is Operation &Maintenance areas. residential from away sufficiently located be should due to bad odours and the presence of flies. Thus, they residents nearby for nuisance a cause may ponds The before disposalorend-use. process) tized and requires treatment further (at least in a drying sani- not is thickenedsludge The clothing). and gloves, (boots, protection proper with equipped be should ers work therefore, pathogenic; are sludge thickened and incoming the Both Health Aspects/Acceptance Effluent and sludge require further treatment Effluent andsludgerequire further Requires designandconstruction expert Requires loaderfor front-end desludging Long storage times noticeable normally andfliesare Odours Requires alarge landarea isrequired energy No electrical Relatively low low costs; costs capital operating materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable to splashingandspraying Thickened sludge iseasierto handleandlessprone

- andStrauss, M.(1998). S.A. U., Larmie, _ Heinss, Solids Reading References &Further andStrauss, M.(1999). S.A. U., Larmie, _ Heinss, Character L., Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D. (Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, andStrauss,M.(2002). Faecal A. Sludge Treat_ Montangero, - tions for Preliminary Design.2 tions for Preliminary Sludges inthe Tropics andRecommenda –LessonsLearnt - Separation andPond Systems for the Treatment ofFaecal Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, (Department Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, Eawag (Department istics ofFaecal Sludges andTheirSolids-Liquid Separation. all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed bookcompiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing, London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.sandec.ch NL. Notes,ment. Lecture UNESCO-IHE, Delft, nd 05/98.Eawag Ed.Report - POST

127 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .13 T

128 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .14 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T1 tom layer should be gravelcoarse and the top fine sand bot- The sand. and gravel of layers graded 3-5 by ered Design Considerations The drainage pipes are cov properly, itisdischarged. depending onwhere treated be also must pipes drainage the in collected is that leachate The disposal. final or end-use treatment, further for transported and layer sand the from arated sep- be must it dried, is sludge the When 60%. imately 10 contentafter approx be to- 15should daysdrying of moisture final The effectively. dry not will sludge the or be applied in layers that are too thick (maximum 20 cm), not should It pipe. the in collect and infiltrate to liquid of layers the allow and are sludge the support pipes that sand and the gravel of top On bed. the percolates that through away leachate the drain to - perforat pipes with ed lined is bed drying the of bottom The however, isnot effectively stabilized orsanitized. sludge, The evaporates. or liquid as off drains ume vol- sludge the of 80% to 50% Approximately tion. evapora- by dry to sludge the allows and leachate percolated collects sludge, with loaded when that, An unplanted bed drying is a simple, permeable bed Application Level: Unplanted Drying Beds Unplanted Drying 80cm  0: UN  City Neighbourhood Household P drainage layer LANTE D DR YI NG Management Level:  BED Household Public Shared S 10 7 -

Outputs: Inputs: sludge mightberequired. dried the T.16) of Co-Composting, (e.g., treatment or storage Further content. pathogenic the decreasing or fraction organic the stabilizing at effective not is technology The disposal. or end-use treatment, further for elsewhere transported be to has it when important especially is which sludge, of volume the decrease to way effective an is drying Sludge Appropriateness runoff. prevent the inflow ofsurface to given be should caution special and roof a by ered cov be should facility the climates, wet in installed If sludge isessential. trucks for pumping in the sludge and removing the dried and people to access ensuring because maintenance beds has toDesigning unplanted consider future drying of the sludge. distribution evenfor allowto layer and sand the of sion inlet - ero prevent The to plate splash a with equipped beds. be should more or two between alternate can application sludge percolation, and drying improve To eachbe lost timethe sludge isremoved. should be 250 to 300 mm thick because some sand will layer sand top The size). grain effective mm (0.10.5 to drainage water,totreatment outlet Sludge Sludge Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Effluent - - - + + + + + Pros &Cons flushed. regularly be should drains effluent the and clean kept be must area discharge The thin.gets it when replaced be must layer top the sludge, of removal every with lost is sand some Because conditions. climate the on depends this but days, 15 to 10 after removed be can sludge Dried tioning. tion and maintenance is required to ensure proper func- Operation & Maintenance Trained for- opera staff areas. residential from away sufficiently located be should it dents due to bad odours and the presence of flies. Thus, - resi nearby for nuisance a cause may bed drying The age, dependingonthe end-use. desired not sanitized and may treatment or stor require further (boots, protection are effluent and sludge dried The clothing). and gloves, proper with equipped be workers should therefore, pathogenic; are sludge dried and incoming the Both Health Aspects/Acceptance the sludge drying. properly from hot and temperate climates. Excessive rain may prevent most in installed be can that option low-cost a is This reach for Motorized Emptying operators. economic within but community, the of border the at be should beds drying unplanted areas, to urban designed service If businesses. and homes from far ated situ space available inexpensive, is there where areas peri-urban and rural for suited best are They erations. people, but larger ones also exist for huge urban agglom- 100,000 to to up populations small with communities medium for appropriate are beds drying Unplanted Odours and flies are normally noticeable normally and fliesare Odours Requires alarge landarea isrequired energy No electrical only infrequent attentionSimple operation, required Relatively low low costs; costs capital operating rials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable mate- climates Good dewatering andhot efficiency, especiallyindry - R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further - - - - _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, andStrauss,M.(2002).Faecal A. Sludge Treat_ Montangero, - U. andKoottatep,_ Heinss, T. (1998). UseofReed Bedsfor Hill, New York, US. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed bookcompiling of knowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.sandec.ch NL. Notes,ment. Lecture UNESCO-IHE, Delft, beds) to(Comparison planted drying Available at: www.sandec.ch CH andAIT,Dübendorf, Bangkok, TH. ment inBangkok, Sandec), Thailand.Eawag (Department and Interim Results ofPilot Investigations with Septage Treat- Faecal Sludge Dewatering. ASynopsisofReviewed Literature Leachate requires further treatment Leachate further requires Requires design andconstruction expert Limited andpathogen stabilization reduction Labour intensive removal th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US. POST

129 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .14 T

130 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .15 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T1 tions in the filter. A general design for layering the bed bed the layering for design general filter. A the in tions condi- aerobic to contribute system drainage the to ed connect - pipes Design ConsiderationsVentilation drains. in collected is it where subsurface the through down flows filtrate the and surface the to applied is sludge and gravel to support the vegetation. Instead of effluent, Constructed Wetland (T.9). The beds are filled with sand Flow Vertical a to similar is bed the of appearance The to easilyescape. pathways through the thickening sludge that allow water create plants the of roots the Also, sludge. the bilizing - sta and dewatering of benefit the has technology This porosity filter.the ofthe maintain systems root their and plants the previous layer; the onto applied directly be can sludge be desludged after each feeding/drying cycle. Fresh to need not do filters the that is bed unplanted the plants. The key improvement of the the planted bed to over due treatment sludge enhanced and ration transpi - of (T.14),benefit Bed added ing the has but A bed plantedis similar drying to an Unplanted Dry Application Level: Planted Drying Beds Planted Drying  grit chamber screen 3: P  City Neighbourhood Household LANTE drainage layer D DR sludge YI NG BED Management Level:  Household Public Shared S 10 mesh 9 plants gravel/roc -

ks charged. pipes dis- is it drainage where on depending properly,treated be must the in collected is that leachate The sludge before itisremoved. of layertop the of reduction pathogen and degradation sufficient forto allowalternately used be can beds allel Outputs: Inputs: rates up to 80 kg/m Europe, northern as such climates, colder In climates. 250 kg/m 250 to 100 of rates application Sludge constraints. ating oper and environment the characteristics, sludge the mm thick and reapplied every 3 to 7 days, depending on 100 to 75 between layers in applied be should Sludge cutting. after reproduce readily and water salty to resistant are environments, humid in growthey if used be can non-invasivespecies Local, climate. the on depending plants, suitable are papyrus) (Cyperus papyrus and sp.) (Echinochloa grass (Typha cattails sp.), (Phragmites Reeds for about3to 5years ofaccumulation. should be left above the top of the sand layer to account 5 of m) 100(1 (3) space Free150toand sand. mm); of mm diameter (grain gravel fine of mm 250 (2) mm); 20 of diameter (grain gravel coarse of mm 250 (1) is: sand 2 /year have been reported in warm tropical tropical warm in reported been have /year Sludge Sludge 2 /year are typical. Two or more par Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Effluent ventilationpipe outlet drainage pipe wall p) antelope sp.) Biomass - - - + + + + + + Pros &Cons vested. 3to After 5years the sludge canberemoved. har and/or thinned periodically be should plants The care. much requires and crucial is phase acclimation The sludge. the applying before sufficiently grown have should plants The of. disposed and collected properly tioning. The must drains be maintained and the effluent tion and maintenance is required to ensure proper func- Operation & Maintenance Trained for- opera staff mightberequired. storage anddrying further end-use, desired the on Depending climate. the with vary will sludge the in reduction pathogen of degree The gloves. and boots clothing, protective wear should it with working anyone and hazardous is sludge Faecal attract wildlife, includingpoisonoussnakes. can plantations Undisturbed housing. dense from away sufficiently located if especially acceptance, the with problems few be should there aesthetics, pleasing of Because Health Aspects/Acceptance motorized emptying operators. for reach economic within but community, the of der bor the at be should beds drying planted areas, urban service to designed If cities. bigger in used be also can they but people, 100,000 to up populations with nities drying planted beds are most appropriate for small to requirements, medium commu- area their of Because end-use ordisposal. theelsewherewhen sludgefor toneeds transported be decomposition and drying, which is especially important through 50%) to (down at volume sludge the effective decreasing is technology This Appropriateness Requires alarge landarea required energy No electrical income Fruit orforage growing inthe bedscangenerate Relatively low low costs; costs capital operating materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable Beds Better sludge than treatment inUnplanted Drying Can handlehighloading

- - R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further - - - - - _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, _ Koottatep, T., S. C.,Kamal, A. Surinkul, Polprasert, N., I.M.(2008).Potentials Noumsi, _ Kengne ofSludge Drying U. andKoottatep,_ Heinss, T. (1998). UseofReed Bedsfor Hill, New York, US. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed book compiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.sandec.ch ation. Water Science&Technology 51 (9):119-126. Tropical Climate Seven after –LessonsLearnt Years ofOper (2005). Treatment ofSeptage inConstructed Wetlands in M., Koné, Heinss,U. andStrauss, M. D.,Montangero, A., Available at: www.north-south.unibe.ch Yaounde, Yaounde, CM. ment inTropical of University Regions [PhDdissertation]. pyramidalis (Lam.)Hitchc. &Chasefor Faecal Sludge Treat- Beds Vegetated with papyrus Cyperus L.andEchinochloa Available at: www.sandec.ch CH andAIT,Dübendorf, Bangkok, TH. ment inBangkok, Sandec), Thailand.Eawag (Department and Interim Results ofPilot Investigations with Septage Treat- Faecal Sludge Dewatering. ASynopsisofReviewed Literature 1578. Leachate requires further treatment Leachate further requires Requires design andconstruction expert Labour intensive removal Long storage times andfliesmayOdours benoticeable th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US.p. - POST

131 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .15 T

132 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .16 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T1 ful planningand designto avoid failure. - care requires facility well-functioning technology,a the composting process seems like a simple, passive Although facilities. decentralized for appropriate ly general- not is it Therefore, mixing. mechanical as well as supply, air and moisture controlled requires composting In-vessel treatment. heat same the to subjected are pile the of parts all that ensure and oxygen provide to turned periodically are piles row heaps called windrows and left to decompose. - Wind long into piled is waste) solid and (sludge material designs: mixed co-composting the composting, open In in-vessel. of and open types two are There processthe product. andthe optimize to used be can each of benefits the two, the combining By circulate). and flow to air allows it (i.e., properties bulking good has and carbon ic organ - in high is waste solid biodegradable while content, nitrogen and Faecalmoisture high a has waste). sludge solid organic and sludge (faecal feedstock one than more using organics, of tion degrada- aerobic controlled the is Co-composting Application Level: Co-Composting  2: CO  City Neighbourhood Household -C OM PO ST sludge IN G 111 Management Level:   Household Public Shared organics Inputs: - recom theremended where isheavy rainfall. especially are facilities covered process, ing compost- the in role important playsan moisture Since clean, pleasant, beneficialsoilconditioner. a produce can co-composting done, carefully of When andgarbage plastics taining besorted. first must source available an solid biodegradable well-sorted waste. Solid waste con- is there when appropriate Appropriateness heat insidethe pile. of evendistribution promotetoan soil or compost with Windrow piles should be at least 1 m high and insulated waste. solid to sludge of 1:10 to 1:5 of ratio a at used be should sludge Liquid used. be should waste solid to sludge of 1:3 to 1:2 of ratio a sludge, dewatered For and/or provide protection andwind. rain from evaporation excess prevent to covered be may facility the space, available and climate the on Depending es. nuisanc- minimize to businesses and homes away from faecal sludge and to minimize waste transport costs, but organic still at a of distance sources the to close ed Design Considerations The facility should be locat- Outputs: sludge +organics Sludge Compost A co-composting facility is only only is facility co-composting A Organics Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: + + + Pros &Cons end product. homogenouslabour, more manual a reduce ensure and process, the optimize to help turners pile and shells) coconut and branches small (i.e., waste solid of pieces large shredding for grinders Robust hand. by or loader Turning must be periodically done with either a front-end and monitored. controlled carefully be must systems aeration Forced product. quality high a ensure to times maturing and schedules, turning outflows, inflows, the of track keep and material, input the of quality the must monitor carefully staff Maintenance facility. the of maintenance and operation the for necessary is staff well-trained A a as proxy inactivation ofsterilization. measure egg helminth monitor to useful be would it exist, oxygen facilities and If content. moisture ratio, C:N proper the has it that so designed carefully be must mixture The Operation &Maintenance ment. Proper ventilation and dust control are important. equip- respiratory appropriate use and clothing tective dusty,- pro be toworkerswear found should is material the If treatment. previous the of regardless sludge, the takenbe withshould dealing care when handled, safely be can compost finished the Although touch with. to work and safe level a to sludge in load pathogen the reduce can °C 60 and 55 between pile the in perature tem - the Maintaining Health Aspects/Acceptance process. thermophilic well-controlled a and sorting initial good on depends this produced; be to has compost quality good and ent - aconsist buyers, find to order In customers). paying (from product thefor demand makesa is there if sense only composting considerations, technical from Apart viable egg/gTS) A highremoval ofhelminth eggsispossible(<1 andfood production agriculture Provides avaluable that canimprove resource local with appropriate training toRelatively set upandmaintain straightforward D.,Thomas,L.andOtten, L.(2000).Composting _ Hoornweg, Reading References &Further - - - - - + + + M., Drescher,_ Strauss, S.,Zurbrügg,C.,Montangero, A., L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, J.,Rothenberger,_ Rouse, S.andZurbrügg,C.(2008): andWright, F. L.A. _ Obeng, W. (1987). Integrated Resource D.,Cofie,O.,Zurbrügg,C.,Gallizzi,K.,Moser,_ Koné, - D.,Dre Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home Washington, D.C.,US. Management Working 8.TheWorld No. Paper Bank, Series and ItsApplicabilityinDeveloping Waste Urban Countries. Available at: www.sandec.ch CH GH. andIWMI,Accra, Dübendorf, State-of-Knowledge Review. Sandec), Eawag (Department Sludge andMunicipalOrganic Waste. ALiterature and Cofie, O.andDrechsel, P. (2003).Co-Composting ofFaecal all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed book compiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Dübendorf, Sandec), Eawagand Middle-IncomeCountries. (Department Marketing Compost, aGuidefor Compost Producers inLow Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home Wastes. TheWorld BankandUNDP, Washington, D.C.,US. Recovery. TheCo-Composting ofDomestic SolidandHuman in Tropical Climates. Water Research 41 (19): 4397-4402. Efficiency by Faecal Sludge Dewatering andCo-Composting scher, S.andStrauss, M.(2007). Helminth EggsInactivation over longdistances Compost istoo bulkyto beeconomicallytransported Labour intensive personnel byRequires design andoperation skilled expert Long storage times Requires alarge (that landarea iswell located) required energy No electrical costs Low andoperating capital materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable

POST

133 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .16 T

134 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .17 Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment T1 ume of the reactor is constant. As gas is generated it generated is gas As constant. is reactor the of ume vol- the dome, fixed the In digesters. dome floating or dome fixed as built be can They generated. waste of soil characteristics, available resources and the volume space, on depending ground, below or above installed tanks, prefabricated or domes brick-constructed be can reactors Design ConsiderationsBiogas inactivated. andpathogensodourless partly are almost nutrients, and organics in rich is digestate The rises. it as slurry the chamber,mixing the of top the at collects and slurry the in forms gas reactor.The the in processes fermentation the in produced biogas the of waste.facilitates thecollection also biodegradable It or and/ blackwater,sludge, of degradation anaerobic the facilitates that chamber airtight an is reactor biogas A light. gases which can be converted to heat, electricity or dioxide methane,carbon othertrace of and mix a is Biogas energy. for used be can that biogas (b) and fertilizer a as used be can that (digestate) slurry ed bic treatment technology that produces (a) a digest- A biogas reactor oranaerobic digester isananaero- Application Level: Biogas Reactor    7: B inlet City Neighbourhood Household IOGAS RE ACT OR biogas pipe Management Level:    Household Public Shared slurr biogas seal y Inputs: Outputs: for institutional or public toilet applications. Because Because applications. toilet public or institutional for L 100,000 to up family single a for L 1,000 from vary can Sizes bricks. or containers plastic of out made be can reactors level, household the At materials. organic - pri vatetoilets for public point or access additional withan to connected directly are reactors biogas Often, this countries). isonlyfoundpractice, inindustrialized in (although reactor the heating by achieved be only 57 to °C would ensure the pathogens 50 destruction, but can of temperature thermophilic A °C. 38 to 30 of range temperature mesophilic the in operated are tors - reac biogas Normally, considered. be should days 60 of HRT a inputs, pathogenic highly For climates. perate temin days 25 and climates hot15 in daysleast at be The hydraulic retention time (HRT) in the reactor should can beused. the reactors should be installed close to where the gas expand (like a balloon). To minimize distribution losses, can it Alternatively, gas. of the withdrawal and production with falls and rises dome the reactor, dome ing float- a In pipes. through biogas the transport to used reactor. into flows back the be can pressure slurry The the removed, is gas the When chamber.expansion an into upward slurry the displaces and pressure a exerts Brownwater Sludge Sludge Organics expansion chamber digestate Blackwater Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: Biogas access cover outlet reactor 5to shouldbeemptied onceevery 10 years. the inputs, the and be design the on Depending should removed. bottom the to settled have that sand regularly and and carefully prevented. leaksGrit are and corrosion that be so cleaned should equipment Gas and mixed with water ordigestate to prior feeding. shredded be should substrate as used waste Organic sludge. Tank Septic or dung cow adding by e.g., teria, bac- reactor,anaerobic theinoculatedwith be should it ly designed and built, repairs should be minimal. To start Operation &Maintenance If the reactor is proper to humanhealth. flammable gases that, if mismanaged, could be harmful the with associated dangers also are There required. be might treatment further end-use, its infection. on Depending of risk a carries still but sanitized is partially digestate The Health Aspects/Acceptance longer andthe designvolume increased. substantially very low below 15 °C. Consequently, the HRT is needs biogas tointo conversion be matter organic of rate the as Biogas reactors are less appropriate for colder climates to andshouldbeavoided degrade inthe substrate. difficult are straw and HRT.material Woodthe reduces stock. Greywater should not be added as it substantially hold with manure if the latter is the main source of feed - be efficient to co-digest blackwater from a single house- animal as such can It waste. household marketor material, organic and manure organic in rich are which biogas substrates, concentrated with obtained of are production levels highest The input. only the is water black if achieved be cannot production gas significant However, biogas. of benefit added the with but ment, - treat of level similar a offers it Tanksince Septic (S.9), a to alternative an as used is reactor biogas a Often, plants. It is best used where regular feeding is possible. treatment wastewater large at sludge of stabilization the for or neighbourhoods small level,in household the Appropriateness Appropriateness away the from site. transport and/or use storage, its for made provisions be must there continuous, is production digestate the This technology can be applied at at applied be can technology This - - (1996)._ CMS Biogas Technology: ATraining Manualfor Exten- Reading References &Further - - - + + + + + + Pros &Cons Y.,_ Vögeli, Diener, A., C.R., Gallardo, Lohri, S.andZurbrügg, (Ed.),Reuter, A. _ Ulrich, S.(Ed.),Gutterer, B. (Ed.),Sasse,L., H.-P._ Mang, andLi,Z.(2010). Technology Review ofBiogas (1998)._ GTZ Biogas Digest. Volume I-IV. andAdvi Information - Available at: www.fao.org Kathmandu, NP.Services, sion. FAO/TCP/NEP/4451-T. Consolidated Management Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, (Department PracticalCountries. Information andCaseStudies. Eawag C. (2014). Anaerobic Digestion ofBiowaste inDeveloping ough University, UK. Leicestershire, Developing APractical Countries. Guide.WEDC, Loughbor Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) andSanitation in Panzerbieter, T. andReckerzügel, T. (2009).Decentralised Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. (GIZ) GmbH,Eschborn, für Internationale Zusammenarbeit Gesellschaft Countries. Water, orfor Excreta Treatment andReuse inDeveloping –BiogasSanitation. Sanitation Draft for Blackwater, Brown Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Eschborn, fürTechnischeGesellschaft Zusammenarbeit(GTZ) GmbH, onAppropriate Technology Service (ISAT).sory Deutsche Limited gas below production 15 °C treatment further require Incomplete pathogen removal, the digestate might Requires design andskilledconstruction expert Low costs operating life Long service ofnutrients Conservation required energy No electrical be builtunderground) can ofthe (most required structure Small landarea ofrenewableGeneration energy - POST

135 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies T Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment .17 POST

136 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment liquid through a filter bed comprised of a granular fil- granular a of comprised bed filter a through liquid the passing by solids suspended residual of removal the involves filtration Depth processes. filtration face sur or filtration packed-bed) (or depth either as sified clas- be can processes Filtration Filtration Tertiary anddisinfection processes. filtration tertiary include widespread most the effluent, for technologies Among a wide range of and tertiary advanced treatment toxic chemicals. and hazards microbial with associated risks of useful information on the assessment and management Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater provide the for Guidelines WHO The body. water receiving the of quality the or practice end-use intended the match should quality effluent The recommended. is approach Post-treatment is not always necessary and a pragmatic cesses are most commonly usedto achieve this. pro- disinfection and filtration Tertiary constituents. dissolved and/or solids suspended residual ogens, step may be required to remove post-treatment - path a bodies, water in discharge for standards national or effluent the of end-use the on Depending TX02: TE tertiar inlet Application Level: Tertiary FiltrationandDisinfectionTertiary   City Neighbourhood Household y filtration( ( sand supportmedium usually gravel RT IAR e.g., depthfiltration ) Y FIL sand oranthracite TR A filter floor Management Level: TION AN  )  Household Public Shared underdrain D ISINFE outlet - C TION Outputs: Inputs: by alternative disinfection systems, such as ultraviolet as such systems, disinfection alternative by replaced being chlorination to led increasingly haveer, ful disinfection by-products and chemical safety, howev - harm about Concerns pathogens. and microorganisms matter,wastewater. including organic oxidizes Chlorine treating for choice of disinfectant the been historically has chlorine operation, easy and availability high cost, low its to Due means. biological or physical, chemical, by achieved be can microorganisms pathogenic of al remov or inactivation, destruction, The Disinfection bly eliminate bacteria andviruses. relia- also and can membranes ultrafiltration while oocysts, cysts protozoan remove to used successfully is filtration Depth developed. being are filters) membrane pressure Low filters. gravity-driven (including processes filtration membrane surface also are Membranes layer). filter (i.e., septum thin a through passes liquid the as sieving mechanical by material particulate of al remov the involves filtration Surface odour. and taste eliminate also they compounds, inorganic and organic Activated carbon adsorbers not only remove a variety of adsorption. is process dominating the medium, filter a as used is carbon activated If sand). (e.g., medium ter disinfection ( inlet

Effluent e.g., chlorination Effluent chlorine diffuser chlorine mixer Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: ) chamber contact - - -

(UV) radiation and ozonation (O ozonation and radiation (UV) h efciees f ad mmrn ad activated and membrane sand, of effectiveness the Due to the accumulation of solids and microbial growth, etc.)tants, to ahighperformance. ensure disinfec of dosage filters, of loss head quality, effluent and (influent monitoring continuous require methods post-treatment All Operation &Maintenance theincreasing acceptance water. reclaimed ofreusing odours, and colours unpleasant remove can ozonation and adsorption carbon Activated chlorine. liquid of age stor and handling the to related concerns safety also are There and health. human form and environmental may threaten by-products disinfection, ozone and chlorine both With Health Aspects/Acceptance to higher compared erally other disinfection methods. gen - are costs Ozonation form. can by-products fection contains significant amounts of organic matter, as disin- ment/disposal. Chlorine should not - treat be used if the water proper needs and usage after contaminated is activatedIn brane. the adsorption carbon filter material mem- the damaging avoid to especially, O&M, for how know- expert require and costly are filters Membrane with fewer chemicals. results better much about brings disinfection to prior unfiltered secondary effluent. Therefore, a filtration step in solids suspended by masked be to tend Pathogens capacity. O&M and materials, of availability budget, acteristics, char effluent the are and/or factors Other standards. national effluent the of end-use desired the for ment ment technology depends mainly on the quality - require The Appropriateness decision to install a - post-treat use ofozoneasadisinfectant. the withassociated problems the of one is by-products unwanted of formation the chlorine, to Similar agents. odour-producing including pollutants, inorganic and ic organ- both degrades It process. in energy-intensive oxygen an from generated is and oxidant powerful a is Ozone pipe. or channel a in installed be can which lamps, special through generated be also can radiation tion naturally takes place in shallow ponds (see T.5). UV in sunlight and kills viruses and bacteria. Thus, disinfec- 3 ). UV radiation is found found is radiation UV ). - -

------+ + Pros &Cons cleaningandannualreplacement. needs regular rapidly decomposes to oxygen. and In UV disinfection, the UV lamp unstable chemically is it because onsite generated be must Ozone mixing. proper ensure and chlorine of dosage right the determine to required are personnel trained chlorination, For required. therefore, is, material filter the of replacement or (backwashing) cleaning Frequent time. over decreases filters carbon _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). Toolbox._ SSWM D. M. andLigon,G.C.(2014)._ Robbins, How to Design (2012)._ NWRI Ultraviolet Disinfection. Guidelinesfor Drinking Reading References &Further (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & 2014) accessedFebruary (last purification www.sswm.info/category/implementation-tools/water- IWACountries. Publishing,London,UK. Wastewater Systems for LocalConditionsinDeveloping Available at: www.nwri-usa.org US. CA, Institute andWater Research Foundation, Fountain Valley, Water andWater Reuse. Ed.National Water 3rd Research 1035-1330. Available at: www.who.int ture. World Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 2:Wastewater- UseinAgricul tion by-products toxic andozonationcanform Chlorination disinfec- ment Filter materials backwashing needregular - orreplace Requires continuous monitoring of influent and effluent and/orchemicals electricity Some technologies of source aconstant require high canbevery costs andoperating Capital be locallyavailable Skills, technology, and materials may not parts spare Allows ofthe for reuse direct treated wastewater contaminants Additional removal ofpathogens and/orchemical th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US.pp. POST 137 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group T: (Semi-) Centralized Treatment D

138 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal • • • • • • • following factors: In any given context, the technology choice generally dependsonthe D.13 D.12 D.11 D.10 D.9 D.8 D.7 D.6 D.5 D.4 D.3 D.2 D.1 Greywater are referenced technology inthe information sheets. relevant, the WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and of in ways that are least harmful to the public and the environment. Where products, they can be applied or used. Otherwise, they should be disposed useful output the for end-use an as is there If materials. reduced-risk or either resources environment, the to returned ultimately are products which with methods and technologies different the presents section This Soil andgroundwater characteristics Availability ofspace Availability ofmaterials andequipment Legal aspects Local demands acceptanceSocio-cultural Type andquality ofproducts Biogas Combustion DisposalandStorage Surface Water Disposal/Groundwater Recharge Floating PlantPond PondFish Leach Field Soak Pit Irrigation Application ofSludge Application ofPitHumusandCompost Application ofDehydrated Faeces Application ofStored Urine andCover/ArborlooFill Use and/orDisposal

139 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal D

140 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .1 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal filled with soil and a tree is planted. Banana, papaya planted. Banana, is tree a and soil with filled is15top cm 12 theto months), 6 every (usually full is pit the When pile. the of content air and porosity leaves can also occasionally be added to improve the available, are they If defecation. each after excreta cover to pit the into dumped be should two the of mixture a or ash soil, of cup A pit. empty the of tom bot- the on put is leaves layerof a used, is Arborloo the Before pit. new a to moved are slab and beam ring superstructure, the while full, is it after planted be can tree a which on pit shallow a is TheArborloo limited benefits to the environment and the user. der of the pit and covering it is an option, albeit one with cannot be emptied, “fill and cover”, and i.e.,full filling theis remain- (S.3) VIP Single a or (S.2) Pit Single a When grow vigorously. soil; a tree planted on top with of the nutrient-rich pit covered will then and soil/ash and excreta with filled is that pit shallow a Alter is Arborloo the natively, time. over naturally the degrade and will risk contents health immediate no poses pit full the benefit, no is there Although covered. and soil with filled be simply can it pit, a decommission To D1: FILLAN 12 Application Level: Fill andCover /Arborloo   City Neighbourhood Household D COVE R 11 Management Level: 7   Household Public Shared -

Outputs: (+ Inputs: reforest an area, provide a sustainable source of fresh fresh of source sustainable a provide area, an reforest to way good a is pit abandoned the in tree a Planting even ifenoughspaceisavailable. denserareas and peri-urban, rural, in applied be can Arborloo The there isspace to continuously dignew pits. quate solution when emptying is not possible and when Filling and coveringAppropriateness a pit is an ade- planting itifwater isscarce. grows. It may be best to wait for the rainy season before it as contents pit penetratetothe roots its allowing pit, raw excreta. It should be planted in the soil on top the of the in directly however, planted, be not should tree A growing. the properly orplantfrom tree prevent would lining any as lined be not should It loo. Arbor an for needed is deep, m 1 about pit, shallow A intotree to account(e.g.,distance houses). new a for required conditions site and space the take already should users location, pit the selecting when an option if the site only is suitable for a tree to grow. is Therefore, Arborloo An Design Considerations successful. many)guava(among haveand proventrees all to be

Anal Cleansing Water) (+

( Excreta

Biomass) System 1 Applicable to: Faeces ( Dry Cleansing Dry Materials) Organics) - - - + + + + Pros &Cons the saplingto protect animals. itfrom fence of sticks and sacks should be constructed around small A watered. regularly be should pits abandoned in other than taking care of the tree or plant. Trees planted pit closed a with associatedmaintenance little is There inthe middle. forming a coneshapefrom tents of the pit should be periodically levelled to prevent con- the Also, added. periodically be should leaves and defecation each after pit the to added be should ash and/or soil of cup A Operation &Maintenance and the value nutrient ofhumanexcreta. nature, inoffensive its system, the of ease the display to ways useful are members community of ticipation par the for allow that projects demonstration Arborloo mission. - trans pathogen of risk low very a is there thus, and, material faecal the with contact in come not do Users the sludge. faecal no appropriate technology available to remove and treat plant a tree rather than emptying it, especially if there is to and pit the cover to preferable be may It marked. ly clear and covered properly is pit the if infection of risk minimal is There Health Aspects/Acceptance contaminate could groundwater decomposed. untilitisentirely resources Arborloo or pit covered a of tent con- the however, conditions, local the on Depending be planted ontop ofthe not are pitiftrees available. also can pumpkins and tomatoes as such plants Other andpreventfruit into falling peoplefrom oldpitsites. the ofgroundwater risk contamination Covering does not apit orplantingatree eliminate New bedug; the pitmust oldpitcannot bere-used production) fruit May encourage incomegeneration plantingand (tree Low ofpathogen risk transmission Low costs Technique simple to applyfor allusers - - Smart Sanitation Solutions.Examples (2006). Smart of _ NWP P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and P._ Morgan, R.(2007). Toilets ThatMake Compost. Low-Cost, P._ Morgan, AnEcologicalApproach R.(2004). to Sanitation in P._ Hebert, (2010). Rapid AssessmentofCRSExperience Reading References &Further Available at: www.ircwash.org TheHague,NL.p.51.Netherlands Water Partnership, Transportation, Treatment andUseofSanitation Products. Innovative, Technologies Low-Cost for Toilets, Collection, Available at: www.ecosanres.org tute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment- Insti Available at: www.ecosanres.org holm, SE.pp.81-90. Context.an African Stockholm Environment Institute, Stock ToiletsSanitary ThatProduce Valuable Compost for Crops in Available at: www.ecosanres.org Chapter 10: TheUsefulnessofUrine. ACompilationAfrica. Aquamor, of Experiences. ZW. Harare, Available at: www.susana.org/library US. Baltimore, with (CRS), inEast Arborloos Catholic Africa. Relief Service -

141 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .1 D

142 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .2 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal is inurine. 74%and phorus excretedpotassiumbody the of from intake, etc., but roughly 88% of nitrogen, 61% of phos - water climate,gender, diet, on depending varies tion of composi- Its body. majority the byexcreted are that nutrients the contains also Urine pathogens. of free virtually is urine people, healthy normal, From vite, Technologies, Sanitation seeEmerging p.166). urine- of based are fertilizers currently under research (e.g., - stru production the for Technologies compost. Another beneficial use of urine is as an additive to enrich stored beforehand for 6months. be should it producer, urine the than other people by household level. If urine is used for crops that are eaten the at application agricultural for safe be will it month, 1 least at for stored is urine if that accepted generally is However, it requirements). specific for agriculture in use excreta on guidelines WHO (see temperature and time storage on based are use urine for guidelines The fertilizers. chemical commercial some or all replace and ture agricul- in fertilizer liquid a as applied be can that nutrients of source concentrated a is urine Stored R2: U Application Level: Application ofStoredUrine    City Neighbourhood Household RINE APPL IC AT ION Management Level:    11 Household Public Shared 9 urine Outputs: - system, to irrigation an in used referred is it “fertiga as is urine diluted If vegetables. of type the and soil the on depends amount correct the although vegetables, for dilution effective an is urine and water of mix 3:1 A Inputs: 300 to 400m fertilize to sufficient thus, is, year one during person of one person and to 40-110 kg N/ha). The urine of one production urine daily tothe corresponds quantity (this season growing per urine of 1.5receiveL can cropland eea rl o tub oe a asm ta 1 m 1 that assume can one thumb, of rule general a As application. during loss ammonia of rate the as well as liquid, the of concentration nitrogen the used, be will it which on crop the of tolerance and demand nitrogen the on depends rate application optimal The 3) diluted several times,whereby itcanbefrequently into2) poured furrows, butatasufficientdistance 1) mixed undiluted into soilbefore planting; Instead,concentrated form. itcanbe: and pH high its of because toplants directly applied be not should urine Stored Design Considerations used around plants(uptoused around two timesweekly). than the onceortwiceduring growing season);and covered (although this shouldtake placenomore away the from roots ofthe plantsandimmediately

2 Stored Urine ofcropland.

Biomass Systems 4,5,9 Applicable to: 2 of of Most deposits can easily be removed with hot water hot with removed time.be easily can deposits over Most clogged become may holes) small with cans watering (i.e., urine apply or transport collect, to used is that Equipment phosphates). magnesium and calcium (especially,precipitate will urine in erals min- some time, Over Operation &Maintenance kept landare crop separate. to peoples’ homes than in rural areas where houses and close are gardens household when areas peri-urban or reduced. The use of urine may be less accepted be in urban can smell its however, earth, the into tilled diately imme- and/or diluted is urine If nearby. it have to or it strong smell and some may find it offensive to work with a has urine Stored difficult. be may acceptance Social guidance). that consumed raw are (refer to WHO guidelines for specific crops for important especially is period waiting This harvested. are they before month one than less crops to applied be not should and handled be carefully should urine Yet, time. of period extended an for mal risk of infection, especially when it has been stored - mini a poses Urine Health Aspects/Acceptance nuisance. a and pollution of source a become can urine the need, such no is there When urine. stored the by supplied be can which agriculture for fertilizer from nutrients for need a is there that is aspect important most the less, Regard- land. agricultural to transport and distribution urine can be collected at a semi-centralized location for exist, infrastructure and facilities if Alternatively, land. Households can use their own urine on their own plot of collection. urine of point the to close are lands cultural - agri where areas peri-urban and rural for ideal is tion applica- oranges.Urine and paw-paw,lettuce, bananas, cabbage, kale, carrots, turnip, chard, wheat, millet, sorghum, rice, maize, include: urine crops with well some grow of that Examples nitrogen. in lacking crops for beneficial especially is Urine Appropriateness is diluted naturally. it then plants; near holes small into directly applied be also can urine season, rainy the During D.6). (see tion” References & Further Reading References &Further - - - - - + + + + Pros &Cons manually chipped off. cases, extreme more in or (vinegar), acid of bit a and (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO Gensch, R.,Jönsson, H., Stenström, A., T. and A., _ Richert, Münch, E.andWinker,_ von M.(2011). Technology Review P._ Morgan, R.(2007). Toilets ThatMake Compost. Low-Cost, P._ Morgan, AnEcologicalApproach R.(2004). to Sanitation in application) (Health risks guidelinesfor andrecommended urine Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use Available at: www.susana.org/library Institute, Stockholm, SE. in Crop Production. EcoSanRes, Stockholm Environment Dagerskog, L.(2010). Practical Guidanceonthe Useof Urine Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)GmbH,Eschborn, Toilets, Storage Urine andReuse Systems. für Gesellschaft Components Such asWaterless Diversion Urine Urinals, Diversionof Urine Diversion Components. ofUrine Overview Available at: www.ecosanres.org holm, SE. Context.an African Stockholm Environment Institute, Stock ToiletsSanitary ThatProduce Valuable Compost for Crops in Available at: www.ecosanres.org Chapter 10: TheUsefulnessofUrine. ACompilationAfrica. Aquamor, of Experiences. ZW. Harare, Social acceptance may below insomeareas accumulation ofsalts Risk ofsoilsalinizationifthe to soil isprone the Labour intensive Smell may beoffensive isheavyUrine anddifficult to transport Low costs Low ofpathogen risk transmission Reduces chemical dependenceoncostly fertilizers ofplants) and productivity May encourage incomegeneration (improved yield -

143 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .2 D

144 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .3 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal ewe 6 o 4 ots atog ptoes may pathogens although months, 24 stored to 6 be between should faeces that accepted is It generally time. storage and pH) the raises lime or ash (using pH the temperature, the on depend will tion inactiva- pathogen of degree The pathogens. and other conditions) favourable under re-animated be and conditions environmental extreme survive can that (spores oocysts or protozoancysts contain still The material is rich in carbon and nutrients, but may ofthe material. dried dehydrate andbecomepart also faeces the in insects and worms of carcasses and shells The substance. powdery crumbly, a are faeces dry Completely dehydration. after 75% about by ume removed.theis only moisture Faeces volin reduce will - organic material present is not degraded or transformed; the because composting from different is Dehydration can beusedasasoilconditioner. faeces Dried them. to added is that lime) sawdust, evaporates faeces and/or is absorbed the by the drying material (e.g., ash, in present naturally ture mois- The powder. or material flaky coarse, beige, white- crumbly, a into dehydrate they urine), (i.e., moisture of absence the in stored are faeces When D3: AP Application Level: Application ofDehydrated Faeces   City Neighbourhood Household P LICA TION OFDE Management Level:   HYDR  urine tank Household Public Shared AT diversion urine ED dried faeces FA E CES

Outputs: Inputs: risk ofpathogenrisk transmission. low posing while soil, of properties water-storing and carbon the boost to and soil poor replenish to help can However, faeces. composted as amendment theysoil a as useful as not are faeces Dried Appropriateness should beconsulted beforehand. agriculture in excreta of use the concerning guidelines above 9 (i.e., adding ash or lime increases the pH). WHO age time of 6 months is required if the faeces have inactivate a pH to recommended stor shorter A worm). parasitic of type (a eggs is Ascaris year 1 over storage average), °C >20 (i.e., temperatures higher At level. al to 2 years before being used at the household or - region 1.5 for stored be should °C 20 and 2 between at kept Design Considerations (see D.12). material the for use immediate no is anthere if option also is storage Extended elsewhere. buried or soil into mixed safely or acceptance) on (depending agriculture for soil into mixed be can material The specific guidance). still exist thisafter time (refer to WHO guidelines for

Dried Faeces Dried

Biomass System 4 Applicable to: Faeces that are dried and and dried are that Faeces -

- - - - + + + Pros &Cons dry.faeces absorb the moisture. Prevention is the best way to keep help to added be should soil dry or lime ash, more ces, - fae drying with mixes and enters urine or water dent, acci- by If possible. as dry as kept be should Faeces clothing. protective appropriate wear should Workers inhaled. being and blowing from powder the prevent to taken be must care vaults, dehydration from faeces drated dehy removing When Operation &Maintenance sumed raw. con- are that crops for important especially is period waiting This monththeythanbeforeone harvested. are less crops to applied be not should faeces Dehydrated odours. offensive generate can which processes, anaerobic to conducive are environments moist Warm, faeces. wet in multiply and - prob survive easily bacteria because lematic become may organisms and odours however, faeces, drying the with mixed is urine or water If it. in environment for organisms and they do not long survive hostile a are faeces Dry sludge. or manure than accept to easier be might them using free, odour crumbly,and dry, be should faeces dehydrated because However, people. some toacceptable be notmay faeces dried of Health Aspects/Acceptance The handling and use Social acceptance may below in someareas P, (N, Does not fertilizer replace K) added oocysts) which may become infectiousis ifmoisture Pathogens may exist stage (cysts inadormant and Labour intensive Low costs Low ofpathogen risk transmission ty ofsoil Can improve and water-holding the structure capaci- - Eco- M.(Eds.)(2004). U. andSimpson-Hébert, _ Winblad, (2006).Guidelinesfor the Safe UseofWastewater,_ WHO C.andStenström, T._ Schönning, Guidelinesfor (2004). A. H.(2012). C.,von Münch, E.andHoffmann, _ Rieck, Technol- andDuncker, A. _ Austin, L.(2002).Urine-Diversion. Ecologi - Reading References &Further Available at: www.ecosanres.org Environment Institute, Stockholm, SE. logical Sanitation. Revised andEnlarged Edition.Stockholm Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use Available at: www.ecosanres.org ment Institute, Stockholm, SE. Systems. 2004-1. Report EcoSanRes, Stockholm Environ- the Safe andFaeces UseofUrine inEcologicalSanitation Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. GmbH, Eschborn, fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ) Gesellschaft of Design,Operation, Management andCosts. Deutsche ogy Review Toilets Dry ofUrine-Diverting (UDDTs). Overview cal Sanitation Systems inSouth CSIR,Pretoria, Africa. ZA.

145 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .3 D

146 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .4 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal - stipu agriculture in use excreta on guidelines WHO to aFossa Alterna) and the storage conditions. excretaadded tothe soil added have which(e.g., been materials the on depends humus pit the of quality and and is, therefore, referred to as ‘pit humus’. The texture ‘compost’ actually not is material the this, of Because taketoplace. processes composting for optimized not are ratio) C:N moisture, (oxygen, pit the in conditions there is almost no increase in temperature because the of high-temperature composting. In these technologies, for Pour Flush (S.6) are ambient-temperature variations Pits Twin or (S.5) Alterna Fossa (S.4), VIP Double The nitrogen, andair. moisture, ent. The composting process requires adequate carbon, (50 to 80 °C) which kills the majority of pathogens - pres The process of thermophilic composting generates heat Both products canbeusedassoilconditioners. compost. than composition different slightly a has and underground passively produced is it because moved from a double pit technology (S.4, S.5 or S.6) materialdescribeto rethe - term used the is humus Pit organics. of degradation aerobic controlled the from resulting substance soil-like the is Compost R4: AP Application Level: Application ofPitHumusandCompost    City Neighbourhood Household PL IC AT ION OFCOM Management Level:    PO Household Public Shared ST /E CO -HUMUS Inputs: Vegetable gardens filled with pit humus from the Fos- the from humus pit with filled gardens Vegetable treatment. pile for further mixedsimply or intoexisting plants, an indoor compost planted,seedlings or soil are before crops used to start the into mixed be can They water. and air store to ity abil- soil’s the improve and organics and nutrients soil. They add of the quality improve to used beneficially be can humus pit and Compost Appropriateness 3.5 mbeds. two for sufficient be should AlternaFossa m one by 1.5 from output The it. to soil top and compost parts equal applying by improved be can soil poor of productivity shownthatbeen the has It Design Considerations information. tozoa. WHO guidelines should be consulted for detailed - pro parasitic and viruses reduce and pathogens terial bac- eliminateto recommended is storage of year 1 of minimum a humus, pit generate that technologies For of composting. period longer significantly a requires however,value, this is Achieving use. to it safe considered before week one least at for °C 50 of perature tem- a maintain and achieve should compost that late Outputs:

PitHumus

Biomass Systems 2,3 Applicable to: Compost + + + + Pros &Cons clothing. protectiveappropriate wear Workersshould treatment. further without used be can it Then, system. the from removed being before mature adequately to allowed be must material The Operation &Maintenance andtheir nature beneficialuse. their non-offensive that promote hands-on experience showcan effectively activities demonstration Conducting them. using and handling from refrain might people Regardless, ucts. Compost and pit humus are inoffensive, earth-like - prod aslesscontaminated.sidered wastewater sludge, compost and pit humus can be con- Compared to the chemicals that may find their way into residues). pharmaceutical (e.g., humans by excreted are that chemicals from or pesticides) (e.g., material ic organ- contaminated from originate might humus pit or only chemical that sources could contaminate compost The inputs. chemical few very have humus pit and post com- sources, industrial and chemical domestic, of ety vari- a from originate can which sludge, to opposed As consumed raw. are that crops for important especially is period ing wait- This harvested. are they less before month one than crops to applied be not should humus pit and Compost tree. a planting for used pit nutrient-filled a mixed with additional soil and put into a ‘tree pit’, or i.e., used being before heap compost regular a in ed removed from the pit or vault can be further compost- ogen transmission exists, but, if in doubt, any material path - of risk small Health Aspects/AcceptanceA would notwhich otherwise have crops. supported areas in possible agriculture made even has humus pit of use The conditioner. soil without planted gardens over improvements dramatic shown have Alterna sa Low costs Low ofpathogen risk transmission ofplants) and productivity May encourage incomegeneration (improved yield thety ofsoilandreduce useofchemical fertilizers Can improve andwater-holding the structure capaci- D.andSteinfeld, Porto, C.(1999)._ Del TheComposting Toilet Reading References &Further - - (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, Sanitation Solutions.Examples (2006).Smart of _ NWP P._ Morgan, R.(2009).EcologicalToilets. Start Simple and P._ Morgan, R.(2007). Toilets ThatMake Compost. Low-Cost, P._ Morgan, AnEcologicalApproach R.(2004). to Sanitation in Handbook. J.(2005).TheHumanure AGuideto _ Jenkins, US. tion Prevention MA, (CEPP),Concord, Sewer andSeptic Systems. TheCenter for EcologicalPollu- Maintaining Composting Toilet Systems, anAlternative to System Book. APractical Guideto Choosing,Planningand Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed book compiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.ircwash.org TheHague,NL. Netherlands Water Partnership, Transportation, Treatment andUseofSanitation Products. Innovative, Technologies Low-Cost for Toilets, Collection, Available at: www.ecosanres.org tute, Stockholm, SE. Upgrade from to Arborloo VIP. Stockholm Environment- Insti Available at: www.ecosanres.org holm, SE.pp.81-90. Context.an African Stockholm Environment Institute, Stock ToiletsSanitary ThatProduce Valuable Compost for Crops in Available at: www.ecosanres.org ACompilationAfrica. Aquamor, of Experiences. ZW. Harare, Grove City, PA, US. Composting HumanManure. Ed.JenkinsPublishing, 3rd Social acceptance may below insomeareas May ayear require ofmaturation ormore -

147 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .4 D

148 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .5 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal account the presence of pathogens contaminants, of and presence the account takeinto should sludge of usage and rates Application injected into the ground. or onto sprayed be can reactors) anaerobic from (e.g., tank trucks or specially designed vehicles. Liquid sludge spreaders, manure conventional using surface ground the on spread are Solids Design Considerations and the slow, steady ofnutrients. release tilizers, such as bulking and water retention properties, fer of tothose superior tohaveproperties found been has sludge treated Additionally, need. fertilizer the of part important an replace can it respectively), sium, potasand - phosphorus nitrogen,(for fertilizers mercial com- than levels nutrient lower has sludge Although control. erosion for or cover, dump a as reclamation, mine courses, golf parks, landscaping, growing, turf and sod forestry, gardening, home agriculture, in used be can etc.) Bed, Drying Planted a Co-Composted from removed (e.g., or treated been has that Sludge or private landsfor landscapingoragriculture. public to applied be can sludge stabilized or gested di- quality, and type treatment the on Depending D1 Application Level: Application ofSludge   1: LAN City Neighbourhood Household D APPLICA TION Management Level:    13 Household Public Shared 7 - Outputs: Inputs: mine reclamation). (e.g., savings significant provide actually can and jects - pro municipal for useful be still can it industries, local or agriculture byaccepted not is sludge when er,even Howev acceptance. generally, is, sludge of use the to barrier greatest The Health Aspects/Acceptance on landmay belessexpensive than disposal. sludge of Application nutrients. of source much-needed often and valuable a as serve can sludge source, the on which may contain hydrocarbons and metals. Depending and domestic chemicals, as well wateras surface run-off more likely to be contaminated since it receives industrial is plants treatment wastewater large-scale at originates that Sludge contamination. metal heavy of source risk not have any chemical inputs and is, therefore, not a high- other heavy metals. Faecal sludge from pit latrines or should cadmium with likely most degrees, varying to nated - contami also are fertilizers commercial contaminants, or metals of levels high potentially containing for icized - crit sometimes is sludge Although Appropriateness rate. andagronomic at asustainable and the quantity of nutrients available so that it is used

Sludge

Biomass sludge sludge Systems 1,5-9 Applicable to: ------+ + + + Pros &Cons protective clothing. appropriate wearWorkers should pollution. nutrient for potential the thus, and, overloading prevent to itored The use. mon- be should application sludge continued of rate and amount ensure to maintained be must equipment Spreading Operation &Maintenance detailed information. for consulted be should agriculture in use excreta on guidelines WHO important. is regulations application and safety appropriate Following problems. vector or is generally safe and it no longer generates where significant odour level a to treated be can it method, ment Depending on the source of the sludge and on the - treat Social acceptance may below in someareas contaminate groundwater mayMicropollutants accumulate inthe soiland ty andapplication May posepublic health risks, dependingonitsquali- May equipment specialspreading require treatment mayOdours benoticeable, dependingonprior Low costs erosion Can reduce Can accelerate reforestation improve the water-holding capacityofsoil and theCan reduce useofchemical fertilizers

(2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO EPA_ U.S. (1994). APlainEnglish Guideto the EPA 503 Part EPA_ U.S. (1999). BiosolidsGeneration, Use,andDisposalin L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, Reading References &Further Available at: www.who.int Worldin Agriculture. Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 4:Excreta andGreywater Use Available at: www.epa.gov tection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. Biosolids Rule. EPA832-R-93-003. U.S. Environmental- Pro Available at: www.epa.gov Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. the United States. EPA-530/R-99-009. U.S. Environmental all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed book compiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple-

149 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .5 D

150 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .6 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal and itsabilityto hold water. water may cause long-term damage to the soil structure treated improperly or poorly of use Long-term caution. with used be be should water well-treated even and used, not should blackwater untreated or sewage Raw plants. to nutrients and water increased supplying by dependence on fresh water, and/or improve crop yields reduce significantly can wastewater treated Properly shouldbeavoided.spray irrigation pathogens, with contact and evaporation minimize To 2) 1) ate for treated wastewater: - appropri technologies irrigation of kinds two are There risks andhealth contamination to workers. crop of risk the limit to used be should treatment) biological and physical (i.e., treatment had secondary has that water only However, agriculture. in year, the wastewaterused be can qualityvarying of a constant source of water for irrigation throughout maintain and freshwater on dependence reduce To D5: I Application Level: Irrigation    land in a series ofdugchannels orfurrows.land inaseries water water where irrigation isroutedSurface over water isslowly onornearthe dripped root and area; above irrigation Drip orbelow the where ground, City Neighbourhood Household RRI GA TION 12 5 Management Level:    Household Public Shared - Outputs: Inputs: (e.g., tomatoes) because they could come in contact contact in come could they because tomatoes) (e.g., raw eaten be mayvegetables that and fruits takenwith grown safely with treated effluent. should care More be be can beets) sugar (e.g., processing requiring foods and mangos) (e.g., trees fruit tobacco, trees, cotton), Crops such as corn, alfalfa (and other feed), fibres (e.g., situations. tle or no and infrastructure may be appropriate in some lit- requires but evaporation from losses large to prone is irrigation Surface areas. prone drought and arid for the most is appropriate irrigation method; it is especially good irrigation drip Generally, Appropriateness cipitate). - pre spontaneously will struvite which from urine with (especially, clogging for potential the reduce to nance mainte- and pressure) (i.e., head sufficient is there that In drip irrigation systems care should be taken to ensure adapted to the special needs and resistance of the crop. (i.e., fertilization + irrigation). The dilution ratio has to be be dosed into irrigation water; this is called “fertigation” can urine value, nutrient the Toincrease damaging. be could climate,it and or crop theappropriatesoil, for be must rate application The Design Considerations (+ Stored Urine)

Effluent

Biomass Systems 1-9 Applicable to: Stormwater effluent treated + + + + Pros &Cons Workers shouldwear appropriate protective clothing. water/operatingdecreased costs. and yields improved offers but irrigation, conventional than costly more is irrigation Drip humans. and rodents from damage to prone are they as leaks for checked be should Pipes solids. of types all from clogging growth and biofilm avoid to flushed periodically be must systems irrigation Drip Operation &Maintenance and specificguidance. agriculture should be consulted for detailed information in use wastewater on guidelines WHO The effluent. ed - treat the with contact in coming from crops harvested even then, care should be taken to prevent workers and and crops, edible with used be should that irrigation of type only the is irrigation Drip system. the into charge dis- to appropriate not are and are that products the of aware made be should system the to connected tries andindus- households irrigation, for used is effluent When undergone. has effluent the treatment of degree the on depending system the into discharged are that it may still be contaminated with the different chemicals should those who come in contact with the towater. risksFurthermore, reduction) health limit to scheme pathogen irrigation any precede adequate (i.e., ment - treat Appropriate Health Aspects/Acceptance wayis aneffective to recycle andwater. nutrients applied. Despite safety concerns, irrigation with effluent is wastewater treated the poorly if to salts) due of accumulation (e.g., time over degrade can quality Soil lower-quality effluent. using of way efficient safe, a is this consumption, for harvested for biofuel production. Since the trees are not and short-rotation in grown be can trees ash or willow, poplar, eucalyptus, like crops Energy water. the with

ly treated Low ofpathogen risk ifwater transmission isproper Potential for andincomegeneration localjobcreation Reduces the needfor fertilizer availability water ofdrinking Reduces depletion ofgroundwater andimproves the - P.,_ Drechsel, Raschid-Sally, Scott, C.A., L.,Redwood, M. Reading References &Further - - - - - + M.B.(1992)._ Pescod, Wastewater Treatment- andUseinAgri M., S.,Wu, M.,Bhattarai, M.,Bhattarai, D.,Roberts, _ Palada, _ FAO (2012). On-Farm Practices for the Safe UseofWastewa- M. (2012)._ Zandee, Emitters RiskofCloggingDrip-Line J.,Heinz,I.andKoo-Oshima,_ Winpenny, S.(2010). The (2006).Guidelinesfor the Safe UseofWastewater,_ WHO Available at: www.idrc.ca and www.iwmi.cgiar.org IDRC andIWMI,London,UK. Earthscan, Countries. Assessing andMitigating Risk in Low-Income (Eds.)(2010). A. and Bahri, Wastewater Irrigation andHealth. culture. FAO andDrainage Paper 47. Irrigation FAO, Rome, IT. Available at: www.avrdc.org ble Production. TheWorld Vegetable Center, Shanhua,TW. Using Simple Irrigation Drip Systems for Small-ScaleVegeta - D.(2011).Kimsan, R.andMidmore, More Crop Per Drop. Available at: www.fao.org for Farmer Field Schools. FAO, Rome, IT. ter ATraining andPeri-Urban inUrban Horticulture. Handbook Available at: www.eawag.ch/stun CH. Eawag, Dübendorf, through Fertilization Irrigation Drip Urine during Equipment. Available at: www.fao.org culture. FAO Water 35.FAO, Reports Rome, IT Wealth ofWaste. TheEconomicsofWastewater- UseinAgri inAnnex practice 1) good irrigation (Discussion ofhealth aspectsofwastewater useandof Available at: www.who.int ture. World Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 2:Wastewater- UseinAgricul Available at: www.fao.org Social acceptance may below insomeareas accumulation ofsalts Risk ofsoilsalinizationifthe to soilisprone the water suspendedsolids from befree must sensitive to isvery clogging,i.e.,the irrigation Drip andmaterials mayNot belocallyavailable allparts designandinstallation May expert require design dependingonthe costs Low andoperating capital

151 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .6 D

152 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .7 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal lined with and a porous material to provide and support empty- pre left be can It compacted. not is it around and above soil the that so areas high-traffic from away kept be should pit soak The m). 30 than more (ideally water source drinking a from distance safe a locatedat less than 2 m above the groundwater table. It should be be between 1.5 and 4 m should deep, but as a rule of pit thumb, never soak The Design Considerations appropriate. not is soil rocky or packed hard clay, properties; tive - absorp good with soil for suited best are pits soak Thus, microorganisms. by digested are organics and matrix soil the by out filtered are particles small pit, soak the from soil the through percolates treatment) As wastewater (greywater or blackwater after primary into surrounding the soil. infiltrates it which from chamber underground the to discharged is technology Treatment Centralized Storage/Treatmentand Collection a from (Semi-) or effluent Pre-settled ground. the into soak slowly to a covered, porous-walled chamber that allows water A soak pit, also known as a soakaway or leach pit, is R8: SOAK Application Level: Soak Pit   City Neighbourhood Household PI T 13 1 Management Level:   Household Public Shared inlet Inputs: animals should have with nocontact the effluent. and humans thus, and, underground located is nology functioning well, health concerns are minimal. The tech - is technologyStorage/Treatment and Collection vious - pre the as long as and sewage, raw for used not is pit soak the as long As Health Aspects/Acceptance flooding or that havegroundwater high tables. to prone areas for appropriate not are They capacity. absorptive sufficient a with soil on depend They ments. Soak pits are appropriate for rural and peri-urban settle- tled blackwater orgreywater. pre-set- discharging for used be will should It clog. quickly pit the and wastewater raw for treatment quate ade- provide not does pit soak A Appropriateness until itneedsto bemaintained. pit the seal to used be should lid concrete) (preferably removable a access, future for flow. allow the To perse dis- help to bottom the across spread be should gravel fine and sand of layer a cases, wastewater.both the In from collapsing, but will still provide adequate space for walls the prevent will gravel and rocks The gravel. and vent collapse, or left unlined and filled with coarserocks Stored Urine Effluent AnalCleansingWater Systems 1-6 Applicable to: Greywater Urine - - - + + + + Pros &Cons the soakpitcanbeexcavated andrefilled. inside material the deteriorates, pit soak the of mance perfor the When moved. or cleaned be to need will it and pit the clog eventually will biomass and Particles or filtered to prevent the excessive build-up ofsolids. taken to ensure that the effluent has been clarified and/ be should care mainte- pit, soak a withoutof life the extendTo years nance. 5 and 3 between last should pit soak well-sized A Operation &Maintenance be accepted by even the sensitive most communities. Since the soak pit is odourless and not visible, it should

May soil and groundwater negatively properties affect to isrequired treatment prevent clogging Primary costs Low andoperating capital required Small landarea Technique simple to applyfor allusers materials withCan bebuiltandrepaired locallyavailable - C.andRajput, V._ Polprasert, S.(1982). Environmental Sani- (2008).Septic Tank_ Oxfam Guidelines.Technical Brief. D.(1996)._ Mara, Sanitation. Urban Low-Cost Wiley, Chich- B.(2005).AComparison ofWash Area_ Ahrens, andSoak Reading References &Further pp. 31-58. Center, Information Sanitation tal AIT, Bangkok, TH. tation Reviews. Septic Tank andSeptic Systems. Environmen- Available at: policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk GB,Oxford,Oxfam UK.p.4. (Dimensioning calculations) ester, UK.pp.63-65. instructions) (Detailed construction theses Available at: www.mtu.edu/peacecorps/programs/civil/ Peri-Urban Linkages inSikasso, US. Mali.Peace Corps, Pit Construction: TheChangingNature Rural, of Urban, and

153 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .7 D

154 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .8 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal fabric and fills the trench to the ground level. The pipe pipe The level. ground the to trench the fills and fabric layerfinal A thepipe. and/or sand covers of topsoil the plugging from particles small prevent to layer rock the on placed is geotextilefabric of layer A pipe. the cover to placed is rock More top. on laid is pipe distribution perforated a and rock clean of cm 15 about with filled deep and 0.3 to 1 m wide. The bottom of each trench is Design Considerations Each trench is 0.3 to 1.5 m field with atimer(usually3 to 4timesaday). leach the into effluent pressurized the releases system dosing a Such dosings. recoverbetweentoallowed are conditions aerobic that and utilized is field leach the of system may be installed to ensure that the whole length sequent A treatment. distribution dosing or pressurized the flow into the soil subsurface for absorption and sub- distributes that channels) parallel several and box tion Pre-settled effluent is fed into a piping system- (distribu (Semi-) Centralized Treatment technology. or Storage/Treatment and Collection froma water-based theeffluent to dissipate grav trenches underground el-filled in laid are that pipes forated per of a network is field, drainage or field, leach A D7: LeachField Application Level: Leach Field   City Neighbourhood Household Management Level:    Household Public Shared septic tank - - Inputs: the leach field as they can crack and disturb the tile bed. kept awaybe from should Treesplants deep-rooted and responsibilities. maintenance their of and works it how of aware be must field leach a have who Homeowners with problems freezes. where ground pooling effluentinareas the be may there although temperature, for dense urban areas. They can be used in almost every appropriate not are fields leach soil, the of saturation potential over to Due effluent. the dissipate effectively to capacity absorptive good with soil unsaturated and area large a require fields Leach Appropriateness disruption. minimal with done be changeovercan the replaced, be to needs field leach the when, or if, that so connection (e.g., Septic Tank, S.9) should be equipped field with a sewer leach the precedes which technology collection The connection. sewer future a with interfere not will it that such out laid be should field leach A watersource. should be located at least 30 m away any from drinking field leach a contamination, prevent To apart. m 1 2 least to at and length in m 20 than longer no dug be should trenches The surfacing. toprevent from effluent surface the beneath cm 15 least at placed be should Effluent settled effluent System 6 Applicable to: ------+ + + + Pros &Cons pipes orcompact the soil. crush the could this it because above traffic heavy no be also should There it. on trees or plants no be and replaced. To maintain the leach field, there should removed and/or cleaned be should pipes ciently,the effi- working stops system the if however, tenance; place. in main- minimal require should field Effectively,leach a is technology treatment primary tioning well-func- and well-maintained a if years, more or 20 take may this although time, over will clogged become field leach A Operation &Maintenance potable water to source avoid contamination. potential any from m) 30 least (at possible as away far as kept be must field leach The risk. health no has it therefore, and, effluent the with contact in come rarely will users attention, little requires and underground is Health Aspects/AcceptancetheSince technology properties May soilandgroundwater negatively affect to isrequired treatment prevent clogging Primary Requires alarge area andmaterials mayNot belocally available allparts Requires designandconstruction expert Relatively low low costs; costs capital operating mechanical equipment Low maintenance without ifoperating requirements Has alonglifespan (dependingonconditions) disposal ofeffluent Can beusedfor the and combinedtreatment

EPA_ U.S. (1980). DesignManual.Onsite Wastewater C.andRajput, V._ Polprasert, S.(1982). Environmental Sani- andDiener, A. S.(2006).Greywater_ Morel, Management in R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen - Reading References &Further Available at: www.epa.gov Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,OH,US. Treatment and Disposal Systems. EPA 625/1-80-012. U.S. Center, Information Sanitation tal AIT, Bangkok, TH. tation Reviews: Septic Tank andSeptic Systems. Environmen- Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, (Department ment Systems for HouseholdsorNeighbourhoods. Eawag Low Review andMiddle-Income Countries. Treat ofDifferent - Hill, New York, US.pp.905-927. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw-

155 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .8 D

156 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .9 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal fishmeal for pigsand chickens. into converted or shrimp) (like carnivores high-value otherproteinfor of source valuable a be theycan tion, consump- human for acceptable not are fish the If ed. - harvest be can fish 10,000of to up kg/ha conditions, operating ideal Under facility. treatment a operating of costs the offset can they value economic their of because but quality, water the improve dramatically not do themselves fish The pond. single one (D.10)in plants floating and fish combine to possible also is It effectively can reduce algae and ponds help control the mosquito population. aerobic into introduced Fish ponds(T.5grown3) fish inaerobic directly or T.6). offishpondswith excreta/sludge;2) fertilization and offishpondswith effluent; 1) fertilization Three kinds of aquaculture designs for raising fish exist: sumption. wastewaterareeventuallyand harvested for con- the from nutrients the remove thereby, fish, The er organisms that grow in the nutrient-rich water. oth- and algae on feed can they where sludge or effluent receive that ponds in grown be can Fish D8: AquaculturePonds Application Level: Fish Pond   City Neighbourhood Household inlet sludge Management Level:   Household Public Shared liner This technology is appropriate for warm or tropical cli- tropical or warm for appropriate is technology This or negligible because ofitstoxicity to fish. too warm, and the ammonium levels should be kept low be not wasteshould thediluteto water used The mate. cli- suitable a and water fresh of source a pond), isting pre-ex- (or land of amount sufficient a is there where Appropriateness specific choice andsuitability. willdependonlocalpreference the but used, successfully been have tilapia and milkfish carp, of varieties Different conditions. tal they and should be carnivores tolerant to diseases and adverse be environmen- not should They chosen. be dissolved should oxygen levels low of tolerant fish Only and oxygen 4mg/L. shouldbeatleast Outputs: Inputs: tions are maintained. BOD should not exceed 1 g/m condi- aerobic that so additions the limit to important is it sludge, or effluent of form the in nutrients ducing - intro When etc.). temperature, water required levels, to ensure healthy living conditions (e.g., low ammonium required by the fish and the waterrequirements needed on the quantity of nutrients to be removed, the nutrients Design Considerations The design should be based

Effluent

Biomass fs pn i ol appropriate is only pond fish A Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: outlet 2 /d /d - - - - - + + + + Pros &Cons wear appropriate protective clothing. Workerspond. the of bottomthesides on should or ing in the sun for 1 to 2 weeks to destroy any pathogens liv dry to left be can it (b) and desludged be can it (a) that so drained be should pond the harvesting, after times vested when they reach an appropriate age/size. Some- Operation &MaintenanceThe fish need to be har cific guidance. spe- and information detailed for consulted aquaculture be should in use excreta and wastewater on lines before they are harvested for consumption. WHO guide- weeks several for pond clear-water a to fish the move to advisable is it but safe, be should they well, cooked are they If prepared. and cleaned harvested, are they when especially fish, the of contamination about cern con- be may There acceptance. local influence also will fish the of condition and quality The embraced. be may other source of readily available protein, this technology no is there Health Aspects/Acceptance Where andminimalevaporation.with highrainfall preferably and temperatures, freezing no with mates Social acceptance may below in someareas cooked mayFish or prepared poseahealth ifimproperly risk designandinstallation May expert require Requires alarge land(pond)area Requires water abundanceoffresh materials withCan bebuiltandmaintained locallyavailable by revenue production be offset Relatively should costs low operating costs; capital tion Potential for andincomegenera localjobcreation - Can provide acheap, locallyavailable protein source - - P._ Cross, andStrauss,M.(1985). Health AspectsofNightsoil Reading References &Further P._ Edwards, andPullin,R.S.V. (Eds.)(1990). Wastewa (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO G.D.(1999)._ Rose, Technologies Community-Based for D.(2003).Domestic Wastewater_ Mara, Treatment in FAO/NACA/WHO_ Joint Study (1999). Group Food Safety S.(1987). Cointreau, _ Johnson Aquaculture with Treated S.(1999)._ Iqbal, Duckweed Aquaculture. Potentials, Possi - Reference for Centre CH. Waste Disposal,Dübendorf, and Sludge andAquaculture. UseinAgriculture International (Compilation oftopical papers) IN. Calcutta, on Wastewater Reclamation andReuse for Aquaculture, ter-Fed Aquaculture. International Seminar Proceedings: Available at: www.who.int Use inAquaculture. World Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 3:Wastewater andExcreta Available at: www.sswm.info/library (IDRC),Centre Ottawa, CA. International Development Agriculture. Urban Research Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: Options for London,UK.pp.253-261.Developing Earthscan, Countries. Available at: www.who.int Geneva, CH. Technical 883.World Health Series Organization, Report Issues Associated with Products from Aquaculture. WHO Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home TheWorldProject. Bank, Washington, D.C.,US.1987. Peru. Technical Note 3,Integrated No. Resource Recovery Wastewater: AStatus onStudies Report Conducted inLima, Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec), Dübendorf, (Department and AnimalFeed Production inDeveloping Eawag Countries. bilities andLimitations for CombinedWastewater Treatment -

157 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .9 D

158 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .10 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal withstand higher loads and can be built with smaller smaller with built be can and loads higher withstand can ponds Aerated machinery. and power increased of cost the at but aerated mechanically be can water the technology, plant floating a to oxygen extra provide To characteristics ofthe wastewater. the and availability their on depending selected be can plants appropriate Locally Design Considerations remove wastewater. from quantities ofnutrients significantly can and conditions of variety a of tolerant is It poultry. or fish for food a as dried or fresh used be can thatprotein plant high growing, fast a is Duckweed passing by. bacteria which in turn degrade the organics in the water for medium fixed a provide roots long The bottom. to top from m 1.2 to 0.5 between large: grow can plants The wastewater. in fast especially grow that rophytes Water hyacinths are perennial, freshwater, aquatic mac- nutrients andfilterthe waterthat flows by. uptakewaterto the intodown hang roots the while surface the on float duckweed or hyacinths water as such Plants plants. (macrophyte) floating with pond maturation modified a is pond plant floating A D9: FL Application Level: Floating PlantPond   City Neighbourhood Household inlet sludge OA TI NG P LANT (M Management Level:  AC  Household Public Shared ROP liner floating plants( HY TE ) PO macrophytes ND 12 Outputs: Inputs: vent people and animals from coming in contact with contact in coming from animals and people vent - pre to used be should fencing and signage Adequate land. barren otherwise to interest and value add can system tained main- and designed well A flowers. lavender attractive, has hyacinth Water Health Aspects/Acceptance bivorous fish. weed can be used as the sole food source for some her Duck neutral. cost be can technology the generated, income the on Depending etc. baskets, textiles, rope, Harvested hyacinths can be used as a source of fibre for substantial. not is removal pathogen although solids, suspended and BOD both of rates removal high achieve can ogy and withminimal evaporation. high rainfall The technol- preferably and temperatures, freezing no with climates (or of land pre-existing pond). It is appropriate for warm or tropical amount sufficient a is there when priate Appropriateness A floating plant pond is only- appro bacteria-harbouring roots andthe wastewater. thereotherwise will be insufficient contact between the deep too be not should ponds Non-aerated footprints. ) 9

Effluent

Biomass Systems 1,6-9 Applicable to: outlet - - - - + + + + + Pros &Cons operate it. andmaintain constantly to required is Trainedstaff desludged. ically amount of solids that enter the pond, it must be - period the on Depending the harvested. regularly when not are develop plants can problems Mosquito posted. com- be can it or businesses, artisanal small be for used can biomass harvested The harvesting. constant require plants Floating Operation &Maintenance detailed for andspecificguidance. information consulted be should aquaculture in use excreta and wastewater on guidelines WHO clothing. protective appropriate wear should water.Workers the

into environments natural Some plantscan becomeinvasive speciesifreleased Requires alarge land(pond)area materials withCan bebuiltandmaintained locallyavailable pathogens ofBOD andsolids;low High reduction of reduction by revenueoffset Relatively canbe costs low operating costs; capital tion Potential for andincomegenera localjobcreation - Water hyacinth grows andisattractive rapidly R.andTchobanoglous,_ Crites, G.(1998). SmallandDecen- Reading References &Further (2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO EPA_ U.S. (1988). DesignManual.Constructed Wetlands P.,_ Skillicorn, W. Spira, andJourney, W. (1993). Duckweed _ Reddy, K.R.andSmith, W. H.(Eds.)(1987). Aquatic Plants R.D.andWolverton, B.C.(1980)._ McDonald, Comparative S.(1999)._ Iqbal, Duckweed Aquaculture. Potentials, Possi - problems) chapter(Comprehensive includingsolved summary Hill, New York, US.pp.609-627. tralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB/McGraw- Available at: www.who.int Use inAquaculture. World Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 3:Wastewater andExcreta Available at: www.epa.gov cy, Cincinnati,OH,US. EPA/625/1-88/022. U.S. Environmental Protection- Agen and Aquatic PlantSystems for MunicipalWater Treatment. (Comprehensive manual) Available at: documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/home TheWorldCountries. Bank, Washington, D.C.,US. Aquaculture. ANew Aquatic Farming System for Developing FL,US. lishing Inc.,Orlando, for Water Treatment andResource Recovery. MagnoliaPub - Economic Botany (2):101-110. 34 Study ofWastewater Lagoonwith andwithout Water Hyacinth. Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec), Dübendorf, (Department and AnimalFeed Production inDeveloping Eawag Countries. bilities andLimitations for CombinedWastewater Treatment

159 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .10 D

160 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .11 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal pended solids, BOD, nitrogen and phosphorus (among (among phosphorus and nitrogen BOD, solids, pended over loaded. Parameters being such as turbidity, temperature, sus - without nutrients of quantity the accept can body receiving the that i.e. exceeded, not is water body receiving the of capacity assimilation the that ensure to necessary is It Design Considerations taminated, itisnext to impossible to it. reclaim con- is aquifer an Once method. treatment a as viewed be not should recharge groundwater contaminants, of variety a filter for a as toknownact is soil theAlthough communities. coastal to threat greater a becomes sion - intru saltwater as and deplete as resources groundwater popularity in increasing is recharge Groundwater aquifers. into discharged be can water Alternatively, withoutcan beintroduced deleterious effects. ence the quality and quantity of treated wastewater that influ- will etc., habitat, for spawning is recreation, it industry, whether body, water surface the of use The aquifers. recharge to ground the into or etc.) lakes, rivers, as (such bodies water receiving intodischarged ly direct- be stormwater can and/or Treatedeffluent D1 Application Level: Water Disposal/Groundwater Recharge    0: WA City Neighbourhood Household TE treated effluent R D ISPO SAL/GW Management Level:    Household Public Shared RE C HAR GE 13 - 5 water course Inputs: retention time. long a have that aquifers or intrusion saltwater of risk at are that areas for appropriate most is recharge ter groundwa- Similarly, use. of point closest next the and point discharge the between distance safe a is there ally, discharge to a water body is only appropriate when Gener regulations. legal and conditions environmental local the on depend entirely will aquifer or body water a into discharge of adequacy The Appropriateness project. recharge any precede should factors these of analysis with other waters and the history of the system. Careful the aquifer, the residence time, the amount of blending of characteristics the recharge, of method the duced, wastewater- intro the of quality the of function a is fer aqui- recharged a from extracted water of quality The may to berequired meet limits. microbiological 136) p. POST, see chlorination, (e.g., technology ment - post-treat a areas, sensitive especially vary.For widely can they as parameters relevant the for limits charge dis- the determine to consulted be should authorities Local body. natural a into water any releasing before monitored and controlled carefully be should others) Effluent Systems 1-9 Applicable to: Stormwater - - - - - + + Pros &Cons maintenance may berequired. mechanical some method, recharge the on Depending requirements. health public ensure to and regulations with compliance ensure to important is sampling and monitoring Regular Operation &Maintenance completed. assessment risk a and modelled parameters most important the identified, clearly be should sources water non-potable and potable Therefore, feasible. rarely is parameters of suite large a or for quality water extracted downstream predicting but microorganisms, and contaminants of potential remediation the for models numerous are There water. the in remain will nitrates) within a solid matrix, while other contaminants (such as (Mg cations Generally, Health Aspects/Acceptance or the quality of the water, may apermit berequired. and/ discharge of point the volume, the on Depending

May soil and groundwater negatively properties affect impacts may ofpollutants Introduction have long-term water natural water bodiesand/ordrinking affect Discharge may andmicropollutants of nutrients levels constant taining May ofwater productivity increase bodiesby main- groundwater) waterMay supply(from provide a‘drought-proof’ 2+ K , + NH , 4 + ) and organic matter will be retained retained be will matter organic and )

(2006). Guidelinesfor the Safe Use ofWastewater,_ WHO _ Tchobanoglous, F. G.,Burton, L.andStensel, H.D.(2004). _ Seiler, K.P. andGat,J.R.(2007). Groundwater Recharge (2001)._ ARGOSS Guidelinesfor Assessing the Riskto Reading References &Further Available at: www.who.int Use inAquaculture. World Health Organization, Geneva, CH. Excreta andGreywater. Volume 3:Wastewater andExcreta Eddy, 4 Wastewater Treatment Engineering: andReuse, Metcalf & cht, NL. from Run-off, Infiltration and Percolation. Springer,- Dordre Available at: www.bgs.ac.uk CR/01/142, CommissionedReport, Survey Keyworth, UK. Groundwater from on-Site Sanitation. Geological British th New York, Ed.(Internat. Ed.).McGraw-Hill, US.

161 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .11 D

162 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .12 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal this Compendium. wastebeyondsolid are standard practices theof scope since sludge to dedicated be will sheet information gy technolo- this of remainder the simplicity, household For the waste. with along of disposed or cobs) corn (e.g., burned be can materials Dry materials. hygiene menstrual and materials cleansing the collect to face InterUser the beside provided be should bin rubbish A separated. be must technologiesand some in products water-based other with along included be always not stones, newspaper and/or leaves. These materials can- cleansing materials,dry such as toilet paper, corn cobs, of disposal the is disposal surface of application One material. unusable dry, of type any for applicable is it although sludge, for used primarily is technology This isdesired before application. tion anddrying pathogenreduc- further when or anticipated, is use future a and material the for need immediate no is to temporary stockpiling. It can be done when there face disposal site, it is not used later. Storage refers sur a to taken been has material the Once where. else- used be cannot that materials other or faeces refersstockpilingsludge, disposal tothe of Surface R1 Application Level: Surface DisposalandStorage  2: S   City Neighbourhood Household URF AC E DI SPOSAL Management Level:    Household Public Shared 13 9 - - Inputs: taminants from infiltrating groundwater.the infiltrating from taminants collection system in order to prevent nutrients and con- leachate and liner a incorporate may systems disposal surface advanced More leaching. and contamination groundwaterhowever, to paid, be must Attention cern. con- a not are rates agronomic or loads nutrient since the quantity of sludge that can be applied to the surface to limit no is There rate. application the is application land and disposal between surface difference main The distances. transport long for need the limiting treated, is sludge the where to close situated be can sites disposal face sur landfills, MSW centralized more to opposed As als. ly designed for the containment of more noxious materi- it reduces the life of a landfill, which has been specifical- with municipal solid waste (MSW) is not advisable since along sludge Design ConsiderationsLandfilling is used. it before pathogens of die-off the and product the of dehydration further to contributes storage Temporary piles. permanent into heaped or landfills) (sludge-only monofills in placed be the can it of sludge, of acceptance use beneficial or for demand no is there When Pre-Treatment Products Faeces Dried Sludge Dry Cleansing Materials Dry PitHumus Systems 1-9 Applicable to: Compost Compost - - - - + + + + + Pros &Cons protective clothing. appropriate wear and should Workers traffic operation. of the hours over control maintain must and site the at of disposed are materials appropriate only that ensure should Staff Operation &Maintenance which couldexacerbate smellandvector problems. of both water, pooling and vermin from site storage or and design. Care should be taken to protect the disposal siting adequate by prevented be should leachate by es or nuisance. The contamination of groundwater - resourc ed far from the public, there should be no risk of contact and storage site is protected (e.g., by a fence) and locat- disposal surface a Health Aspects/Acceptance If the groundwater ishigh. table where or flooding frequent is there where feasible be not may they although environment, and climate every Surface disposal and storage can be practiced in almost bridge the gap between supplyanddemand. to required be also may Storage product. acceptable safe, a generateto and material a sanitize and dry ther fur to option good a be cases, some in may, Storage to preferable solids isfar dumping. uncontrolled of stockpiling controlled and contained the accepted, option. However,primary where sludge use is not easily a as considered be not should it disposal, surface from benefits gained no are there Since Appropriateness ation ofleachate. gener the and rainwater by rewettingavoid to covered be should product a of storage temporary the for Sites resource thea beneficialuseof disposalhampers Surface groundwater Potential into andcontaminants leaching ofnutrients Requires alarge landarea costs Low andoperating capital skillsormaintenanceLittle operation required Can make useofvacant orabandoned land Storage may the hygienic render more product May prevent unmitigated disposal - - L.,Ronteltap, M.andBrdjanovic, D.(Eds.)(2014)._ Strande, Reading References &Further - - EPA_ U.S. (1994). APlainEnglish Guideto the EPA 503 Part EPA_ U.S. (1999). BiosolidsGeneration, Use,andDisposalin all aspectsrelated to FSM) state(Detailed bookcompiling ofknowledge the current on Available at: www.sandec.ch mentation andOperation. IWA Publishing,London,UK. Faecal Sludge Management. Systems Approach for Imple- Available at: www.epa.gov tection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. Biosolids Rule. EPA832-R-93-003. U.S. Environmental- Pro Available at: www.epa.gov Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,US. the United States. EPA-530/R-99-009. U.S. Environmental May equipment specialspreading require treatment mayOdours benoticeable, dependingonprior

163 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .12 D

164 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies .13 Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal et i Npl n Tnai hv son ht the that shown have Tanzania and Nepal in Tests and 160-190for rice 0.5kg Lforvegetables. 0.5kg water,of 120-140 litre one cook to required L is biogas L Approximately30-40 biogas. L 150between300 and Gas consumption for cooking per person and per meal is tobiogas charcoalcorresponds and1kg 500Lbiogas. L 100 to corresponds dung cow dried kg 1 biogas, example,firewood 200 corresponds to kg roughly 1 L be can defined on the basis of demand energy previously consumed. For Gas Design Considerations 6-6.5 kWh/m of content energy an implies which 55-75%, of content fresh methane average an cooking has Biogas meat). and vegetables to compared energy more therefore, and, times, cooking substantial require may maize and grains hard (i.e., habits eating and cooking by enced influ- is and greatly varies demand energy Household is produced inlarge anaerobic digesters. biogas the when option valuable a is generation ity it is most suitable for cooking. Additionally, electric- reactors, biogashousehold-level in produced When gas. fuel other like used be can biogas principal, In Application Level: Biogas Combustion   City Neighbourhood Household 3 . Management Level:    Household Public Shared

gas pipe. the of points lowest the at accumulates which water, valves should be installed for the drainage of condensed be minimized since losses and leakages may occur. Drip should travel must gas the which through distance The (e.g., larger gas holes). jets andburner combustion biogas for used are they when modified be bustion. Therefore, conventional gas appliances need to Compared to other gases, biogas needs less air for com- • • • • • • • can beassumedfor the useofbiogas: The following consumption rates in litres per hour (L/h) stove the on design andthe methane content ofthe biogas. depends this However, L/h. 300-400 about stoveis biogas household a of rate consumption Inputs: gas/diesel 140 mixture: L/h (15 mouldingpress plastics g,100 units)with bio- 700L/h mixture: generation with of1kWhelectricity biogas/diesel biogas/diesel engineperbhp:420L/h gas lamp, equivalent to a60Wbulb:120-150 L/h 30-75L/h ture: refrigerator (100 L)dependingonoutsidetempera- 1,000-3,000 burners: industrial L/h 200-450L/h household burners: Biogas System 5 Applicable to: additional operational and financial efforts. As CO efforts. financial and operational additional requires content carbon-dioxide the of reduction The corrosive acidswhencombinedwith condensingwater. forms it because sulphide hydrogen the reduce first to sonnel. When using biogas for an engine, it is necessary per and trained by monitored regularly be must appliances fittings pipelines, gas The traps. water installed the from emptied periodically be to has water mulated accu- the corrosion, and blocking prevent To sation. conden- to leads which vapour, water with saturated fully usually is Operation &MaintenanceBiogas ligible. neg- is anyhealthexplosionsotherto or human threats and maintained (e.g., water is drained), the risk of leaks, operated well-constructed, is plant biogas the that ing Assum- contexts. cultural all in appropriate be not may faeces from generated Biogas pollution. air indoor to lead not does thus, and, smoke, without burns it Also, coal). and wood to compared (as be off and immediately on switched can it as biogas with cooking enjoy users general, In Health Aspects/Acceptance biogas iscooking. use to way best the application, household For used. profitably is heat exhaust the that condition the under reached. But this is only valid for larger installations and be can efficiency 88% where heat-powercombination a in is biogas using of way efficient most The lamp. sene a - kero as efficient as half only is lamp biogas A lamps. in 3% only but engines, in 24%stoves, in 55% is ofusing biogas efficiency calorific The Appropriateness - - - + + + Pros &Cons advisableindevelopingcooking, itisrarely countries. for used is biogas when necessary not is “scrubbing” volume) and, thus, needsto becontinuouslyused Cannot beeasily stored (low density per energy Cannot alltypes ofenergy replace May not fulfil totalrequirements energy skillsormaintenanceLittle operation required firewood orcoal was previously used) Reduction (if ofindoorairpollutionanddeforestation Free ofenergy source 2 -

D. andSteinhauser,_ Deublein, (2011). A. Biogas from Reading References &Further Y.,_ Vögeli, Diener, A., C.R.,Gallardo, Lohri, S.andZurbrügg, H.-P._ Mang, andLi,Z.(2010). Technology Review ofBiogas C.(2009b).Evaluation ofBiogas Sanitation Systems_ Lohri, in C.(2009a).Research onAnaerobic Digestion_ Lohri, ofOrganic W., T.,_ Kossmann, Pönitz, S.,Hoerz, U., Habermehl, Krämer, Waste andRenewable Resources, 2 Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec),Dübendorf, (Department PracticalCountries. Information andCaseStudies. Eawag C. (2014). Anaerobic Digestion ofBiowaste in Developing Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. (GIZ) GmbH,Eschborn, fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit Gesellschaft Countries. Water, orfor Excreta Treatment and Reuse inDeveloping –BiogasSanitation. Sanitation Draft for Blackwater, Brown and ICRC, Geneva, CH. Sandec),Dübendorf Nepalese Eawag Prisons. (Department Available at: www.sandec.ch CH. Sandec).Dübendorf, Eawag (Department Solid Waste atHouseholdLevel inDaresSalaam,Tanzania. Available at: www.susana.org/library and Product Development. GTZ, DE. Eschborn, andEulerH.(1999).A. Biogas Digest Volume II–Application P., Klingler, B.,Kellner, C.,Wittur, T., von Klopotek, F., Krieg, Weinheim, DE. nd Ed.Wiley-VCH,

165 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies D

Functional Group D: Use and/or Disposal .13 166 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Emerging Sanitation Technologies the Pyramid” customers are gaining increased atten- increased gaining are customers Pyramid” the of “Base Indeed, sanitation. for pay to poor too ered to unserved communities, which were previously cost consid- low a at services col- treatment and/or and/or lection technology provide that models ness busi- sustainable develop to seeking are enterprises social of variety A logistics. and models business to relate field sanitation the in innovations the of Many listedare below. conditions composition waste and operational variable under field the in proven been already have that ogies feasible. Some of the most promising emerging technol- is dissemination sustainable that indicating scale a at and context, country developing a in applied being are phase, technologies havemoved beyond laboratory the in developing Yet,countries. several recently developed scale significant a at proven been yet not have or tion, applica- widespread for intensive resource and/or plex com- technically too costly, too still currently are ever, innovations,howthese of Most section. this in include to numerous too are they development; and research under innovative,excitingtechnologiesmany are There few years. past the in innovation and funding sector substantial enabled have will, political and (www.ifc.org/sellingsanitation),visibility increased and Program Sanitation and Corporation/Water Finance International the and (www.gatesfoundation.org) Foundation Gates & Melinda Bill the as such sources, funding new of entry The visibility,engaging new actors and opening new funding streams. increasing by sector sanitation gal- the 2008 vanized (IYS) Sanitation of Year International The sible (i.e.,not asingle unit). pos- is expansion that indicates that scale a at and country) developing a in (i.e., contexts relevant in 2014)implemented June being of (as currently are and phase, small-pilot and laboratory the beyond movedhave that those are technologies Emerging being researched, developed and tested in are the field. technologies sanitation innovative numerous Compendium, the of tech2 - Part provenin presented nologies and established the to addition In Emerging Sanitation TechnologiesEmerging - South and Bangladesh, among other Africa, places. extensivelybeen has bag Kenya,in used thePhilippines, ment of collecting and composting the bags. The Peepoo manage- effective the is technologies, sanitation based othermobile/container with challenge,as The night). at closed or far too are toilets shared if (e.g., facility tion - sanita closest their access cannot reasons, safety for who, people by used be also can They etc.). situations, emergency persons, displaced internally (e.g., any to access have not do who people for solution sanitation a as use for recommended are but S.3), VIP, (e.g., gy technolo- permanent a replace to meant not are They 12 andcanholdupto 800 mLofexcreta.(about grams) light are bags The point. collection appropriate an to least 24 h, giving the user time tothem safely transport at for free odour remain and handle to safe are bags and actually contribute to, the composting process. The theytoremovednot need be Therefore, do from, mass. bio- and dioxide carbon water, into down breaks that bio-plastic a of made are They weeks). 4 (about down break to start they before facility composting a to ed the bag is biodegradable. Full bags should - be transport (b) and faeces, the disinfects which urea withcoated is bag inside the (a) that fact the is bag plastic regular a and bag Peepoo the between difference The shut. tied is bag layer,outer theinner the into urinating or cating defe- container. After small a over or it protectto hand the over folded is layer inner The layers. 2 has and tle) bot- PET cut a or bucket small a (e.g., holder small a over put or hand one in held be to meant is that bag single-use a is It available. not is technology Interface bag biodegradable a is designed for excreta User collection when a permanent bag Peepoo The Peepoo to come. years the in commonplace become toexpect we which innovations widespread promising, most the summarize of some briefly we Here, sustainable. technically and havefinancially proven more tobe when future the in models business and technologies additional with Compendium the updating to forward looking are We ing power. purchas- and demand collective their of because tion Twin Pits for Pour Flush, S.6); each side can be used used be can side each S.6); Flush, Pour for Pits Twin or S.7, faeces, for Vaults Dehydration with (as nation alter of principle the on works design double-chamber filter.the A replacing without continue can process the long how as well as treated, further and removed be to need solids accumulating the frequently how mines deter design the addition, filter In material. organic the support to used be can that bags filter removable or are permanent filters made, for example, from concrete, wood chips to it. design Different variations exist. There or straw of layers adding regularly by ensured be can This saturated. being without conditions aerobic tain filter. main- compost to the able Thereby,of is filter the success theto essential is solids collected the waterin of volume low a Maintaining matrix. organic the in vive sur that organisms aerobic the by down broken then are and filter the on/in remain They filter. compost a in bag) or bed (filter medium porous a by liquids from separated are solids the conditions, anaerobic under degrade and bottom the to settle solids where (S.9), Tank Septic a Unlike solids. of digestion aerobic and filtration combined on based is concept Its exist. filter compost the of variations Several Compost Filter Figure 6:Schematic ofthe LaDePa sludge pelletizer UX : LAD EP A separators detritus rotation feed sludge from generatormotor using exhaustheat pre-d pasteurised sludge porous steelbelt hot airinlet air flow r ying chamber - - - and disposedof. collected be can it that so outletseparate a through ed eject- is wastematerial the while belt, steel continuous porous, a onto holes mm 6 through sludge the pushes thesludge byratedfrom compactor:screwthescrew a sepa- is etc.) shoes, bags, (plastic pits in up ends that Garbage content). solids % (60-65 pellets dried kg/h 300 about is rate output the and content) solids 35% (30- sludge kg/h 1,000 about of rate a at fed be can It sludge. latrine pit from amender soil pelletized dry, a producing of capable technology pasteurization and and Pasteurisation (LaDePa) pelletizer is a sludge drying LaDePa Sludge Pelletizer The Latrine Dehydration treatment. further require also may solids composted the end-use, intended the on Depending (T.5). Ponds Stabilization Waste (T.7-T.9)and/or Wetland Constructed a in e.g., of effluent, the treatment is secondary design filter compost the to Essential references). see Digester, Biofil the (e.g., chamber single a with continuously work that designs decompose while the other side is in use. There are also and rest to allowed then is content the and year, a for moist airextraction air flow infrared radiators using medium pasteurisation chamber -wave

167 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Emerging Sanitation Technologies 168 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Emerging Sanitation Technologies but values around 250 mg/L PO mg/L 250 valuesaround but dramatically, vary (concentrations amounts nificant sig- in urine in present are and growth plant for tial essen- elements two are phosphorus and Nitrogen most of the excess nutrients excreted from the body. Urine contains Productionfrom Urine Struvite fee. butnoestablishment nance contract, mainte- a be still would there outright, purchased is equipment the If contract. maintenance a and fee establishment an is there preferred, is option rental the If sale. for or basis rental a on equipment the offers which (PSS), Systems Separation Particle by offset the operating costs. The LaDePa was designed can which $27/h, about generates LaDePa the ek, bagged and sold. Based on the besale price will of GrowEth- it fertilizer, nutrient low a as licensed been has product the once and, (GrowEthek) trademark registered a has product The plant. one with year a sludgeVIP of t approximately2,000 treat to able be VIP pit emptying program, indicates that they should their with conjunction in trials, the from Evidence years. 2 about for trials LaDePa running been has Africa, South Durban, in Municipality eThekwini The (electricity/diesel). energy of source constant a on relies and intensive energy relativelyis it that is process LaDePa the vantageof whole process takes 16 minutes. An important Thedisad- crops. edible all for suitable and pathogens of free are emerge that pellets The output. energy the increasing without This capability sludge. drying the of increases matrix open the and belt porous the through air hot the draws that fan extractor an using by dried and pasteurized thereby, are, pellets The radiation. infrared medium-wave of use makes that Dryer” “Parseps patented a through travel then pellets sludge dried partially The plant. power the of engine combustion internal the from heat waste the utilizes that section pre-drying a through first passes and belt porous the onto mm, 25-40 from thickness in varying layer a in strands, ghetti-like spa- of matrix open an in falls sludge extruded The NH of the nutrients, including potassium, sulphur, etc., sulphur, potassium, including nutrients, the of 4 -N are not atypical). In order to take advantage take to order In atypical). not are -N 4 -P and 2,500 mg/L2,500 and -P ment plants. - treat wastewater large at technologies proprietary their installed has that companies several of one is references) (see Ostara complicated. more are ogy technol- dosing and mixing the though blackwater, supernatant, digester which has higher concentrations of phosphorus than from wastewater specifically from streams, recovered be also can Struvite intheis still development phase). and available area, or nitrification of head the urine (which by limited is distribution the although roots, crop onto directly liquid the distribute that systems irrigation drip are management effluent effective of Examples strategy. treatment effluent subsequent a without implemented be not should but effective, is it strategy, recovery nutrient a in step first a As been proven to work in many countries and contexts. thanlittle more a mixing chamber and filter, and has solution. Yet, struvite production is simple, requiring tant elements, such as potassium, also remain in the Other impor treatment. further that requires tration concen- ammonium and pH high a with effluent of volume equivalent an produces production struvite disadvantage,however,A needed. thatis is it where can be easily stored, transported and used when and that product nutrient compact a producing of way convenienta is struvite areas), urban dense in (e.g., nutrients urine-derived for desire or use no is there When toilets. dry urine-diverting household from ed collect- is that day per urine of 1,000 litres from ca, - Afri South Durban, in produced currently is It form. the solution, dried and then processed into a useable of out filtered be must Struvitecrystals form. talline and nitrogen, and precipitates out into a - white, crys phosphorus the with binds Magnesium urine. the to ash) wood or bittern chloride, (magnesium source magnesium soluble of kind some adding by duced ald tuie (NH struvite called fertilizer solid a into processed or D.2), and (see fields crops to applied directly be can urine stored 4 MgPO 4 -6H 2 - pro is Struvite O). - stirring mechanism andfilterstirring bag Figure 7: Schematic ofastruvite reactor with platform access Struvite Reaktor collection buc drain toeffluent collectiontank reactor vessel reactor stand mechanism outlet valve filter bag effluent stirring ke t Technologies Recovery Nutrient Inc.www.ostara._ Ostara Valorization (STUN). inNepal Urine from _ Nutrient M.G.P.,_ Grau, Rhoton, C.J.andBuckley, S.L.,Brouckaert, _ Etter, B.,Tilley, K.M.(2011). E.,Khadka, R.andUdert, Low- communication J.Personal D.andHarrison, _ Wilson, Systems. Separation www.parsep.co.za (last _ Particle D.(2012). J.and Wilson, _ Harrison, Towards Sustainable Pit H.,Rüd, (2009).Blackwater S.andSchöpe, A. _ Hoffmann, D.R.,Li,Z.andOtterpohl, R.(2003).Investigation_ Gajurel, www.biofilcom.org 2014) accessedApril (last _ Biofilcom. (n.d.).TheBiofil _ Biofil Toilet System. The Toilet Facility that A. andWilhelmson, A. M.,Nordin, B.,Hedenkvist, _ Vinnerås, www.peepoople.com 2014) accessedApril _ Peepoople. (last Reading References &Further 2014) accessedApril com (last www.eawag.ch/stun 2014) accessedApril (last ch/vuna 2013, 28-31 July, Vancouver, Available CA. at: www.eawag. RemovalInternational Conference onNutrient andRecovery Collected Diversion atUrine Toilets ineThekwini.WEF/IWA Reactor to Recover from Phosphorus Source Separated Urine (2013).C. A. Development ofaFully Automated Struvite Nepal. Water Research 45(2):852-862. Cost Struvite Production UsingSource-Separated in Urine Struvite Production from Urine: 2014)(February 2014)accessed April Available at: www.ecosan.at/ssp 13:Practice 25-32. ManagementLatrine through LaDePa. Sanitation Sustainable LaDePa Sludge Pelletizer: Available at: www.susana.org/library DE. tion Alliance(SuSanA),Eschborn, Study ofSustainable Sanitation- Projects. Sanita Sustainable and Greywater Reuse System Lima,Peru Chorrillos, –Case & Technology 48(1):111-118. Including Pre-Treatment with Rottebehaelter. Water Science of the Effectiveness ofSource Control Sanitation Concepts Makes GoodSanitation Sense. Compost Filter: Toilet. Water Science&Technology 59(9):1743-1749. (2009). Peepoo Bag:Self-SanitisingSingle UseBiodegradable Peepoo:

169 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Emerging Sanitation Technologies 170 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Glossary Anoxic: Anal CleansingWater: p.10 SeeProducts, in Waste Stabilization Ponds. SeeT.5 where Aquaculture: Application ofStored Urine: SeeD.2 Application ofSludge: SeeD.5 SeeD.4 Application ofPitHumusandCompost: Application ofDehydrated Faeces: SeeD.3 isalsoknownprocess asdenitrification. converted Anaerobic Pond: Anaerobic Filter: SeeS.11 andT.4 oxygen, leadingto ofbiogas. production Bacteria: Arborloo: SeeD.1 groundwater. gravel orsand)that(usually holdsortransmits organic Aquifer: Pondanimals. SeeFish (D.9)andFloatingPlantPond (D.10) Anaerobic Digestion:Anaerobic Aerobic Pond: Aerobic ofoxygen.presence Aerobic: Aerated Pond: SeeT.6 Activated Sludge: SeeT.12 in Anaerobic Digester: Anaerobic Baffled Reactor (ABR):SeeS.10 andT.3 absence ofoxygen. Anaerobic: Polishing Pond) Glossary Waste on compounds Describes An Stabilization earth. Describes Simple, to underground Describes nitrogen The A They lagoon A single controlled the lagoon are biological by Ponds. See process biological gas The microorganisms essential cell that layer S.12 that in degradation organisms See cultivation forms of and the by forms processes processes permeable T.5 for which T.17 absence the maintaining the (Syn.: (Syn.: that third of nitrate first and in aquatic that Maturation that rock are of the treatment treatment Biogas stabilization is occur oxygen. found occur or life absence biologically plants sediment Reactor) and in every in Pond, stage stage This per and the the of of - -

measured matter amount iceia Oye Dmn (BOD): Demand Oxygen Biochemical Bar Rack: SeePRE, p.100 Trash (Syn.:Screen, Trap) simple oneswhich canthen passthrough the cellmembrane. of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Cesspool: SeeCesspit(Syn.) (Leach Pit),oraHoldingTank. (Syn.:Cesspool) types, water excreting illnesses. Cesspit: Cesspit: Centralized Treatment: SeeFunctional T, Group p. 98 such infrastructure. assanitation Cost: Capital Brownwater: p.10 SeeProducts, Blackwater: p.10 SeeProducts, p.10Biomass: SeeProducts, Biogas Reactor: SeeS.12 andT.17 Digester) (Syn.:Anaerobic Biogas Combustion: SeeD.13 Biogas: p.10 SeeProducts, ide, water) by bacteria, fungi,andother microorganisms. is forming or chemically oxidize it (high COD). radation the required Biodegradation: to it(highBOD). is required degrade the the into always oxygen wastewater: amount amount more more by however, in essential of of a equal for An enzymes the Bacteria required water over basic oxygen strong waste, of of ambiguous complete organic organic biodegradable Funds to the five can compounds over “services”, or chemical Biological used for obtain and more that days higher be spent content, time chemical material oxidation. digesting by dissolve term pathogenic as the nutrients microorganisms than (expressed oxidant for BOD transformation organic such either and organic present the the oxidation BOD 5 complex ). food elements It as acquisition more It used (expressed from is and content, since composting, A is material in an measure in in an to cause oxygen our their of water molecules indirect mg/L it indirect A describe to of (e.g., organic is intestines. the measure degrade present organic of the environment in or mild of is and a more carbon mg/L). aerobic wastewater: total measure the fixed measure required material a into to normally Soak material in amount organic oxygen oxygen severe of asset, Some water more diox- COD deg- the Pit by to of of in Clarifier: Cistern FlushToilet: SeeU.5 : Ratio: C:N Basin) ing Coagulation: nitrogen inasubstrate. ter Composting: p.10 SeeProducts, Compost: S, p.56 Collection andStorage/Treatment: SeeFunctional Group Co-Composting: SeeT.16 that they canaggregate larger andform flocs. Constructed Wetland: Constructed Condominial Sewer: SeeC.4(Syn.:Simplified Sewer) Composting SeeS.8 Chamber: bacteria conditions. aerobic andfungi) undercontrolled Cyst: Conveyance: SeeFunctional C,p.82 Group Conventional Gravity Sewer: SeeC.6 wetlands. SeeT.7-T.9 that nents ant ditions. A WastewaterDecentralized Treatment System(DEWATS): their life during cycle. Cryptosporidium) Dehydrated Faeces: wastewaterreclaim area. asmallcommunityorservice from Desludging: Dehydration Vaults: SeeS.7 astoragefrom facility. or treatment small-scale that chemicals cysts helps

are An Some aims (e.g., environmentally See biologically it The to The to system protozoan T.1 The (e.g., The Giardia) survive replicate ratio process (Syn.: destabilization process aluminium used decomposed See of periods and Settler, A parasites the the of resistant Products, treatment to oocysts removing by mass naturally collect, sulphate Sedimentation/Settling of which of form environmentally by of stage particles (thick-walled p. technology treat, microorganisms the carbon occurring 11 biodegradable infective, or (Syn.: accumulated of discharge, ferric a in to microorganism Dried water for processes highly the spores, chloride) harsh wastewa- mass Faeces) compo- by and/or (mainly sludge - resist Tank/ add- con- e.g., so of in the Emerging Technology:Emerging p.11 SeeProducts, Effluent: Sanitation) safely (EcoSan): Sanitation Ecological tor ofwater. contamination offaecal moisture Sanitation: Environmental system. (Syn.:Use) End-Use: at ascalethat indicates that expansion ispossible.Seep.166 newable Digestate: as asolid(e.g.,shovelled). ples excreta of by Disinfection: digestion. anaerobic undergoing sludge Dewatering: Detention Retention Time: SeeHydraulic (Syn.) Time excreta, E. coli: E. EcoHumus: SeePitHumus(Syn.) Toilet:Dry SeeU.1 CleansingMaterials: p.11 SeeProducts, Dry Dried Faeces: p.11 SeeProducts, (Syn.:Dehydrated Faeces) Double Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP):SeeS.4 Disposal: SeeFunctional D,p.138 Group See POST, p.136 physical (e.g.,membranes). processes separation usually which humans inactivation laboratory exposure to recycle or includes and Escherichia live, solid content, resources slurry. The and The wastewater with The and The utilisation to waste, (using nutrients, warm-blooded Dewatered solid hygienic disease measures but process elimination small-pilot coli, is chemical it wastewater, and/or minimized. typically in of A a by water management of technology such bacterium products sludge to providing phase reducing Interventions of animals. break liquid agents, a and/or is (pathogenic) way dry and (Syn.: may An and derived the material inhabiting that a enough radiation that approach the It of stormwater; still is clean cycle energy is Resources-Oriented being human has water used the that have from microorganisms remaining of to environment moved use the or implemented contained disease. as be reduce that content a a and heat) significant of an sanitation intestines conveyed the aims beyond - non-re indica- animal or after peo- con- This of by to in in a

171 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Glossary 172 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Glossary saline, Eutrophication: ahygienicform environment. for involves medium Filtration: Filtrate: Theliquid that haspassedthrough afilter. Fill andCover: SeeD.1 Faeces: p.11 SeeProducts, Faecal Sludge: Sludge, SeeProduct p.12 stage inWaste Stabilization Ponds. SeeT.5 phosphorus) FacultativePond: Excreta: p.11 SeeProducts, byface evaporation andplanttranspiration. Evaporation: ofplantlifeforms andleadto the depletion ofoxygen. trol Evapotranspiration: ofaliquid. the surface gates destabilized place Flotation: Fish Pond: SeeD.9 determines whatiscaptured andwhatpassesthrough. captures fraction ter, Flushwater: p.11 SeeProducts, filtration. increases Flocculation: Floating PlantPond: See D.10 (Syn.:Macrophyte Pond) thereby canbeseparated. personal including of or below disease by to (e.g., flocs both particulate nutrients as The pass A particles a the and that oil, from mechanical cloth, behaviours The result process vectors; The through. boiling grease, domestic The accelerate phase finely (especially A paper, material process of lagoon and The enrichment whereby particle and temperature divided The soaps, change and separation can combined sand hygiene. the and that by the size the facilities then collision. bed, provision lighter particles etc., which permits from forms growth of compounds of be Environmental the or loss and process rise water, liquid fractions removed mixed that the the pores Particles the of and of of normally to second water algae work washing size to liquid the both from media using of of gas of by nitrogen surface, the of form together from a and or chemically occurs settling Sanitation fresh that treatment wastewa- a bed) particles facilities gaseous medium porous - aggre higher a takes that sur and and and on or to - host, worms. are inactivation excreta, water which rudae Table: Groundwater Groundwater Recharge: SeeD.11 surface. Groundwater: Water that islocated beneath the earth’s Grit SeePRE,p.100 Chamber: (Syn.:SandTrap) Greywater: p.11 SeeProducts, Grease Trap: SeePRE,p.100 Functional Group: SeeCompendium Terminology, p.12 Free-Water Constructed Surface Wetland: SeeT.7 Fossa Alterna: SeeS.5 It Helminth: Water Table). table Humus: Human-Powered Emptying SeeC.2 andTransport: See T.8 FlowHorizontal Subsurface Constructed Wetland: several years. (HRT): Time Retention Hydraulic value.has nonutritive time system (e.g., wastewater). orprocess Sanitation: Improved Tank:Imhoff SeeT.2 tank. (Syn.:Detention Time) Influent: Influent: tion ofhumanexcreta humancontact. from improves roundworms that is causing is is not saturated The found wastewater The liquid The A static soil and stable infective parasitic general damage. when and structure may and with (e.g., remnant soluble and a can remain water. name The eggs worm, Facilities hole Some Ascaris vary sludge. and level of is compounds It for of viable i.e. by increases examples corresponds decomposed dug helminths the that and season, below They one or in liquid The ensure hookworm) drilled. faeces that are the water stay that year average that can to very lives organic hygienic earth’s in infect and the or A retention, enters be groundwater a usage resistant in level amount and sludge reactor or found material. humans surface - separa where on into (Syn.: - tape but for its to or of in a

or white, Leachate: Jerrycan: SeeC.1 Irrigation: SeeD.6 Lime: SeeSoakPit(Syn.) Leach Pit: Leach Field: SeeD.8 beds). drying from drains stone. component natural Microorganism: byis formed the decomposition anaerobic oforganic matter. Nutrient: Night Soil:Ahistorical term for sludge. faecal Motorized Emptying SeeC.3 andTransport: organic compounds). (e.g.,trace concentrations entity Log Reduction: Log andplasters). mortars Micropollutant: protozoa,(e.g., bacteria, viruses, algae orfungi). ly (N), Macrophyte: Macrophyte Pond: SeeD.10 (Syn.:FloatingPlantPond) 90%, 2logunits=99%,399.9%,andsoon. forresponsible the ofwater eutrophication bodies. carbon Methane: Maturation Pond: SeeAerobic Pond (Syn.) orfloating(duckweed, pads). lily (water milfoil, bladderwort) contained ible be used calcium emergent to phosphorus capable caustic The Slaked the gas with in in water/wastewater A naked hydroxide Any common The and by the colourless, agricultural (reeds, lime An and of gravity is liquid substance chemical (P) replication Organism eye. aquatic the Pollutant Any alkaline is and cattails, name (slaked less main fraction filtration Its cellular odourless, potassium fertilizers. roots plant formula caustic for component that powder that removal or or bulrushes, treatment that calcium of or through and hydrated large is is transferring non-cellular than CH is used flammable, produced N (K) present differentiated efficiencies. enough separated 4 and . (50-75%) oxide are quicklime media Methane wild and for lime, P the rice), are in growth. construction (quicklime, to by genetic (e.g., Ca(OH) gaseous microbiological main extremely from be of also heating is 1 and submergent tissues biogas readily present liquid log nutrients the primarily Nitrogen 2 material is ). hydro- unit It wide- CaO) lime- solid may that that is (for low vis- in = a ing Sanitation: Offsite Protozoa: SeeCompendium Terminology,Product: p.10 orflotation.cess ofsedimentation pH: um with the force ofgravity. wastewater Parasite: Organics: p.11 SeeProducts, or downtime. Sanitation: Onsite on asewer technology (seeC.4-C.6)for conveyance. wastewater value Percolation: Pathogen: Anorganism orother agent that causesdisease. damages itshost. tasks (O&M): Maintenance and Operation SeeCyst Oocyst: theywhere generated. are ment where Primary Primary Treatment: Pre-Treatment Products: p.12 SeeProducts, Pre-Treatment: SeePRE,p.100 Pour FlushToilet: SeeU.4 Post-Treatment: SeePOST, p.136 Treatment) (Syn.:Tertiary Polishing Pond: SeeAerobic Pond (Syn.) Beds:SeeT.15Planted Drying p.11Pit Humus:SeeProducts, (Syn.:EcoHumus) indicates that itisbasic(alkaline). to The that required performance below they measure removes An A are are are 7 diverse organism The to indicates generated. collected collected keep movement of solids requirements group A A acidity The a sanitation sanitation that process that and first and and of An lives or of organic unicellular it major offsite alkalinity stored conveyed liquid is on or and system system acidic, system or stage to matter through in sanitation or prevent eukaryotic another of in in Routine a treated away in functioning a which which pH mostly wastewater substance. a delays, value from filtering organism system excreta excreta on or organisms, by above the the periodic the - accord repairs medi- - treat relies A - pro plot plot and and and pH 7

173 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Glossary 174 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Glossary including public disposing Sanitation: Sanitation: Sand Trap: SeePRE,p.100 Chamber) (Syn.:Grit Runoff seeSurface Runoff: Reuse: Useofrecycled water. (Syn.) Sanitation: Resources-Oriented genic andcausemildto severe illnesses. Secondary Treatment: Secondary grease). treatment solids the Sedimentation Tank/Basin: Sedimentation that they accumulate. (Syn.:Settling) Sedimentation: ration. Scum: Screen: SeePRE,p.100 (Syn.:BarRack, Trash Trap) Technology:Sanitation seeCompendium Terminology, p.13 System:Sanitation SeeCompendium Terminology, p.10 generally,bodies and,more ofthe environment. Septage: T, p.98 (Semi-) Centralized Treatment: SeeFunctional Group Sedimentation/Thickening Ponds: SeeT.13 Settling Tank/Basin) disinfection ents digestionanaerobic take place. Septic: septic tanks. removal that health from The Describes amoeba, float of A or

effluent. can of layer The and historical excreta tertiary to biodegradable be the the means Gravity ciliates, the of included preservation Nutrient surface and solids conditions treatment, term Follows of settling liquid and safely formed of to removal in organic flagellates. See a define wastes primary under the of tank of depending collecting T.1 See the particles by definition or matter (e.g., (Syn.: which sludge quality Ecological wastewater for treatment reactor Some the phosphorus) putrefaction and Settler, on in and removed of of can protection a the (e.g., public hygienically liquid suspended secondary to Sanitation be - constitu Clarifier, configu- achieve oil patho- water from such and and and of

Settled Sewer: Settled Septic Tank: SeeS.9 Sewerage: age. SeeC.4-C.6 Settler: Sewer) Sewer: Sewage: Waste through the sewer. matter that istransported Tank/Basin)mentation Tank/Basin: Settling Settling: (Syn.) SeeSedimentation Basin) Sitter: Single Ventilated Improved Pit(VIP):SeeS.3 SeeS.2 Single Pit: Simplified Sewer: SeeC.4(Syn.:CondominialSewer) Sewer Discharge Station: SeeC.7 interchangeably with sewage). onit. than sitdirectly Soil Conditioner: Conditioner: Soil SeeD.7(Syn.:Leach Pit) Soak Pit: Sewer) Sewer:Small-Bore Sludge: p.12. SeeProducts, squat over it. Solids-FreeSewer: ofsoil. retaining properties nutrient Squatter: volume ofasolidmaterial (e.g.,filter media). Area: Surface Specific Sewer) Someone An See Someone open The T.1 physical (Syn.: See channel who A who See See C.5 product prefers Clarifier, See sewer C.5 prefers (Syn.: C.5 The or T.1 closed (Syn.: (Syn.: ratio to infrastructure that Sedimentation/Settling Solids-Free (Syn.: to sit squat of Solids-Free Small-Bore pipe enhances on the Settler, the used over surface Sewer, toilet, (sometimes the to the Clarifier, Sewer, Sewer, convey toilet, area rather Small-Bore water Settled Settled Tank/ to rather Sedi- used sew than and the - Superstructure: Sullage: Ahistorical term for greywater. Stormwater: p.12 SeeProducts, Stored Urine: p.12 SeeProducts, impacts (e.g.,oxygenronmental depletion, leaching). nutrient Tertiary Treatment:Tertiary ofeffluent.SeePOST, treatment tiary p.136 Filtration: Tertiary System Template: Seep.15 reservoir. Surface Runoff: Runoff: Surface DisposalandStorage:Surface SeeD.12 bathing to facility provide andprotection privacy to the user. water (TS): Solids Total Toilet: anddefecation. for urination Userinterface Thickening Ponds: SeeT.13 SeePOST,on the configuration. p.136 (Syn.:Post-Treatment) Stabilization: appears mg/L). enhanced of ufc Water: Surface overland.infiltrate andruns the ground nition Underground Holding Tank: Twin Pitsfor Pour Flush:SeeS.6 Trickling Filter: SeeT.10 Trash Trap: SeePRE,p.100 Bar Rack) (Syn.: Screen, Transfer HoldingTank) Station: SeeC.7(Syn.:Underground Suspended Solids(TSS). (e.g., reducing phosphorus) of or It on secondary sludge is removal the readily the The surface, sample sum The A and The of degradation treatment biodegradable The Application pollutants of natural Follows disinfection walls portion Total and such residue drying and Dissolved or as or secondary See of from of of tertiary a that man-made roof organic precipitation stream, compounds can C.7 filtration it effluent. at remains built be (Syn.: Solids 105 treatment, treatment matter included river, around processes water °C Nutrient Transfer (TDS) after to that lake, (expressed with lessen in depending to a body filtering and does pond, the toilet the removal Station) achieve for envi- Total defi- goal that ter not or or in a - paper of Virus: Vertical Flow Constructed Wetland: SeeT.9 pathogens andtransmit to faeces from humans. can carry Vector: SeeFunctionalUser Interface: U,p.42 Group Use and/orDisposal:SeeFunctional D,p.138 Group Urine Storage Tank: SeeS.1 Urine-Diverting FlushToilet (UDFT):SeeU.6 Urine-Diverting Toilet Dry (UDDT): SeeU.2 Urine: p.12 SeeProducts, Urinal: SeeU.3 by organisms insoil. down and wash with water. Wiper: Water Table: SeeGroundwater Table (Syn.) Water Disposal:See D.11 stormwater, andany sewer inflow/infiltration. Wastewater: Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP): SeeT.5 material. defecating, than wipewith dry rather Urea: See T.11 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB): Unplanted Beds:SeeT.14 Drying Washer: disease). (e.g.,the rotavirus that cancausediarrheal borne industrial, RNA) mits a living that a and into or The disease An Someone An contains newspapers) host. Someone a carbon commercial infectious organic protein organism Used to Some a dioxide the who molecule host. coat. who water agent pathogenic nutrient or (most to prefers prefers For agricultural Viruses and cleanse consisting from (NH example, commonly ammonium, nitrogen. to any 2 viruses to can ) after 2 use CO use combination activities, of only dry flies that defecating, Over water a are an which nucleic replicate material is are known insect) time, excreted to surface vectors is cleanse acid of readily urea to rather (e.g., in that domestic, be the (DNA in runoff/ as breaks water - trans urine toilet used after cells than they or -

175 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Glossary 176 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies Imprint Printed Nouvelle by: Imprimerie Gonnet, Belley, France Second Edition:2500Copies Photos: Eawag (Sandec) Text Editing:Paul Donahue Pia Thür, GmbH,Zürich &Paolo Zürich Monaco|Designport Graphic Design&Technical Drawings: www.sandec.ch/compendium. PDFcopyA free ofthis publication canbedownloaded from that ofthe fullcitation isgiven. source exceptpurposes those involving sale,provided commercial for education,scientificor developmentrelated whole orpart, isgrantedPermission ofthis for reproduction material, in decisions orpoliciesofthe World Health Organization. views expressed inthis documentandthe views donot the represent necessarily not apublicationofthe World Health Organization. Eawag for isresponsible the This documentispublishedby Eawag, itis Centre; which isaWHOCollaborating www.sandec.ch Switzerland, Dübendorf, WaterDepartment inDeveloping andSanitation (Sandec) Countries © Eawag: Institute SwissFederal ofAquatic ScienceandTechnology, ISBN: 978-3-906484-57-0 Switzerland. Dübendorf, InstituteSwiss Federal ofAquatic ScienceandTechnology (Eawag). of Sanitation Systemsof Sanitation andTechnologies. 2 Tilley, L.,Lüthi, E.,Ulrich, C.,Reymond, Ph.andZurbrügg,C.,2014. Compendium Bibliographic Reference: nd Revised Edition.

Eawag Water Supply & Sanitation International Water Association (IWA) Department Sandec Collaborative Council Alliance House Überlandstrasse 133 15 Chemin Louis-Dunant 12 Caxton Street P.O. Box 611 1202 Geneva London SW1H 0QS 8600 Dübendorf Switzerland United Kingdom Switzerland www.wsscc.org www.iwahq.org Phone +41 (0)44 823 52 86 [email protected] www.eawag.ch www.sandec.ch

This second, revised edition of the Compendium pulls together a huge range of information on sanitation systems and technologies in one volume. By ordering and structuring tried and tested technologies into one concise document, the reader is provided with a useful planning tool for making more informed decisions.

Part 1 describes different system configurations for a variety of contexts. Part 2 consists of 57 different technology information sheets, which describe the main advantages, disadvantages, applications and the appropriateness of the technologies required to build a comprehensive sanitation system. Each technology information sheet is complemented by a descriptive illustration.

ISBN: 978-3-906484-57-0 Cover illustration by Glynn Erasmus, ERAdesign (Durban, South Africa)