The War of Positions: Football in Post- Conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Emily Kate VEST School of Sport and Education Brunel University July 2014 Abstract Research on the role sport might or can play in a post-conflict environment has tended to focus upon sport’s ability to deliver wider development objectives through that known as Sport-for-Development and Peace (SDP) interventions. Such programmes are somewhat notorious for over-looking the wider influence of the pre-established domestic sporting milieus. An ethnographic study of the role sport – and in this case specifically football - plays in what is known as a ‘returnee’ village within the Bosnian Se rb Entity of Bosnia- Herzegovina is herein presented in an attempt to understand the complex interplay of power between the village, their neighbours, the state and those who perform and deliver football. The relationships that are established across and within such entities and the negotiations required for co-existence are significant; in a variety of ways they influence the post-conflict processes. The interplay of the varied social and cultural groups that constitute post-conflict Bosnia requires a multi-disciplinary approach to elucidate the post-conflict processes. Utilising a neo-Gramscian approach what follows makes it possible to envisage the International Community, namely the supra-national institutions, international NGOs and funders, in the role of the dominant political group working to create its vision of a hegemony of peace. Concurrently the ethno-political indigenous elite are endeavouring to retain the status quo and have managed to create a period of permanent liminality, preventing Bosnia from creating a post-conflict hegemony. With historic links to nationalist impulses and intricate connections to the current political milieu, football provides a window through which the post-conflict processes of a community may be observed. As what we might best term the War of Position for the establishment of a post-conflict hegemony ensues, the research illustrates that whilst domestic football may be understood as a focal point for the promotion of civil society and carries many capabilities of political capital, there remains a tension between the ethno-political elite and the International Community. Both utilise the game for their own ambitions, but neither of their visions are accepted by the wider Bosnian population. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface 1 Football for Hope 2 Football for Peace 4 Culture, Power and Theory 6 The Field of Football 8 The Terms and the Landscape 10 Section A 13 Chapter 1: Moving the Ball Forward: The International Community Occupies the Post-Conflict Zone 14 From Peace Keeping to Peace Building 17 Orthodoxies in the Unorthodox 18 The Power of Sport 19 Diplomacy at Play 22 Unpicking the Power of Sport 25 Deification to Reification 26 Neo-Liberal Development Benevolence? 27 Apolitical or a Political Game? 30 Player Power 32 Sport for Reconciliation and Peace in Bosnia 33 Peripheral or Integral 35 Chapter 2: Italian Probing and Dutch Individualism: Power and All that Lies Inbetween 38 An Absent ‘Italian Spring’ 39 Constructing Hegemony 42 Hegemony’s Infinite Dynamic 45 The Power of Resistance: The Role of the Underdog 46 Interpreting Interpretations 47 ii Resisting Hegemony’s Hegemony: The Rise of the Foucauldian Focus 48 Middle Class Tactics: An International Bourgeoisie? 49 Stagnating Hegemony? 52 Betwixt and Between: The Liminal State 53 Permanent Liminality: A Trapped Transition 54 Liminal Leaders 56 i. Bosnia’s Master of Ceremonies… 58 ii. … and their Tricksters 58 Challenges to Liminality 60 Football’s Bipolar Personality 61 The Frozen Frame 63 Section B 66 Chapter 3: Pretty Village Pretty Flame: A Land of Conflict and Football 67 Construction: Identities of Chance 69 Destruction: Nationalism Severs 72 Nationalism Arrives in Bosnia: So Does Football 75 A Balkan Brazil 77 Football: Class and Conflict 79 The Beautiful Game and Political Symbolism 83 Independence and Resistance 85 Football Recognition and Soft Diplomacy 86 The Communist Regime: Football’s Golden Era? 88 Symbolism and Competition 91 New Nationalisms (and Football Hooliganism) 92 Football: A Predictor of War? 95 Supporting to Soldiering: The Conflict Years 98 Surviving in the Post-Conflict Milieu 102 Public Good: Private Gain 104 Football restarts: War without the shooting? 106 iii Returning to Play 108 Hegemonic History and Liminal Narratives 109 Chapter 4: A Bosnian Chronicle and a Personal Journey 111 Football Kicks Off 112 Conflict Comes to Divič 115 The Village Returns 117 A Post-Conflict Ethnography 122 Reflecting the Researcher 123 Predetermined Perceptions 126 Structuring data in an unstructured setting 129 Custodians of Knowledge 132 Participation: Voluntary and Involuntary 135 Responsibility of Representation 136 War weary to world wary 138 The Ball Keeps Rolling 140 Section C 142 Chapter 5: Playing on the Pitch: Village Level Football 143 Seeking the Return Ball 144 Re-entering the Field 145 Identity Crisis? Football, representation and community in Zvornik 147 Representing Illusions: A Village and its Club 149 Unpicking Serb Uniformity 153 Conciliation, Exclusion and Hospitality 155 Showing Spectators the Red Card 159 Creating Conflict or Reflecting Reconciliation? 164 i. FK Jedinstvo Ročević vs. FK Mladost, Divič: September 26th 2007 164 ii. FK Jardan, Jardan vs FK Mladost, Divič: May 10th 2009 167 iii. FK Mladost Divič vs FK Trnovica, Trnovica: 6 th April 2008 170 War minus the shooting? 173 iv iv. FK Mladost, Divič vs FK Srpski Soko, Čelopek: 2nd September 2007 175 Policing the Pitch 180 The Business of Football 182 The Village Hegemony 184 Chapter 6: When Dragons Roar and Eagles Soar 187 Imagination and Consciousness 187 A Dragon’s Blood: Representing Bosnia -Herzegovina 189 Singing “Bože pravde”: Citizens of One Country, Inclined to Another 192 Reluctant Co-Patriots? 194 Symbols of glory, symbols of fear 195 Domestic Foreigners 198 “For Entire Life!” Elite Clubs and their Supporters 202 Affirmation of Opposition: Local Representation and Resistance 205 A World of Maniacs, Hordes of Evil, Convicts, Vultures and Genocides 208 Chapter 7: Institutions, Intellectuals and Influence 215 Save us From Savez! 216 Institutions of post-conflict Bosnia 217 Break Up and Make Up 218 A Multi-Ethnic Façade: Trickster Infiltration 220 Village Level Activities 221 Corrupting the Football Story 223 Resisting Dominance 226 A Very Public Resistance 227 Rat u Savezu! War on Savez! 229 Unstoppable Momentum: Resistance and Coercion Combine 230 Politics? Football is much more important than that! 232 The Thinking Football Administrator 236 Inherited Intelligence 241 The Counter Attack 242 v Pro Footballers: The Unlikely Intellectuals? 243 Conclusions After the Bullets: Football’s Role in the Bosnian Post -Conflict Process 250 Building Bridges, Dredging Drains 252 Managing Disorder 255 Fighting Fire with Fire 256 Liminal Ritual or Liminoid Activity? 259 Politicising the Cultural 261 At Home Abroad 263 Policy Implications and Future Research 265 Bibliography 269 Appendices 286 Appendix I: Political System of Bosnia Herzegovina 286 Appendix II: Structure of BiH Football (Source: CIN) 287 Appendix III: Summary of Village Football Clubs 288 List of Maps Map 1: The Former Yugoslavia (Source: United Nations) xii Map 2: Bosnia Herzegovina Political Map (Source: Maps of World) xii Map 3: Ethnic Makeup of Bosnia-Herzegovina before and after the war (Source: UNHCR) xiii Map 4: Northeast Bosnia (Source: Google Maps) xiv Map 5: Village Football Clubs in Zvornik Municipality (Source: Google Maps) xv vi ABBREVIATIONS Football CCPA Cross Cultures Project Association. A not for profit Danish organisation which uses games and a “fun football concept” as a tool to promote the processes of democracy, peace, stability and social cohesion. CCPA introduced the Open Fun Football Schools programme to Bosnia in 1998. FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association (International Federation of Association Football) FK Fudbalski Klub (Football Club – Serb/Bosniak) FSJ - Fudbalski Savez Jugoslavije (Yugoslav Football Association – Serbian) FSRS Fudbalski savez Republike Srpske (Football Association of Republika Srpska) HAŠK Hrvatski akademski š portski klub (Croatian Academic Sports Club) HNK Hrvatski nogometni klub (Croatian Football Club) HŠK Hrvatski športski klub (Croatian Sports Club) JNS Jugoslavenski nogometni savez (Yugoslav Football Association - Croatian) N/FSBiH Nogometni/Fudbalski Savez Bosne i Hercegovine (Football Association of Bosnia & Herzegovina) NK Nogometni klub (Football Club – Croatian) OFFS Open Fun Football Schools: A humanitarian project run by CCPA which uses a football as fun concept to promote the process of democracy, peace, stability and social cohesion within the Balkan countries, the Trans Caucasus countries and the Middle East. OFS Zvornik Opstina Fudbalski Savez Zvornik (Zvornik Regional Football Association) Prva HNL Prva hrvatska nogometna liga (First Croatian Football League) operating during World War 2 across Croatia. SAŠK Sarajevski amaterski športski klub (Sarajevo Amateur Sports Club)) SŠK Srpski Športski Klub (Serb Sports Club) SOFK Savez Organizira Fiziske Kultura (Organisation for the Administration of Physical and Cultural Activities). UEFA Union of European Football Associations vii VNS Vrhovni nogometni savez (Supreme Football Association) Political ARBiH Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine