ACTA KINESIOLOGICA Vol.11, Issue 1, March 2017

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF KINESIOLOGY Print ISSN 1840-2976 Web ISSN 1840-3700 Catalogued in: COBISS BH UDK: 796 Editor-in-Chief: ARKO BIL &H) Ž IĆ (Ljubuški, B Executive Editor: DOBROMIR BONACIN (Kaštela, ) Scientific Adviser: SLAVKO TRNINIĆ (Split, Croatia) Consultant: GAETANO RAIOLA (Naples, Italy) Assistant Editor & PR: DANIJELA BONACIN (Kaštela, Croatia) Young Editor & Lector: NORINA BONACIN (Kaštela, Croatia)

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Quality of life – Anthropology: Mirna Andrijašević (Zagreb, Croatia), Fadilj Eminović (, Serbia) Biomechanics – Fitness: Saša Bubanj (Niš, Serbia), Milan Čoh (Ljubljana, Slovenia) Methodology: Gustav Bala (, Serbia), Julijan Malacko (Novi Sad, Serbia) Quantitative methods: Dobromir Bonacin (Kaštela, Croatia), Georgi Georgiev (Skopje, Macedonia)

Methodics – Didactics: Vladimir Findak (Zagreb, Croatia), Biljana Trajkovski (Rijeka, Croatia) Training Theory: Vinko Lozovina (Split, Croatia), Slavko Trninić (Split, Hrvatska) Management: Danijela Bonacin (Kaštela, Croatia), Almir Mašala (Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina) Sport – New Technologies: Nenad Rogulj (Split, Croatia), Branko Škof (Ljubljana, Slovenia)

Print & Web: ’Fojnica doo 71270 Fojnica, Gornjevakufska 13, B&H DTP & Web preparation: Dobromir Bonacin and Norina Bonacin – Kaštela, Croatia Webhosting: Agencija Genesis – Cazin, B&H Lector (English): Norina Bonacin – Kaštela, Croatia Lector (Croatian): Luciana Bilić (Mostar, B&H), Norina Bonacin (Kaštela, Croatia) Ilustrations: Žaklina Bonacin – Kaštela, Croatia Printed: 300 copies

Publisher /Copyright ©/: DPTZK Ljubuški, Teskera Put za crveni grm. B&H Co-Publisher /Copyright ©/: ECHOES Kaštela, Dr. F.Tuđmana 97, Croatia

Acta Kinesiologica publishes twice a year in English with Croatian abstracts. Some supplements occur. Cost: 15 issue, overseas 30 , + postal costs € € Communication: Acta Kinesiologica - International Scientific Journal of Kinesiology 88320 Ljubuški, Teskera Put za crveni grm, Bosnia & Herzegovina or 21212 K.Sućurac, F.Tuđmana 97, Croatia Tel.: +387 63 325 690, +385 98 955 7186, +385 99 993 7597, +385 21 224 623, Fax: +387 39 838 171, +385 21 224 623 E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Full journal text available on http://www.actakin.com

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

International scientific journal of kinesiology

Vol. 11 (2017), Issue 1 (1-111)

Contents:

Dear reader ...... 5

Mislav Lozovina and Ana Mrdeža (Preliminary scientific communication) Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of 02 and C02 in the organism and safety of dive ...... 7- 18

Nining W. Kusnanik and Ben Rattray (Original scientific paper) Effect of ladder speed run and repeated sprint ability in improving agility and speed of junior soccer players . . . . . 19- 22

Ozkan Isik and Ilkay Dogan (Original scientific paper) Body components changes and depression scores before competitions among elite female wrestlers ...... 23- 27

Vedrana Grčić, Alen Miletić and Đurđica Miletić (Original scientific paper) Pain prevalence among female street dancers ...... 28- 33

Malsor Gjonbalaj, Dusko Bjelica and Georgi Georgiev (Original scientific paper) Relations between anthropometric characteristics and motor test - Illinois agility run test ...... 34- 36

Valentina Baić, Zvonimir Ivanović and Stevan Popović (Original scientific paper) Socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at football matches ...... 37- 43

Kamelia Abdi (Original scientific paper) Investigation of jumping exercises effect on skills . . . . . 44- 47

Gaetano Raiola (Original scientific paper) Using of videoanalysis in didactics to improve motor learning, skills and tactics in water sports ...... 48- 55

Branislav Simonović, Snežana Soković, Saša Mijalković, Snežana Novović and Božidar Otašević (Original scientific paper) Using soccer club fans for political purposes: case Serbia . . . . 56- 61

Journal text is available on http://www.actakin.com/

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

International scientific journal of kinesiology

Vol. 11 (2017), Issue 1 (1-111)

Contents (continuing):

Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, Goran Jelaska and Almir Atiković (Original scientific paper) Elite female vault finals from 2008 – 2016 ...... 62- 66

Erik Nughes, Vincenzo Rago and Gaetano Raiola (Original scientific paper) Pre-seasonal aerobic fitness in semi-professional Italian football players: preliminary results ...... 67- 69

Antonia Kalafatzi, Dimitrios Gargalianos and Georgios Mavridis (Original scientific paper) Self-evaluation of parental behaviour towards children-athletes . . . 70- 78

Cemal Berkan Alpay and Ozkan Isik (Original scientific paper) Comparison of body components and balance levels among hearing-impaired wrestlers and healthy wrestlers . . . . . 79- 84

Valentin Barišić, Davor Lješević and Dario Bašić (Original scientific paper) Importance of yellow cards in football considering final outcome of the match and league system of competition ...... 85- 87

Atike Yilmaz, Gizem Karakaş, Hande Baba Kaya and Zülbiye Kaçay (Original scientific paper) The effects of sportive exercises on physical fitness of children with specific learning disability ...... 88- 93

Borislav Obradović, Dejan Madić, Patrik Drid, Milica Bogdanovski and Goran Sporiš (Original scientific paper) Muscle strength assessment of upper and lower limbs in elite male karate athletes: comparative study between different age groups . . . 94- 99

Bahman Aalizadeh, Hassan Mohammadzadeh and Farzad Nobakht (Original scientific paper) Balance status of Iranian adults with visual impairment . . . . . 100-103

Mario Lovrić and Mislav Papec (Original scientific paper) Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with the actual situation in the pool ...... 104-109

Guidelines for authors ...... 110-111

Journal text is available on http://www.actakin.com/

ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

Međunarodni znanstveni časopis iz kineziologije

Vol. 11 (2017), Issue 1 (1-111)

Sadržaj:

Dragi čitatelju...... 5

Mislav Lozovina i Ana Mrdeža (Prethodno znanstveno priopćenje) Fiziologija apneje s naglaskom na dinamiku O2 i CO2 u organizmu i sigurnost zarona ...... 7- 18

Ninig W. Kusnanik i Ben Rattray (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Utjecaj brzine okretaja ljestvice i ponavljane sprintne sposobnosti u poboljšanju agilnosti i brzine mladih nogometaša . . . . . 19- 22

Ozkan Isik i Ilkay Dogan (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Promjene tjelesnih komponenti i depresije prije natjecanja među vrhunskim hrvačicama ...... 23- 27

Vedrana Grčić, Alen Miletić i Đurđica Miletić (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Prevalencija boli kod uličnih plesačica ...... 28- 33

Malsor Gjonbalaj, Dusko Bjelica i Georgi Georgiev (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Odnos između antropometrijskih značajki i motoričkog testa - Illinois agility run testa ...... 34- 36

Valentina Baić, Zvonimir Ivanović i Stevan Popović (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Socio-demografske karakteristike nasilnih navijačkih grupa na nogometnim utakmicama ...... 37- 43

Kamelia Abdi (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Istraživanje učinaka vježbi skakanja na vještine ...... 44- 47

Gaetano Raiola (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Korištenje videoanalize u didaktici za poboljšanje motoričkog učenja, vještina i taktike u vodenim sportovima ...... 48- 55

Branislav Simonović, Snežana Soković, Saša Mijalković, Snežana Novović i Božidar Otašević (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Zloupotreba navijača nogometnih klubova u političke svrhe: case Srbija . . 56- 61

Tekst časopisa je dostupan na http://www.actakin.com/ ISSN 1840-2976

ACTA KINESIOLOGICA

Međunarodni znanstveni časopis iz kineziologije

Vol. 11 (2017), Issue 1 (1-111)

Sadržaj (nastavak):

Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, Goran Jelaska i Almir Atiković (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Finala preskoka u vrhunskoj ženskoj sportskoj gimnastici od 2008 do 2016 godine ...... 62- 66

Erik Nughes, Vincenzo Rago i Gaetano Raiola (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Pred-sezonski aerobni fitnes kod polu-profesionalnih talijanskih nogometaša: preliminarni rezultati ...... 67- 69

Antonia Kalafatzi, Dimitrios Gargalianos i Georgios Mavridis (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Samoprocjena roditeljskog ponašanja prema djeci sportašima . . . . 70- 78

Cemal Berkan Alpay i Ozkan Isik (Izvorni znanstveni rad ) Usporedba tjelesnih komponenti i razine ravnoteže između hrvača s oštećenjem sluha i zdravih hrvača ...... 79- 84

Valentin Barišić, Davor Lješević i Dario Bašić (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Važnost žutih kartona u nogometu obzirom na krajnji ishod utakmice i sustava lige natjecanja ...... 85- 87

Atike Yilmaz, Gizem Karakaş, Hande Baba Kaya i Zülbiye Kaçay (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Učinci sportskih vježbi na fizičku sposobnost djece s posebnim teškoćama u učenju ...... 88- 93

Borislav Obradović, Dejan Madić, Patrik Drid, Milica Bogdanovski i Goran Sporiš (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Procjena snage gornjih i donjih udova kod vrhunskih karataša: komparativno istraživanje među različitim dobnim skupinama . . . . 94- 99

Bahman Aalizadeh, Hassan Mohammadzadeh i Farzad Nobakht (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Status ravnoteže iranskih odraslih osoba s oštećenjem vida . . . . 100-103

Mario Lovrić i Mislav Papec (Izvorni znanstveni rad) Povezanost samoiskaza o znanju plivanja sa stvarnim stanjem u bazenu . . 104-109

Upute za autore ...... 110-111

Tekst časopisa je dostupan na http://www.actakin.com/

Each day bring a bucket of soil to one place and you will build a mountain. (Confucius)

Dear reader, Our actions and hard work sometimes make us achieve quite decent results in some areas. All such results, especially those dependent on long-term activities, are commonly systematic and persistent, recognizing that the major effects are most often achieved by a series of small shifts. Confucius knew this, just like many others through human history, and just like many of you who are struggling with daily small steps make this world a better place to live. This is especially true in science, because science is by definition a human activity that has the task of enhancing our knowledge and our life. Such a small but extremely important step is offered in this issue of Acta Kinesiologica and we hope that you are interested in offered subjects. This is how you can find articles about the physiology of apnea, the speed of the soccer player, the composition of the wrestlers body, the appearance of street dancers, the agility test, the violence of fans, jumping exercises, video analysis in education, fans and politics, bodily composition of wrestlers, yellow cards in football, children's health training, strength in karatist, balance of vision impaired people and self-assessment of swimming skills. As you can see, there is a wide array of research involved in this journal issue and we think it gives it special value and interest. And so we try to bring various ideas and, as Confucius says, embed them into this tiny mountain called Acta Kinesiologica. The people who come up to give us a little help are authors, editors, reviewers, readers, and as of this year, so does Thomson Reuters. Thanks to everyone, we will persistently bring our "bucket" and continue to build further.

Executive Editor Assoc.Prof.Dobromir Bonacin, PhD

Svakog dana ponesite kanticu zemlje na isto mjesto i izgradit ćete planinu. (Konfucije)

Dragi čitatelju, Naša djelovanja i marljiv rad čine da ponekad uspijevamo ostvariti sasvim pristojne rezultate u pojedinim područjima. Svim takvim rezultatima, a pogotovo onima ovisnim o dugoročnim aktivnostima, zajedničko je sustavno i uporno djelovanje uz spoznaju da se veliki učinci najčešće postižu serijom malih pomaka. Konfucije je to znao, baš kao i mnogi drugi kroz ljudsku povijest, i baš kao i mnogi od vas koji se trudite svakodnevno malim koracima činiti ovaj svijet boljim mjestom za život. To naročito vrijedi u znanosti, jer je znanost po definiciji ljudsko djelovanje koje ima zadaću unaprijeđivati naša saznanja i naš život. Takve male ali iznimno važne korake nudimo vam i u ovom broju časopisa Acta Kinesiologica i nadamo se da su vam zanimljivi po svojoj tematici. Tako možete pronaći priloge o fiziologiji apneje, brzini nogometaša, sastavu tijela hrvačica, pojavi boli kod uličnih plesačica, o agiliti testu, nasilju navijača, vježbama skakanja, videoanalizi u edukaciji, o navijačima i politici, preskoku kod gimnastičarki, aerobnom fitnesu, samoprocjeni roditelja, tjelesnom sastavu hrvača, žutim kartonima u nogometu, o vježbanju djece oštećenja zdravlja, snazi kod karatista, ravnoteži osoba s oštećenjem vidom i o samoprocjeni plivačkih vještina. Kako vidite, široka je lepeza istraživanja koja su uključena u ovaj broj časopisa i mislimo da baš to daje posebnu vrijednost i zanimljivost. I na taj način pokušavamo, a u smislu kako je rekao Konfucije, donijeti razne ideje i ugraditi ih u ovu malenu planinu zvanu Acta Kinesiologica. Nama koji se po njoj penjemo ne malu pomoć daju autori, urednici, recenzenti, čitatelji, a od ove godine i Thomson Reuters. Hvala svima, uporno ćemo nositi našu „kanticu“ i nastaviti graditi dalje.

Izvršni Urednik Izv.Prof.dr.Dobromir Bonacin

Lozovina, M. et al.: Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 7-18

PHYSIOLOGY OF APNEA WITH EMPHASIS ON DYNAMICS OF 02 AND C02 IN THE ORGANISM AND SAFETY OF DIVE

Mislav Lozovina and Ana Mrdeža

University of Split, Faculty of Maritime Studies, Croatia

Preliminary scientific communication

Abstract Free diving (apnea) is the only purely anaerobic activity that man practices. During dives on his disposition remains a quantity of air and from it , which he has inside his lungs, bloodstream and tissues during the last breath before diving. During dives he exploits oxygen for metabolic processes and additional muscle work and its partial is constantly falling while at the same time there is an increase in the of carbon dioxide. When diving in a liquid medium (water), under the action of hydrostatic pressure, he is in a constant state of and the gases in the body of a free dive are under pressure, or their partial , by following certain rules of behavior of gases under pressure, regulating the duration of the apnea, and thus the safety of the dive. The aim of this paper is to become closely acquainted with all the facts about the physiological processes during the dives taking place in organic systems of free divers as to allow safe diving and avoid incidental situation, which has enabled the synergy of medical and technical sciences in explaining this complex and dangerous human activity.

Key words: apnea, , partial pressure of oxygen, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, dynamics of gases.

Introduction

Snorkelling, apnea, is the most widely used these facts, it is necessary to examine in detail all technique of diving. In its original form is the changes taking place within the organism. A performed without any equipment. With adequate dive in apnea leads to differences in lung volumes mental and physical fitness, individuals can dive to and lung capacities, and special attention should be depths of up to 200 meters, and stay under water paid to the dynamics of oxygen and carbon dioxide for several minutes. Although diving in apnea is the in inspirational apnea of which is discussed in this most widespread and technically simplest form of paper. When diving in apnea, if you ignore the diving, from a physiological point of view it is the warning '' hunger for air and the need for breath '' most complex and unknown and contains traps. It and went on to sleep, and if there is a critical level, sounds unbelievable and absurd that in apnea often it is very likely that will fail to come up to victims are experienced and very well trained the surface. In these cases it is necessary to know divers with long history of diving. The reason is that the methods and ways of reviving, be it on a blue they hold their breath the longest and achieve or pale man. The purpose of this paper is maximum depth but from defective knowledge and to get closely acquainted with all factors of overconfidence do not comply with the strict regime physiological processes during the dives take place brought to the incidental situation, most often with in organic systems of divers as well as security a fatal outcome (Drviš, I., Katowice, D., Viskić- measures that allow safe diving within recreational, Štalec, N., Grcic-Zubčević, 2006, Lozovina, N., sporting or professional snorkelling. All living 2001, Gošović, S., 1956). It is prohibited to engage organisms carry out the exchange of gases with in dives before the diver is thoroughly acquainted their surroundings. This exchange is known as with the physiology and pathology of apnea, as well and . Life support person as measures to prevent incidents (drowning inhales air (a gas mixture consisting of nitrogen, threatening). Training of a free diver starts by oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases and water introducing the process of breathing by which living vapor). Breathing in this mixture in the pulmonary organisms carry out with the process through the alveolar-capillary environment. In order to fully understand the membrane and to which the haemoglobin binds the process of breathing is necessary to know the oxygen, was supplied with oxygen through the respiratory detail, their construction and function, bloodstream all tissues of any working of the both at and elevated in the sleep mode or the additional pressure conditions which increase in depth work of any kind. increases. The different behavior of gases and the differences in their partial pressures, in particular The breathing process oxygen and carbon dioxide in certain circumstances can cause incidents with unlikely outcomes Breath is the oxygen transfer from the air cells of including death. It is important therefore to know the tissue and the transfer of carbon dioxide in the the gas legality by which gases behave, particularly opposite direction, e.g. cells from tissue to air. It is in terms of dives. Ultimately, when we meet with all the contrast biochemical definition of respiration,

7 Lozovina, M. et al.: Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 7-18 which is related to cellular respiration: the During this time the pressure in the lungs varies in metabolic process by which the organism takes the range of 0 to -1.2 mmHg, e.g. becomes slightly energy to the reaction of oxygen with glucose to negative. For maximum puff the diameter of the give water, carbon dioxide and adenosine chest increases by 20%. And the average number triphosphate (ATP) - energy. Although physiologic of normal breaths per minute is 12, and the volume respiration is necessary to sustain cellular of air inhaled in one breath is about 500 respiration and thus the life of living creatures, ml. Respiratory minute volume or amount of air different processes: cellular respiration takes place that passes through the lungs in one minute is thus in individual cells of living organisms, and is an average of 6 liters. In the passive phase of the physiologically concerned by the flow of breath and external breathing - exhaling, the diaphragm is a metabolite of the organism and the external lifted and the chest walls are tapered, leading to environment. In single-celled organisms, simple increase of pressure inside the lungs. Once the diffusion is sufficient for gas exchange, each cell is glottis opens, the pressure inside the lungs pushes always in contact with the external environment, the air, together with the liberated carbon dioxide the short distance travelled by the gases must in the blood back into the atmosphere. pass. In return, complex multicellular organisms such as humans have a greater distance between the environment and their internal cells, and for this reason the respiratory system required for effective gas exchange. Respiratory system operates in line with the vascular system of the gases in the tissue.

There are four main functions of respiration: Pulmonary ventilation, which means the air flows in both directions between the atmosphere and the alveoli, Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood, Oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood and body fluids and body tissues give the regulation of ventilation Picture 1. Representation of inspiration and and other aspects of respiration. expiration (http://www.joga.rs/disanje).

Breathing represents a spontaneous, rhythmic Internal respiration is a process that takes place at mechanical process. Muscle contraction and the tissue and cellular level, in which oxygen-rich relaxation during breathing by the moving gas from blood oxygen use, and returning it to carbon the atmosphere into the lungs, and vice versa, dioxide. This mechanism is known as the metabolic which give the body the gaseous medium for the process of energy production necessary for life. exchange of gases. It consists of two actions, Internal or cellular respiration takes place inhalation and exhalation. gradually, in several steps, which results in a conversion of energy stored in molecules of glucose External breathing takes place in the alveoli of the into usable chemical energy in the form of ATP. The lungs. Air, oxygen-containing atmosphere from a nervous system adapts to the size of alveolar mechanical process of breathing has lung ventilation needs of the organism. As a result, the alveoli. From the inspired air into the alveoli, pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are a oxygen diffuses into the blood stream. At the same minimal change in the heavy load of the respiratory time, the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the system. The respiratory center of the medulla venous blood passes the alveoli where the exhaled oblongata and pons (bridge-connects on the air to leave the lungs. The cycle of breathing is an medulla midbrain), and the regulation of respiration unconscious process that is constantly repeated, to be continuous sending pulses. Respiratory center unless it is due to disturbance of consciousness is divided into three major classes of neurons: disturbance occurred in its regulation. dorsal respiratory group of neurons that monitors respiration rate and breath rate, ventral respiratory External breathing takes place in two phases: The group of neurons that can cause the inhalation and active phase- Inhalation representing movement of exhalation, and the pneumotaxy center which limits air to the lungs. It is caused by the expansion of the duration of inhalation and increasing the the chest wall and by lowering the diaphragm. Lung frequency of breathing. Chemosensitive area of the volume increases and therein establishes a low respiratory center is sensitive to changes in the pressure. Because the higher pressure from the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and the hydrogen outside, the air penetrates into the lungs. In the ion in blood, and the area other parts course of quiet breathing intrapleural pressure induces the respiratory center. In addition to the (fluid pressure in the narrow space between the respiratory center, respiratory activity and control lung and pleural empyema thorax) below of the peripheral chemoreceptors They are atmospheric at the beginning of inhalation is about important to detect changes in blood oxygen -2.5 mm Hg and reduced to approximately -6 concentration, and although less responsive to mmHg at the end of inhalation. changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide and

8 Lozovina, M. et al.: Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 7-18 hydrogen ions, and they send nerve signals to the the other side of the throat. The main role of the respiratory center (Bucks, D., 2015). The ultimate pharynx, in the process of breathing, is to receive goal is maintenance of favorable breathing oxygen air from the nose and mouth and warm it to body concentration, carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in prior to its entry into the respiratory the body fluids. Increase in carbon dioxide or system. Larynx is an organ located in the center hydrogen ions affect the respiration so as irritating line of the front of the neck, which is used for to the respiratory center and cause the removal of breathing, voice formation and protection of the excess respiratory gas acceleration. Control of respiratory system during ingestion. It is built of carbon dioxide can be feedback mechanism, so that muscle, cartilage and connective tissue. Three of in the course of pneumonia, emphysema and other the anatomical larynx: Coil (lat. Glottis), the space lung diseases, this system can increase the alveolar above the vocal cords (lat. Supraglottis), and the ventilation 5-7 times. (Boskovic, M., 1964, space below the coil (lat. Glottis). A special role has Kleoncic, M., 2007., Hrašćan, R., 2915., Guyton, the protection cover (lat. Epiglottis), preventing the A.C.; Hall, J. E., 2012). tip ends of the larynx and trachea still, e.g. prevent aspiration and possibly suffocation. For safe and smooth diving in apnea, it is crucial to understanding the structure and function of the The trachea is a tube through which air flows in the respiratory organs. The respiratory system consists bronchial tubes, the inner diameter 20 to 25 mm, of the airways, and organs that bring the and length 10-16 cm. It extends from the larynx to atmosphere into the body. It is divided into upper the primary bronchus, is made up of cartilage rings and lower respiratory system. Upper respiratory 15-20 C shaped securing the front and the side of tract to form the nose, paranasal sinuses, pharynx the trachea. The lungs (pulmones) are the main (lat. Pharynx) and the larynx (lat. Larynx) and the body of the respiratory system. They are located bottom constitute the trachea (lat. Trachea), within the thoracic cavity, and take her the most bronchi (lat. Bronchi) and lung (lat. Pulmones). part. are protected by the ribs. Comprise the make (lat. Pulmo sinister) and right (lat. Pulmo dexter) lung. Left lung has two, right and three lobes (lat. Lobe) which are further divided into lobules (lat. Lobules). Outside the lungs are enveloped in a membrane called the pleura (pleura). The inner part of the membrane which covers the lungs, called the visceral pleura (pleura) and the external covering lining the chest is parietal pleura.

Lungs are placed against the lower part of diaphragm (diaphragm) - muscle baffle located between the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Bronchus or bronchi (lat. Bronchus) formed at the lower end of the trachea, which is divided into the left main bronchus, which leads to the left lung and the right main bronchus, which leads to the right lung. Each main bronchus enters the lung, where it continues to branch into lobar bronchi (secondary bronchi). The main left bronchus is divided into two lobar bronchi, and the Picture 2. Composition of respiratory organs right main bronchus in three lobar bronchi, each for (http://www.ospopovaca.skole.hr/8bd/organi/docu a slice. Next, each lobar bronchus within its lobe ments/29.html). divided into segmental bronchus (second lobe bronchus), which are further divided in the tertiary The oral nasal passage consists of the lips, mouth, bronchus, bronchiole, from which the (lat. nostrils and nasal cavity. Nasal passage is lined Bronchiole), and further the terminal bronchioles with mucosa, such as the ciliary epithelium covered (lat. Bronchiole TERMINALES). (with hair cell layer), whose primary role of filtering and humidifying the air. Mechanical impurities from Bronchioles are different from the bronchus They the inspired air are retained in the oral cavity and do not contain cartilage and glands in their the nasal epithelium in a moist, where the walls. Further branching bronchioles leads to ductal mechanically removed from the nose and mouth lines (lat. Ductule alveolares), whose walls consist (coughing, sneezing, saliva) or ingestion. In the of alveoli. The basic building block of the lung is the nose and mouth air is heated and moistened by the acinus, in which enters one terminal bronchioles steam, before it reaches the lungs. If man breathed which further branch into smaller segments with air through the common pipe, dry cool air reaching the alveoli. In the alveoli, the gas exchange takes the lower parts of the lung, was favorable to place. Each lung lobules (lat. Lobules) consists of infection. The air that enters through the nasal fifteen acini. The wall of the alveolar ducts and cavity is better filtered air of one who enters alveoli is built from flat cells (pneumocytes type 1 through the mouth. The throat is a body cavity that and type 2) through which gas exchange takes connects to one side of the oral cavity, nose, and place. Withim the single alveoli are capillaries and

9 Lozovina, M. et al.: Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 7-18 leading carbon dioxide that is and residual volume. This is the quantity of air released, and the oxygen inhaled, to other organs. remains in the lungs after normal expiration (about Normally, about 97% oxygen from the lungs to the 2300 mL). Vital capacity is the sum of inspiratory tissue transmitted chemically is combined with reserve volume, expiratory respiratory volume and hemoglobin. The remaining 3% of oxygen dissolved the reserve volume. This is the maximum amount in water is transferred plasma and blood cells. (M. of air that a person can from the lungs, and at Boskovic 1964). first inhales maximally and then exhales maximally (about 4600 mL). The total lung capacity is the Pulmonary ventilation and capacity maximum volume to which the lungs can be stretched best effort (about 5800 ml), and equals To further understand the behavior of the human the sum of the vital capacity and the residual body of the apnea, and particularly for volume. All of lung volumes and capacities in understanding the relationship of oxygen and women are less than men in the 20 to 25% and carbon dioxide, pulmonary ventilation should be higher in those with an athletic built, than in low, clarified. The aim of this chapter is to explain in asthenic person (Guyton & Hall, 2012). more detail the terms of lung volume and lung capacity. The gases within the lungs behave differently at sea level and at certain depths. For easier understanding of all processes that take place in this section is worked out a process of movement of the molecules within the body, partial pressures affecting the regular pulmonary ventilation and can explain that the human body is exposed to a certain depth when diving in apnea.

Pulmonary ventilation can be studied by recording the volume of air entering the lungs or from the method comes spirometry. A spirometer consists of a drum, which is immersed in a container with water and a balanced . In the drum of the gas mixture for inhalation, typically air or oxygen, Picture 3. Representation of lung volumes and and a tube that connects the chamber with the capacities (Guyton & Hall, 2012). mouth. During inhalation and exhalation drum is raised and lowered, and to kymograph the recorded After the alveoli ventilated with fresh air, the curve of these movements. Shows change in respiration process is followed by an oxygen spirometry lung volume in different embodiments diffusion in the lung alveoli from the blood and of breathing. To help show pulmonary ventilation, carbon dioxide diffusion into the opposite direction, the air in the lungs is divided on the diagram in from the pulmonary blood into the alveoli. All gases four different volumes and four kinds of apacity. which are discussed in the physiology of breathing When you add them up, give the maximum volume simple molecules move freely among one another, to which the lungs can stretch. Meaning of each and this process is called diffusion. This is as true volume can be defined like this: tidal volume is the for gases dissolved in fluids and tissues of the volume of air inhaled and exhaled in any normal body. For the diffusion of the required energy respiration and male adults is about 500 ml. source, and that is the kinetic motion of the Inspirational reserve volume is maximum extra molecules themselves. Except above absolute zero, volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal in all the molecules of all substances is constantly respiratory volume when the subject inhales moving. If the chamber in a gas or in a in strongest and typically is about 3000 ml. one side of the gas of the large and small on the other, the net diffusion of gas will Expiratory reserve volume is the maximum amount occur from areas of high concentration to the area of additional air which, after normal exhalation by of lower concentration. The cause of this happening forcing exhaled breath can be, but normally is is evident; there are many more molecules in left about 1100 ml. Residual volume is the amount of field that diffuses toward right field, but molecules air remaining in the lungs even after the strongest that diffuse in the opposite direction. exhalation. The average volume is about 1200 ml. When describing events in the pulmonary cycle The pressure applied to a surface formed from the is sometimes desirable to consider together two or continuous striking of the surface molecules that more of said volumes. Such combinations are are moving. Therefore, the gas pressure acting on referred to as lung capacity. Inspiratory capacity the surface of the airways and alveoli is equals to the sum of the respiratory volume and proportional to the overall average force applied all inspiratory reserve volume. This is the amount of molecules of that gas in the given time hitting the air (about 3500 mL) that a person can breathe in, surface. This means that the pressure is directly starting from the level of normal expiration and proportional to the concentration of gas stretching to the full lung size. Functional residual molecules. In the physiology of breathing it is a gas capacity is the sum of expiratory reserve volume mixture consisting of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon

10 Lozovina, M. et al.: Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 7-18 dioxide and at least in part of a noble gas and from the pulmonary blood into the alveoli. And water vapor. Size diffusion of each of the gases is fourth, dry atmospheric air entering the airways proportional to the administrative pressure that and is moistened before it reaches the alveoli. creates the gas and called its partial pressure Oxygen is continuously absorbed from the alveoli (Guyton & Hall, 2012). and blood of pulmonary capillaries and alveoli in inhalation constantly entering new oxygen from the atmosphere. As quickly absorbed oxygen, its concentration in the alveoli becomes smaller. Conversely, the faster a new atmosphere of inhaled oxygen in the alveoli, its concentration becomes higher. Therefore, the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli, and therefore its partial pressure, determined the rate at which oxygen is absorbed into the blood and the speed with which new oxygen enters the pulmonary ventilation process.

Carbon dioxide is constantly produced in the body; Picture 4. Representation of diffusion the blood is transferred to the pulmonary alveoli and from there continuously removes What you should know about pressures ventilation. Alveolar pressure of carbon dioxide is increased directly proportional to the rate of The term partial pressure can be clarified as excretion of carbon dioxide, while the alveolar follows. Take the example of air, consisting of 79% pressure of carbon dioxide decreases inversely nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The total pressure of proportional to alveolar ventilation. Thus, the this mixture at sea level amounts to 101.3 concentration and partial pressure of oxygen and kPa. From the previous description of the molecular carbon dioxide in the alveoli determine the intensity basis of the pressure it is clear that each gas of absorption or excretion of these gases, and the contributes to the overall pressure in proportion to size of the alveolar ventilation (Albano, G., 1963, its concentration. Thus, 79% of 101.3 kPa derived Gosovic, S., 1990, Lozovina, V., 1991,). from nitrogen (80 kPa), and 21% of oxygen (about 21.3 kPa). Therefore, the partial pressure of Behavior and operation of media (water) in nitrogen in the mixture was about 80 kPa, and the free dive conditions oxygen partial pressure of 21.3 kPa. The total pressure is 101.3 kPa, which is the sum of the All laws which are processed below explain the individual partial pressures (According to Guyton & behavior of air, e.g. gas that makes the diving Hall, 2012). conditions in apnea. Hypoxia is the professional title for the lack of oxygen in the blood and tissues. It The partial pressure of each gas in the alveolar gas occurs due to reduced oxygen partial pressure in mixture of respiration seeks to suppress that gas the inhaled air or oxygen being unable to be used molecules in solution into the blood-alveolar in the body. The human body is adapted for life in capillaries. In contrast, the molecules of the same air under pressure of about one bar, in which gas that are already dissolved in the blood oxygen is present to 20.8%. This percentage randomly moving in the fluid in the blood, and corresponds to a partial pressure of 0.208 bar. If some of these molecules back into the alveoli. Size the observation limits this force per unit area of restoring administrative molecule is proportional to 1m², we come to the concept of its partial pressure in the blood. Net-diffusion pressure. Therefore, the pressure is expressed by a depends on the difference between two partial unit called Pascal (Pa), and means Newton per pressures. If the partial pressure of free gas within square meter. In use are those and other units of the alveoli higher, which normally applies to measurement: bar (bar), normal atmosphere oxygen, then more molecules diffuses into the (atm), technical atmosphere (at) kilogram per blood than in the opposite direction. Conversely, if square centimeter (kg / cm²), millimeter of the partial pressure of the dissolved gas in the mercury (mmHg or Torr). It is known that the higher levels, which normally applies to the carbon percentage refers gases in the air does not change dioxide, occurs the net diffusion of the alveoli. in the atmosphere is not at high altitudes. However, general air pressure and partial The concentration of gases in the alveolar air is not pressures of gases in it are lawfully reduced. As the in any case equal to the concentration in the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level, taken atmospheric air, which can easily be seen by from the pressure 1013 hPa = 1 atm, although the comparing the composition of the alveolar air with actual pressure varies depending on the location a composition of atmospheric air. This difference is and weather conditions. The atmospheric pressure due to several reasons. First, with each breath the is reduced due to reduction of non-linear air density alveolar air is only partially replaces the with increasing altitude. Liquid from solids differ in atmosphere. Secondly, from the alveolar air oxygen that they are poorly interconnected particles is continuously absorbed into the pulmonary (cohesive), and is easy to run and oppositely while blood. Third, carbon dioxide continuously diffuses they may be of different density and gravity.

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Due to its own weight, have internal hydrostatic of gas and the proportionality constant R. Law liquid pressure, which is transmitted and applied to describes the simultaneous isothermal (T = the outside of the body. Hydrostatic pressure is a constant) and the pressure change of gas volume. result of the weight of the liquid; each particle is Mentioned equations are valid only in the strict exposed to a pressure of all the other particles sense of the 'ideal gas'', e.g., the gas in which the above it. According to the direction of action it can molecules do not occupy space even interact with be divided into the pressure toward the bottom, some power. However, for the purpose and hips and upward. A free diver stays and their conditions of explaining the behavior of gases at activity was carried out in a medium of fresh or salt , are considered to be sufficiently precise. water. Table 1. Representation of relative pressure change Hydrostatic pressure is part of the environment for on every 5 m the diver. The hydrostatic pressure is the pressure (http://www.submania.hr/index.php/ronjenje-na- of the water column above the diver's body. The dah/fiziologija-i-medicina/17-pregled-plinskih- pressure of the water column does not include the zakona). atmospheric pressure. Dive depth increases, the increasing weight of the water column, the pressure Relative of which is exposed to the diver rises. This increase Depth range pressure in pressure is linear, and can be calculated for each change depth, if known density of water in which to 0m – 5m 50% 5m – 10m 33% dive. The Adriatic Sea has a density of 1026 kg / 10m – 15m 25% m³. To a certain depth h will determine the 15m – 20m 20% hydrostatic pressure, calculating the force acting on 20m – 25m 17% an area of 1 m². This force is determined by 25m – 30m 14% multiplying the weight of the column of water (the 30m – 35m 12% sea) of g, e.g. with a standard acceleration of 35m– 40m 11% gravity, according to the known formula F = mg. Water column weight can be obtained as the Dalton's law is about the pressure of the gas product of the column volume and density of the mixture, which is essential for divers to sea. breathe. Law applies particularly to the air, which is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and If we take into account that the volume of this other gases with a smaller ratio. Dalton's law column by an amount equal to his height, since it is states: '' The total pressure of the gas mixture the base of 1 m², the calculation looks like this: the equals the sum of the partial pressures of each gas pressure of the water column at a depth of 10 ''. The partial pressure of a gas in the mixture equal meters is 10 m³ x 1026 kg / m³ x 9, 81 m / s² = to the pressure that would have the same amount 1006 hPa; e., about 0.993 atm. At a depth of 20 of the gas that, if he would make the whole volume meters this pressure is twice as big, and it can be occupied. Expressed formula partial pressure of the concluded that the increase in depth of 10 meters, gas X in the mixture is equal to the product of the pressure increases to about 1 general pressure and percentage of this gas atmosphere. Calculation of the atmosphere should mixture divided by 100. Dalton's law is very be added to 1 atmospheric pressure, and to finally important in diving because it determines the obtain the calculation which tells us that the depth behavior of individual gases from the air mixture in of 10 meters operating hydrostatic pressure of the process of breathing. about 2 atmospheres, at a depth of 20 meters hydrostatic pressure of 3 atmospheres, etc. Dalton's law does not describe fully the real gases. The differences are especially large at high , 1662, experimentally found that the pressures when the molecules are very close to gas pressure increases if it is compressed to a each other, and come to the fore intermolecular smaller volume. Therefore, the gas pressure is force, and changing a pressure value. Henry's law inversely proportional to its volume. Depth range says the of gases in liquids. The and relative change in pressure 0m - 50% 5m, 5m dissolution of oxygen in the blood and release of - 10m 33%, 10m - 15m 25%, 15m - 20m 20%, carbon dioxide from the blood are a key part of the 20m - 25m 17%, 25m - 30m 14%, 30m - 35m breathing process. Henry's Law states: '' at a 12%, 35m- 40m 11%. This law determines the constant temperature, the amount of a gas to be behavior of gases that are contained in the human dissolved in the liquid is proportional to the body in various cavities, since it is during the dive pressure ''. If it is a mixture of gases, each gas in it exposed to frequent changes in pressure due to is acting independently. Thus, the gas mixture will changes in depth. Guillaume Amontons, 1700, dissolve in a liquid, as long as each gas mixture stated that no gas pressure is proportional to which makes that it reaches the same pressure as temperature: likewise it has empirically been there is in the gas mixture. The dissolution rate of a known that the volume of gas is increased by particular gas is proportional to the pressure heating. Proportionality of volume with difference of this gas in the liquid and beyond. This temperature, with the foregoing principles, is law is necessary good knowledge and transformed to the gas equation Joseph Louis Gay- understanding with snorkeling because it explains Lussac: P. R = m T (where m is the molar volume the alveolar gas exchange, which poses a threat to

12 Lozovina, M. et al.: Physiology of apnea with emphasis on dynamics of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 7-18 divers if not thoroughly familiar with it (Meter, J., Changes in the functioning of the senses 2007, Schagaty, E. Andersson, J., 2014.). The during apnea modern era of snorkeling began with and , disproving the theory of the During a dive in apnea occurs series of significant then medicine on depth limits for people. Since that changes: The change in the functioning of the time, medicine has made considerable progress in body's senses, changes in the values of pressure in explaining the physiological phenomena that are closed cavities of the head, Changes in the heart important for snorkeling. Today, no equipment, and the condition of the vascular system, changes partly or fully equipped (mask, , fins, in the balance of body fluids, changes in the isothermal suit, , security buoy) dive million pressure gradient along the gastrointestinal tract, people. In apnea diving is done spontaneously changes in body heat, changes in maintaining usually from recreational initiative. euglycemia, Changes in the scope and intensity of muscle activity, and the most important changes in Apnea is always the first stage of training lung volumes and lung capacities, and in the values autonomous divers. In addition to recreational and of partial pressure in the lungs. sport competition application, snorkeling has safety significance. Security purposes are reflected in the Man hears sound in two ways. Sound is vibrations self-rescue or rescue others in the water. in the atmospheric air (direct conductivity) beyond a speed of 300 m / s, and encourage vibration of This technique, if you know the general and special the eardrum and cause resonance of skull bones procedures, may be more effective to save the (bone conductivity), and thus sound vibrations defenseless people at risk of drowning, leaving the transmitted to the inner ear where stimulate the car sank, sinking ship or help people who are in organ of hearing. Recognition direction (with an them. This technique, in its somewhat modified accuracy of 1 to 3 degrees) from where the sound form, is used for safe emergence for difficult diving is coming, based on the fact that the brain is able in the absence of air or failure of the autonomous to detect extremely small, to 0.03 milliseconds, the diving apparatus (Lozovina, 2001). difference in arrival time of sound in that ear which is further away from the sound source of the ear Although free diving is the most widespread and which is closer. In aqueous medium, air technically the simplest form of diving, it is from conductivity is impossible. In addition, sound the physiological point of view the most complex vibrations are five times faster spread in water than and unknown. Despite the simplicity of diving in in air, and the less absorbed than in the apnea, in general, and especially in some forms of air. Consequently, the water sound vibrations competitive diving (diving to the maximum time, almost simultaneously come to the organs of maximum depth or distance traveled) and certain hearing in both ears; it is difficult to ascertain the work activities (fishing, photo safari), it is very position of a sound source. In short, sound in the dangerous. It sounds incredible and absurd that in water is heard better, but it is harder to determine free diving far often victims experienced and very the direction from which it comes. well trained divers with long diving-serving. The reason is that they no longer hold your breath In the water, in the depth, visibility achieving the greatest depth and long retention decreases. Visibility is reduced due to absorption of under water. (Lozovina, 2001). light (speed of absorption is proportional to the amount of dissolved or suspended particles), and In practice, we will dive exclusively in inspirational thus the depth of 5 meters the intensity of sunlight apnea, which means that divers use the air is reduced to one fourth, and of 15 m in an eighth retained in the lungs after a maximal value of the surface. The absorption of light is not inhalation. The duration and depth depend on many the same for all parts of the spectrum, so that the factors: age, gender, vital capacity, physical color red is losing already at 3 meters deep, orange fitness, motivation, alertness, pressure and to 5 meters deep, yellow at 10 meters, and the ambient temperature. In normal atmosphere, the blue and green at 30 meters depth. Visual acuity is duration of the apnea, the average man is from 30 impaired because of the amount of dissolved to 60 seconds. In inspirational apnea, on average, particles and significantly less pronounced men can hold their breath longer than women. refraction. In order to improve the visual acuity of the water, between the eye and the water is placed Apnea can be extended by hyperventilation, flat glass mask with a refractive index of light reinforced, deep and rapid breathing before holding beams 1,5, which at the same time isolated from the breath for 3-4 minutes. Apart from water layer around the air. Mask acuity becomes hyperventilation, apnea can be extended and satisfactory, but due to a stronger refraction of light inhaling pure oxygen at more than 24.03 minutes rays, the objects in the water appear closer to a (the owner of the record is Aleix Segura), and the quarter and increased by one-third. application of modern techniques of ventilation and In the middle ear and sinuses during descent relaxation at nearly 11.35 minutes (the owner of creates a vacuum that needs to be equalized or record Stephane Misfud). The average man diving reversed. Otherwise you may damage the lining of on the breath to a depth of 3-4 meters, a trained walls of these cavities, which are more pronounced breath-hold divers to depths of 25 meters in apnea, the higher downforce, and that exposure lasts which takes about two minutes. longer.

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Because of high blood pressure, the thorax stages of immersion of the whole body in the water decreases, so its volume decreases (and so do lung gradually increasing the by diving volumes), which promotes the inclusion of a into the depths. Phase measurements of subjects protective mechanism, the centralization of blood were: basic phase of the water - A submerged body flow. Hydrostatic pressure water density and with the head out of the water - B, and the head mechanically displace blood from the abdomen and body with the immersion snorkel crust on the lower extremities, and the cold water improves surface, C-head and body immersed in the water compression of peripheral blood vessels, reducing on the surface of the apnea, D - Diving apnea at a blood flow to the limbs, and thus contributes to depth of 5 meters. All the time measured by heart centralization of the blood. The chest cavity and rate, left ventricular volume and cardiac thus can arrive over a liter of blood, which fill the output. Data analysis revealed a significant space created by reducing the volume of the reduction in the left ventricle (systolic and lungs. Thus significantly reduce the possibility of diastolic), cardiac output and heart rate. Especially crushing the thorax and organs that it contains as the cardiac output was lower stage diving at a the incompressible blood and any other liquid. depth of 5 m (D) than in the other phases of research. This mechanism of redistribution of blood, circulatory centralization, contributes to facilitating dives that are deeper than dives that can be calculated knowing the value of residual volume to surface. Centralization of circulation increased inflow of blood to the heart, allowing 30% higher cardiac output while reducing the heart rate - bradycardia mediated stimulation of the vagus nerve. The role of vagal is very important because the center of the regulation of the heart transmits data collected: Thermoreceptors in skin which increase the price of immersion in cold water, the baroreceptors of the skin which increases the price of increased hydrostatic pressure exerted thereon during the immersion, baroreceptor lung are stimulated by change in volume of the lungs due to the change lung volume due to size changes of the thorax due to elevated hydrostatic pressure. Picture 5. Representation of minute heart volume in different phases of dive (Baksa, 2015). The increase in blood volume in the thoracic cavity increases the pressure in the left atrium volume It seems that immersion of the body in the water which stimulates receptors in its wall with a and breath holding only contributes to marginal consequent reduction in the secretion of anti- cardiological changes, but the increase in diuretic hormone (ADH), resulting in immersion hydrostatic pressure shows highly responsible for (urination).Thus the usual urine output can such chemodynamic changes (D. 2015 Bucks). increase up to five times, which may lead to dehydration with consequent hypovolemia An increased hydrostatic pressure, into the (decreased blood volume in the circulation which abdominal wall and the abdominal cavity moves the occurs due to the stronger bleeding or because of contents of the chest cavity. By changing the strong dehydration) and hypotension (means low position of the body by the action of hydrostatic blood pressure) or to ( decrease in pressure, changes the pressure gradient along the body temperature at less than 35 ° C) as one liter intestinal tract, so that the pressure gradient of urine output decreases the body temperature of between the stomach and esophagus, that the 0,5 ° C. Sweating caused by increased muscular surface is about 6 mm Hg can be doubled after the exertion, and immersion diuresis wear body fluid dive. This can lead to the return of gastric contents for wetting of the inhaled air, to release of the into the esophagus, and is manifested heartburn or hypovolemia and hypotension, tachycardia vomiting. originating and thus increasing the oxygen consumption. (Guyton, A. C .; Hall, J. E, 2012). Reinforced muscle contraction produces a significant amount of heat, which drains water from Number of heartbeats per minute lower than 60 is the body 20 times faster than the air generates defined as bradycardia and represents a considerable heat. Then wear body heat to the deceleration of heart action. Recent research has heating of the inhaled air, and the decrease in shown that when people during a short breath- blood flow due to centralization of blood flow of the holding during a dive to a depth of 10 meters limbs, and immersion diuresis, to release of the occurs hemodynamic pattern qualitatively similar as hypothermia. The body then creates heat from in marine mammals. One such study (Marabotti et muscular exertion, tremors, which requires a very al. 2009 according to D. basks 2015) using Doppler large amount of energy provided by the available echocardiography (heart ultrasound) tested the glucose. Apart from hypothermia, it can lead to cardiovascular response of subjects in various overheating.

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Sudden immersion of an overheated body, for of people who have not experienced 'drowning' and example. After being in the sun in the neoprene poorly identified and bipolar distribution in the suit for a prolonged period, it can result in group of those who are experienced 'drowning' hydrocution - water shock. '. Results' drowned '' subjects were divided into two groups: those with poorer results and those with The supply body energy during snorkelling is good results in the measured variables. The necessary for markedly enhanced brain and measurement procedure includes a detection risk muscular work, especially during dives at greater criteria divers. Each participant who is on the depths. So when surfacing with greater depth simulator "drowned" more than twice in four should exceed a significant distance with attempts dives declared a potentially risky diver. overcoming resistance to movement through the water, which provide the gravitational force, the There have been cases of 4/70. Occurrence of viscosity of water and the weight of the water blackouts (3/70) simulator that had happened only column. Increased consumption of glucose with subjects with extremely good results in the pool inadequate compensation can lead to e.g. People with experience in diving. Among hypoglycaemia. Signs of hypoglycemia include subjects who achieved average results there were feeling of physical weakness, mental confusion and no incidents. The study authors concluded that distraction, irritability and numbness to the stimuli reasons 'drowning' of the respondents who have of the environment. Severe and prolonged made good and those who have achieved poor hypoglycemia can lead to death. results are obviously different. A group of underperformers ''drowns'' due to inexperience and Increased intensity of muscular work is also a poor assessment of personal skills. The group with feature of diving in apnea. Proper ventilation of the excellent results "drowns" because of overrated preparation of apnea involves intensive operation of capabilities. People with experience in diving the main (diaphragm) and auxiliary (intercostal, activities tested the limits of their abilities and that jugular, subclavian) of the respiratory muscles, and go beyond their capabilities. The harmless overcoming the increased in the laboratory measurements knowingly exposed to the functional snorkel. Work fins involve intensive use risk is to believe that the real undersea often can of powerful and large thigh muscles, with enter the incident situation. Trained and good consequent production of heat and sweating. Due divers in apnea are usually killed just because to the increased venous inflow, caused by the training high lift boundary psychological barriers centralization of blood flow, enhanced and work dangerously approaches the limits of their own muscles that always work tirelessly and never stop abilities. There are psychological profiles disqualify the heart. candidates for divers. Some of the possible causes of diving incidents psychological state Vranjković- In the study of virtual reality in kinesiology (no. Petri, Petri, Tomic (2002): These are the people 0034216 Institute of Technology), designed with claustrophobia, suicidal ideas, psychosis, in simulator for a competitive discipline in free diving, significant anxiety, severe depression, manic where all measurements are performed in the states, alcoholism, people taking drugs and virtual rather than real submarine, without the risk preparations changing mood and people with of death for patients. Computer with appropriate inadequate motivation for diving. (I Drviš, D. software, VR generates the underwater world, in Physical & Viskić-Štalec N., N. Grčić Zubčević-2006) which the subject can be subjected to different requirements. In order to experience immersion The most significant changes in the body during the respondents was as close to the real experience of dive in apnea is a steady decline in oxygen partial diving, the simulation involved a mechanical pulley pressure with an increase in the partial pressure of with anchor rope, whose pulling respondent carbon dioxide. Alveolar air gases in various stages receives tactile feel close to that on the way up to of descent are followed by a variety of volume the surface. Diving depth and speed promotion oscillations of the entire gas mixture. During the code depth, the diver follows that the HMD helmet, dive reduces their volume, increases density and are in line with the reality. As part of the partial pressures and, conversely, at the time of experiment, a sample of 70 students of the Faculty emergence will fall to them general and partial of Kinesiology in Zagreb was measured. pressures and increase the volume.

Measurements of the variables: (1) - After entering the maximum amount of air and then maximum duration of breath holding under water in the dive, the oxygen consumption of the metabolic the pool. (2) Variable weight - simulation processes and muscle contraction, partial pressure competition discipline diving in depth on the of oxygen in all tissues will decrease and the carbon breath. Subjects were divided into two functional dioxide is increased. Since the body have receptors categories based on the measurement results exclusively for the partial pressure of carbon (successful - less successful) that actually describe dioxide, when the value of the carbon dioxide rises the categories beginners / amateurs and licensed to the level of 6.2 kPa mentioned receptors will the sport divers / professionals). It was determined by central nervous system - the brain - send a warning which of the categories of "blends" in the virtual signal, which a free diver will see as "air hunger" or offshore. Established the normality of the the need for breath. This sensation should be taken distribution of the results of examinees in the group seriously and immediately begin to surface.

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Simultaneously with the increase of the partial he gave the first signal needs to breath and it is pressure of carbon dioxide, the oxygen partial about 12 psi will yield a second signal to be pressure decreases. As man has receptors to inhaled. This will unblock the glottis and during register the oxygen partial pressure decreasing, attempted breathing lungs will fill with water. Such free divers actually have indirect information that a drowning man is usually a blue color. When such the oxygen is near the critical limit. If free divers a drowning person out of the water followed by an ignore signal for inhalation purposes, this ignored attempt resuscitation classical methods of artificial apnea extends supple, carbon dioxide continues to respiration and cardiac massage and the time when rise, and oxygen fall. When the partial pressure of the establishment of autonomic function respiratory oxygen falls below 5.3 psi, which is equivalent to an and pulse or until signs of certain death. (In. amount of 5% oxygen at atmospheric pressure, Lozovina 2001). there will be unexpected blackouts, spontaneous automatic block of the epiglottis, and may or may Table 2. Death toll in snorkelling and technical not reach the heart block. Then free diver is in the diving in the period 2006 - 2016. stage threatening drowning, especially when he Deaths in dives. In a variation when it comes to passing out, Deaths in technical the epiglottis is blocked and heart failure in the snorkelling lungs will not penetrate water and we will have a diving 1 2,00 10,00 2006 chance of pale drowning. If we have such a Total Sum 2,00 10,00 drowning man when rescue access in time up to 4 1 8,00 2,00 2007 minutes from the moment of the incident after he Total Sum 8,00 2,00 was pulled to the surface, with a strong blow to the 1 2,00 7,00 2008 area of the heart it is possible to activate the heart Total Sum 2,00 7,00 1 7,00 6,00 and unblock the epiglottis. If this happens to a 2009 drowning man who is still unconscious on land, and Total Sum 7,00 6,00 1 5,00 4,00 if breathing and has a pulse call the 2010 Total Sum 5,00 4,00 paramedics. The second scenario is a scenario of 1 7,00 11,00 2011 blue drowning. This is a drowning man who fell into YEAR Total Sum 7,00 11,00 unconsciousness unannounced with blocked 1 3,00 5,00 2012 epiglottis but his heart continued to work. In these Total Sum 3,00 5,00 1 2,00 3,00 conditions the heart through the vascular system of 2013 oxygen from the blood is sent in all tissues that Total Sum 2,00 3,00 1 7,00 10,00 acute work, now in slow metabolism because 2014 Total Sum 7,00 10,00 muscles do not perform any work in the 1 7,00 10,00 2015 unconscious. In these conditions the oxygen partial Total Sum 7,00 10,00 pressure still falls and carbon dioxide 1 6,00 4,00 2016 increases. When the partial pressure of carbon Total Sum 6,00 4,00 dioxide rises to twice the value of those to whom Total Sum 56,00 72,00

Picture 6. Graphical representation of deaths in snorkelling and in the period 2006. - 2016.

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Previous content, which thoroughly processed Conclusion physiology of apnea, arose from the need to be interested in this activity, as potential divers to There is no safe diving in apnea in any diving breath, thoroughly acquainted with the theoretical activities (recreation and entertainment, sports and aspects of this discipline. How the diving complex competitive, professional and activities of military and dangerous activity is evident from the data divers, without thorough and good knowledge of reported in Table 2 and in Figure 6. Data are the theoretical foundations. In recent times synergy presented as obtained from official sources, of medical and technical achievements diving Croatian police services and search and rescue of activity has developed into a complex and the Ministry of Transport infrastructure Croatian respectable activity and established itself according Republic. Compared was the number of deaths in to professional and . diving with technical diving with compressed air followed by the period of 2006 to 2016 years. In Snorkelling, either as a sport, recreational or the mentioned period 56 divers were killed. In professional, is an extremely demanding activity technical diving the death toll is 72. The annual with required knowledge and skills such as mortality in apnea diver is 5.6 and 7.2 in technical extraordinary physical and mental readiness, but diving diver. An interesting fact is that all the dead also a thorough theoretical knowledge necessary to divers' death occurred in sport fishing and only one engage in this activity. The compelling and fatal case happened in the official sports continuous appropriate health surveillance competition. The sport fishing casualties have dived conducted specialized institutions in occupational alone, therefore without the possibility of them at medicine, sports medicine and Baroque. Training the beginning of the incident second diver ("pair") divers should attend institutions and organizations out of the incident situation and rescue of licensed for their training. As the training of divers drowning. This aspect of paired is a very complex job in this paper, we have only to unusual is important and should be the rule for segment anatomy and physiology in the function of both divers with small and for those with extensive theoretical explanations of complex or dangerous experience in sport fishing. In sports and activity if it is not addressed systematically and competitive diving, in all events, there is insurance comprehensively. Everything stated in this paper is in case of falling into the incident, the situation in directly a function of security in diving in the sense competitions number suffering fatal minimal. of preventing diving danger.

References

Albano, G. (1963). Fisiologia della respirazione in aria compressa [Physiology of compressed air breathing. In Italian.]. Annali di Medicina Navale, 7-8, 9-10. Baksa, D. (2015). Utjecaj treninga ronioca na dah na autonomni živčani sustav, diplomski rad [The impact of training divers on breath on the autonomous nervous system, thesis.]. University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology. Bošković, M. (1964). Anatomija čovjeka [Human anatomy. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Medicinska knjiga. Drviš, I., Katović, D., Viskić-Štalec, N., & Grčić-Zubčević, N. (2006). Detekcija rizičnih ronilaca u apneji [Detection of risky divers in free diving. In Croatian.]. Poreč: 15th Summer school of Kinesiology. Drviš, I. (2012). Učinci anaerobnog intervalnog treninga na natjecateljsku uspješnost u disciplini ronjenje na dah – dinamika, doktorska dizertacija [Effects of anaerobic interval training to competitive success in specialty diving -dynamics, PhD thesis. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology. Gošović, S. (1990). Ronjenje u sigurnosti [Safe diving. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Yugoslav Medical Edition. Gošović, S. (1956). Ronjenje u apnei [Free diving. In Croatian.]. Medicinski bilten Splitske A. O. 11, 1956. Gošović, S.(1975). Utjecaj temperature okoline na neurotoksično djelovanje kisika, doktorska disertacija [Impact of ambient temperature on the neurotoxic activity of oxygen, PhD thesis. In Serbian.]. Beograd: University of Beograd. Gošović, S., Marisavljević, T., & Stor, J. (1975). Utjecaj ambijentalnih uvjeta na trajanje pulsa inspiratorne apneje [The impact of environmental conditions on the pulse duration inspiratory apnea, In Serbian.]. Mornarički glasnik, 447-496. Gošović, S. (1977). Povišeni i sniženi atmosferski tlak [Elevated and lowered atmospheric pressure. In Bosnian.]. Medicina rada, 335-349. Guyton, A.C. & Hall, J.E. (2012). Medicinska fiziologija. [Medical physiology. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Medicinska naklada. Hrašćan, R. (2015). Disanje (Materijali za nastavu) [Breathing (teaching materials). In Serbian.]. Lozovina, V. (2001). Sportovi na vodi. Sveučilišni udžbenik [Water sports. Textbook. In Croatia.]. Split: University of Split. Schagaty, E., & Andersson, J. (2014). Diving response and apneisc time in humans, Undersea & Hyperbaric Med, 29(1-3), 125-140. *** Detić, D. (2007). Tjelesne promjene tijekom ronjenja na dah. [Bodily changes during snorkelling. In Croatian.]. Available at: http://www.submania.hr/index.php/ronjenje-na-dah/fiziologija-imedicina/18- tjelesne-promjene-tijekom-ronjenja-na-dah.

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*** Kleončić, M. (2007). Donji dišni sustav - Građa, funkcija i bolesti [Lower respiratory system - structure, function and diseases. In Croatian.]. Available at: http://www.submania.hr/index.php/ronjenje-na- dah/fiziologija-imedicina/15-donji-dini-sustav-graa-funkcija-i-bolesti. *** Kleončić, M. (2007). Gornji dišni sustav - Građa, funkcija i bolesti [Upper respiratory system - structure, function and diseases. In Croatian.]. Available at: http://www.submania.hr/index.php/ronjenje-na- dah/fiziologija-imedicina/16-gornji-dini-sustav-graa-funkcija-i-bolesti. *** Meter, J. (2007). Pregled plinskih zakona [Review of gas laws. In Croatian.]. Available at: http://www.submania.hr/index.php/ronjenje-na-dah/fiziologija-imedicina/17-pregled-plinskih-zakona.

FIZIOLOGIJA APNEJE S NAGLASKOM NA DINAMIKU O2 I CO2 U ORGANIZMU I SIGURNOST ZARONA

Sažetak Ronjenje na dah (apneja) jedina je čista anaerobna aktivnost koju čovjek upražnjava. Prilikom zarona na dispoziciji mu ostaje količina zraka, pa iz njega kisika, koju u trenutku zadnjeg udaha pred zaron ima u plućima, krvotoku i tkivima. Prilikom zarona kisik iskorištava za metaboličke procese i dodatni mišićni rad a njegov parcijalni pritisak stalno pada dok istodobno dolazi do porasta parcijalnog pritiska ugljičnog dioksida. Prilikom zarona u tekućem mediju (vodi), pod djelovanje hidrostatičkih tlakova, apnejaš se nalazi u stalnom stanju hipoksije a plinovi u organizmu apnejaša, pod tlakom, odnosno svojim parcijalnim tlakovima slijedeći određene zakonitosti ponašanja plinova pod tlakom, reguliraju vrijeme trajanja apneje a time i sigurnost zarona. Cilj ovog radajest pobliže upoznavanje sa svim činjenicama o fiziološkim procesima koji se tijekom zarona odvijaju u organskim sustavima apnejaša kao bi se omogućilo sigurno ronjenje i izbjegle incidentne situacija, što je omogućila sinergija medicinskih i tehničkih znanosti u objašnjenju ove složene i opasne ljudske aktivnosti.

Ključne riječi: apneja, dišni sustav, parcijalni tlak kisika, parcijalni tlak ugljičnog dioksida, dinamika plinova.

Received: February 16, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Assist.Prof.Mislav Lozovina, Ph.D. University of Split Faculty for Maritime studies 21000 Split, Domovinskog rata 8, Croatia Tel: +985 (0)21 393 500 E-mail: [email protected]

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EFFECT OF LADDER SPEED RUN AND REPEATED SPRINT ABILITY IN IMPROVING AGILITY AND SPEED OF JUNIOR SOCCER PLAYERS

Nining W Kusnanik1 and Ben Rattray2

1Faculty of Sport Science, Department of Sport Coaching, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia 2Faculty of Health, Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Canberra, Australia

Original scientific paper

Abstract The main purpose of study was to analyse the effect of ladder speed run and repeated sprint ability exercise in improving agility and speed. The research was conducted on 33 junior soccer players in Surabaya with age between 15 – 17 years old. There were three groups with 11 participants in each group: Group 1 was given treatment of ladder speed run, Group 2 repeated sprint ability, and Group 3 control group. Data was collected by testing of speed and agility using 30m sprint and Illinois agility test. Data was analysed using paired t-test and One Way Anova with α = 0,05. Results: There was a significant effect of ladder speed run exercise on speed and agility witht7.302>t 1.833 and t 7.872>t 1.883, respectively. In addition, there was a significant effect of repeated sprint ability on speed and agility with t7.934>t 1.833 and t8.693>t 1.833, respectively. There were significant differences between the three of groups in speed with t 6.281>t 3.35. Furthermore, there were significant difference between the three of groups in agility with t 3.473>t 3.35. Group 2 was better than Group 1 and Group 3 in increasing agility and speed. Conclusion: There was significant effect of ladder speed run and repeated sprintability in increasing agility and speed.

Key words: ladder speed run, repeated sprint ability, agility, speed, soccer players

Introduction

Physical fitness is very important for athletes in can be described as the ability of athletes to order to get high performance in their sports. There recover or maintain maximal effort during are some methods to improve agility and speed subsequent sprints, which is an attribute including ladder drills and repeated sprints. Ladder considered interspersed with brief recovery bouts drillis a training method that can be used to (≤30 seconds) (Turner, 2013). Repeated sprint improve speed, agility, and quickness. Athletes run ability is running at maximal speed with complete or jump quickly using ladder equipment in order to recovery between repetition. It means that the increase speed, agility, and quickness. Standard practice of repeated sprint ability is a form exercise equipment of ladder is about 10 yards length with with repeated sprint at maximum speed with using 18 inches each square, it can be constructed complete recovery period between the repetition. A by using rope, stick, or tape. The activities using practice running sprint are performed with ladder drills can make the body to respond rapidly maximum speed repeatedly interspersed with some level of movements that are used in the periods of recovery of origin between replicates competition. Enhancement of athletes speed, perfectly done. Exercise repeated sprint ability agility, and quickness can be done with some increase ATP-PC energy system by 90%, energy exercises including ladder drills. The advantages of systems LA and O2 of 6%, energy system by 4% O2 ladder drill exercises are speed legs that are (McKeag and Moeller, 2007).Practice repeated needed by athletes in order to change direction sprint abilityis a form of sprint exercises conducted quickly. In addition, it can prevent of injury, by the repeated sprint ability with maximum speed, stabilisation, coordination and explosiveness. There repeatedly punctuated by perfect rest periods are so many types of ladder drills, however in this (recovery) on every repetition. Speed drills can study using ladder speed run. Ladder speed run is a make huge physiological stress in athletes. Various drill ladder forms of exercise by running, factors that influence the speed is flexibility, body alternating feet into the ladder. Runners landed type, age, and body mass. In addition, the speed right leg and left foot alternately into the ladder can be built with sprint short distances (20-80 m) without any ladder box is missing. Repeated sprint done with high intensity (90-100% of the ability (RSA) have the same meaning as short maximum) with a long break of 3-5 minutes sprint training which one form of exercises to between repetitions, and 6-8 minutes between sets improve running speed with emphasis on the (Bompa and Haff, 2009). To measure the speed of development of speed (ATP-PC energy system) and the participants using 30 m sprint. Ladder speed muscle strength. Type of repetition sprints exercise run and repeated sprint ability are the training consist of repeat sprints at the maximum speed. methods that can increase physical fitness including The maximum speed can be reached at (~15-20 m agility and speed. Therefore, the main purpose of or steps 8-10), trunk upright position, speed and study was to analyzed the effect of ladder speed step length contributes to the speed of movement run and repeated sprint ability to improve agility (Bompa and Haff, 2009). Repeated sprint ability and speed in junior soccer players.

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Material and methods seconds (post test). In addition, the results found that mean speed of Group 3 was 4.730.20 The research was conducted at soccer field in seconds with a range of 4.98 – 4.36 seconds (pre Surabaya during 8 weeks periods with frequency of test) and 4.710.19 seconds with a range of 4.94 – 3 times a week. The participant of this study was 4.34 seconds (post test). The mean agility of Group 33 junior soccer players with mean age of 3 was 18.390.78 seconds with a range of 19.79 – 16.6.1.2 years old and range between 15 – 17 17.40 seconds (pre test) and 18.370.77 seconds years old. There were three groups with 11 with a range of 19.76 – 17.38 seconds (post test). participants in each group using ordinal pairing Those data showed that all the data increased from system. Group 1 was given treatment of ladder pre test to post test not only data for speed but speed run, Group 2 repeated sprint ability, and also agility. However, Group 3 was only slightly Group 3 control group. The treatment was 5 times increased compared to Group 1 and Group 2 in at week 1-2, then it was increased 6 times at week both speed and agility. The results of paired sample 3-4, 7 times at week 5-6, and 8 times at week 7-8. t-test found that speed variable was t 7.302>t 1.833. Set of the training was 3 set with interval recovery It means that there was a significant effect of 1:12. Group 2 was given repeated sprint ability ladder speed run exercise on speed. In addition, with intensity of 90-100% (weeks 1-4 were 90%; agility variable was t 7.872>t 1.883, it can be said that weeks 5-8 were 100%). Participtans did maximum there was a significant effect of ladder speed run sprint of 40m metres length with 10 repetitions and exercise on agility. Furthermore, data of speed interval of 15 seconds at each repetition. Group 3 variable showed that t 7.934>t 1.833, it means that was given conventional exercise. Data was there was a significant effect of repeated sprint collected by testing of speed using 30m sprint and ability on speed. Data on agility variable was t testing of agility using Illinois agility test. The best 8.693>t 1.833, it can be said that there was a time of 3 times trial was used as the data of agility significant effect of repeated sprint ability on and speed. One Sample Kolmogorov Smirnov was agility. This conveys an important finding that used to test the normality of the data. Lavene’s ladder speed run and repeated sprint ability have Test was used to test the homogenity of the data. significantly effect to improve agility and speed. Paired sampel t-test was used to analysis whether there was any difference in the mean of the two Table 1. One Way ANOVA Post-Test for Speed groups of samples in pairs. One Way Anova was between Groups used to test the average of more than two samples differ significantly or not. ANOVA

Sum of Mean Results df F Sig. Squares Square

Between 6,82 ,484 2 ,242 ,004 It is very crucial to know that results showed the Groups 1 mean speed of Group 1 was 4.650.23 seconds Within ,957 27 ,035 with a range of 5.08 – 4.12 seconds (pre test) and Groups 4.450.19 seconds with a range of 4.78 – 4.10 Total 1,441 29 seconds (post test). The mean agility of Group 1 was 18.400.85 seconds with a range of 19.54 – As clearly show in Table 1 that difference between 17.01 seconds (pre test) and 17.570.85 seconds three groups for speed was t6.281>t3.35 , it can be with a range of 18.68 – 16.22 seconds (post test). said that there were significant differences between The results also found that mean speed of Group 2 three of groups in speed. Clearly depicted in Table was 4.660.20 seconds with a range of 5.10 – 4.31 2 that post hoc test using Least Significant seconds (pre test) and 4.430.18 seconds with a Difference (LSD) showed that there were significant range of 4.85 – 4.22 seconds (post test). The mean difference between the three of groups. Group 2 agility of Group 2 was 18.440.84 seconds with a (repeated sprintability) was better than Group 1 range of 19.84 – 17.03 seconds (pre test) and (ladder speed run exercise) or Group 3 (control 17.520.78 seconds with a range of 18.86 – 16.28 group) in increasing speed.

Table 2. LSD Test for Speed

Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: Post test for speed LSD 95% Confidence Mean Difference Interval (I) Group (J) Group Std. Error Sig. (I-J) Lower Upper Bound Bound Repeated Sprint -,03600 ,03374 ,295 -,1052 ,0332 Ladder Speed Run Ability Group Control Group ,17700* ,03374 ,000 ,1078 ,2462 Ladder Speed Repeated Sprint ,03600 ,03374 ,295 -,0332 ,1052 Run Ability Control Group ,21300* ,03374 ,000 ,1438 ,2822 Ladder Speed * -,17700 ,03374 ,000 -,2462 -,1078 Run Group Control Group Repeated Sprint -,21300* ,03374 ,000 -,2822 -,1438 Ability Group *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

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Table 3. One Way ANOVA Post-Test for Agility Another crucial finding as clearly depicted in Table between Groups 3 showed that the results of one way Anova for agility between groups was t3.473>t3.35. ANOVA _ Table 4 indicated that there were significant Sum of Mean df F Sig. differences between the three of groups in agility. Squares Square

Between 3,47 4,525 2 2,263 ,045 Groups 3 Group 2 (repeated sprint ability) was better than Within Group 1 (ladder speed run exercise) or Group 3 17,590 27 ,651 Groups (control group) in increasing agility. Total 22,115 29

Table 4. LSD Test for Agility

Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: Post Test for Agility LSD Mean 95% Confidence Interval (I) Groups (J) Groups Difference Std. Error Sig. Lower Upper (I-J) Bound Bound Repeated Sprint Ladder Speed -,09900 ,05919 ,106 -,2204 ,0224 Ability Group Run Group Control Group ,34300* ,05919 ,000 ,2216 ,4644 Ladder Speed Repeated Sprint ,09900 ,05919 ,106 -,0224 ,2204 Run Group Ability Group Control Group ,44200* ,05919 ,000 ,3206 ,5634 Ladder Speed * -,34300 ,05919 ,000 -,4644 -,2216 Run Group Control Group Repeated Sprint -,44200* ,05919 ,000 -,5634 -,3206 Ability Group *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Disscusion and Conclusion at the maximum speed. Maximum speed can be reached with trunk upright position, running speed Speed is one component of physical condition that and stride length quickly. It is supported by Bompa is very important to be improved because it comes and Haff (2009)that describes the maximum speed to an athlete’s ability while using his mucles or reached at (~15-20 m or steps 8-10), trunk upright receives loads in particular work. While, agility is position, speed and step length contributes to the the ability of a person to be able to do some quickly speed of movement. Short duration of sprints that movements at the time of transfer from one type of less than 10 seconds, interspersed with brief movement to other movements mainly to change recoveries less than 60 seconds are very common the direction of movement without losing balance. during the game situation at most team or sports Agility is very important for a sport that requires a that use racket. Therefore, the ability to recover high adaptability to changes in the situation of the and to reproduce performance in subsequent game including soccer. In this agility components sprints is probably an important fitness requirement already included elements of dodge quickly, of athletes engaged in this disciplines (Girard, et al, changing the position of the body quickly, moving 2011). Agility with speed represents the first step then stop and continued to move quickly. Agility most significant motor skills of soccer players. and balance are the two factors which are Furthermore, soccer players requires to perform interrelated and needed to do sports activities numerous actions that require strength, power, (Ghosh, 2012). Agility is a component of physical speed, agility, balance, stability, flexibility, and condition that is very important in sport skills in endurance (Milanovic, et al, 2013). Both exercises which require rapid movements, stop quickly and can provide significant impact on the speed and changes direction quickly. Agility is the basis for a agility which are very important to have for soccer good performance in all kinds of sports. Ladder players. Soccer as a typical intermittent type sport, speed run repeated sprint ability are the training incorporates various ballistic motions methods that can increase speed and agility. These such as sprinting, kicking, jumping, accelerations or exercises can be applied for soccer players in order decelerations, tackling, changes of direction, and to have good performance during the games turning (Michailidis, et al, 2013).In soccer games especially for speed and agility. To develop agility such as tackle, block opponents and overcome performance should be based on applying the physical challenges to make the speed and agility ability to change direction of the body in a certain so important in soccer (Reilly, 2007). In constant position (change of direction) quickly so that a body will be required to perform the movement of soccer player can move faster and more agile while various degrees and joints. Therefore, the speed still maintaining control to the ball (Sporis, et al, and agility can be regarded as the dominant 2010).Repeated sprintability was better than ladder element in the game of soccer. Some of the ways speed run, it because of the training pattern of or methods of training can be used to support both movement seen that running with repeated sprints to improve the speed and agility of an athlete

21 Kusnanik, N. et al.: Effect of ladder speed run and repeated sprint ability in... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 19-22 including ladder speed run and repeated sprint agility of the soccer players. It can be concluded ability. It can be said that the two training methods that there was significant effect of ladder speed run that are ladder speed run and repeated sprint and repeated sprint ability exercise in increasing ability have a significant effect is true accordance agility and speed. Repeated sprint ability was better the existing theories. Of course, in practise can’t be than ladder speed run in improving speed and separated from the manifestation of the training agility. These findings highlight that repeated sprint principles applied in training of a specialized ability can be important as training method to training program in order to improve the speed and improve agility and speed for junior soccer players.

References

Ball Singh, B., Jeet Kaur, P, & Singh, D. (2011). Effect of A Short Term Plyometric Training Progam of Agility in Young Basketball Players, Brazilian Journal of Bimotricity, 5(4), 271-278. Bompa, T.O., & Half, G. (2009). Periodezation Theory and Methodology of Training, 5th edition. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. Girard, O., Villanueva, A.M., Bishop, D.J. (2011). Repeated Sprint Ability-Part II: Recommendation for Training, Sports Medicine, 41(8), 673-94. Kamen, G. (2001). Foundations of Exercise Science (edition 1). Amazon: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. McKeag, D. dan Moeller, B., & James, L. (2007). ACSM’s Primary Care Sports Medicine (second edition). Philadelphia: NAPCO Media. Michailidis, Y., Fatouros, I.G., Primpa, E., Michailidis, C., Avloniti, A., Chatzinikolaou, A., Alvares, J.C.B., Tsoukas, D., Douroudos, D., Draganidis, D., Leontsini, D., Margonis, K., Berberidou, F., Kambas, A. (2016). Plyometrics’ Trainability in Pre-Adolescent Soccer Athletes, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, available at www.researchgate.com Milanovic, Z., Goran, S., Nebojsa, T., Nic, J., & Kresimir, S. (2013). Effects of a 12 Weeks SAQ Training Programme on Agility with and without The Ball among Young Soccer Players, Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 12, 97-103. Reilly, T. (2007). The Science of Training Soccer: A Scientific Approach to Developing Strength, Speed and Endurance, New York: Routledge. Sands, W.A., Wurth, J., Hewit, J., & Jennifer, K. (2013). Basic of Strength and Conditioning Manual, United States: NSCA Human Kinetics. Sporis, G., Igor, J., Luka, M., & Vlatko, V. (2010). Reliability and Factorial Validity of Test for Soccer Players, Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(3). Turner, A., & Stewart, P.F. (2013). Repeated Sprint Ability, Strength & Conditioning Journal, 35(1), 37-41.

UTJECAJ BRZINE OKRETAJA LJESTVICE I PONAVLJANE SPRINTNE SPOSOBNOSTI U POBOLJŠANJU AGILNOSTI I BRZINE MLADIH NOGOMETAŠA

Sažetak Glavna svrha istraživanja bila je analizirati učinak pokretanja brzine ljestvice i vježbanje vježbanja u sprintu u poboljšanju agilnosti i brzine. Istraživanje je provedeno na 33 mlađeg nogometaša u Surabayi u dobi između 15 i 17 godina. U svakoj skupini bilo je tri skupine sa 11 sudionika: 1. skupini je dana obrada brzine za ljestvicu, sposobnost ponovnog sprinta u skupini 2 i kontrolnoj skupini grupe 3. Podaci su prikupljeni testiranjem brzine i agilnosti pomoću 30m sprinta i Illinois agility testa. Podaci su analizirani pomoću uparenog t-testa i One Way Anova s α = 0,05. Rezultati: Bilo je značajan učinak vježbe brzine pokretanja ljestvice na brzinu i agilnost sa 7,302> t 1,833 i t 7,872> t 1,883. Osim toga, bio je značajan učinak ponovljene sprint sposobnosti na brzinu i agilnost s t7.934> t 1.833 i t8.693> t 1.833. Postoje značajne razlike između tri skupine brzina s t 6.281> 3.35. Nadalje, bilo je značajne razlike između tri skupine u agilnosti s t 3.473> 3.35. Grupa 2 bila je bolja od grupe 1 i grupe 3 u povećanju agilnosti i brzine. Zaključak: Postoji značajan učinak pokretanja brzine ljestvice i ponovne sprintabilnosti u povećanju agilnosti i brzine.

Ključne riječi: pokretanje brzine ljestvice, sposobnost ponovnog sprinta, agilnost, brzina, nogometaši.

Received: January 11, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Dr. Nining W. Kusnanik, M.Appl.Sc. Universitas Negeri Surabaya Faculty of Sport Science, Department of Sport Coaching, Indonesia Tel/Fax: +62-31-7532571 E-mail: [email protected]

Acknowledgement The authorswish to thanks to Dr Yuni Sri Rahayu for his valuable discusion, reviewing and comments on earlier drafts of this paper. The authors would like to thanks to Rector of Universitas Negeri Surabaya, for supporting this project.

22 Isik, O. et al.: Body components changes and depression scores before... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 23-27

BODY COMPONENTS CHANGES AND DEPRESSION SCORES BEFORE COMPETITIONS AMONG ELITE FEMALE WRESTLERS

Ozkan Isik1 and Ilkay Dogan2

1Afyon Kocatepe University, School of Physical Education and Sports, Afyon, Turkey 2Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Biostatistics, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyon, Turkey

Original scientific paper

Abstract Among weight-sports like wrestling where athletes are required to weigh-in before the competitions and their are measured; athletes generally lose weight. Athletes who carry out weight loss through sweat room, fluid and food restrictions undergo dehydration. The current study was undertaken to examine body components changes and their depression scores caused by dehydration among the female elite wrestlers. 29 female elite wrestlers who participated in Turkish Inter-University Wrestling Championship were included in the study. Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI) used to determine depression scores of female elite wrestlers; personal information forms that addressed age, height, weight, amount of weight lost before the competition and body components [Tanita BC-418 brand via bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA)] were administered one hour before weigh-in competition. Data was tested for normality with the Shapiro-Wilk test. The independent Samples T Test was used to compare pairwise group variables that followed a normal distribution. In the current study it has been found statistically significant difference between percentage of body fat, body fat mass, percentage of total body water and depression scores according to weight loss group and non-weight loss group. As a result; it has been found that fat mass is lower and depression scores' is mild degree for female elite wrestlers performing weight loss.

Key words: Beck depression inventory, body components, female wrestlers, weight loss.

Introduction

The amateur wrestling community and also the studies by attracting the attention of scientists and worldwide entire sports community in 1997 were academicians. (Artioli et al., 2010; Franchini, Brito shocked by the deaths of 3 college wresters in six and Artioli, 2012; Işık et al., 2013, Alpay et al., weeks in the USA (Litsky, 1997). The autopsy 2015, Yildirim, 2015). Generally, athletes doing results showed that the deaths of athletes were weight sports think that the time between the caused by weight loss in a short time and competition weight and the competition time (≈18 dehydration of their bodies approximately by %15 hours) is sufficient for rehydration after (Remick, 1998). Following these deaths in 1997, dehydration. Demanding of the wrest in lowest The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) possible weight class is the most important factor has tried to take and develop new measures to that drives them to weight loss (Wroble and prevent unsafe weight loss practices. The National Moxley, 1998). Nevertheless, studies report that Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) initiated and this time period (≈18 hours) is not enough to developed new safety precautions in order to regain the body-weight loss (Sagayama et al., prevent unsafe weight loss practices (Stuempfleet 2013) and dehydration decreases athletes’ al., 2003). After studies of this subject, NCAA performances, too(Buford et al, 2006). It was decided that competition-weighing should be reported that athletes who perform weight-loss conducted nearer to the competitions and new before competitions undergo not only change their weight classes should be determined by adding hydration status, but also experience health nearly +3 kg to each weight class (Oppligeret al., problems such as sleep disorders, learning and 2006). Besides, NCAA recommended that weekly memory difficulties, irregular body temperature, weight-loss should not exceed 1.5% of body weight vasoconstriction, low sexual performance, as a part of the Wrestling Weight Certification dysfunctions in skeletal muscles anxiety and (WWC) program (Utter, 2001). Dehydration is depression (Işık et al., 2013). Depression is defined described as the process of body’s losing fluid while by Beck et al. (1961) as the specific alterations and rehydration is the process of retaking of the fluid increases in mood, whether sadness, apathy or lost. Although the lexical meaning of dehydration in loneliness; a negative self-image involving self- dictionaries is simple, its physiological definition is blame; a desire or disposition for self-punishment, not so easy (Shirreffs, 2003). Wrestlers usually use desire to escape social activities, to hide or methods; such as weight control during the season, withdrawal and inaction; physical or physically fluid or food restriction, wearing nylon or rubber expressed changes such as inaction, loss of libido dresses during training, extra trainings after or insomnia. In this context, the purpose of this training, training in hot halls and sauna; in order to study is to reveal the differences between body compete at the desired level (Oppliger et al., components and depression scores by determining 2003). Weight loss with these methods in weight female wrestlers’ weight loss level, in how much sports has recently been the subject of many time they did weight loss.

23 Isik, O. et al.: Body components changes and depression scores before... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 23-27

Methods Results

Participants Table 1. Comparison of Demographic Variables of The population of this research consists of female Female Wrestlers wrestlers (N=42) who participated in the Inter- university Turkey Championship. The sample size is Variables Groups n X ± SD. p composed of 29 elite (international level) woman Weight Loss 17 20,94±1,20 wrestlers participating in the championship. The Age 0,750 female wrestlers are classified as weight loss or Non-weight Loss 12 20,75±2,01 Height Weight Loss 17 161,41±5,64 non-weight loss groups according to their response 0,481 to the question "How much weight did you lose (cm) Non-weight Loss 12 162,92±5,52 before competition weighing?" which is asked as a Weight Loss 17 56,67±6,77 Body Weight 0,203 demographic variable. Non-weight Loss 12 60,42±8,70

BMI Weight Loss 17 21,71±2,13 0,269 Measurement of Body Height (kg/m2) Body heights are measured with Seca brand Non-weight Loss 12 22,70±2,58 stadiometer at 1 mm accuracy. There were no statistically significant differences in

the demographic variables of female wrestlers who Measurement of Body components performed in the weight loss and non-weight loss The body weights of the female wrestlers and their group (p> 0.05). bodycomponents [Body Mass Index (BMI), Basal

Metabolic Rate (BMR), Percentage of Fat Mass Table 2. Comparison of Body Components and (PFM), Fat Mass (FM), Fat Free Mass (FFM) and Depression Scores of Female Wrestlers Total Body Water (TBW)] were determined by the athletic mode with the help of BIA with wrestling swimsuit and 250 gr tare. Variables Grup n X ± SD. p Weight 17 4,73±1,77 PBWL Loss Demographic Variables and Beck Depression - %kg Non-weight Inventory (BDI): 12 - Loss In this research participated female wrestlers asked Weight 17 1435,71±133,63 "How many days ago do you start weight loss Loss BMR 0,893 before competition weighing?" and "How much Non-weight 12 1442,67±138,91 weight did you lose before competition weighing?" Loss Weight and Percentage of Body Weight Loss (PBWL) was 17 16,19±3,07 PFM Loss obtained by dividing the lost weight by its own 0,001** (%kg) Non-weight 12 21,77±4,10 body weight. In addition; It was developed by Beck Loss to measure depression risk, its symptom levels and Weight 17 9,28±2,72 the change in depression severity among adults in FM Loss 0,003* (kg) Non-weight 1961. The Turkish validity (r=74) and reliability Body 12 13,43±4,25 (α=80) tests of the scale were performed by Loss components components Weight Hisli(1989). It is a four point likert type self-report 17 47,39±4,90 FFM Loss 0,832 inventory with 21-question multiple-choice. A value (kg) Non-weight 12 47,00±4,88 of 0 to 3 is assigned for each item marked by the Loss severity of the depression. Pathologic cut-off is 17 Weight 17 34,69±3,58 TBW Loss and total scores range between 0 and 63 (8). The 0,839 (kg) Non-weight scores of the inventory are as follows: 0–9: 12 34,42±3,58 Loss indicates no depression; 10 16: indicates mild – Weight 17 10,65±2,32 depression; 17–24: indicates moderate depression Loss BDI 0,001** and 25 ≥ indicates severe depression Non-weight 12 3,25±2,05 Loss Collection of Data The purpose and importance of the research before *p<0,05, **p<0,01, Body Mass Index: BMI, Basal the research was explained to the female wrestlers Metabolic Rate: BMR, Percentage of Fat Mass: PFM, by the researcher and voluntary participation was Fat Mass: FM, Fat Free Mass: FFM, Total Body provided. The measures of this study were applied Water: TBW, Percentage of Body Weight Loss: in official competition weighing time (one day PBWL, Beck Depression Inventory: BDI before the official competition, between 06:00 and 06:30 pm). When body components and depression scores differences between of weight loss and non-weight Statistical Analysis loss group female wrestlers were examined. Data was tested for normality with the Kolmogorov Smirnov test. The independent samples t test was It was found that there were statistically significant used to compare pair wise group variables that difference between the levels of PBWL, PFM, FM followed a normal distribution. The correlation and BDI scores (p <0,05), whereas no statistically between body components and depression scores significant difference between BMR, FFM and TBW were analyzed by Pearson correlation test. levels (p> 0,05).

24 Isik, O. et al.: Body components changes and depression scores before... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 23-27

Table 3. Corelations between Body Components exercise lasting < 90 minutes whereas performance and Depression Scores of Female Wrestlers was negatively affected by body fluid loss of ≥ 2% during an endurance exercise lasting > 90 minutes. Variables PBWL BMR PFM FM FFM TBW In another study; it was found out that 1.9% BMR -,129 dehydration of body weight and exercises caused a PFM -,602** ,367 decrease by 10% in VO2 max. while 4.3% FM -,534** ,616** ,955** dehydration of body weight and exercises caused a FFM -,068 ,993 ,282 ,543** decrease by 22% in VO2 max. It was also pointed TBW -,068 ,993** ,281 ,543** 1,000** out that any 5% loss of body weight will result in BDI ,858** -,055 -,474** -,401* -,009 -,010 45% decrease in performance (Yıldız and Arzuman, 2009). In a study conducted by Burge, Carey and *p<0,05, **p<0,01 Payn (1993) in which the effect of dehydration by 2% was investigated upon running speed during When body components and depression scores 1.500 m, 5.000 m and 10.000 m running tests; it correlation of female wrestlers were examined; It was detected that blood plasma volume reduced by was found that there was a positive correlation 11% and mean running speed decreased by 3% in between PBWL (r =, 858) with BDI scores, whereas 1.500 m running test while mean running speed negative correlation between PFM (r=-,457) and FM decreased by 6% in 5.000 m and 10.000 m running (r=-,401) with BDI scores. tests. There are studies that examine psychological outcomes of dehydration that occur before weigh-in Discussion and conclusion before the competition in weight-sports.

Human body is designed to move and act and But, Kunst and Florescu argued that main factors exercises have served to prevent many health that affected wrestling performance were composed problems that occur in relation with life style of athlete’s psychology by 40 % (Kunst and (Verhagen et al., 2007). As rehabilitative practices, Florescu, 1971). In this sense; because wrestling it is a scientific fact that exercises produce not only is a weight-sport and dehydration occurs among physiological benefits but also psychological the athletes shortly before the competitions; it is benefits (Cup et al., 2007). Physical exercises and thought that dehydration results in depressive sports affect central nervous system and increase conditions and thus affects performance negatively. brain monoamines -such as dopamine or adrenalin In the current study, the responses to the and serotonin (happiness hormone)- which are questionnaire show that 58,62% of the female connected with mood state (Balcıoğlu and Yılmaz, wrestlers underwent rapid weight loss just before 2013). Again; aerobic-walk exercises are employed the competition (1–10 days) (4.73%±1.77). In the in restoring health and wellness in many areas. current study, it was identified that PBWL values of Some of these health conditions are cardiovascular the female wrestlers who cut weight were higher conditions, hyperlipidemia, fibromyalgia, diabetes than NCAA weight loss guidelines. When the and many psychological disorders. participant female wrestlers were classified; it was seen that there were no differences in terms of However, aerobic-walk exercises have been proved demographic variables (age, height, weight and to be effective most upon the treatment of body mass index) (p>0.05), which indicates that depression (Gullette, Elizabeth and Blumenthal, the groups compared were homogenous and the 1996). That low levels of 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic differences in body components and depression acid (5-HIAA) -which is the basic metabolite of scores were caused by PBWL levels. serotonin hormone in cerebrospinal fluid- were found among the depressive patients demonstrated When the two groups were compared, it was that serotonin (5-HT) played a role in pathogenesis detected that FM and PFM levels of weight loss of depression. Particularly; the studies made upon group were relatively lower than non-weight loss those who died by suicide demonstrated that levels group (p<0.05), whereas no changes in BMR, FFM of 5-HT and 5-HIAA were very low; which and TBW levels (p>0.05; Table 1). The results of supported the above mentioned conclusion (Yemez current study made us conclude that female and Alptekin, 1998). Dehydration often occurs wrestlers performed weight loss through reducing among the athletes due to the exercises done by body fat ratio. When the inter-group depression them and it is compensated with food and fluid scores were investigated; it was found that intake during recovery period (Demirkan, Koz and depression scores of the weight loss group were Kutlu, 2010). The studies on dehydration are relatively higher than the non-weight loss group generally related with the effect of dehydration (p<0.05; Table 2). Depression score of the weight upon functioning and performance losses (Jacobs, loss group was 10.65±2.32. This finding showed 1980; Kukidome et al., 2008; Handrigan et al., that the weight loss group had mild level of 2010; Lawrence and Christopher, 2010). depression. In the study of Ünver et al. (2015) on depression scores of weight loss elite wrestlers and Maughan and Shirreffs (2008) reported that a body weight loss sub-elite wrestlers; it was reported that mass loss of 2%–7% results in 7%-60% depression scores of sub-elite wrestlers were performance decrease. Yet, it was observed that relatively higher than elite wrestlers. In the study body fluid loss of 1-2% did not have any significant of Işık et al. (2013) on elite male wrestlers; it was effect upon performance during an endurance found that there was a positive and strong

25 Isik, O. et al.: Body components changes and depression scores before... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 23-27 correlation between amount of weight loss and As a result; female wrestlers who cut weight in a depression score and male wrestlers who short time before tournaments demonstrated performed <5% dehydration of body weight decreases in their body components and therefore underwent mild level of depression, whereas those experienced mild level of depression. Instead of who performed >5% dehydration of body weight losing intense weight in a short time, it is necessary underwent severe level of depression. The current to perform weight cutting over a long period; as a study was similar to the studies of Ünver et al. result of which both changes in body components (2015) and Işık et al. (2013). and depression levels will be minimized.

In the current study; when the correlation between Conflicts of interest body components and depression scores of the The authors declare that there is no conflict of female wrestlers was examined; a positive interest with this manuscript. correlation was found between BDI scores and PBWL values (r=.858). However; there was a Dates of any Congress negative correlation between BDI scores and PFM This study was presented as an oral presentation at (r=-.474) and FM (r= -.401) (Table3), which 3rd International Traditional Turkish Wrestling pointed out that as BDI scores went up so did PBWL Symposium and Games, 06-08 May 2016, values but neither did PFM and FM values. Kahramanmaraş - Turkey.

References

Abbott, A., & Collins, D. (2002). A theoretical and empirical analysis of a 'State of the Art' talent identification model. High Ability Studies, 13(2), 157-178. Alpay, C.B., Ersoz, Y., Karagoz, S., & Oskouei, M.M. (2015). Elit güreşçilerde müsabaka öncesi ağırlık kaybı, vücut kompozisyonu ve bazı mineral seviyelerinin karşılaştırılması. [A comparison of weightloss, body composition and some mineral levels before competition in elite wrestlers. In Turkish.]. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport (IntJSCS), 3(4), 338-348. Artioli, G.G., Iglesias, R.T., Franchini, E., Gualano, B., Kashiwagura, D.B., Solis, M.Y., Benatti F.B., Kashiwagura D.B., & Lancha Jr, A.H. (2010). Rapid weight loss followed by recovery time does not affect judo-related performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 28(1), 21-32. Balcıoğlu, I., & Yılmaz, Y. (2013). Spor ve Nöroendokrin Sistem. [Sports and neuroendocrine system. In Turkish.]. Türkiye Klinikleri Spor Bilimleri, 5(1), 39-47. Beck, A.T., Ward, C.H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4(6), 561-571. Buford, T.W., Rossi, S.J., Smith, D.B., O'Brien, M.S., & Pickering, C. (2006). The effect of a competitive wrestling season on body weight, hydration, and muscular performance in collegiate wrestlers. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20(3), 689-692. Burge, C.M., Carey, M.F., & Payne, W.R. (1993). Rowing performance, fluid balance, and metabolic function following dehydration and rehydration. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25(12), 1358-1364. Cup, E.H., Pieterse, A.J., Jessica, M., Munneke, M., van Engelen, B.G., Hendricks, H.T., Oostendorp, R.A., et al. (2007). Exercise therapy and other types of physical therapy for patients with neuromuscular diseases: a systematic review. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 88(11), 1452-1464. Demirkan, E., Koz, M., & Kutlu, M. (2010). Sporcularda dehidrasyonun performans üzerine etkileri ve vücut hidrasyon düzeyinin izlenmesi. [Effects of dehydration on performance and monitoring of body hydration level in sports. In Turkish.]. Spormetre, 8(3), 81-92. Franchini, E., Brito, C.J., & Artioli, G.G. (2012). Weight loss in combat sports: physiological, psychological and performance effects. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 9(1), 52. Gullette, E.C., & Blumenthal, J.A. (1996). Exercise Therapy for the Prevention and Treatment of Depression. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 2(5), 263-271. Handrigan, G., Hue, O., Simoneau, M., Corbeil, P., Marceau, P., Marceau, S., Teasdale, N., et al. (2010). Weight loss and muscular strength affect static balance control. Int J of obesity, 34(5), 936-942. Hayes, L.D., & Morse, C.I. (2010). The effects of progressive dehydration on strength and power: is there a dose response? European journal of applied physiology, 108(4), 701-707. Hisli, N. (1989). Beck Depresyon Envanterinin üniversite öğrencileri için geçerliği, güvenirliği. [The validity and reliability of the Beck Depression Inventory for university students. In Turkish.]. Psik dergisi, 7(23), 3-13. Isik, O., Gokdemir, K., Bastik, C., Yildirim, I., & Dogan, I. (2013). A Study on Elite Wrestlers: Weight Loss and Depression. Nigde University Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 7(3), 216-223. Jacobs, I. (1980). The effects of thermal dehydration on performance of the Wingate anaerobic test. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 1(01), 21-24. Kavouras, S.A. (2002). Assessing hydration status. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care, 5(5), 519-524. Kukidome, T., Shirai, K., Kubo, J., Matsushima, Y., Yanagisawa, O., Homma, T., & Aizawa, K. (2008). MRI evaluation of body composition changes in wrestlers undergoing rapid weight loss. British journal of sportsmedicine, 42(10), 814-818.

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Kunst, G., & Florescu, C. (1971). The main factors for performance in wrestling. Bucharest: National Sports Council. Maughan, R.J., & Shirreffs, S.M. (2008). Development of individual hydration strategies for athletes. International journal of sport nutrition, 18(5), 457. McDermoot, M.T. (2001). Endocrine Secrets. Third Ed. Hanley & Belfus, Philadelphia, USA. Oppliger, R.A., Steen, S.N., & Scott, J.R. (2003). Weight loss practices of college wrestlers. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 13, 29-46. Oppliger, R.A., Utter, A.C., Scott, J.R., Dick, R.W., & Klossner, D. (2006). NCAA rule change improves weight loss among national championship wrestlers. Med and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(5), 963-970. Remick, D., Chancellor, K., Pederson, J., Zambraski, E.J., Sawka, M.N., & Wenger, C.B. (1998). and dehydration-related deaths associated with intentional rapid weight loss in three collegiate wrestlers - North Carolina, Wisconsin, and Michigan, November-December 1997 Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association, 279(11), 824-825. Sagayama, H., Yoshimura, E., Yamada, Y., Ichikawa, M., Ebine, N., Higaki, Y., Kiyonaga A. & Tanaka, H. (2013). Effects of rapid weight loss and regain on body composition and energy expenditure. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 39(1), 21-27. Shirreffs, S. M. (2003). Markers of hydration status. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(S2), 6-9. Yildirim, I. (2015). Associations among dehydration, testosterone and stress hormones in terms of body weight loss before competition. The American journal of the medical sciences, 350(2), 103-108.

PROMJENE TJELESNIH KOMPONENTI I DEPRESIJE PRIJE NATJECANJA MEĐU VRHUNSKIM HRVAČICAMA

Sažetak Među sportovima poput hrvanja, gdje se sportaši trebaju vagati prije natjecanja i njihovih utega; Sportaši općenito gube na težini, osobito oni koji izvode gubitak težine kroz prostorije za znojenje, tekućine i ograničenja hrane podliježu dehidraciji. Sadašnje istraživanje je poduzeto kako bi se ispitale promjene sastavnica tijela i njihove rezultate depresije uzrokovane dehidracijom među ženskim elitnim hrvačima. U istraživanju je uključeno 29 ženskih elitnih hrvača koji su sudjelovali na turskom prvenstvu u međunacionalnom hrvanju. Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) koristi se za određivanje depresivnih rezultata ženskih elitnih hrvača; Osobne podatke koji su se odnosili na dob, visinu, težinu, količinu izgubljenu težinu prije natjecanja i dijelove tijela [marku Tanita BC-418 putem bioelektrične impedancijske analize (BIA)] jedan sat prije natjecanja u vaganju. Podaci su testirani na normalnost pomoću Shapiro-Wilk testa.Neovisni T-test uzoraka upotrijebljen je za usporedbu parnih skupnih varijabli koje su slijedile normalnu distribuciju. U sadašnjoj studiji utvrđena je statistički značajna razlika između postotka tjelesne masti, masnoće tjelesne masti, postotka ukupne tjelesne vode i depresije prema skupini mršavljenja i skupini koja nije mršavila. Kao rezultat; Pronađeno je da je mast masnoća niža, a stupnjevi depresije su blagi za elitne hrvačice koji izvode gubitak težine.

Ključne riječi: Beckov inventar depresije, sastav tijela, hrvačice, gubitak težine.

Received: February 09, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Ozkan Isık, PhD, Afyon Kocatepe University, School of Physical Education and Sports, Tel: +902722281385 Fax: +902722281205 E-mail: [email protected]

27 Grčić, V. et al.: Pai prevalece aog feale street dacers Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 28-33

PAIN PREVALENCE AMONG FEMALE STREET DANCERS

Vedrana Grčić, Alen Miletić and Đurđica Miletić

University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia Original scientific paper

Abstract The aim of this study was to identify the characteristic pain prevalence in street dancers in order to indirectly affect dancers' overall health and prolong their dancing careers. Dancers who trained for more than 15 hours per week have reported significantly higher pain occurrence in the upper and lower back region. High percentage value of pain prevalence progressing among the study groups which are defined by the hours of training per week was recorded in the back, shoulder and knee region. Early detection of low pain intensity can help prevent the injuries as well as improve the professional guidance and appropriate safety requirements for the street dancers.

Key words: health care, training frequency, injury prevention.

Introduction

Street dances such as waacking, locking, popping, Lower extremities and shoulders injuries are typical breaking, hip hop, house, vogue and krumping in modern dance (Bronner, Ojofeitimi, & Rose, have become increasingly popular among young 2003; Sides, Ambegaonkar, & Caswell, 2009). people throughout the world over the last few Lower back, ankles/feet, neck and knees pain decades. In sociological terms, as an important part prevalence is typical for sport dance, (Wanke et al., of urban subculture, street dance is a modern and 2014; Miletic et al., 2015) head and knees injuries global phenomenon that affects habits and are recognized among cheerleaders, (Boden, behaviors of young people all over the world Tacchetti, & Mueller, 2003; Miletic et al., 2009) and (Motley, & Henderson, 2007; Quested, & Duda, foot and ankle injuries prevail among Irish dancers 2007; Mitchell, 2003). Whether it is a case of (Cahalan et al., 2015). The most frequent injuries improvisation, which is the foundation of every among brake dancers occur in the wrist, finger, street style, or choreography as the art of creating knee, shoulder, lumbar spine and elbow areas (Cho dance, street dances have become one of the most et al., 2009) but breaking is just one of eight notable performing arts over the last few decades various street styles. The purpose of this study was due to the attractiveness of their performance. to identify pain experience among female street They have surpassed the boundaries of streets and dancers by defining the proportions of pain status hoods a long time ago, thanks to the strong media in fourteen body regions and by comparing the pain exposure - movies, TV shows and music videos as prevalence frequency with the number of training well as thanks to the growing popularity of theater hours. Accordingly, we have analyzed and performances. Dancing develops motor abilities and compared the results of four female dancer groups stamina (Srhoj, Katic, & Kaliterna, 2006; Srhoj, defined by hours of training per week. The study Mihaljevic, & Jukic; 2008; Uzunovic, 2008; also indicates that dancers will try to conceal Uzunovic, Kostic, & Miletic, 2009). Therefore, dance injuries and suffer a great amount of directly affects physical readiness (Clarkson, musculoskeletal pain (Kerr, Krasnow, & Freedson, & Skrinar, 1989; Yannakoulia, & Matalas, Mainwaring, 1992; Miletic, Miletic, & Milavic, 2015; 2000; Miletic, Miletic, & Males, 2008) and indirectly, Markula, 2015) not to disappoint their dancing it affects the level of health in young people. group, partner and not to fall out of the Positive long-term dance outcomes can be fostered competition. Therefore, it is important to have an among population, as long as health, nutrition, open conversation about even the slightest lifestyle and injuries caused by training are being occurrence of pain among young dancers, since it is taken care of (Holcer et al., 2012; Rusel, 2013). In possible that, if continued, the unchanged training order to organize the training process and maintain stimuli which cause low intensity pain will lead to the desired level of dancer’s health, it is necessary chronic injuries and possible end of a dancing to identify and monitor injury types and career. musculoskeletal pain. Studies containing street dancers samples are extremely rare (Cho et al., Methods 2009; Ojofetimi, Bronner, & Woo, 2012). However, the data on their training process and pain The study involved 137 female dancers who prevalence could help coaches and dancers participated in the research voluntarily and whose worldwide to organize and plan their training and to mean age was 19.7. Mean body height was 166 cm maintain the dancers' health in the process. and body weight was 57 kg. BMI values were 20.54 According to previous studies, typical ballet injuries with an average training experience of eight years. include lower back, pelvis, knees, foot and ankle All of the dancers are member of clubs that are a injuries (Garrick, 1986; De Mann, 1997; Ramel, part of the Croatian Show Dance Organization and Moritz, & Jarnlo, 1999; Dore, & Guerra, 2007). Modern Dance Organization of Bosnia &

28 Grčić, V. et al.: Pai prevalece aog feale street dacers Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 28-33

Herzegovina and Serbia. Inclusion criteria were that Miletic, & Milavic, 2015). For the research purposes, the dancers are regularly competing in national the dancers were divided into four groups in championships and cups as well as in international accordance with the number of training hours per competitions, like European and world week as follows: G1 – group training 3-6 hours per championships and cups. week; G2 – group training 7-10 hours per week; G3 – group training 11-15 hours per week; G4 – Exclusion criteria were as follows: uncompleted group training more than 15 hours per week. Basic questionnaire, training frequency of less than three data on training frequency and body status for each hours per week, dancers younger than 13 and older group are presented in Table 1. The survey than 30 years. Data collection was implemented consisted of: (1) basic data and health care related from 1 June 2015 to 1 January 2015. With the help data questionnaire (Miletic, Miletic, & Milavic, 2015) of national federations, dancers were encouraged to and (2) Self-Estimated Functional Inability because voluntarily participate in this retrospective study. In of Pain (SEFIP) questionnaire which proved to be order to enable the participation of a larger number highly applicable among professional ballet of dancers, an “online” questionnaire was posted on dancers, sport dancers and dance students (De a server Survey Monkey which is specialized for Mann, 1997; Miletic, Sekulic, & Ostojic, 2007; electronic data collection and analysis (Miletic, Miletic, Kostic, & Miletic, 2011).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for street dance groups divided by hours per week of training and results of MANOVA Analysis (Post hoc Tukey's Test)*

Training (Hrs/wk) N 137 Yrs of Dancing Height (cm) Weight (kg) G1 (3h-6h) 73 6.68±4.05 b 18.38±5.16Age a 165.47±8.43 56.21±10.59 20.37±2.65BMI G2 (7h-10h) 34 7.41±3.85c 19.94±4.79 168.72±5.67 59.03±9.39 20.68±2.83 G3(11h-15h) 16 12.25±5.21 21.56±6.43 165.00±5.38 58,31±7.70 21.39±2.51 G4 (15>h) 14 13.00±5.14 23.64±7.95 168.00±7.01 56.79±7.57 20.09±2.09

*Data expressed as mean ±SD, a G1is significantly order to compare the proportions of pain lower than G4 (p = 0.006), bG1 significantly lower experience in 14 body regions among the groups of than G3(p=0.000) and G4 (p = 0.000), cG2 dancers. The statistical significance level of 95% (P significantly lower than G3(p=0.001) and G4 (p = < 0.05) was applied. 0.000) Results SEFIP questionnaire requires the subjects to assess their current pain on a 5-point scale; with 0 being Body parameters referring to weight and BMI are of no pain and 4 being pain so severe they are unable slightly higher values in street dancers than in sport to dance. The questionnaire covers 14 body regions dancers. However, height values compared to the (neck, shoulders, elbows, wrists/hands, upper age of dancers are the same. 20% of female sport back, lower back, hips, thighs (front), thighs dancers had average BMI of 16.76. 50% of dancers (back), knees, shins, calves, ankles/feet, and toes). had average BMI of 19.35 and 30% of dancers had A sum score (range 0–56) can be achieved where 0 average BMI of 21.65 (Miletic et al., 2015). Among represents no pain and 4 maximal pain. Everything four study groups which are defined by hours of above zero is regarded as a positive finding. In training per week and normally distributed terms of the basic data, the subjects were asked to according Kolmogorov Smirnov test (P < 0.05), a complete a questionnaire through which the details significant age difference was detected only about their current and previous training between G1 group which practices 3-6 hours per experience and dance status were obtained. The week and G4 group which practices for more than questionnaire included questions which refer to 15 hours per week. As far as training experience is hours of training per week, number of years of concerned, there is a significant difference between dance training, body height, body weight, G1 group that practices 3-6 hours per week and competition level and consultations with a physician both G3 (that practices10-15 hours per week) and when injured. Basic parameters referring to G4 group (that practices for more than 15 hours variables distribution were calculated for all four per week). The most common pain reported by street dancers groups defined by hours of training street dancers in total (Table 2) was pain in the per week: (1) number of years of dancing, (2) lower back (54%) and upper back (50.4 %), knee dancers’ age (3) body height, (4) body weight and (50.4%) and neck (40.9 %) region. Dancers in the (5) BMI. One-way MANOVA was implemented in first and the second investigated group with lower relation to five dependent variables: (1) number of training frequency reported pain in the lower and years of dancing, (2) dancers age (3) body height, upper back, knee and neck region. Apart from the (4) body weight and (5) BMI. There was a usual back and knee pain, dancers in the other two significant multivariate effect (F = 3.6; p < 0.001), groups, especially one with 15 hours of training per meaning that the whole set of composites could week, have reported high incidence of characteristic significantly discriminate the groups. In order to neck (57.1%) and shoulder pain (64.3%). 85.7% of investigate which dependent variables contributed the dancers from the group that practices 15 hours to the significant effect, post-hoc Tukey's HSD test per week have reported pain in the lower back was performed. Pearson’s χ2 test was applied in region.

29 Grčić, V. et al.: Pai prevalece aog feale street dacers Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 28-33

Table 2. Differences between training frequency groups: number of dancers that reported pain (1, 2, 3 or 4) and their percentages in each the intensity of training (Hrs/wk) group, Chi square test results (2) for each body region regarding all four groups and degrees of freedom (df).

G2 G3 G1 G4 7h- 11h- 3h-6h 15>h TOTAL 10h 15h (N= (N=14 (N=137 2 df (N= (N=  73) ) ) 34) 16) 29 13 6 8

Neck 39.7 38.2 37.5 57.1 9.2 9 40.9 % % % % % 26 10 7 9 Shoulder 14.3 1 35.6 29.4 43.7 64.3 s 37.9 % 2 Figure 1. Percentage of pain intensity and % % % % prevalence by region presented on whole group of 2 3 4 2 9.0 Elbow 12.5 21.4 6 subjects (N=137) 5.5 % 5.9 % 10.2 % % % 10 11 5 5 Wrists/ 9.2 13.7 32.3 31.2 35.7 6 hands 22.6 % % % % % 31 18 11 9 Upper 21.7* 1 42.5 51.4 68.7 64.3 back 50.4 % 2 % % % % 34 19 9 12 26.4* Lower 1 46.6 55.9 56.2 85.7 * back 54.0 % 2 % % % % 2 4 7 3 7.0 Hips 12.5 28.6 9 9.6 % 8.8 % 11.7% % % Figure 2. Intensity of pain prevalence among 9 4 2 Thighs 1 5.4 groups of street dancers in lower back region: (0) 12.3 25.0 14.3 3 (front) 2.9 % 11.7 % % % % No pain; (1) Some pain but not much problem; (2) 2 3 Pretty much pain but can handle it ; (3) Much pain, Thighs 5 1 9.3 12.5 21.4 6 (back) 6.8 % 2.9 % 8.0 % must avoid some movements; (4) Cannot practice % % because of pain 34 16 10 9 19.2 1 Knees 46.6 47,0 62.5 64.3 50.4 % 2 % % % % 10 6 3 4 7.1 Shins 16.7 17.6 18.7 28.6 9 16.8 % % % % % 21 5 5 1 8.7 Calves 28.8 14.7 31.2 9 7.1 % 23.3 % % % % 27 11 5 4 Ankles/ 37.0 32.3 31.2 28.6 11.6 9 feet 35.8 % % % % % 7 5 6 0 12.5 Toes 20.6 31.2 9 Figure 3. Intensity of pain prevalence among 8.2 % 0 % 13.1 % % % groups of street dancers in upper back region: (0) No pain; (1) Some pain but not much problem; (2) *Denotes significant coefficients on the level Pretty much pain but can handle it ; (3) Much pain, p<0.05; **Denotes significant coefficients on the must avoid some movements; (4) Cannot practice level p<0.01; because of pain

According to the results of χ2 test (Table 2), there is Discussion a significant difference in frequency of pain prevalence in the region of upper (p=0.04) and Higher ranking competitions and increased training lower back (p=0.00) between study groups defined frequency caused decreased body weight and BMI by the number of hours of training per week. The values in female sport dancers. That was not the occurrence of low level musculoskeletal pain can be case with female street dancers - increased training noticed in all subject groups (Figure 1) – some pain frequency did not affect BMI values. Further studies but not a problem was typical for the neck, upper including dancers’ nutrition habits are required in and lower back, shoulder and knees region (all order to determine whether the factors such as above 28% per body region). The occurrence of the nutrition and high aesthetic standards put upon the highest level musculoskeletal pain - cannot practice sport dancers in high-level competitions affect the because of the pain was recorded in upper and BMI values in the first class female sport dancers. lower back, knees and shoulders. However, this It is troublesome that more than two thirds of was recorded in small percentages (1.5 % and female street dancers who participated in this study less). The intensity of musculoskeletal pain from the group training for more than 15 hours per registered via SEFIP questionnaire is presented only week reported the occurrence of pain in the lower for topological regions in which Pearson’s χ2 test back region. Back pain in dancers is a well-known shows a significant difference in the area of upper phenomenon (Salminen et al., 1995; De Mann, (Figure 2) and lower back region(Figure 3). 1997; McMeeken et al., 2001; Miletic, Miletic, &

30 Grčić, V. et al.: Pai prevalece aog feale street dacers Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 28-33

Milavic, 2015) as well as the fact that the level of reflects subjective experience of pain and wish for dance training (McMeeken et al., 2001) is related to adequate answering. The above mentioned can be musculoskeletal pain experience among dancers. avoided in future research with the introduction of Hypermobility is a predisposing factor for medical examination and opinion. Apart from the musculoskeletal pain and injury (McCormack et al., mentioned, numbers of variables related to pain 2004; Simmonds, & Kerr, 2007). Therefore, the experience among dancers are limited in this study. flexibility training in street dancers should be carefully planned. Increasing weekly training hours Various factors can present pain predisposition for lead to perfect mastering of more complex dance dancers. These are psychosocial factors (Noh, & structures and figures that result in more attractive Morris, 2004; Wainwright, Williams, & Turner, performance. 2005) such as sleep, mood, and personal relationship, (Dore, & Guerra, 2007) overuse Training with the aim of developing flexibility injuries, (Askling et al., 2002; Bronner, Ojofeitimi, always includes passive and dynamic stretching and & Rose, 2003; Motta-Valencia, 2006) and increased amplitude of movement that could be hypermobility (Roussel et al., 2009). followed by the occurrence of pain (Roussel et al., 2009). Street dancers, professional or amateurs, do Therefore, they need to be investigated in future not always have a controlled training environment, researches which refer to street dancers. Certain protective devices for the performance of the more pain progression related to increased training dangerous elements, assistance when trying out frequency has been reported in the neck, shoulder acrobatic elements and they are not regularly doing and knee regions. The highest percentage values warm-up and cool down exercises before starting to were reported in the group practicing for more than dance (Cho et al., 2009). Consequently, special 15 hours per week. Such studies have been attention needs to be paid on the balance between conducted on a sample of ballet (Hamilton et al., muscle strength and flexibility in dance training. 1989; Liederbach, Gleim, & Nicholas, 1994) and sport dancers (Miletic et al., 2015; Miletic, Miletic, The results of this research suggest that the & Milavic, 2015). However, no similar studies have progression of back pain is indeed connected to the been conducted on a sample of street dancers. increased hours of training per week. This progression has especially been notable in the All of the street dance styles affect the knee, but group practicing for more than 15 hours per week. also the shoulder and neck regions, except for There is a reasonable ground to suspect that, with those focusing on elements which are performed the increasing training frequency, the occurrence of standing up with the upper body relaxed and pain in the upper and lower back regions among following the leg movements for most of the time. street dancers will lead to the acute pain status After the regular occurrence of lower intensity pain becoming chronic and posing a threat to the has been reported, it is advisable to decrease the training process and the dancer's career. training frequency or the amount of training focused on dance techniques that specifically affect However, a more representative sample of street pain inflicted regions as a preventive measure. dances with greater stratification of investigated groups defined by hours of training is necessary for The practical point derived from this study for the future researches in order to confirm the young dancers is not to ignore musculoskeletal pain obtained results. It has been determined on the and to warn them about possible critical injury sample of sport dancers (Miletic, Miletic, & Milavic, points that are frequent among street dancers and 2015) that lower back pain is an increasing health about importance of searching for medical help. problem in male sport dancers, that it develops with age and that it cannot be resolved by Conclusion decreasing training frequency. Different results are obtained from current study on female street With constant development of competitive features dancers. of street dance, there has also been an increase in the required amount of training and reflection on Nevertheless, future investigations are needed to pain prevalence among dancers. Variety of street confirm that decreasing the training frequency can dance styles causes workload on different body resolve the occurrence of pain and injuries. Sport parts and therefore, affects different topological dance is performed in couples and an injury that regions increasing pain prevalence mostly in the occurred in the pre-competition or during a back, knee and neck region. competition period can seriously affect the success and career of the dancing partner. That is one of Aiming at long-term protection and prolongation of the reasons why sport dancers often ‘swallow up’ dancing careers, monitoring and early detection of the pain. 42% of sport dancers will not seek low intensity pain accompanied by training duration medical care because of an injury (Miletic et al., and workload distribution can help decreasing 2015). Only 11% of female street dancers frequency of pain status in the lower and upper answered negatively to the same question: When back, knee, neck and shoulder region. There is a you were injured, did you consult a physician? The justified suspicion that dancers rarely seek medical main limitation of this study is the fact that the help due to aggravating factor of pain prevalence data was obtained through a questionnaire that investigation.

31 Grčić, V. et al.: Pai prevalece aog feale street dacers Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 28-33 References

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PREVALENCIJA BOLI KOD ULIČNIH PLESAČICA

Sažetak Cilj ove studije bio je utvrditi karakterističnu prevalenciju boli u uličnim plesačima kako bi posredno utjecali na cjelokupno zdravlje plesača i produžili njihove plesne karijere. Plesači koji su trenirali više od 15 sati tjedno zabilježili su znatno veću pojavu boli u gornjem i donjem dijelu leđa. Visokopostotna vrijednost prevalencije boli kod studijskih skupina koje su definirane sate treninga tjedno zabilježeno je u području leđa, ramena i koljena. Rano otkrivanje slabog intenziteta boli može pomoći u sprečavanju ozljeda, kao i poboljšanju profesionalnih smjernica i odgovarajućih sigurnosnih zahtjeva za plesačice ulice.

Ključne riječi: zdravstvena zaštita, učestalost treninga, prevencija ozljeda.

Received: January 13, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Vedrana Grčić, mag. cin University of Split Faculty of Kinesiology E-mail: [email protected]

33 Gjonbalaj, M. et al.: Relations between anthropometric characteristics and... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 34-36

RELATIONS BETWEEN ANTHROPOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR TEST - ILLINOIS AGILITY RUN TEST

Malsor Gjonbalaj1, Dusko Bjelica2 and Georgi Georgiev3

1University of Pristina, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Kosovo, 2University of Montenegro, Faculty for Sport and Physical Education, Niksic, Montenegro 3University “St. Cyril and Methodius”, Faculty of Physical Education, Sport and Health, Skopje, Macedonia

Original scientific paper

Abstract In the research tested 88 football players, aged 19. The following tests were used: one motoric test for agility – Illinois agility run test, and 8 (eight) anthropometric measures. The goal of the research is to check the effect that anthropometric measures have on the agility of football players. Through regressive analysis, it is established that there is statistically not significant correlation (p=0,128) between the agility and the system of anthropometric measures.

Key words: football players, 19 years old, anthropometry, agility.

Introduction

Football in their characteristics belong complex specifications in the development of techniques and movements, and it belongs to the category of tactics and the latest world achievements in a attractive sports. The success in the football game particular sport (Javorac, Smajić, Molnar, Barašić, depends on several interrelated factors, Tomić, Stracenski, and Marković, 2015). The goal morphological characteristics, motor skills, of the research is to check the effect that functional skills, cognitive abilities, conative anthropometric measures have on the agility of characteristics, motivation, dynamic micro- football players. environment, technical and tactical elements of the game and more. Of all the anthropological Methods characteristics, morphological characteristics are important for success in a football game, because The tests were conducted on 88 football players, the morphological characteristics in its basis have the age of 19 (U19). They were treated by the interaction all anthropological characteristics and tests: one motoric test - Illinois agility run test substantially certain endogenous and exogenous (IAR) for agility - as a criterion variable; and 8 factors conditioned (Malacko, 2002). (eight) anthropometric measures as a predictor system of variables. Morphological characteristics of the specific motor skills accounted for 42% of the variability and both The predictor system of variables includes: body senior players have more power and better height (BHG), Body weight (BWG), The length of accuracy hitting the ball, foot and head (Siozios, the upper arm (LUA), Scope of the leg (STL), 1992). Within the anthropological characteristics, Circumference arm triceps (CAT), Back dimensions of the skeleton and body have a circumference subscapular (BCS), Stomach positive contribution to motor skills players supraspinal circumference (SSC) and The leg (Sekereš, 1985). Morphological characteristics are medially circumference (LMC). For results are of particular importance for the orientation and presented basic statistical parameters: number of selection in most sporting disciplines, given the fact acceptable respondents (N), arithmetic mean that in the equation specifications of almost every (Mean), minimal result (Min), maximal result sport, including the specific functions of each team, (Max), standard deviation (Std.Dev.), skewness morphological dimensions take up one of the most (Skew), kurtosis (Kurt), maximum difference important positions. For a large number of sports between frequency (max D) and level of disciplines generally known morphological structure significance (p). The relation between the predictor that most affect sports efficiency, although, no system of anthropometric variables and the criteria doubt, the coefficients of participation the individual variable is determined by the linear regressive morphological dimension in the equation changing analysis in manifest space.

Assessment - The following normative data is available for this test for 16 to 19 year olds (Davis et al., 2000):

Gender Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor Male <15.2 secs 15.2 - 16.1 secs 16.2 - 18.1 secs 18.2 - 19.3 secs >19.3 secs Female <17.0 secs 17.0 - 17.9 secs 18.0 - 21.7 secs 21.8 - 23.0 secs >23.0 secs

34 Gjonbalaj, M. et al.: Relations between anthropometric characteristics and... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 34-36

Criterion variable - Illinois Agility Run Test (IAR) - The assistant gives the command “GO” and starts The objective of the Illinois Agility Run Test the stopwatch. (Getchell 1979) is to monitor the development of - The athlete jumps to his/her feet and negotiates the athlete's agility. To undertake this test you will the course around the cones following the red line require: Flat non-slip surface, 8 cones, Stopwatch route shown in the diagram to the finish and Assistant. - The assistant stops the stopwatch and records the time when the athlete passes the “Finish” cone. How to conduct the test This test requires the athlete to run the red line Results route in the diagram below as fast as possible. The obtained results, presented in Table 1, suggest - The athlete warms up for 10 minutes that the football players at school age have - The assistance sets up the course as detailed in considerably homogeneous values in all treated the diagram variables. The results of Kolmogorov - Smirnoff - The athlete lies face down on the floor at the test, regarding the values of max D and “p”, “Start” cone provide suggestion of homogeneous results.

Table 1. Basic statistic parameters

N Mean Min Max Std.Dev. Skew Kurt max D p BHG 88 1771,07 1622 1928 61,73 0,05 0,02 0,08 p > .20 BWG 88 67,41 48 86 6,98 0,03 0,37 0,09 p > .20 LUA 88 269,09 203 318 19,14 -0,50 0,76 0,08 p > .20 STL 88 357,95 300 418 19,83 -0,25 0,86 0,10 p > .20 CAT 88 77,18 38 152 21,68 1,07 1,74 0,14 p < ,10 BCS 88 78,05 50 142 16,93 0,98 1,77 0,10 p > .20 SSC 88 86,52 40 188 35,35 1,30 1,22 0,16 p < ,05 LMC 88 80,41 30 172 28,96 0,83 0,57 0,11 p > .20 IAR 88 18,07 13 26 3,15 0,43 -0,67 0,13 p < ,10

On the base of the results from the applied in the Illinois agility run test (IAR) with multiple regressive analysis, it is established that the correlation of R=.377, and coefficient of system of anthropometric variables has not determination RI=.142. With F- test=1,636, and 8, statistically significant effect in the result achieved and 79 degrees of freedom p=0.128.

Table 2. Regressive analysis in the manifest space

Regression Summary for Dependent Variable: IAR (malsor.sta) R= ,37702928 RІ= ,14215108 Adjusted RІ= ,05528030 F(8,79)=1,636 p<,128 Std.Error of estimate: 3,0586 St. Err. St. Err. BETA of BETA B of B t(79) p-level Intercpt 3,47 15,40 0,23 0,82 BHG 0,02 0,15 0,00 0,01 0,14 0,89 BWG 0,30 0,24 0,14 0,11 1,27 0,21 LUA 0,10 0,15 0,02 0,02 0,66 0,51 STL 0,02 0,14 0,00 0,02 0,13 0,89 CAT 0,15 0,18 0,02 0,03 0,85 0,40 BCS -0,03 0,15 -0,01 0,03 -0,18 0,86 SSC -0,40 0,18 -0,04 0,02 -2,23 0,03 LMC -0,01 0,15 0,00 0,02 -0,05 0,96

Conclusion system of variables. On the base of the used linear regressive analysis in the manifest space, the The research was conducted on a sample of 88 following conclusions can be provided - the football players aged 19 (U19). They were tested predictory system of anthropometric measures are with: one motoric test - Illinois agility run test noticed to have not statistically significant (IAR) for agility, as a criterion variable; and 8 influence on the criterion variable Illinois agility run (eight) anthropometric measures as a predictor test, for agility.

References

Davis, B., et al. (2000). Physical Education and the study of sport. 4th ed. Barcelona: Harcourt. Javorac, D., Smajić, M., Molnar, S., Barašić, A. H., Tomić, B., Stracenski, M., & Marković, S. (2015). Razlike u morfološkim karakteristikama između fudbalera pionira i učenika osnovnih škola. [The differences in morphological characteristics between football pioneers and primary school students. In Bosnian.]. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Serbia Niš, 50, 33-38. Malacko, J. (2002). Sportski trening. [Sports training. In Serbian.]. Novi Sad: Faculty of Physical Education.

35 Gjonbalaj, M. et al.: Relations between anthropometric characteristics and... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 34-36

Martinez, A,E., Penaloza, R., Lara-Padilla, E., & Berral, J.F. (2014). Relation of Anthropometric Profile and Performance in Competition for Mexican High School Football Players on the Offensive Squad. Int. J. Morphol. 32 (3), 1051-1059. Molnar, S., & Smajić, S. (2008). Relaciјe između sistema morfoloških varijabli i sistema bazično motoričkih varijabli dečaka u fudbalskoj školi. [Relations between the system of morphological variables and the system of basic motor variables of boys attending football school. In Serbian.]. Anthropological Society of Serbia, 43, 324-328, Novi Sad: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education. Sekereš, S. (1985). Relacije morfoloskih karakteristika i motoričkih sposobnosti mladih fudbalera u SAP Vojvodini. Magistarski rad. [Relations between morphological characteristics and motor abilities of young footballers in SAP Vojvodina. Master's thesis. In Serbian.]. Novi Sad: Faculty of Physical Education. Siozios, S. (1992). Relacije između sistema morfoloških karakteristika, motoričkih sposobnosti i specifično motoričkih sposobnosti fudbalera uzrasta od 15 do 18 godina. Magistarski rad. [Relations between the system of morphological characteristics, motor abilities and specific motor abilities of football players 15- 18 years old. Master's thesis. In Serbian.]. Novi Sad: Faculty of Physical Education. *** Makenzie, B. (2000). Illinois Agility Run Test https://www.brianmac.co.uk/illinois.htm

ODNOS IZMEĐU ANTROPOMETRIJSKIH ZNAČAJKI I MOTORIČKOG TESTA - ILLINOIS AGILITY RUN TESTA

Sažetak U istraživanjima je testirano 88 nogometaša u dobi od 19 godina. Koristili su se sljedeći testovi: jedno motoričko ispitivanje za agilnost - Illinois test za agilnost i 8 (osam) antropometrijskih mjerenja. Cilj istraživanja je provjeriti učinak antropometrijskih mjera na agilnost nogometaša. Kroz regresivnu analizu utvrđeno je da između agilnosti i sustava antropometrijskih mjera nema statistički značajne korelacije (p = 0,128).

Ključne riječi: nogometaši, 19 godina, antropometrija, agilnost.

Received: February 19, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Malsor Gjonbalaj Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Pristina, Kosovo Tel: +37744203255 E-mail: [email protected]

36 Baić, V. et al.: Socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 37-43

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF VIOLENT FAN GROUPS AT FOOTBALL MATCHES

Valentina Baić, Zvonimir Ivanović and Stevan Popović

Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies, Belgrade, Serbia Ministry of interior, Novi Sad, Serbia Original scientific paper

Abstract The main objective of the research was to study the most important socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at football matches, as well as criminal activities of their members. The authors in the paper have used data from the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia, especially originating from Novi Sad Police Department, and from the Section of monitoring violence and misbehavior at sports events, which included a total of 139 members, 18 fan groups, aged 16-40 years. The research results show that in the overall structure of registered members of fan groups, the largest share of adults as well as young adults, who are recruited from families with unfavorable socio-economic status. In terms of other socio- demographic characteristics, the survey results show that members of the fan groups in the highest percentage have finished high school, and that they were unemployed, unmarried and gravitate from the city and partially from suburban areas. In view of their delinquent activities, predominantly author have found crimes against property and crimes and offenses, which is characterized by a particular method of execution that is dominated by violence and the use of various explosive devices.

Key words: socio-demographic characteristics, violent fan groups, .

Introduction

Football hooliganism in the last decade has shown phenomenon of football (fans) hooliganism, as well continuous growth in a number of countries, as issues of prevention actions (Ignjatovic, 2011, including Serbia, which is related to provoking riots, Đurđević, N. 2010, Savković & Đorđević, 2010; disruption of public order, aggressive behavior of Dimovski & Ilić, 2015). In the Anglo-Saxonian fans, illegal possession of firearms, vandalism and literature also we can come to the research from confrontation with the criminal law (Milojević aspects of socio-anthropological and psychological Simonović, Janković, Otašević, Bloc, 2013; Misić, investigation of socio-psychological characteristics 2010; Otašević, 2010; Otašević, 2015b; Otašević, of members of hooligan groups (Bandura, Ross & Protić, 2012). This type of violence is not always Ross, 1963; Bodin, 1999, Bodin, Roben & Heas, corresponded to the sport, and can be tied to 2007; Marsh, 1978). According to the results of extremist groups and individuals who do not have a these researches, two key characteristics of football cheering sign, but in our region mostly associated hooliganism exist, which are applicable to all with violence at sporting events (Koković, 1990; European hooligan groups are: the continuity of a 2000; 2010). In contemporary society, football certain behavior, and age structure of the actors. hooliganism is essentially the most related to the The members of hooligan groups are most often position and status of young people in society and men, aged to 27 years, members of the lower their potential environmental and social fulfillment social classes, who cherish the cult of masculinity, (Koković, 1990; 2000; 2010; Otašević, 2015). and maintain a strong connection to the group. Hooliganism in general and football hooliganism, They are characterized by a competitive mentality, present the issues that are and that will and self-assertion achieve confrontation with unfortunately be part of our everyday lives. members of the rival fan groups. The results of the Football violence is only a small part of delinquent aforementioned studies, which are based on data youth of the world, because hooligans are actors of obtained from the participants of violence, many other forms of problematic behavior, which is reflecting the socio-demographic factors such as not just about violence at sporting events, but can low socio-economic status of the family, poor living involve the usual violence on the street, carrying conditions, large families, etc. At the same time we out extremist groups and individuals, mostly can detect a statistically significant relationship adolescents and young adults. So, violent crime of between poverty and delinquency, with hooliganism sports fans in itself sublimates all criminal activity which partly explains the social determination, fan groups and individuals, and from that point is although all hooligans are not socially depressed not a problem of football (or any other sports) but individuals, dissatisfied with their lives and with no a problem of violence, or more broadly, social prospect. Parallel to the bleak picture of the problem (Đorić, 2012; Koković, 1990; 2000; 2010; individuals social status, insufficiently involved in Ljuština, Amanović, Ljubisavljević & Juvan, 2016; society or those belonging to the lowest social Mille, 1997). Within The Serbian scientific theory classes, these studies reflect the social reality and mostly we encounter to works with criminal justice post warning on a number of similarities in the and procedural aspects of dealing with the different countries where the research was

37 Baić, V. et al.: Socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 37-43 conducted (Bandura et al., 1963). In general, the analysis and interpretation of socio-demographic characteristics impinges on the etiological issues of crime, while on the other hand, their potential links with criminal behavior are complex and usually indirect. That what is meant by socio-demographic characteristics, are the results of a complex and dynamic relationship of personality, environment and opportunity, reflecting the difficulty of determining their importance when it comes to criminal etiological elaboration.

However, the study of the socio-demographic characteristics of the criminal population, Figure 1. Age structure of the members of fan represents the recognition of scientific point of view groups to the criminal phenomenon as complex Characteristcs of the residence phenomena (Simeunović-Patić, 2002). Given the importance of studying their own practice and work Characteristcs of the residence were observed in this field, we started writing this article through according to the modalities of the city-suburban- research which was conducted with aim to examine rural area. Examination of the characteristics was the socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan aimed to determine the place of residence or the groups at football matches, as well as the criminal city or areas from which are recruited members of activities of their members. fan groups. Survey results show that the majority consisting of 73.4% of fan groups resides in the Methods city, and that 20.9% resides in suburban areas, only 5.0% have a residence in the countryside, Participants while there are those whose residence address is The study included 139 male participants, aged 16- unknown in the total amount of 0.71% of, χ2 (3, N 40 years, a total of 18 members of the fan groups = 139 ) = 186.04, p <.01 (Figure 2). from the area of Novi Sad and the environment, who are fans of football clubs Vojovodina, Red Star, Partizan and Novi Sad.

One of the main reasons why exactly these fan groups were the subject of research, is that the same were recognized as the most influential, the riskiest and most numerous by the Police Department Novi Sad, Department of monitoring violence and misbehavior at sports event. Figure 2. Characteristics of the place of residence Instruments All scientific analyzes were performed on data on Level of education of members of fan groups the number of juvenile and adult person, which For the purpose of determining the members of fan were recorded by the Police Department Novi Sad, group social position, we have tried to analyze the Department of monitoring violence and misbehavior three types of information, ie. data relating to at sports event in the period from 2011 to the first school education, occupation and employment. The half of 2016. results show that there isn’t equal representation of the level of qualifications among members of fan Results groups, χ2 (3, N = 139) = 164.57, p <.01. Through the analysis of data pertaining to school education, Age structure of the members of fan groups it was found that 0.7% of the population of fan Age structure observed on the basis of criminal law groups were without any education, 4.3% have classification, according to which a distinction is completed primary school, and most of them have made between younger minors, aged 14-16 years, completed secondary education 69.1% (Chart 3). older minors (juveniles), aged 16-18 years, young adults aged 18-21 years and adults aged 21 onwards. Results of scientific research have showed a statistically significant difference in the age of representation within the members of fan groups, χ2 (3, N = 139) = 208.77, p <.01).

The research results show that out of 139 members of fan groups, only 1.4% belongs to the category of junior and senior juveniles, something more, 20.9% category of younger adults and much more, Figure 3. Education level 76.3% adults category (Figure 1).

38 Baić, V. et al.: Socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 37-43

The occupation of the members of fan groups In terms of occupations, it has been found that there is not equal frequency of the different categories of occupation within the sample fans, χ2 (4, N = 139) = 206.22, p <0.01. The analysis of data revealed that 18% of fans are workers, 5.8% of population are pupilss, and 4.3% are students, and that 4.3% (6)of population are without permanent occupation (Figure 4). For the largest share of the sample occupation is unknown.

Figure 6. Socio-economic status

Marital status of members of fan groups The research results show unequal representation of categories of marital status within the sample of fans, χ2 (3, N = 139) = 192.89, p <0.01. It turned out that most fans are single 74.8%, a lower percentage are married 3.6%, while only 0.7% are divorced. Consequently, and bearing in mind that one-fifth of fans have unknown marital status Figure 4. Members of fan groups occupation (20.9%), we can conclude that the largest number of fans haven’t started a family (74.8%) (Figure 7). Employment of members of fan groups Results indicate that there is not equality between the incidence of certain categories of employment on a sample of fans, χ2 (4, N = 139) = 76.51, p <0.01. The analysis of data related to employment showed that 56.1% of the fan groups are unemployed, 7.2% were employed and 17.3% occasionally season dependently-employed (Figure 5).

Figure 7. Members of fan groups Marital Status

The structure of the fan groups by number of members On the territory of Novi Sad have been registered a total of 14 fan groups, whose members are cheering for football clubs Partizan, , Vojvodina and Novi Sad. It is also

important to note that there is one category of fans Figure 5. Employment of the members of fan who are not members of those fan groups, but only groups cheering for the mentioned football clubs, which is

why we mark them as fan groups of football clubs: Socio-economic status of members of fan groups Partizan, Red Star Belgrade, Vojvodina and Novi Socio-economic status, is not only the result of Sad. For the football club Red Star Belgrade fan personal characteristics, but also it is result of the groups are cheering the following: Futog, Veternik, broader social conditions among which are located Delije. For the football club Vojvodina, are cheering adult members of a family, as well as the whole fan groups: Liman, Company Center, Red firm family. The most common way of detrmination of sanatorium, G-3, Sremska Kamenica, Bulevar, socio-economic status is its calculation in relation to Grbavci, group Petrovaradin. income, the number of employed household members, their level of education, housing For the football club Novi Sad are cheering fan conditions, area of residence, and so on. In this groups: Korida, Korida family and the football club study, socio-economic status is determined based Partizan is cheering: fan group Gravediggers 1970. on the income of members of fan groups. By the analysis of data on the structure of the fan

groups by number of members, it can be found that The results show that a small number of fans are the largest group of supporters is one of FC Red without income 3.6% or they have stable income Star (22.3%), followed by the Corrida (13.7%), 6.5%. Slightly larger number of fans have a Company Centre (12.2%), fan group of FC Partizan temporary income 15.8% or are supported by their (10.7 %), Liman (10.7%), G-3 (8.6%), a group of parents 23%. For most of the fans there were not supporters of the football club Vojvodina (3.6%), available information about income χ2 (4, N = 139) Veternik (2.5%). = 100.39, p <0.01 (Figure 6).

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The following fan groups are oones that have the The age structure of the members of fan groups as same number of members. These are: Korida perpetrators of misdemeanors family, Sremska Kamenica, football club Novi Sad The results show that there is a significant and Red Firm Sanatorijum (2.9%). At the end there difference in the incidence of certain age groups are those fan groups that have the least number of within the sample of offenses committed by fans, members. These are: Futog, Delije, Bulevar, χ2 (3, N = 521) = 906.36, p <0.01. Analysis of the Grbavci, group Petrovaradin and Gravediggers data also showed that the younger minors have 1970 (0.7%) (Figure 8). committed 1.7% of offenses, older juvenile have commited 0.4% offenses, young adults - 16.9%, while most violations were committed by adults 81.0% (Chart 10).

Figure 10. The number of offenses committed

The structure of criminal offenses The results show a statistically significant difference

in the incidence of different offenses χ2 (15, N =

1136) = 2847.94, p <0.01. The analysis of data Figure 8. Structure of fan groups by number of revealed that, the members of fan groups have members commited 40.4% theft and aggravated theft,

15.7% robbery and aggravated robbery, 11.8% Accordingly, we can conclude that in the area of bullying, 8.1% drugs related crimes, 5.7% severe Novi Sad as the largest recruiting are six fan injuries, 2.7% attacks on authorized official, 2.6% groups: Red Star Belgrade (22.3%), Korida fight, 1.8 offenses of illegal possession of weapons, (13.7%), center (12.2%), Partizan (10.7%), 1% vehicle theft and endangering security, 0.8% of Liman (10.7%) and G -3 (8.6%). criminal acts of violent behavior at a public

gathering, 0.5% of homicides, 0.3% extortion, The age structure of the members of fan groups as blackmail and forgery and 0.2% of crimes of perpetrator of crimes domestic violence (Chart 11). The results show that there are differences in the frequency of different age groups of fans who have committed criminal offenses, χ2 (3, N = 1142) = 1570.36, p <0.01. Most crimes committed by the adults.

A much smaller number of crimes is committed by young adults as well as younger juveniles, and at least by older juveniles.

Survey results also show that younger minors committed 9.1% of criminal offenses, older juveniles commited 1.8% of crimes, young adults 13.9%, while 75.2% (859) criminal offenses were committed by adults (Chart 9).

Figure 11. Structure of criminal offenses

Composition of misdemeanors by members of fan groups

The results show a statistically significant difference in the incidence of various offenses - Figure 9. The current number of criminal offenses misdemeanors, χ2 (9, N = 534) = 566.26, p <0.01. committed by The analysis of data revealed that of the members members of fan groups of fan groups commited 31% misdemeanors,

40 Baić, V. et al.: Socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 37-43 concerning violations of the Law on Identity Cards, Discussion 28% fight, 12.7% of offenses relating to indecent behavior, 8.4% misdemeanors concerning Based on the above it can be concluded that the violations of the provisions of the Weapons and overall structure of registered members of fan ammunition, 3.6% misdemeanors concerning groups, has the largest shares of adults, as well as violations of the Law on residence, 3% of threats, the participation of young adults, while a smaller 1.5% of offenses related to violations of the percentage of participation was consisted of provisions of the Law on sports and 1.3% of minors. Most members of fan groups are recruited offenses related to violations of the provisions of from Novi Sad and some suburban areas such as the transport of explosive materials. Futog, Veternik, Sremska Kamenica, Petrovaradin, Bukovac and Kach, while a smaller percentage were registered in rural areas. In terms of education, the structure of registered members of fan groups have the largest share of persons who have completed high school, while a much smaller percentage of those who have completed primary school or do not have anz kind of school education.

Results of research on occupation show that in the structure of the registered members of fan groups, there is the largest share of persons who are workers, while equal numbers of pupils, students, and those with no occupation. Results related to professions have a certain correlation with the results achieved in terms of employment. The largest number of registered members of fan Figure 12. Structure of completed misdemeanors groups are unemployed, while much less are those

who are employed or work occasionally ie. Attendance matches by members of fan groups seasonal. Data on socio-economic statuses are also By specific examination of this variable was aimed in correlation with data regarding employment, to determine how many members of various fan since the largest number of fan groups are from groups are loyal to football teams they cheer for. middle or lower socio-economic status, while there This parameter is seen through a regular or was a significant percentage of those who are occasional attendance at football matches of their dependent economically to their parents. With favorite clubs. regard to marital status, most of those who are

unmarried, or who have not started a family. The analysis of data revealed that the football matches of their favorite clubs, mostly was According to the Police Department Novi Sad, attended by members of fan groups Korrida (13%), Department of monitoring violence and misbehavior then, the Partizan football club (10.8%), football at sports event, in the area of Novi Sad exists a club Red Star (7.9%), fan group G-3 ( 6.5%), total of 14 registered fan groups, whose members Liman (5%), Company Centre (4.3%), Korida are cheering for football clubs Partizan, Red Star family (3.6%), fans of the football club Novi Sad Belgrade, Vojvodina and Novi Sad, but there are and Vojvodina (2.9%). Presented were followed by fans of one category who are not members of those fan groups Veternik, Red firm sanatorium, Sremska fan groups, but cheer for the same. The results Kamenica (1.4%) and at the end fan groups Futog, showed that according to the number of members Delije, Bulevar, group Petrovaradin and of the most numerous, were fan group of FC Red Gravediggers 1970 (0.7%). Star, then following them are fan group Korida, whose members are cheering for the football club Novi Sad, and fan group Firma center, whose members are cheering for the football club Vojvodina, following them are fan group of FC Partizan and at the end of the fan group Liman and G-3, whose members also cheer for the football club Vojvodina.

When it comes to the age at which members of fan groups most often have committed crimes or misdemeanors, the results showed that the highest percentage of population represented adults, then the population of young adults, while a smaller percentage in the population of younger and older juveniles. In terms of the structure of criminal offenses, the survey results show that most crimes

were committed in the area of property crimes such Figure 13. Attendance matches fan groups matches as crimes of theft, aggravated theft, robbery and

41 Baić, V. et al.: Socio-demographic characteristics of violent fan groups at... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 37-43 aggravated robbery, then criminal offenses against important to note that each type of record should public order and peace, especially violent behavior, be complemented by not only information on criminal acts against life and limb, such as offenses delinquent activities, but this kind of data, although of grievous bodily harm and murder, crimes related touching on etiological issues of crime, have a to narcotics, crimes against the state authorities, direct and a potential connection with criminal such as the crime of assault on an authorized behavior. officer, criminal offenses against the rights and freedoms of man and citizen , particularly the crime Secondly, the main goal of this type of records is of endangering safety, and at the end of the lower that they do not exist because of "statistics", but percentage crimes against the economy, such as that they are operational and thus applicable in counterfeiting and offenses against marriage and practice, especially as it comes to the population family, such as domestic violence. that is prone to recidivism, the population of causing riots and the public order and peace at In terms of the structure of comitted sports events, the population characterized by misdemeanors, the survey results show that the aggressive and violent behavior, vandalism and most misdemeanors commited were those related especially confrontation with the police, and thus to violations of the provisions of the Law on the state authorities. In this regard, bearing in Identity Cards, where members of fan groups mind the special recidivism, in one of the future during identification by the police did not have research it would be also necessary to complete identity documents. Then were registered the this type of analysis with data relating to the highest percentage of fight, indecency, and identification of certain patterns of behavior of possession of explosive devices in the form of members of violent fan groups. This question is flares, smoke bombs and so on. important because, as criminal behavior depends not only to situational factors, but is subject to the Finally discussed were the issues of attendance and influence of cognitive and conative factors and also loyalty of members of fan groups, football implies the necessity of establishing certain teams they love. Regarding this issue, the research patterns of behavior, which primarily seeks to results show that the group of football fans Korida, explain criminal activity. These findings could be were most regular at football matches of the important in the planning and implementation of football club Novi Sad, followed by fans of football criminal activities, aimed towards clarifying, control clubs Partizan, Red Star and members of the fan and prevent these types of crimes like every other group G-3, who are cheering for the football club type of crimes where a greater percentage of Vojvodina. recidivism (Baić, Kolarević, 2013; Baić, Kolarević, Gojković, 2015) . It is also important to mention that in the future representation of violence is very important in one Conclusion of the future research to analyze property crimes according to the mode of execution, in order to The research has shown that football violence is obtain a more complete picture of possible affection only part of the world of delinquent members of fan to "violent behavior". This finding is significant groups, since they are the perpetrators and other because the members of fan groups in a large crimes that are not related to football hooliganism, percentage have committed crimes of robbery or such as property ski tort or example. criminal robbery, and one of the important characteristics of offenses related to narcotic drugs, domestic these crimes is precisely the use of violence in violence, forgery etc. Based on the survey results, order to obtain financial gain. we can conclude that the data on the social background of members of fan groups unfavorable, In this section, it would be more useful to note that since most members of fan groups or unemployed the data obtained from the Police Department Novi parents support them, although they are adults. In Sad, Department of monitoring violence and this sense we can say that is proof that the misbehavior at sports event have been, to some etiologic association of social origin and delinquency extent, incomplete, especially when it comes to or criminal behavior, provided that it should be data related to socio-demographic characteristics, noted that this behavior occurs as a tangle of a for which reason in the article were not processed. plurality of mutually dependent and associated In doing so, we think that the same to a greater factors of psychological and social origin, and that extent would contribute to change of the results of the material status may appear only as one of the research relating to the social background, but it is factors that cause delinquency and delinquency.

References

Baić, V., & Kolarević, D. (2013). The importance of cognitive maps in the study of the physical behavior of the perpetrators of the crime of rape, Thematic Proceedings: Criminal-processing forensic scenes of events. Belgrade: Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies, 59-71. Baić, V., Kolarević, D., & Gojković, V. (2015). Spatial-temporal analysis of criminal behavior of sexual offenders. Thematic Proceedings: Criminalistics and forensic processing of the city of criminal events. Belgrade: Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies, 37-46.

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Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S.A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated agressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3-11. Bodin, D. (1999). Football, supporters, violence: la non-application des normes comme vecteur de la violence” in Revue juridique et économique du sport, 51, 139-149. Bodin, D., Robene, L., & Heas, S. (2007). Sport and violence in Europe. Zagreb: Book Trade. Dimovski, D. Ilić, I. (2015). Violence in sport in the Republic of Serbia – For example the area of the High Court in Nis, Journal of Criminal Justice and Law, 1, 121-137. Đorić, M. (2010). The politicization of hooliganism. Political review, 3, 379-400. Đurđević, N. (2010). Criminal responsibility for the violence and indecent behavior at sports events in Serbia. Proceedings of the Faculty of Law in Split, 285-308. Ignjatović, Đ. (2011). Criminological view of violent crime. J of Criminology and Criminal Law, 2-3: 27-42. Ljuština, A., Amanović, D., Ljubisavljević, M., & Jovanov, M. (2016). Contemporary forms of breaching of security at sporting events. Acta Kinesiologica, 10(2), 35-40. Koković, D. (1990). The era of violence and sport. Novi Sad: Sport`s world. Koković, D. (2000). Sociology of sport. Belgrade: Sports Academy. Koković, D. (2010). The association, violence and sport. Novi Sad: Mediterran Publishing. Marsh, P. (1978). Aggro: the Illusion of violence. London: Dent. Mille, L. (1997). Sport Business Managment; Colorado: Aspen Publishers Inc Gaithersburg. Milojević, S., Simonović, B., Janković, B., Otašević, B., & Turanjanin., V. (2013). Youth and Hooliganism at sports events. OEBS Organization for Security and Cooperation Mission to Serbia. Misić, Z. (2010). Violence and misbehavior of fans as a factor compromising security, Master's thesis, Belgrade: Faculty of Safety. Otašević, B. (2010). Urban environment and violence in sport, Security, 3, 267-281. Otašević, B, Protić, A. (2012). Vandals Inside the Walls - Phenomenology of Hooliganism. Security, 1, 55-71. Otašević, B. (2015a). Socio-demographic characteristics of football fans in Serbia. Thematic Proceedings Violence in Serbia: Forms, factors control. Belgrade: Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies, 1, 165- 186. Otašević, B. (2015b). Violence at sporting events. Belgrade: Official Gazette. Savković, M., & Đorđević, Z. (2010). On the way to prevent violence at sporting events (performances): Proposal on regional cooperation framework. Belgrade Center for Security Policy. Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Yugoslavia (2002). European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, 10, 117-137.

SOCIO-DEMOGRAFSKE KARAKTERISTIKE NASILNIH NAVIJAČKIH GRUPA NA NOGOMETNIM UTAKMICAMA

Sažetak Osnovni cilj istraživanja odnosio se na ispitivanje najbitnijih socio-demografskih karakteristika nasilničkih navijačkih grupa na nogometnim utakmicama, kao i kriminalne aktivnosti njihovih pripadnika. U radu su korišteni podaci Ministarstva unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije, Policijske uprave Novi Sad, Odsjeka za praćenje nasilja i neprimjerenog ponašanja na sportskim priredbama, koji su obuhvaćali ukupno 139 pripadnika 18 navijačkih grupa starosti od 16-40 godina. Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da je u ukupnoj strukturi registriranih pripadnika navijačkih grupa, najveće sudjelovanje punoljetnih osoba, kao i mlađih punoljetnih osoba, koji se regrutiraju iz obitelji sa nepovoljnim socio-ekonomskim statusom. U pogledu ostalih socio-demografskih karakteristika, rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da pripadnici navijačkih grupa u najvećem postotku imaju završenu srednju školu, da su nezaposleni, neoženjeni i gravitiraju iz gradskih i dijelom prigradskih područja. U pogledu njihove delinkventne aktivnosti, preovladavaju krivična djela protiv imovine i krivična djela i prekršaji koja odlikuje određeni način izvršenja u kome dominira nasilje i upotreba različitih eksplozivnih naprava.

Ključne reči: socio-demografske karakteristike, nasilničke navijačke grupe, nogometni huliganizam.

Received: February 22, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Valentina Baić, assistant prof, PhD Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies, Belgrade, Serbia Tel.: + 381 11 31 07 141 E‐mail: [email protected]

43 Abdi, K.: Investigation of jumping exercises effect on skills Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 44-47

INVESTIGATION OF JUMPING EXERCISES EFFECT ON SKILLS

Kamelia Abdi

Islamic Azad University, Department of Physical Education, Shiraz Branch, Shiraz, Iran

Original scientific paper

Abstract The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of jumping exercises on skills on students. Statistical society were fourth grade elementary students, on four educational areas, Shiraz, Iran. Samples were 80 students, were clustered random selected. The research was applicable, quasi experimental, in design of pre-post test. For measuring social skill, a teachers’ rating of social skill questionnaire (TRSS) about students was used (Truscott, 1989). It was consists of 39 items. The validity was confirmed with university professors. The Cronbach`s alpha was0.831. The reliability was measured 0.769. The TRSS items were on the Likert scale. The jumping exercised for 2 sections of 45 minutes per week, during 12 weeks. Data collection occurred after and before performing jumping exercises. There is no significant effects on social skill by jumping exercises among elementary students, was the hypothesis. Descriptive and statistical analysis like Leven test and paired sample t-tests were uesd. The result t= - 2.60 and df=79, presented there were significant differences on social skill before and after jumping exercises (p< 0.05). Potentially, it seems jumping exercises has the significant effect on skills. Although the hypotheses were approved, results should carefully interpret about correlations.

Key words: jumping exercises, skill, peer relation, sociality.

Introduction

According to scientific researches, routine physical peoples’ impression without any harm. This activities directly or indirectly have important role definition consists of expressing happiness, on prevention and cure of diseases. Sport as a appreciation and other behaviors that construct social factor in controlling and curing a lot of social inter personal relations (Hasslet et al., 1993). problems and injuries, is in height of specialist Specialists believed the social skill teaching attention. On the other hand physical activities are program has to include all aspects of socialization of cheap and useful instruments in controlling (Evans et al., 2000). A study on German stress, depression and aggression of present life adolescents observed lower anxiety and depression (Coe et al., 2006). To get these goals, activities scores, as well as less social behavioral inhibition, which are recreations and can perform in teams, than their less active peers. The significant obviously are effective to every one. According to relationship between physical activity and self- the fact, routine physical activities are the basic image also remains after controlling for requirements in growing ages for school students. socioeconomic status (Shephard et al., 2000). Although, the budget and time are inadequate for Regular physical activity in adolescents is physical education in schools, using simple and significantly related to a favorable self-image, in available kinds of activity with minimum facilities is addition to physical and psychological well-being to the point. National educational program in Iran (Kirkcaldy et al., 2002). One recent well-controlled have a total and complete look to human, study has shown improvements in social skill considering physical and mental aspects. This following running activities in girls. Psychosocial program consists of 11 learning areas. Attentions to and behavioral changes among girls participating in physical, mental and emotional characters of 7 to two developmentally focused youth sport programs 12 years old children in elementary schools are in were assessed. Girls in grades three to eight main purposes (Hasslet et al., 1993 & Shephard et participated in ‘Girls on the Run’ and ‘Girls on al., 2000). In these ages, children like to play with Track’. The programs resulted in beneficial friends, cooperate with them, enjoy playing and increases in social skill, enhanced cooperation, and interested to learn social rules. Different kinds of increased physical activity frequency and games and various situations in sport help to make commitment (Dwyer et al., 2001& Raudsep et al., ready for future (Lee et al., 2007). Rope skipping 2000). In American analysis of a 55 minutes PE as an active, combination of various skills, class revealed that only 19 minutes of this time was rhythmical activity can perform single or team spent in moderate to vigorous activity and it was working. Nowadays coaches and athletes apply it as suggested that this was sufficient vigorous activity a complementary activity in sports such as to impact on social skill (Debate et al., 2010). A gymnastic, swimming, cycling, wrestling, football, study conducted with 214 six-grade students in basketball and volleyball. Besides, low injury Michigan found that students enrolled in PE had potential, make it so attractive among children. better social skill than students who were not Social is affected from group and social cultures a enrolled in PE (Coe et al., 2012). Rajaeyan, et al. man connects to. It is believed social skill is (2011) investigated 8 weeks physical activities

44 Abdi, K.: Investigation of jumping exercises effect on skills Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 44-47 have effect on physical fitness and social skill of 4th Statistical analysis and 5th grade students.120 students were randomly Descriptive statistic was calculated. Paired sample selected in Tehran. AAHPERD test and Wayland t-test was conducted to examine if rope skipping questionnaire were used in pre and post test. They performance has any significant effects on social resulted in significant differences on social skill. skill. In all analysis α = 0.05. Makiany, et al. (2011) investigated rope skipping has effect on motor perceptual ability of third grade Results students. 60 students were clustered random selected in Dorod. There were 3 groups. Rope The descriptive statics for students in pre and post skipping, traditional and control groups. Lincoln test is presented in table 1. Sterskey was used. They found rope skipping affects motor perceptual ability. In 2013, 287 Table 1. The descriptive statics for students in pre fourth- and fifth-grade students from British and post tests Columbia were evaluated to determine if introducing daily classroom physical activity Frequency Percent Cumulative sessions would affect social skill. Students in the Grade 4 in 80 33.3 percent66.7 intervention group participated in daily 10-minutes Gradepre test 4 in 80 33.3 66.7 post test classroom session in addition to their regularly scheduled 80-minutes PE class. Increasing in- The descriptive statics for social skill (SS) in pre school physical activity time by approximately 50 and post test is presented in table 2. minutes per week, students receiving the extra physical activity time had better social skill scores Table 2. The descriptive statics for SS. in pre and than students in the control group did (Hormaty., post tests 2010). Mean Median Std. Varianc Methods SS. in 2.727 2.692 0.392 0.154 SS. in 2.753 2.769 0.346 0.120 The research method was applicable, quasi experimental, in design of pre-post test. The Null hypothesis: The distribution of social skill (SS) independent and dependent variables in respective between students in pre and post tests is normal. were rope skipping and skill (S).

Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test that is calculated for Participants SS normality in pre and post tests is presented in Statistical society was fourth grade elementary table 3. students, on four educational areas, Shiraz, Iran.

Random sample were 12 schools in 4 educational Table 3. KS. test for normal estimate of SS. pre areas. A clustered random sample of 80 students in and post tests grade four with the age average of 9.5 was used from female elementary schools in Shiraz, Iran. Kolmogorov- Asymp. Sig. (2-

Procedure Smirnov Z tailed) Data collection occurred after and before SS. in pre test 0.829 0.497 performing jumping exercises. The jumping SS. in post exercises was in 12 weeks, a 45 minutes section 0.468 0.981 per week. Teachers completed social skill test questionnaire about students. Confidentially subject’s information and data was addressed. The SS is normally distributed between students in pre and post tests. Instruments Social skill was measured using the teachers’ rating Null hypothesis: There is no homogeneity between of social skill questionnaire (TRSSQ). The TRSSQ social skill variances in pre and post tests. consists of 39 items designed to measure social skill. Each of the TRSSQ item is a simple statement The Leven test for SS variance homogeneity is that can be answered on a Likert scale (Truscott., estimated in table 4. 1989). The validity of the TRSSQ was reported between 50-70 (Lacher et al., 1992). Professors Table 4. Leven test of SS. suggested about facial and content validity based on these factors: matching with purposes, not F sig SS 0.893 0.346 suggesting definite answer, not being reverse item, simple, short and comprehensible item style. It is obvious SS variances after and before jumping

exercises has homogeneity. The reliability of the TRSSQ was reported 0.65-0.93

(Truscott., 1989). In this research 60 students Null hypothesis: There are no significant effects on were clustered randomly selected. The TRSSQ were social skill by jumping exercises among students. answered by their teachers, the Cronbach`s alpha was 0.831. The Pearson correlation after 10 days The paired sample t-test for SS is shown in table 5. on those students was 0.769.

45 Abdi, K.: Investigation of jumping exercises effect on skills Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 44-47

Table 5. The paired sample t-test for SS. would increase social skill. Numerous studies have shown positive effects of physical activity on social t df sig skill (Cartiledge et al., 1994, Keays et al.,1995, Pater et al., 1996, Raudsepp et al., 2000, SS. in pre Shephard et al.,2000, Sibley et al.,2003, Strong et test- SS. in 79 -2.60 0.01 post test al., 2005 & Tremblay et al., 2000) and sports participation (Debate et al., 2010). The 2-year follow-up of the PE program showed pupils in the Based on df=79, t= -2/60 in p≤ 0.05 , null hypothesis is rejected. There were significant experimental group did significantly better in social differences after and before jumping exercises. In skill when compared to controls (Tomporowski., regard to table 2 it has increasing effect on SS. 2008). Studies also supported the results (Ahamed et al., 2007). It is found rope skipping affects Discussion and conclusion fundamental factors of motor perceptual that would improve social skill. If it was corrective and proper The researcher found jumping exercises had training, cooperation, balance and agility will be significant effects on skill among elementary achieved as well (Makiany et al., 2011). It is students in grade four. For many years socialization showed that 8 weeks physical activities affect on was a key material that teachers try to cover as physical fitness and social skill of 4th and 5th grade well as possible. Social teaching does not meet the students. Social skill score mean differs in pre and needs of society in high schools in Iran (Yazdi., post tests. Physical fitness has positive effect on 2001). So it become obvious the duty of personal characters, self confidence, peer socialization is important goal for school teaching. popularity and social skill (Rajaeyan et al., 2011). The social output of PE in developing social The present study found performing simple and relations is constructive in all layers of society. This attractive activity in PE class assists students to was supported with the studies mentioned (Dwyer become socialize during physical activity and et al., 2001, Kirkcaldy et aL., 2002 & Truscott., challenges. This study, although, the clustered 1989). In 1999 found that spending more time in random sampling controlled socioeconomic status PE has effects on social skill when measured using but still possible influence of this factor on the a standardized test in elementary school. The observed effects of physical activity cannot be ruled influence of physical activity on self-esteem may be out. It is possible that physical activity may be only influenced by the activity mode undertaken, a marker for greater levels of social skill and may although positive cognitive behavioral modifications not be a causal factor. It is important to note that have been observed across aerobics, strength, socioeconomic status may be the major cause, dance and flexibility activities (Strong et al., 2005). acting as a mediator in relationship. This fact They interoperated that improving self esteem should be considered when interpreting the results.

References

Ahamed Y., MacDonald H., & Reed K. (2007). School-based physical activity does not compromise children’s academic performance, Med sci spo Exe, 39, 371-376. Cartiledge G., & Milbern G. (1994). Children social skill education, Mashad: Razavi Astan Ghods Publication. Coe, D.P., Reves, M.J., & Malinar M. (2006). Effect of physical education and social relation in children. Med Sci Spo Exe, 38, 1515-1519. Coe, D.P., Pivarnik, J.M., Reves, M.J., & Malina, R.M. (2012). Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children, J Ame Col Spo Med, 8, 43-50. Debate, R.D., Gabriel, K.P., Zwald, M., & Zhang Y. (2010). Changes in psychosocial factors and physical activity frequency third-to eighth- grade girls who participated in a developmentally focused youth sport program: a preliminary study. J Sch Hea, 79, 474-84. Dwyer, T., Sallis, J.F., Blizzard, L., Lazarus, R., & Dean, K. (2001). Relation of academic performance to physical activity and fitness in children. Ped Exe Sci, 13, 225-237. Evans, S.W., Axelrod, J.L., & Sapia, J.K. (2000). Effective school-based mental interventions: Advancing the social skills training paradigm, J Sch hea, 70, 191. Goudas, M., & Magotsiou, E. (2007). The effects of cooperative physical education on students’ social skills. J App Spo Psy, 21, 356-364. Hasslet, V.B., Null, J.A., Kempton, T., & Bukstein OG. (1993). Social skills and depression in adolescent substance abusers. Add Beh, 18, 9-8. Hormaty, Y. (2010). Investigation of social skills on athelets, Khorasgan: Azad University Conference. Keays, J.J., & Allison, K.R. (1995). The effects of regular moderate to vigorous physical activity on student outcomes: a review. Can J pub hea, 86, 62-66. Kirkcaldy, B.D., Shepherd, R.J., Siefen, R.J., & Siefen, G. (2002). The relationship between physical activity and self-image and problem behavior among adolescents. Soc Psy Psy, 37, 544-550. Lee, S., Burgeson, C., Fulton, J., & Spain C. (2007). Physical education and physical activity: results from the school health policies and programs study. J sch hea, 77, 435-463. Lacher, G., & Gedouski, L. (1992). Sports participation in and urban school: activity and psychological correlates. J ado Hea, 18, 329-334.

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Makiany, M., et al. (2010).The investigation of rope skipping effect on perceptual motor ability on 3rd grade students, Har J, 40-56. Mcnaughten, D., & Gabbard C. (1993). Physical exertion and immediate mental performance in sixth-grade children. Per mot ski, 77, 1155-1159. Ministry of education (2011). Rope skipping instructions, Tehran: Ministry of education publication. Rajaeyan, A., et al. (2011). Effect of 8 weeks training on physical fitness and social development of fourth and fifth grade students, Har J, 63, 72. Raudsepp, L., & Vitra, R. (2000). Socio cultural correlates of physical activity in adolescents. Pediatric exercise science, 12, 51-60. Pater, H., Heath, G.W., Dowda, M., & Trost, S.G. (1996). Associations between physical activity and other health behaviors in a representative sample of us adolescents. Ame J pub Hea, 86, 1577-1581. Shephard, R.J., & Lavallee, H. (2000). Habitual physical activity: effects of sex, milieu, season, and required activity. J Spo Med, 20, 55-66. Sibley, B., & Etnier, J. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta- analysis. Ped Exe Sci, 15, 243-253. Strong, W.B., Malina, R.M., & Blimkie, C.R. (2005). Evidence based activity for school-age youth. J ped , 146, 732-737. Tomporowski, P.D., Davis, C.L., Miller, P.H., & Naglieri, J.A. (2008). Exercise children’s intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Edu Psy rev, 20, 11-131. Tremblay, M.S., Inman, J.W., & Williams, J.D. (2000). The relationship between physical activity, self- esteem, and academic achievement in 12-year-old children. Ped Exe sci, 12, 312-323. Truscott, J.W. (1989). A comparison of social skill among second grade children with varying levels of reading achievement, Dissertation, Texas Tech. Un. Yazdi, M. (2001). Investigation of social education in Tehran high schools, M.S. Dissertation, Tehran University.

ISTRAŽIVANJE UČINAKA VJEŽBI SKAKANJA NA VJEŠTINE

Sažetak Svrha ovog istraživanja bila je utvrditi učinak vježbi skakanja na vještine učenika. Statističko društvo bilo je četvrti razred osnovnih učenika, na četiri obrazovna područja, Shiraz, Iran. Uzorci su bili 80 studenata, grupirani su slučajnim odabirom. Istraživanje je bilo primjenjivo, gotovo eksperimentalno, u izradi pre-post testova. Za mjerenje društvene vještine korištena je ocjena učitelja o socijalnim vještinama (TRSS) o studentima (Truscott, 1989). Sastojala se od 39 predmeta. Valjanost je potvrđena sveučilišnim profesorima. Cronbachov alfa bio je 0.831. Pouzdanost je izmjerena 0,769. TRSS stavke bile su na Likertovoj ljestvici. Skakanje je provedeno za 2 odjeljka od 45 minuta tjedno, tijekom 12 tjedana. Prikupljanje podataka dogodilo se nakon i prije izvođenja vježbi skakanja. Nije bilo značajnih utjecaja na društvenu vještinu vježbanjem skakanja među osnovnim studentima, bila je hipoteza. Deskriptivna i statistička analiza kao što je Leven test i upareni uzorak t-testova bili su uesd. Rezultat t = - 2.60 i df = 79, pokazao je značajne razlike u društvenoj vještini prije i nakon vježbi skače (p <0.05). Potencijalno, čini se da vježbe skakanja imaju značajan utjecaj na vještine. Iako su hipoteze odobrene, rezultati bi trebali pažljivo protumačiti o korelaciji.

Ključne riječi: vježbe skakanja, vještina, međusobni odnos, društvenost.

Received: March 05, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Kamelia Abdi Islamic Azad University, Department of Physical Education, Shiraz Branch, Shiraz, Iran Telephone: +971 4 5674601 Email: [email protected]

47 Raiola, G.: Using of videoanalysis in didactics to improve motor learning... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 48-55

USING OF VIDEOANALYSIS IN DIDACTICS TO IMPROVE MOTOR LEARNING, SKILLS AND TACTICS IN WATER SPORTS

Gaetano Raiola

University of Salerno, Italy Original scientific paper

Abstract This study applies video analysis to assess performances in water sport; it focuses on the whole phenomenon carrying out some aspects. It is evaluated by quantitative data for biomechanics and bioenergetics and qualitative data related single performance to evaluate specific indicators and descriptors. The aim is to take in relationship quantitative data and qualitative one. The theoretical and argumentive method is applied to each single experimental study. Water polo study evaluates the correlation between tactics scheme and outcome and the correlation between swimming velocity ball handling and without ball in different athlete types. The cliff diving (that means diving from 28 meters with speed 24 m/s) study evaluates the correlation between water biomechanics impact and technical model. The synchronized swimming study evaluates correlation between biomechanical aspects of technical elements and score indicators and descriptors. The swimming study evaluates the correlation between morphological diseases and pains in water polo athletes. Investigation of water sports utilizes ecological and integrated method that joins qualitative and quantitative aspects, so that new technologies could be integrated to address the use of technical instruments to obtain a global vision of sport performance to help the coaches in monitoring and assessment.

Key words: assessment, evaluation, qualitative and quantitative data.

Introduction

The advent of new technologies evaluation in video of the race in all its singular moments. sports, focuses the research’s attention to study of Furthermore, through the use of video analysis it the "special", that has given something unknown has been studied the incidence of transport of the until now. The performance analysis is divided into ball in swimming water polo. By observing two broad categories: the biomechanical analysis, individual frames we have analyzed and calculated which observes and studies the technical gesture of the angle of the stroke for each single swimming a sport and notational analysis, which categorizes player, comparing the two different swims with and and analyzes the events of a race. (Raiola, 2012). without the ball. Between these two categories, the second one is applicable to all the team and individual sports that Water polo tactical involve the opposition between adversaries and it is In water polo lacks a codified methodology for a great benefit both to assess the performance of tactics training, which is only left to coach’s the athletes, both for the work of the referees and discretion. This work represents an attempt to judges, the biomechanics analysis is rather develop methods and consequential tools to characteristic of all sports in which the competition analyze, and then train, tactical water polo side, is conducted individually by an athlete or group of knowing that athletes whose result will be expressed in a response or in a lap mark awarded by judges. Both  “the coaches of team sports analyze types of analysis are based on observation and matches and performances of team and opposing then tied to a tool for visual recovery. Even in teams to get useful data in coaching”(Hughes, natatorium sports the use of video analysis is Franks, 2008) increasingly developed. Both types of analysis are  “currently, the process of training, its based on observation and then tied to a tool for organization, and teaching methodology need more visual recovery. The aim is to compare the two knowledge on the qualitative aspects of sports techniques of analysis in natatorium sports. As for performance” (Schmidt, Wrisberg, 2008) water polo, we have made two tactical researches on the analysis of a water polo women's team During the season 2011/2012 (Italian female A1 participating in the Italian Championship A1 League), nine women water polo matches, have League. In this study, through the use of Dartfish been analyzed by a water polo coach, helped by a software and Kinovea, it is evaluated the impact of statistician and a performance analyst. The purpose the application on the outcome of tactical of the analysis process was to identify single events performances. In fact were analyzed all the game during the matches, to examine the tactical pattern phases in numerical superiority of the examined implemented in this events, to obtain by the coach team to highlight the correlation between the an evaluation on tactical pattern compliance and model of expected schema, its right application and then to put this compliance in relation to event’s the incidence of realization. The labeling system outcome. Aim of the work is to verify the efficacy of analysis "step by step" allowed us to analyze the different attack patterns, when they were well-

48 Raiola, G.: Using of videoanalysis in didactics to improve motor learning... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 48-55 performed, in order to create a codified methodology for teaching water polo through tactics. The collected data via Dartfish TeamProSoftware, were analyzed trough a “Water polo Tactics Analyzer” software, developed as a web-based application at University of Salerno and released under GPL license, that has returned basic descriptive statistics and the correlation coefficient of each pattern with events outcomes. The results show a positive and statistically significant correlation coefficient between tactical compliance and events outcome, and highlight the need of developing a common methodology for teaching water polo through tactics and it confirms once again that “the practical value of performance Picture 1. Scheme 7 analysis is that well-chosen performance indicators highlight good and bad techniques or team An evaluation table was constructed by combining, performances“ (Hughes, 2008). for each single event, the coach Boolean evaluation on the compliance of patterns with the event final The research has an integrated approach and it outcome. Here are reported comparisons of pattern consists of 3 distinct methods: design with Dartfish screenshot of pattern implemented during the game; basic descriptive  case study (9 matches of the Italian A1 statistics (occurrence of single patterns on total League Women's Championship, season events, occurrence of “well-performed pattern” on 2011/2012, played by the Volturnos.c.) for the total events, etc…); a linear regression scatter plot analysis of matches, for single patterns; acomparison between  action research method for coach correlation coefficients of single patterns, only contribution, referred to “well-performed” patterns. (Tursi et al,  and theoretical-argumentative method to 2013a) deduce a theoretical framework in which define the processing data. Table 1. Report Scheme 1

The matches were examined by the research team Scheme_1 Total with Dartfish TeamPro, isolating each single Match Wellperformed goals keyframe related to attack events and identifying occurrence volturno vs the implemented attack pattern, then the coach 2 1 0 orizzonte ct expressed an evaluation on attack pattern volturno vs 0 0 0 compliance. The assessment of compliance for fiorentina fi tactical patterns is entrusted to the coach, based on volturno vs ortigasr 3 2 1 the video analysis-aided confrontation of pattern volturno vs 2 2 2 attack design against pattern attack effectively firenzepn implemented during match. This data sheet is volturno vs padova 1 0 0 processed through the “water polo Tactics analyzer volturno vs messina 1 1 1 software”, that produces basic descriptive statistics and the correlation coefficient of each well- volturno vs imperia 2 1 1 volturno vs pro implemented pattern attack with events outcomes. 2 2 0 Were analyzed in total 7 attack patterns on 73 recco events during 9 matches. The analyzer software volturno vs bologna 2 1 1 output was discussed by the research team, with consciousness of internal validity.

Graph 1. Linear Regression scheme 1

Water polo incidence ball The purpose of this study is to verify the incidence of ball handling in swimming intensity in water Figure 1. Example pattern- schema 7 polo, in order to obtain useful indication in

49 Raiola, G.: Using of videoanalysis in didactics to improve motor learning... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 48-55 coaching. The integrated research method consists Analysis was conducted individually for each in action research for coach contribution by training athlete, and in total for each test. All performances and evaluation, and theoretical-argumentative to were recorded and analyzed by Kinovea to detect deduce a framework in which define the processing corners and extensions of strokes. The data data. Eleven, well-trained and competitive athletes Analysis collected shows that the thehighest level were recruited and asked to swim 5 x 20-m, one water polo players (Starace and Valkai) do not have time with ball, and one time without ball. significant changes in chronometric. Instead, for the athletes coming from competitive swimming This test was repeated three times. For each (Guillet and Giuliani), ball-handling has a clear and swimmer was calculated the mean and the negative impact on swimming development. For the standard error of times per test, both with and athletes coming from water polo (Anastasio, without the ball. Analysis was conducted Pellegrino), ball-handling affects swimming times in individually for each athlete, and in total for each a positive way (results indicate fastest times in the test. tests carried out with the ball). For the other athletes the results do not show significant The results, compared means of times, reveals a changes. The results show that this study will help high variability, and it indicates a no-mechanical the coach to develop a training methodology incidence of ball handling on swimming intensity. effectively in improving performance. Coaches are Reading these results in correlation to athletes suggested to increase the use of ball-handling in all anamnesis it reveals that the incidence of ball- conditions of training. (Tursi et al, 2013b, Gaetano handling is significant in athletes who have a et al. 2015, Raiola, Tafuri, 2015). swimming-oriented athletic history only, but there are not significant differences in times for athletes who have a water polo oriented athletic history.

The results show how this study can help the coach to train the team to improve the analyzed skills in different mode, creating a methodological system training to enhance the performance. Coaches are suggested to carefully monitor swimming rhythm during trials, and to increment ball-handling in every training condition. Eleven well-trained competitive athletes were recruited and asked to swim the test of the 300 fastest (15 reps of 20 meters), one time with ball, and one time without ball. For each swimmer was calculated the mean and standard error of times per test, both with and without the ball. Graph 2. Linear regression

Table 2. Linear regression

ATHLETE VEL CP VEL SP XY X2 Y2 Y' e e^2 (Y-M)^2 ANASTASIO 12,61 13,31 167,8391 159,0121 177,16 39,26908 -25,96 673,874 0,338512 CIAMPICHETTI 13,93 12,71 177,0503 194,0449 161,54 43,37972 -30,67 940,632 0,000331 CICCARIELLO 12,94 13,13 169,9022 167,4436 172,40 40,29674 -27,17 738,0319 0,161458 DE SIMONE 12,98 13,75 178,475 168,4804 189,06 40,42131 -26,67 711,3587 1,044112 DI MONACO 12,80 13,18 168,704 163,84 173,71 39,86077 -26,68 711,8633 0,20414 GIULIANI 12,70 11,87 150,749 161,29 140,90 39,54935 -27,68 766,1466 0,736476 GUILLET 12,61 11,56 145,7716 159,0121 133,63 39,26908 -27,71 767,7933 1,364649 MASCIANDARO 13,12 12,80 167,936 172,1344 163,84 40,85729 -28,06 787,2112 0,005158 PELLEGRINO 12,64 13,32 168,3648 159,7696 177,42 39,36251 -26,04 678,2121 0,350249 STARACE 11,99 12,31 147,5969 143,7601 151,54 37,33833 -25,03 626,4171 0,174876 VALKAI 12,02 12,07 145,0814 144,4804 145,68 37,43175 -25,36 643,2184 0,433203 SOMMA 140,34 140,01 1787,47 1793,268 1786,886 8044,759 4,813164

MEDIA 12,76 12,73

X2 VARIABLE SQUARE X

B 0,4299954 r^2 -1670,41 Y2 VARIABLE SQUARE Y

A 7,242222 Y' VALUATION OF X

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE Y r2= -1670,4 e VALUE OBSERVED WITH THE

REGRESSIONE PARAMETERS Y’ slope = b = 0,43 e^2 SUM OF ERRORS SQUARED

EXPLAINED PROPORTION OF intercept = a = 7,24 (Y-M)^2 VARIANCE

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Water polo: postural effect have been considered. The human body has been The study examines the postural effects on simulated by a cylinder with a mass of 80 Kg and wellness and the performance of fourteen 1,71 m height. Velocity in free fall is calculated as professional female water polo athletes. There are v=√(2*g*h), without considering drag effects. no written studies on water polo, probably because During the water impact the feet-first body it is assumed that there is no pain because (cylindrical) orientation has been considered. Under ofArchimedes’s formula that opposes the force of the water surface the acting forces between body gravity. Currently athletes carry out exercises to and water have been calculated by the application compensate and to avoid any eventual pain that of momentum theorem. The results have been then disappears when they are out ofwater compared with those obtained using the formula in according to motor control and learning theory ref (Von Karman, 1929) for “Flat-Bottomed Float”, (Raiola, 2012). The aim is to understand the with little differences. The results show a maximum phenomenon in professional athletes using a force of 26891,57 [N] during dt = 0,001s from a tridimensional analysis of the surface of the torso 28 m diving height. This maximum force obtained and the baropodometric platform. It consists in by the current calculation appears rather high and examining the “3D” surface of the torso of fourteen needs to be further evaluated. Nonetheless, the professional water polo athletes, participants in the current calculation with an impact velocity of 9,14 Italian Championship in the A1 league, and the m/s ref confirms the loads of 500g reported in ref. data of the baropodometric platform. This data highlights curves that will be considered with An injury in a crash is the result of human response regards to athletic performance and well being. to force application to the body. Force and The data of performance andwell being of the acceleration are vector quantities comprising both athletes iscollected by a trainer for every single magnitude and direction. This is (far forma) not a athlete.The study was carried out at the specialized simple question (to answer) and depends on a center CORPORA of Gricignano (CE) with the number of interrelated and variable conditions. following apparatus: “FormetricSpinometer”. These incidents may provide valid data. Some cases of voluntary and involuntary free-fall have This allows the morphological 3D image of the been documented and studied. In order to calculate torso, with extreme accuracy (error below 0,2 the load supported by a diver, the body has been mm), speed, and safety thanks to the radiation free considered as an elementary structure: a cylinder. equipment. The postural Formetric check-up The cliff is divided in two steps, the first one is supplies a series of indicators which together give a when the cylinder falls in the air and the second detailed evaluation of the subject’s posture. For when the cylinder has an interaction with water. Ii each athlete a synthesis chart was elaborated, has been considered the normal diving condition: showing a 3D reconstruction of the surface of the during the water impact the feet-first body torso and the detection of specific postural orientation, and the perpendicularity between the parameters with the data collected by the trainers cylindrical axisis and the water line. on the athlete’s performance and well being. This data was elaborated using a statistic model of Tolerance abrupt acceleration: linear regression. The evaluation of the data shows In general, human tolerance to acceleration is a no existing correlation between cases with pseudo function of the following extrinsic factors: pathological curves and their state of well being and performance. While athletes with a near 1) Magnitude of the acceleration perfect exam often complained about occasional Clearly, the higher the acceleration is, the pain. There is a paradox regarding affection, more likely it can cause injury. performance and pain; in some cases it is low, 2) Direction of acceleration while in some cases, it is the opposite. The results  Duraction of accelleration of the Archimedes’s principle and the force of  Ipothesis: gravity probably produce physiological Diver body = cylinder adjustments in water. Hc= 1,71m Mb = 80 (Kg) 2 Impact in high diving S0 = 0,056 m (flat-foot position) A high diving can be considered as free falls in Hd = 28 (m) water, it is (interesting) important to know the vd= 0 (m/s) design limitations of the human body and to body impact position = feet-first understand the load supported by people during α = 90° water impact in order to investigate the consequence on the body structure. Studies on the 3) Impact velocity: water impact have been conducted to identify the For impact velocity calculation it has been load supported by aeronautical or space structure considered only the gravity acceleration, without caused by impact with and detachment from the considering drag effects. water surface and to develop the system to assure people survival condition. The aim of this analysis is Ep = Mb *g* Hd 2 to determine the maximum impacting load in high Ek =1/2 Mb *v diving by analytical formulas. The studies developed in the aeronautical field on water impact at t0

51 Raiola, G.: Using of videoanalysis in didactics to improve motor learning... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 48-55 v0 = √(2*g* Hd) = √ (2*9,81*28) = 23,43 m/s. m ^3 *kg/ m ^ 3* m/s ^ 2= N

In literature [Neverthless], as reported studies in Found the force acceleration is given by the impact velocity in the free fall from Golden Gate = Buoyancy force/mass= acceleration due to Bridge at San Francisco was in a range closely floating body -> LAW OF ARCHIMEDES. A body 37.19 – 38.04 m/s (with Hd about 61m) and using immersed in a liquid undergoes a direct pierces the aerodynamic drag correction of Conter[a] and upwards of intensity equal to the weight of the Earley [b], these velocities were calculated to range liquid displaced. closely between 32.92-33.53 m/s. Snyder [1967] consider that the calculated values used in the F= g ρ V (N= m/s^2* kg/m^3*m^3) study of the voluntary and involuntary free-fall are lower, but more realistic than that provided by A body sinks, floats opsalt when its density is standard formula (3), it must be considered that respectively greater than, equal to or less than that these injury tests and calculations have shown that of the liquid. clothing such as jackets or skirts do provide an additional drag. 5) Evaluation at t0

4) Force evaluation - Force is calculated by v0 = 23,43 m/s. application of the momentum theorem [Von z0 = 0 Karman]. The body movement in water is not a stationary condition and it has been considered that 6) Evaluation at t1= 0,001 s (dt1= 0,001s) for each dt there are interaction between the mass of water involved and body. We have only zt1=v0*dt considered that the body changes the mass water (9) condition: from static condition to a movement. Mwt1 = zt1 *S0* ρw

F * dt= Mb * dv zt1=Mbv0/(Mb +Mwt1) F= Mb * (vt-1-vt)/dt (*) Ft1= Mb * (vt1-v0)/dt The original momentum of the body is assumed to be distributed between the body and the water 7) Evaluation at t2= 0,002 s (dt1= 0,001s) during the impact [9]. Byt his time the body overgravitational acceleration Mbvt-1= vt*(Mb + Mw) is subjected to two other forces:

 A date from the reaction force that is The Mw ,involed in the process at t time, is undergoing= F /Mb calculated, vs. yt  A given acceleration of floating Mw = * g/Mb Mw= yt *S0* ρw vt2= v0+ab/dt vt = vt-1 + ab *dt zt2= zt1+ zt2*dt zt -zt-1 = vt-1 + ab *dt. Mwt2 = yt2 *S0* ρw Considerations on the acceleration When I cover is in free fall acceleration of gravity vt2=Mbvt1/(Mb +Mwt2) acts in the air. When the water enters, the reaction force on the body, given by the mass of water that Ft2= Mb * (vt2- vt1)/dt passes from the state of rest to the speed impressed by the body (calculated with the Results theorem of momentum), provides an acceleration of negative sign on the body (the negative sign is V0= 23,43 m/s due to the force which tends to brake the body). Fmax 25995 N We call it the balance between the two inertial accelerations. When the body begins to dive, Zmax=1,64m because of the force that pushes it downwards, we Gmax= 33 must consider the effect of the reaction of the buoyancy force, which tends to oppose the In most cases examined survival is recorded at a downward thrust. The instant dt, the body enters a speed of 100 ft / s (30.48 m / s). certain amount of volume, which moves the equivalent mass of water: Water volume * density Survival was measured under the following water = Kg mass of water displaced. The budget is conditions impact: one of the forces that push down and the buoyancy force: Water volume * density water * gravitational - Lateral (-Gy) up to 87 ft / s (26.83 m / s) acceleration = force of the water mass. - Back (-Gx) up to 88 ft / s (26.82 m / s)

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- Supino (+ Gx) up to 93 ft / s (28.34 m / s) determined since the displacement is unknown. - Head (-Gz) up to 97 ft / s (29.56 m / s). Therefore, time duration, a most important factor in deceleration calculations, cannot be accurately For the different levels of speed (drop height of 46 determined. In general, the time duration, and rate ft - 14.02 m) over 50 ft / s (15.24 m / s), the of change of velocity, in water impacts is of much condition of impact with the foot (+ Gz) showed is longer duration than in impacts on solid surfaces. the highest percentage of cases of survival. The stopping distance will vary with the body Drawing up a table of the other cases of survival orientation upon impact, it is much greater in feet impact of foot we have: or head-first impacts, and lower, because of the greater surface area, in lateral or traverse impacts. - 100 ft / s 30.48 m / s Evidence does seem to indicate, however, that - 102 ft / s 31.9 m / s even from great heights velocity is rapidly lost in - 111 ft / s 33.83 m / s water. Experiments [Neuriert and Trey], for - 116 ft / s 35 m / s example, showed that in head-first dives into water: With a standard speed 133 ft / s 40.54 m / s From 238 cm= 2,38 m The maximum human body limit of tolerance on Mass= 3,38 Kg. impact with the water it was found to be close to Specific gravity 1,08 100 ft / s (68.2mph-30.48m/s),or equivalent drop Had lost 71% of their velocity by a depth of only 16 height of 186-foot (56 , 69 m). Patterns of injury cm (0,16m). were found to vary with the direction of forces or body orientation. Of 34 cases of feet-first (+Gz) Mathematical estimates by Early predict a impact, which was the most commonly survived magnitude force (G): body orientation, 11, or 32,2 %, had no associated G feet/head- G flat clinically reported trauma. The most typically injury Velocity f/s Velocity m/s in feet-first impact involved contusions to thighs first configuration and buttocks, compression fracture (particularly to 20 3,5 18,6 the twelfth thoracic and first lumbar vertebra), 30 6,0 40 shock, and hemorrhaging of the lung. 50 15 16 112

80 24 43 300 Besides the high incidence of compression fractures in this impact position bilateral mid-shaft fractures to the tibia and femur or homers occurred. In one In water impacts, some factors not usually case, a comminuted fracture of the scapula and associated with these types of surfaces may play an distal clavicle occurred when the individual landed important role in determining survival. For with one arm down, forming a fulcrum against the example, the surface of the water may be smooth impact force. It does appear that internal trauma is and horizontal to the falling body through waves significantly more frequent in any position of impact and trough shaping a surface angle nearly other than feet-first. While it is generally been perpendicular and thus parallel to the body. Even in considered that the wider the distribution of force inland water, waves may be a factor. over the body’s surface is, the less the unit force, and thus the greater distribution of energy (and Velocity of the current, while a relatively minor survival capability), this factor by itself is somewhat factor impact, is immediately important to survive. misleading, particularly as regards the water Therefore meteorological conditions are often of impact. more importance to water impacts than other impacted surfaces and less subject to variation. A clean dive or jump into water, represents a smaller surface area and a greater concentration of Additional forces acting in a water impact may forces, leaves a little or no sting. The difference, of involve such factors as frictions, tumbling, water course, is in the deformation characteristic of the uplope, resultant force, and even shear due to water, and so the distance and time duration of current. In Ney You’re a 32-year-old man jumped deceleration. In the clean dive the impact duration 107 ft (41.14m) - for the third time- from a bridge time is longer since there is less braking action due on which 67 other jumpers have been killed. The to the decreased body surface area and greater leader of “high divers” noted that in diving from depth penetration. less than 30 ft a diver should remain relaxed; over 30 feet he “must be as rigid as possible to take up While this may seem obvious and elementary, it is the blow”. a basic factor in water-impact survival. Velocity at impact is used in this study to indicate magnitude Such stunt dives do emphasize that a water impact of forces because it can be accurately calculated in can be repeatedly made at velocities up to 86 ft/s unimpeded free-falls, providing a valid basis of (26,21 m/s) with no or minimal injury if proper relative fall severity. Unlike falls onto hard surfaces body orientation is maintained. These individuals, such as concrete, however, the deformation however, are all young males, highly trained, and characteristics of each impact cannot be precisely in top physical condition.

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Conclusion 30,48-35,30 m/s (100-116 ft/s) impact velocity. The highest impact velocity survived in the head- The impact surface influence the forces on the first is 29,52 m/s (97 ft/s) (-Gz). Stunt divers at body, because with smaller surface area a longer Acapulco, Mexico, routinely dive up to 135 ft (41 deceleration involved. A previous study of water m) (86 ft/s – 26,2 m/s). Tests conducted with an impact survival in free fall has demonstrated that instrumented anthropometric dummy in different critical velocity (corrected for aerodynamic drag) body orientations produced measured G forces for human survival of water impact in the feet-first exceeding 500 G’s an only 9,14 m/s impact body position appears to be slightly over 30,48 m/s velocities, less than one-quarter the impact velocity (100 ft/s), five individuals have survived impact of of these fatal cases [c]. (Napolitano et al. 2013a)

References

Conter, J.S. (1962). Analysis of Air Resistence Effects on the velocity of Falling Human Body. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Di Tore, P.A., & Raiola, G. (2012). Exergame-design and motor activities teaching: An overview of scientific paradigms on motor control , Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3(11), 119-122. Di Tore, P.A, & Raiola, G. (2012). Case study on Physical Education and Sport in Naples Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3(11), 479-484. Earlyer, J.C. (1964). Body Terminal velocity. Unpublished data. Earlyer, J.C. (1964). Dummy Water Impact Test. Unpublished data. Gaetano, R., & Rago, V. (2014). Preliminary study on effects of hiit-high intensity intermittent training in youth soccer players, Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 14(2), 148-150. Gaetano, R., Gomez, F.P., & Gaetano, A. (2015). Anxiety In The Youth Physical And Sport Activity, Mediterranean, Journal of Social Sciences, 6(3). Hirano, Y., & Koryo, M. (1999). Water Impact Accelerations of Axially Symmetric Bodies, J. Spacecraft, 7(6). Hughes, M. (2004). Notational analysis – a mathematical perspective, International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 4(2), 97-139. Hughes, M. (2007). The essentials of performance analysis: an introduction, New York: Taylor & Francis. Hughes, M., & Franks, I. (2008) Notational Analysis of Sport: Systems for Better Coaching and Performance in Sport, London: Routledge. Napolitano, S., Di Tore, A., & Raiola, G. (2013a). High diving: evaluation of water impact and considerations on training methods, Journal of human sport & exercise, 8(S2), 283 – 289. Napolitano, S., Tursi, D., Di Tore, P.A., & Raiola, G. (2013b). Tactics-based water polo training, Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 8(2), 271 - 282. Napolitano, S., Tursi, D., & Raiola, G. (2013c). Water polo women's pattern tactical experience of an Italian team, Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 8(3), 660 - 670. Raiola, G. (2012). Bodily communication in volleyball between human and experimental sciences, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3(1), 587 - 597. Raiola, G., & Tafuri, D. (2015). Pilot work on training for quantitative aspects of performance, Spo Sci, 8(2). Raiola, G., & Di Tore, A. (2012). Non-verbal communication and volleyball: A new way to approach the phenomenon Mediterranean, Journal of Social Sciences, 3, 347-356. Snyder, R.G., & Snow, C.C. (1967). Fatal Injuries Resulting from Extreme water Impact, Aerospace Medicine, 38(8). Schmidt, R., & Wrisberg, C. (2008). Motor learning and Performance, New York: Human Kinetics. Snyder, R.G. (1965). Survival of high-velocity free-falls in water. Oklahoma: Federal Aviation Agency. Snyder, R.G., Clyde, C., & Snow, M.S. (1967). Fatal Injuries Resulting from Extreme water Impact, Aerospace Medicine, 38(8). Snyder, R.G. (1965). Human Tolerance Limits in Water Impact. Aerospace Med, 36, 940-947. Tursi, D., Napolitano, S., Di Tore, P.A., & Raiola, G. (2013a). Arm stroke: A comparative analysis between competitive swimming and water polo athletes, Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 8(S2), 314 - 322. Tursi, D., Napolitano, S., Polidoro, L., & Raiola, G. (2013b). Video analysis as an instrument in juvenile soccer training, Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 8(3), 688 - 693. Von Karman, T. (1929). The impact of seaplane floats during landing, Washington: NACA TN 321. *** Shanahan, D.S. (2004) “Human Tollerance and Crash Survivability” RTO-EN-HFM-113 28-29 O.

54 Raiola, G.: Using of videoanalysis in didactics to improve motor learning... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 48-55

KORIŠTENJE VIDEOANALIZE U DIDAKTICI ZA POBOLJŠANJE MOTORIČKOG UČENJA, VJEŠTINA I TAKTIKE U VODENIM SPORTOVIMA

Sažetak Ovo istraživanje primjenjuje video analizu kako bi procijenilo nastupe u vodenom sportu;Usredotočuje se na cijeli fenomen koji provodi neke aspekte. Procjenjuje se kvantitativnim podacima za biomehaniku i bioenergetiku i kvalitativne jednokratne rezultate vezane uz podatke za procjenu specifičnih pokazatelja i deskriptora. Cilj je uzeti kvantitativne podatke i kvalitativne odnose. Teorijska i argumentativna metoda primjenjuje se na svaku pojedinu eksperimentalnu studiju. Studija vaterpola procjenjuje povezanost između taktičke sheme i ishoda te korelacije između rukovanja kugličnim brzinama i bez lopte u različitim tipovima sportaša. Ronjenje stijena (to znači da ronjenje s 28 metara brzinom 24 m / s) proučava korelaciju između utjecaja biomehanike vode i tehničkog modela. Studija sinkroniziranog plivanja ocjenjuje korelaciju između biomehaničkih aspekata tehničkih elemenata i pokazatelja i deskriptora. Studija plivanja ocjenjuje povezanost između morfoloških bolesti i bolova u sportašima vaterpolu. Istraživanje vodenih sportova koristi ekološku i integriranu metodu koja se pridružuje kvalitativnim i kvantitativnim aspektima, kako bi se nove tehnologije mogle integrirati za rješavanje korištenja tehničkih instrumenata kako bi se dobila globalna vizija sportskog učinka kako bi pomogli trenerima u praćenju i procjeni.

Ključne riječi: procjena, evaluacija, kvalitativni i kvantitativni podaci.

Received: January 24, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Gaetano Raiola University Parthenope of Naples, Via Ammiraglio Ferdinando Acton, 38, 80133 Napoli, Italy E-mail: [email protected]

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USING SOCCER CLUB FANS FOR POLITICAL PURPOSES: CASE SERBIA

Branislav Simonović1, Snežana Soković1, Saša Mijalković2, Snežana Novović3 and Božidar Otašević3

1University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Law, Serbia 2Academy for Criminalistic and Police Studies, Belgrade, Serbia 3Ministry of Interior, Serbia Original scientific paper

Abstract The goal of the research was to determine if the various political and parapolitical groups and organizations are taking advantage of football club fans in Republic of Serbia for political purposes. The research was conducted during football Championships in Serbia (2011 and 2012 year) using interviewing technique- survey, on a sample of 268 fans. The results unambiguously indicate that fans were participating in public meetings of non-sports character, such as riots which have political background.

Key words: sport, fan groups, violence, ideology, politics.

Introduction

Influences of political and economic interest groups It should be emphasised that using soccer fan that use sport for their own particular interests groups to achieve nationalist, separatist and have always been intertwined with sport. Using political goals is not only a Balkan phenomenon. sport, especially soccer, in totalitarian regimes is The problem is also described in Spain, Italy, described in sociological literature (Merkel, 1999; Germany, Argentina (Spaaij, 2008). Vrcan 2002). However, the connection between sport and politics is present in democratic societies Methods too. Therefore, it would be completely erroneous to claim that fan violence is a sort of “outlet” of The study aims to determine whether and in what totalitarian regimes, given that it is equally present ways soccer club fans in Serbia are used for in modern democracies (Treadwell and Garland political purposes. In this regard, we set up the 2011). Relationship between politics and soccer is hypothesis as follows: Leaders of fan groups are also mentioned in literature as a cause of war linked with the centres of political power that between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969, but instruct their actions so that fans participate in that is an overstatement. (Sack and Suster 2000; political and the so-called patriotic public gatherings Božović, 2006). or promote ideological-political and homophobic messages at sporting events, whereby in both Instead of being a substitute for war, sport often cases there would be certain amount of violence. becomes”a trigger and an arena” in which each side seeks revenge for the insults and atrocities or The survey was conducted by means of the polling confirmation of victory” (Bodin et al., 2007). The technique. A questionnaire containing 33 questions practice of using fans for political purposes is was used as a tool, on a sample of 268 fans, from evident in present-day Serbia too. “Over the past three soccer fan groups supporting Belgrade-based two decades, there was not a single important clubs Red Star, Partizan and Rad. The fans were political public gathering on the territory of surveyed in typical situations of conducting fan Belgrade without fans involved (Misić and rituals at the stadiums of those clubs. Kešetović, 2012). Certain political structures use this practice to incite conflicts or to express covert This scope and structure of the sample of political messages, the public disclosure of which respondents were representative, as 268 fans make would have adverse consequences or would up about 10% of the total number of registered degrade the position of a political party. violent and potentially violent fans (in Belgrade, there are about 3,000 such fans (Otašević, 2010). In addition to close ties with the club management, Serbian fan group leaders have rich criminal Standard IBM SPSS Advanced Statistics 20.0. records and are deeply involved in the sphere of software package was used for automated violent and organised crime, which creates a statistical analysis of those data. The process of specific symbiosis of the worlds of politics, sports data processing involved the use of available and crime (Simonović et al., 2014). Finally, it is a statistical techniques with regard to the type of widespread position according to which the so- information from the questionnaire. called ideology of right-winged extremism is one of the most important grounds for actions of Serbian This includes descriptive statistics, chi-square test fans (Đorić, 2010; Mijalković and Amidžić, 2012), and determining correlation between variables via so we wanted to confirm that in our survey. coefficients of contingency.

56 Sioović, B. et al.: Usig soer lu fas for politial purposes: ase Seria Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 56-61

Results to “something else”, while slightly more than a fifth of responses (22.65%) testifies of non-participation Fan groups are characterised by a high in gatherings that are not related to soccer. heterogeneity in age structure, their age spanning from 12 to 61, i.e., within the range of 49 years. As many as 95% of fans belong to the interval from 22.71 to 24.04, and the average age of respondents is 23.38 (± 5.31).

Asked about the status in the fan group, 19 (7.09%) of the total number of respondents, identified themselves as fan leaders, 102 (38.06%) said they were core fan group members and 109 (40.67%) that they were members – supporters and 38 (14.18%) gave no response to the question on their status.

Figure 3. Distribution of respondents according to the frequency of fans in relation to participation in rallies

Variable participation in other events than sporting public events was associated with the status of the respondents in the fan group. The results showed that 18 (94.7%) of respondents who identified themselves as fan leaders participated in other than sporting events (only one of the outspoken leaders of the fans did not answer this question).

Figure 1. Status of fans in a fan group If we look at core fans, it can be noted that 98 (or 96.1%) of the total of 102 of them participated in When asked if they participate in sports riots, other public gatherings unrelated to soccer. Finally, somewhat less than half of respondents (126 or 86 out of 109 respondents who are members – 47.01%) claim never to have participated in riots, supporters (or 78.9%) took part in other events while nearly the same number were involved in than sporting public gatherings. The question was riots several times (70 or 26.12%) of them, or not answered by 5.5% of the total number of participate always (68 or 25.37%), and (4 or respondents. 1.49%) respondents did not give an answer. Based on the presented results, it can be concluded that the majority of fans (85.44%) participates in other than sporting events, and that this tendency is even more present when it comes to fan leaders and core fans (95.87%). Participation in other events than sporting events statistically significantly correlates with the status of fan leaders and core fans (C=0.480; χ2=58,322; df=2; p=0,000; also: C=0.480; χ2=58.321; df=1; p=0.000), the marital status of parents – C=0.170; χ2=6.438; df=2; p=0.040; (children of divorced parents participate more often), as well as habits that involve consumption of drugs and/or alcohol Figure 2. Participation in sports riots (C=0.365; χ2=33,358; df=1; p=0.000) and so on (Table 1). The situation is similar when it comes to When asked about their involvement in other than the participation in rallies organised by political sporting public gatherings and which ones, parties. respondents were given a multiple-choice option. They could circle all kinds of events in which they Participation in patriotic gatherings is associated participated, so the percentages were calculated in with the place of birth – C=0.193; χ2=8.150; df=1; relation to the type of the gathering and not in p=0.004 (respondents from Belgrade are more relation to the number of respondents. present at patriotic gatherings than other respondents), consumption of drugs and/or alcohol Almost one-third (30.11%) of the total number of (C=0.288; χ2=19.626; df=1; p=0.000), as well as responses refer to the rallies against the Gay Pride the status in the fan group (C=0.204; χ2=8.454; parade, 19.06% to patriotic rallies, 16.57% to df=2; p=0.015; also: C=0.171; χ2=5.859; df=1; rallies of political parties, 2.49% to strikes, 9.12% p=0.016) (Table 2).

57 Sioović, B. et al.: Usig soer lu fas for politial purposes: ase Seria Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 56-61

Figure 4. Participation in other than sporting public gatherings by the status of fans

Finally, respondents aged 18 to 25 are somewhat political structures have an impact on fans, and to more frequent participants of rallies against the what extent, more than half of the respondents Gay Pride parade (C=0.136; χ2=4.086; df=1; (58.07%) responded that they considered that p=0.043), followed by those who are unemployed political parties or particular political structures had (C=0.189; χ2=7.721, df=2; p=0.021), children of an impact on the leaders of fan groups, the core divorced parents (F=0.222; χ2=11.286; df=2; fan groups, and on both the leaders and the core fan groups. Less than 4% of fans felt that political p=0.004), drugs and/or alcohol consumers parties or political structures had an impact on (C=0.340; χ2=28.367; df=1; p=0.000), as well as ordinary members and supporters, while 2.24% of those respondents who have the status of leaders the respondents considered that politics had an or core fans (F=0.480; χ2=58.519; df=2; p=0.000; impact on all fans. The opinion of 28.36% of the also: C=0.479; χ2=58.149; df=1; p=0.000) (Table respondents was that politics affected neither of the 3). When asked whether political parties or certain two.

Table 1. Correlation of participation in other than sporting events with other variables

2 Variables χ Df C p Age .000 1 .000 1.000 Place of birth .950 1 .067 .330 Level of education .019 1 .009 .891 Employment status 1.185 2 .075 .553 Housing status 2.049 2 .097 .359 Standard 4.641 2 .143 .098 Marital status of parents 6.438 2 .170 .040 Marital status of respondents 1.326 2 .077 .515 Drugs and/or alcohol 33.358 1 .365 .000 Drugs 27.489 1 .335 .000 Alcohol 28.969 1 .343 .000 Manner of choosing the club 2.111 1 .103 .146 Status (three categories) 58.322 2 .480 .000 Status (two categories) 58.321 1 .480 .000

Table 2. Correlation of participation in patriotic gatherings with other variables

2 Variables χ df C p Age .429 1 .044 .512 Place of birth 8.150 1 .193 .004 Level of education .032 1 .012 .859 Employment status 4.611 2 .147 .100 Housing status 5.553 2 .159 .062 Standard 2.694 2 .110 .260 Marital status of parents 2.695 2 .111 .260 Marital status of respondents 4.696 2 .144 .096 Drugs and/or alcohol 19.626 1 .288 .000 Drugs 5.739 1 .161 .017 Alcohol 21.639 1 .301 .000 Manner of choosing the club .003 1 .004 .953 Status (three categories) 8.454 2 .204 .015 Status (two categories) 5.859 1 .171 .016

58 Sioović, B. et al.: Usig soer lu fas for politial purposes: ase Seria Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 56-61

Table 3. Correlation of participation in rallies against the Gay Pride parade with other variables

2 Variables χ df C p Age 4.086 1 .136 .043 Place of birth .002 1 .003 .962 Level of education 1.667 1 .088 .197 Employment status 7.721 2 .189 .021 Housing status 2.064 2 .098 .356 Standard 5.560 2 .157 .062 Marital status of parents 11.286 2 .222 .004 Marital status of respondents 3.011 2 .116 .222 Drugs and/or alcohol 28.367 1 .340 .000 Drugs 28.230 1 .339 .000 Alcohol 27.843 1 .337 .000 Manner of choosing the club 2.489 1 .111 .115 Status (three categories) 58.519 2 .480 .000 Status (two categories) 58.149 1 .479 .000

When it comes to the type of impact, 63 (23.5%) of respondents believe that exploitation for political purposes exists; the opinion of 42 (15%) is that crime connects political actors and fans; (27 or 10.1%) of respondents believe that the impact exists, but they do not explain the nature of such impact; about half of the respondents (5136 or 0.7%) gave no answer. In addition to the fact that more than half of the respondents believe that political structures have an impact on fans, an important finding is that among different categories of fans (leaders, members and fans – supporters) there was no statistically significant difference in

terms of an opinion about whether such an impact 2 Figure 5. Impact of political parties or certain exists – C=0.079; χ =1.332; df=2; p=0.514. political groups and organisations on fans However, when an explanation is given about the type of impact, there is a statistically significant Table 4. Chi-Square tests and symmetric measues difference, as the leaders and core members mentioned criminal connections, while members – supporters cited the use for political purposes, or Chi-Square Tests 2 gave no answer at all – C=0.218; χ =11.476; Asymp df=3; p=0.009 (Table 4). Valu . Sig. df e (2- Discussion and conclusion sided) Pearson 11.4 3 .009 These responses are generally not surprising Chi-Square 76(a) because of the fact that certain political parties and Likelihood 11.9 3 .008 Ratio 40 political structures in fighting for alleged national Linear-by-Linear interests, mostly the right-winged ones, often .034 1 .855 Association manipulate extreme fan groups. Finally, they are N of Valid members or supporters of political parties, and a 230 Cases significant portion of the electorate, and the fan leaders often get some protection from the criminal a 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. and legal reaction by the state or financial means The minimum expected count is 10.90. for fans’ activities. Extensive amounts of biased and patriotic discourse are offered in all former Symmetric Measures Yugoslav nations. (Ličen and Billings, 2013). Our results are analogous to those in Italy, according to which two-thirds of Italian ultras fans admitted they Approx Value had a history of conflict outside of soccer events . Sig. (Roversi and Balestri, 2000). Similar are the results Nominal by Contingency .218 .009 of the survey of fan violence in England where Nominal Coefficient N of Valid “fusion of soccer violence and extremist politics” 230 Cases was noticed (Treadwell and Garland, 2011). Within the variables included in the analysis, the status of a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. the leader or a core fan group member can be b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming singled out as a factor that highly and significantly the null hypothesis. correlates with both participation in sports riots and participation in other events than sporting events –

59 Sioović, B. et al.: Usig soer lu fas for politial purposes: ase Seria Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 56-61 rallies of political parties, patriotic gatherings and leaders are at the management of sports clubs similar events, where rallies against the Gay Pride although they usually have nothing to do with parade should be particularly highlighted. sports, but they hold managing positions in order to Combined with the so-called machismo and the achieve their political and material goals. Sporting tradition of “Serbian marriage and family” as the events are a good opportunity for them to express foundation of the extreme fans’ system of values, it their political goals because of the large number of is manifested as expressed and open animosity participants in those events, but also because of towards sexual minorities, i.e., towards members of the presence of the sporting public and the media, the LGBT population. Homophobia and machismo of and there they also have the chance to receive high fan hooligans are politicised by right-winged pays and possibly abuse their position by means of political forces. Machismo, masculinity and membership in managing boards. It should be homophobia characterise vandals and violators in added that some politicians, sports officials, sport and out of sport around the world (for journalists and other public figures associated with example, Earle, 2011; Treadwell and Garland sport promote violence in their public appearances, 2011). Fans are generally not interested in politics or prevent ordinary people from seeing the real to a great extent, although their answers show that nature of fan violence by their politically they are in opposition to the dominant social conditioned estimates and forecasts. Generally values. Assertions that fans abuse sport are not speaking, there is a considerable media attention true. On the contrary, they are abused by crime dedicated to fan violence in Europe. it is given too and political ideology and this trend can be much publicity which, according to some authors, observed in sport more easily with every day which encourages extremism (Roberts and Benjamin had gone by. In Serbia, it happens that political 2000).

References

Bodin D., Robene, L., & Heas, S. (2007). Sports and Violence in Europe (in Serbian), Zagreb: Knjiga trgovina d.o.o. Božović, R. (2006). Lexicon of Culturology (in Serbian), Belgrade: Agency Matić. Earle, R. (2011). Boys’ zone stories: Perspectives from a young men’s prison, Criminology & Criminal Justice, 11(2), 129–143. Ličen, S., & Billings, A. (2013). Affirming nationality in transnational circumstances: Slovenian coverage of continental franchise sports competitions, Int Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48(6), 751-767. Merkel, U. (1999). Football Identity and Youth Culture in Germany, Football Cultures and Identities. London: Macmillan. Mijalković, S., & Amidžić, G. (2012). Extreme nationalism and security in modern society (in Serbian), Sociološki pregled, 46(3), 367–386. Misić, Z., & Kešetović, Ž. (2012). Hooligans in Serbia in a triangle of politics and crime (in Serbian). Bezbednost, 54(1), 87-101. Otašević, B. (2010). Urban surroundings and violence in sport (in Serbian). Bezbednost, 52(3), 267-281. Roberts, J., & Benjamin, C. (2000). Spectator Violence in Sports: A North American Perspective, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 8(2), 163-181. Roversi, A., & Balestri, C. (2000). Italian Ultras Today: Change or Decline? European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 8(2), 183-199. Sack, A., & Suster, Z. (2000). Soccer and Croatian Nationalism. A Prelude to War, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 24(3), 305-320. Simonović, B., Otašević, B., & Đurđević, Z. (2014). Criminal careers of Football Club Fan Leaders in Serbia (in Slovenian). Revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo, 65(2), 108-120. Spaaij, R. (2008). Men Like Us, Boys Like Them, Violence, Masculinity, and Collective Identity in Football Hooliganism, Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 32(4), 369-392. Treadwell, J., & Garland, J. (2011). Masculinity, Marginalization and Violence, A Case Study of the English Defence League, British Journal of Criminology, 51(4), 621–634. Vrcan, S. (2002). The Curious Drama of the President of a Republic Versus a Football Fan Tribe: A Symptomatic Case in the Post-communist Transition in Croatia, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37(1), 59-77. Đorić, М. (2010). Politicisation of hooliganism (in Serbian). Politička revija, 22(3), 370-400.

60 Sioović, B. et al.: Usig soer lu fas for politial purposes: ase Seria Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 56-61

ZLOUPOTREBA NAVIJAČA FUDBALSKIH KLUBOVA U POLITIČKE SVRHE: CASE SRBIJA

Sažetak Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi da li se navijači nogometnih klubova u Republici Srbiji zloupotrebljavaju u političke svrhe od strane različitih političkih i parapolitičkih skupina i organizacija. Istraživanje je realizirano tehnikom anketiranja, upitnikom koji sadrži 33 pitanja, na uzorku od 268 navijača. Obuhvaćeni su navijači tri vodeća prvoligaška nogometna kluba u Srbiji. Rezultati istraživanja nedvosmisleno ukazuju na sudjelovanje navijača na javnim skupovima koji nisu sportskog karaktera, odnosno sudjelovanje u neredima koji imaju političku, a ne sportsku pozadinu.

Ključne riječi: sport, navijačke skupine, nasilje, ideologija, politika.

Received: February 03, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Branislav Simonović University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Law, Serbia E-mail: [email protected]

61 Delaš Kaliski, S. et al.: Elite feale vault fials fro 2008 - 2016 Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 62-66

ELITE FEMALE VAULT FINALS FROM 2008 – 2016

Sunčica Delaš Kalinski1, Goran Jelaska2 and Almir Atiković3

1University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Split, Croatia 2Virovitica General Hospital, Virovitica, Croatia 3University of Tuzla, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Original scientific paper

Abstract After Vault Qualifications (in C-I competition), the top eight scores, maximum two gymnasts from one national team, qualify for Vault Finals. During the Vault Finals, these top female vaulters need to perform two different vaults. The aim of this study was to determine: 1)trends of the Difficulty Scores (DS), Execution Scores (ES) and Total Scores (TS) of the first vault and the second vault; 2) differences between differently ranked gymnasts (Medal Winners vs Non-Medal Winners) on all major competitions held from 2008 to 2016. An increase in results of all scores, from initial competition (OG2008) to final competition (OG2016), confirms the progress in quality and complexity of the female vaults. Numerically higher values of all scores have been demonstrated for Medal Winners compared to Non-Medal Winners, but only some of them have been determined to be significant. The ES has been determined as the score that makes the difference among differently ranked gymnasts.

Key words: women's artistic gymnastics, gymnasts rank, 2×11 ANOVA.

Introduction

Vault is one of four apparatuses in Women's Artistic DVTS1 DVTS2 FS (each vault Total Scoreis Gymnastics (WAG).Until 2001, the vault was along 2 cylindrical structuresimilar to the pommel added together and then averaged). In C-I, the horse.Then it was changed to the current table. value of the FS determines who qualifies for the This change was made to provide safer vault Vault Finals (top eight scores; maximum two preformances after several gymnasts "rammed gymnasts from one national team); in C-III the into the horse" or misplaced their hands during value of the FS determines the rank of the the 2000 Sydney Olympics. As movements, vaults gymnasts. The complexity of the vault can also are very complex motor skills that need to be been seen through the results of Delaš Kalinski et performed in a very short time (most vaults, on al. (2016). The authors determined that during average, don’t last more than seven seconds) and theperiod from 2008 to 2015, at all major differ in terms of the time structure of one or more competitions which were not Team Finals of seven vault phases: approach, flight to competitions (C-IV), the percentage of Vault springboard, springboard actions, the first flight Qualifiers was from 81.03% (WC2009) to 90.90% phase, support, the second flight phase and landing (WC2013), while on the other analyzed (Čuk &Karácsony, 2004). Taking this into account, competitions, only one-fifth of competitors were the Women's Artistic Gymnastics Code of Points Vault Qualifiers (22.38% at the OG2008, 23.48% at (WAG CoP)has classified all vaults into five groups. the WC2010, 16.56% at the WC2011, 14.66% at According to the CoP, theDifficulty Value(DV) of the QOG2012, 36.00% at the OG2012, 15.13% at each vault is pre-determined based onthe number the WC2014 and 14.36% at the WC2015).At of rotations (along the transversal and longitudinal theQOG2016 the percentage of Vault Qualifiers was axis in the first and second flight phase) and the 11.11% and at the OG2016 23.18%. Some intended body position—tucked, piked or stretched previous studies of vault also analyzed: a) the (Atiković&Smajlović, 2011).Each vault in the Table quality of judging on the vault (Atiković& Čuk of Vaults (WAG CoP 2009, 2013) is presented with 2009; Leskošek, Čuk, Karácsony, Pajek, &Bučar, its own number and predefined DV. One of the 2010; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, Leskošek, & Čuk, WAG CoP rules states that, if they want to qualify 2011; Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karácsony, & Leskošek, for the Vault Finals (C-III), during the Vault 2012; Leskošek, Čuk, Pajek, Forbes, & Bučar Pajek, Qualification (C-I) gymnasts need to perform two 2012; Atiković, Delaš Kalinski, Bijelić, & Avdibašić vaults that show different repulsion phase (WAG Vukadinović, 2012). They determined that in the CoP, 2009), that is, two vaults from different Men's Artistic Gymnastics (MAG), the vault is the groups with different second flight phases (WAG most valuable apparatus for All-Around gymnasts CoP, 2013). Further, in the Vault Finals gymnasts and an apparatus on which it is easiest to obtain a also need to perform two different vaults. high DS and the highest ES; b) differences between Competitorscan perform any vault, usuallythe most female junior and senior competitors in vault difficult vault that they can perform successfully. performances. They determined that the increased TheTotal Scores (TS) of those two vaults are parts anthropometric characteristics of senior gymnasts of the equation that creates the Final Score (FS): compared to junior gymnasts probably contribute

62 Delaš Kaliski, S. et al.: Elite feale vault fials fro 2008 - 2016 Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 62-66 to better vault performances (Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, Results & Milić, 2014; Delaš Kalinski, 2015). Based on the assumption that among the best female vaulters Descriptive parameters (Mean Values ± Standard there also exists a significant difference, the Deviations) for the variables DS, ES andTS of the authors posed the problem of this paper. first and the second vaults performed bydifferently Accordingly, the main aim of this study was to ranked gymnasts in Vault Finals, along analyse the differences between the values of the withsignificant differences among those variables DS, ES and TS of the firstand the second vaults of (determined at OG2008, WC2009, WC2010, differently ranked female gymnasts in the Vault WC2011, QOG2012, OG2012, WC2013, WC2014, Finals of all major competitions held from 2008 to WC2015, QOG2016 and OG2016) are presented in 2016. The second objective of this study was to Figures 1-6. identify the impact of Competitor Type (Medal Winners or Non-Medal Winners), Competition and Figures 1-6. Mean Values ± Standard Deviations for their interaction on DS, ES and TSat all major the variables DS, ES and TS of the first and the competitions from 2008 to 2016. second vaults performed by differently ranked gymnasts in Vault Finals Methods

The sample included all the elite senior female gymnasts who participated in C-III competitions at the Olympic Games held in 2008, 2012 and 2016 (OG2008, OG2012, OG2016), at World Championships held in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015 (WC2009, WC2010, WC2011, WC2013, WC2014, WC2015) and at the Qualification Tournaments for the Olympic Games held in 2012 and in 2016 (QOG2012, QOG2016).

The sample has been divided into two groups, depending on their rank (ranked 1-3 and ranked 4- 8). The variables sample is represented by a set of

Difficulty Scores(DS), Execution Scores(ES) andTotal Scores (TS) obtained for a performance of Figure 1. Difficulty scores of the first vault of the first and the second vaults in Vault Finals (C- differently ranked vault finalists III) competition.

The values of the mentioned scores have been taken from the Internet (www.gymnasticsresults.com, accessed 18th October 2016; http://www.longinestiming.com/, accessed 28th April 2015). Previous studies presented detailed descriptive parameters of analyzed variables from the same competitions (Massida& Calo, 2012; Leskošek, Čuk, & Bučar, 2013; Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, & Milić, 2014), as well as generally satisfactory metric characteristics of those scores (Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karácsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Leskošek, 2013). Data analysis included calculations of Mean±Standard deviations.

Data has been checked for univariate and Figure 2. Difficulty scores of the second vault of multivariate outliers. None was found (p>.05). Due differently ranked vault finalists to identification of influence of factors Competition (2008-2016) and Competitor Type (Medal Winers Figures 1-6. Data are presented as Mean±Standard vs Non-Medal Winners) and their interaction on Deviation. OG2008 – Olympic Games held in 2008, DS,ES and TS, 2×11 factorial analysis of variance WC 2009 / 2010 / 2011 / 2013 / 2014 / 2015 – (ANOVA) was applied together with post-hoc World Championships held in 2009 / 2010 / 2011 / Fisher's least-squares difference (LSD) test when 2013 / 2014 / 2015, QOG2012/QOG2016– needed. Qualification Tournaments for Olympic Games held in 2012, OG2012 – Olympic Games held in 2012, (Partial) η2 was used for effect size assessment. post hoc Fisher’s LSDwas used: € - significant Data were considered significant if p<.05. All difference from the scores determined at 2008, § - calculations were performed using software significant difference from the scores determined at package Statistica 12.0. (StatSoft, Tulsa, WC2009, ¤ - significant difference from the scores Oklahoma, USA). determined at WC2010, λ - significant difference

63 Delaš Kaliski, S. et al.: Elite feale vault fials fro 2008 - 2016 Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 62-66 from the scores determined at WC2011, a - significant difference from the scores determined at QOG2012, ί - significant difference from the scores determined at OG2012, z - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2013, $ - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2014, ß - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2015, c - significant difference from the scores determined at QOG2016, d - significant difference from the scores determined at OG2016; * - significant differences between differently ranked gymnasts at single competition.

Figure 6. Total scores of the second vault of differently ranked vault finalists

Regarding to different rank of Vault Finalists, the main effect of Competition was found to be significant for the DS of the first vault 2 (F10,65=2.509; p=0.013; η =0.087), ESof the first 2 vault (F10,65=2.809; p=0.006; η =0.302) and for 2 the TS of the first vault (F10,65=7.132; p<0.001; η =0.523). The main effect of the Competition was also found to be significant for the DS of the second 2 vault(F10,62=4.241; p<0.001; η =0.406) and TS of Figure 3. Execution scores of the first vault of the second vaultVT2TS (F10,62=5.183; p<0.001; differently ranked vault finalists η2=0.455), while was not found to be significant for the ES of the second vault(F10,62=1.136; p=0.351; η2=0.155).

Regarding different ranks of Vault Finalists, the main effect of Rank was found to be significant for all variables of the first and the second vault: 2 VT1DS (F1,65=6.158; p=0.016; η =0.087), VT1ES 2 (F1,65=2.293; p<0.001; η =0.280), VT1TS 2 (F1,65=51.402; p<0.001; η =0.442), VT2DS 2 (F1,62=7.370; p=0.009; η =0.106), VT2ES 2 (F1,62=21.437; p<0.001; η =0.257) and VT2TS 2 (F1,62=42.695; p<0.001; η =0.408). Interaction Competition*Competitor Type appeared not to be significant for any analyzed variable: VT1DS 2 (F10,65=1.142; p=0.170; η =0.185), VT1ES 2 (F10,65=1.504; p=0.158; η =0.188), VT1TS Figure 4. Execution scores of the second vault of 2 (F10.65=1.077; p=0.392; η =0.142), VT2DS differently ranked vault finalists 2 (F10,62=0.553; p=0.845; η =0.082), VT2ES 2 (F10,62=1.495; p=0.163, η =0.194), VT2TS 2 (F10,62=1.294; p=0.254; η =0.173).

Discussion and conclusion

At almost all analyzed competitions, Medal Winners had higher numerical values of DS compared to Non-Medal Winners. As expected, because only the best female vaulters qualify for Vault Finals, significant differences between differently ranked finalists have not been determined in the average values of VT1DS and VT2DS (excluding QOG2016). QOG2016 was primarily an All-Around competition, the last chance for All-Around competitors to qualify for OG2016, and the apparatus finals were organized as a 'test' for OG2016 (medals were not Figure 5. Total scores of the second vault of awarded). In the Vault Qualifications only 10 differently ranked vault finalists (primarily All-Around) gymnasts competed—

64 Delaš Kaliski, S. et al.: Elite feale vault fials fro 2008 - 2016 Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 62-66 gymnasts who generally jump only one height DV Leskošek, 2011; Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & vault. Accordingly, determined results are logical. Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Unlike VT1DS and VT2DS, during some of the Leskošek, 2013; Massida & Calo, 2012). Generally, analyzed competitions, significant differences have it can be concluded that quality of performance is been found among differently ranked Vault Finalists the most important determinant for winning a in average values of the ES (between VT1ESat medal in the female Vault Finals. That might not be QOG2012, OG2012, WC2013, and WC2014; further completely so, as results from OG2016 confirm. In between VT2ESat WC2009, WC2013 and WC2015). fact, at this competition two competitors (Dipa Since the ES is formed by summing the deductions Karmakar from India and Oksana Chusovitina from for errors in the vault execution, the conclusion is Uzbekistan) performed the Produnova vault, also that differently ranked Vault Finalists differ in the called 'vault of death'. It is the most difficult (and quality of their vault performance. Explanation for dangerous) vault, which generally demands those results can also be seen through the format considerable upper body strength in order to gain of competitions on which significant differences the needed height to rotate the body forward two between differently ranked gymnasts have been times before hitting the mat (in approximately 2 determined (they were mostly Individual All-Around seconds). Landing the Produnova is also difficult, Finals and Individual Event Finals).During these and that is why it is said that this vault demands competitions, gymnasts exclusively compete for more power than skill. However, thanks to its their own results (Delaš Kalinski, Atiković, Jelaska, difficulty, jumping the Produnova vault, even with a & Milić, 2016),and thus likely chose to perform failure in execution, can lead to higher scores than second vaults that have not yet been developed to do many other vaults from the world’s top the same level of quality as their first vault. gymnasts. Whether this type of competitive manoeuvre will be devalued in vault scoring by FIG, By performing them, they test their chances for the to prevent those who cannot complete it from upcoming Olympic cycle. The importance of the performing it to take advantage of scoring quality of the performance (as opposed to DS of the advantages related to its difficulty remains to be jump) is further enhanced by the identification of seen. During the Vault Finals higher numerical significant differences in the TS, between differently values forDS, ESand TShave been determined for ranked finalists, at the same competitions as in the Medal Winners.Some of these differences have ES. The exception is a significant difference in the been determined as significant. Additionally, the TS at QOG2016; presumably the result of the increase of numerical values of DS of the first and significant differences in the values of DS of the second vault, from the beginning to the end of differently ranked Vault Finalists. Through analysis the analyzed period, indicates that the vault is an of the value of the percentage of DS and ES in the apparatus that constantly develops in the direction TS it was determined that DS, on average, makes of more and more difficult vaults. However, due to up about 40% of the TS while the ES, on average, the influence and the percentage of ES in the TS, it makes up approximately 60% of the TS. This is possible to conclude that the ES determines the doesn’t confirm results from previous studies and final ranking in the Vault Finals for female the conclusion that the DS is the score that gymnasts. Given that at least one demonstrated generally determines the TS (Čuk & Atiković, 2009; exception (the Produnova vault) exists, this Čuk & Forbes, 2010; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, & conclusion should be accepted with caution.

References

Atiković, A., Delaš Kalinski, S., Bijelić, S., & Avdibašić Vukadinović, N. (2012). Analysis results judging world championships in men's artistic gymnastics in the London 2009 year. Sport Logia, 7(2), 93-100. Atiković, A., & Smajlović, N. (2011). Relation between vault difficulty values and biomechanical parameters in men's artistic gymnastics. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 3(3), 91-105. Bučar Pajek, M., Forbes, W., Pajek, J., Leskošek, B., & Čuk, I. (2011). Reliability of Real Time Judging System (RTJS). Science of Gymnastics Journal, 3(2), 47–54. Bučar, M., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Karácsony, I., & Leskošek, B. (2012). Reliability and validity of judging in women’s artistic gymnastics at the University Games 2009. European Journal of Sport Science, 12(3), 207-215. Bučar Pajek, M., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Kovač, M., & Leskošek, B. (2013). Is the quality of judging in women artistic gymnastics equivalent at major competitions of different levels? Journal of Human Kinetics, 37(1), 173-181. Čuk, I., & Atiković, A. (2009). Are Disciplines in All-around Men’s Artistic Gymnastics Equal? Sport Scientific & Practical Aspects, 6(1&2), 8-13. Čuk, I., & Forbes, W. (2010). How apparatus difficulty scores affect all around results in men’s artistic gymnastics. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 2(3), 57-63. Čuk, I., & Karácsony, I. (2004). Vault-Methods, Ideas, Curiosities, History. Ljubljana: ŠTD Sangvinčki. Čuk, I., Fink, H., & Leskošek, B. (2012). Modelling the final score in artistic gymnastics by different weights of difficulty and execution. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 4(1), 73-82. Delaš Kalinski, S. (2015). Intracontinental and intercontinental characteristics and differences between junior and senior gymnasts. Proceedings, 2nd International Scientific Congress Slovenian Gymnastics Federation, 66-77, Ljubljana: Slovenian Gymnastics Federation.

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Delaš Kalinski, S., Atiković, A., Jelaska, I., & Milić, M. (2016). Performance analysis of female gymnasts’ vault in elite competitions from 2008-2015. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 8(2), 109-123. Erceg, T., Delaš Kalinski, S., & Milić, M. (2014). The score differences between elite European junior and senior female gymnasts. Kinesiology, 46(S1), 88-94. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., & Bučar Pajek, M. (2013). Trends in E and D scores and their influence on final results of male gymnasts at European Championships 2005–2011. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 5(1), 29-38. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Karácsony, I., Pajek, J.,&Bučar, M. (2010). Reliability and validity of judging in men’s artistic gymnastics at the 2009 University Games. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 2, 25-34. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Forbes, W., & Bučar Pajek, M. (2012). Bias of judging in men's artistic gymnastics at the European Championship 2011. Biology of Sport, 29(2), 107-113. Massida, M., & Calo, C.M. (2012). Performance scores and standing during the 43rd Artistic Gymnastics World Championships, 2011. Journal of Sports Science, 30(13), 1415-1420. *** Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (2009). Code of points for women artistic gymnastics competitions. http://figdocs.lx2.sportcentric.com/external/serve.php?document1205. *** Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (2013). 2013-2016 Code of Points (Women’s Artistic Gymnastics). http://bit.ly/2p9v855. *** https://www.bustle.com/articles/178417-what-is-the-produnova-vault-the-rio-olympics-will-have-two- gymnasts-attempt-this-risky-move.

FINALA PRESKOKA U VRHUNSKOJ ŽENSKOJ SPORTSKOJ GIMNASTICI OD 2008. DO 2016. GODINE

Sažetak Nakon kvalifikacijskog natjecanja na preskoku (tijekom C-I natjecanja) osam natjecateljica s najvišim brojem bodova, najviše dvije gimnastičarke iz jedne reprezentacije, kvalificira se za finale preskoka.U finalu preskoka moraju izvesti dva različita preskoka. Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je: 1) utvrditi trend ocjena težinskih vrijednosti (DS), ocjena za izvedbu (ES) i ukupnih rezultata (TS) dobivenih za izvedbu prvog i drugog preskoka; 2) analizirati razlike između različito rangiranih gimnastičarki (osvajačica medalja naspram neosvajačica medalja), na svim većim natjecanjima održanim od 2008. do 2016. godine. Utvrđeno je da je od prvog analiziranog natjecanja (Olimpijskih Igara iz 2008.) do posljednjeg velikog natjecanja (Olimpijskih Igara iz 2016.) došlo do numeričkog povećanja rezultata svih ocjena. Potvrđen je napredak u kvaliteti i kompleksnosti preskoka u ženskoj sportskoj gimnastici. Utvrđene su numerički više vrijednosti svih ocjena kod osvajačica medalja (u odnosu na neosvajačice medalja), ali su samo neke od njih utvrđene kao značajne. Vrijednosti ocjene za izvedbu (ES) utvrđene su kao ključne u određivanju različite rangiranost gimnastičarki u finalima preskoka.

Ključne riječi: ženska umjetička gimnastika, gimnastičko rangiranje, 2x11 ANOVA.

Received: January 17, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Assoc. Prof. Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, PhD University of Split Faculty of Kinesiology Teslina 6, 21000 Split, Croatia Tel: 00385 (099) 1 502 97 51 E-mail: [email protected]

66 Nughes, E. et al.: Pre-seasonal aerobic fitness in semi-professional Italian... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 67-69

PRE-SEASONAL AEROBIC FITNESS IN SEMI-PROFESSIONAL ITALIAN FOOTBALL PLAYERS: PRELIMINARY RESULTS

Erik Nughes1, Vincenzo Rago2 and Gaetano Raiola3

1MIUR, Italy, 2University of Porto, Porto, Portugal, 3University of Salerno, Italy Original scientific paper

Abstract Aerobic fitness assumed as anaerobic threshold may discriminate between players of different competitive level and consequently parallel success considered as participation in higher national professional leagues. This way, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) has been found to be an important determinant of physical fitness in football players. In addition, a strong correlation was observed between VO2max and body size expressed as body mass index (BMI). 23 male semi-professional Italian football players participated in this study within the context of regular pre-season summer camp. Many of the devices that exist for monitoring training and individual status are relatively expensive and might be not available to the majority of football teams. We reproduce a reliable and simple field test to assess VO2max at two different stages of pre-season. The aim of this pilot study was to compare physical fitness at two different stage of pre-season period. Our null hypothesis was no significant differences occurred in both variables between the two stages. VO2max significantly increased throughout pre-season period whereas no significant differences were observed in BMI. However, this pilot study provides the basis to characterise physical fitness of semi-professional football players.

Key words: football, aerobic fitness, anaerobic threshold.

Introduction

Football has been defined as a sport which a high aerobic training at any competitive level (Castagna physical and physiological capacity is required to et al., 2011; Impellizzeri, Rampinini, & Marcora, withstand the fatigue induced between matches 2005). Many of the devices that exist for and training sessions (Drust, Atkinson, & Reilly, monitoring training and individual status are 2007; Reilly, Drust, & Clarke, 2008; Stølen, relatively expensive and might be not available to Chamari, Castagna, & Wisløff, 2005). This way, the majority of football teams. Amateur and semi- VO2max has been found to be an important professional teams do not provide sophisticate tools determinant of physical fitness in football players for the purpose and they must arrange on their (Drust, Reilly, & Cable, 2000; Rebelo, Brito, limited resources. Thus, subjective assessment Seabra, Oliveira, & Krustrup, 2014). based on questionnaires or simples filed test have been used to evaluate perceived exertion during During the last decade, semi-professional football training sessions and physiological variables. seems to have been receiving scarce attention rather than elite amateur and youth football in As instance, rating of perceived exertion, well- terms of physiological variables. In order to sustain known as RPE-method proposed by Borg, Hassmen, the physical and physiological effort due to regular and Langerstrom (1987) seems to be the most football practice at any competitive level, a physical commonly method used for quantifying internal and physiological evaluation is of crucial load in team sport settings, or simple field test importance. used to calculate VO2max throughout their formula.

Furthermore, semi-professional football should According to our “limited” availability in terms of receive more attention since may be a transition instruments, we performed Gacon incremental test stage for many young footballers to step from since it represent an useful, reliable and cheap field amateur to professional leagues. Aerobic fitness test to assess VO2max in football players (Assadi & assumed as anaerobic threshold may discriminate Lepers, 2012). Furthermore, VO2max has been between players of different competitive level and associated to body size in youth football players consequently parallel success considered as (Valente-Dos-Santos et al., 2015), whereas both participation in higher national professional leagues variables resulted as successful indicators in (Castagna, Impellizzeri, Chaouachi, Bordon, & football (Nevill, Holder, & Watts, 2009). Manzi, 2011; Stølen et al., 2005). Aerobic fitness resulted to positively affect match physical and The aim of this pilot study was to compare technical performance in football players of VO2maxand BMI at two different stage of pre-season different competitive levels (Helgerud, Rodas, period. Our null hypothesis was no significant Kemi, & Hoff, 2011; Impellizzeri et al., 2006). For differences occurred in both variables between the these reason, training programs should include two stages.

67 Nughes, E. et al.: Pre-seasonal aerobic fitness in semi-professional Italian... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 67-69

Materials and methods Subsequently, a paired sample t test was performed to compare VO2max and BMI between the Participants two stages. Magnitude of differences was 23 male semi-professional Italian football players interpreted by d values according to Cohen (1988) (21.5 ± 5.8 years old; 180.5 ± 6.1 cm; 72.7 ± 7.4) setting 0.2 (small), 0.5 (moderate), 0.8 (large) and received an informed consent and participated considering only ƞ2> 0.14 sufficiently large to be of voluntarily to the experiments in the context of the any consequence. Statistical significance was set on regular data gathering aid to characterize the p≤0.05. physiological status of the players during the pre- season summer camp. Players were part of a semi- Results professional Italian team involved in Serie D league. Inclusion criteria were: (i) at least four Moderate increases (p<0.05; d=0.54) in VO2max years as federated player; (ii) no previous joint were observed between the two stages whereas no injuries within the last two years. Goalkeepers and differences were observed in BMI (table 1) players that arrived later than first evaluation was excluded from analysis. All the participants were Table 1. Changes between 1st and 2nd stage. Data familiar to strength and conditioning training. are presented as Mean ± SD

1st 2nd Measurements P d Descriptor The present study had a cross-sectional design and stage stage VO2max was carried out during pre-season in the month of - 47.88 51.61 0.000 0.54 Moderate (ml∙kg ± 2.5 ± 3.13 August 2015. Pre-season summer camp took place 1∙min-1) in the rural area of Salerno, region of Campania, BMI (kg 22.22 22.12 -2 0.386 0.04 Trivial Italy and had 1 month duration. The present study m ) ± 1.22 ± 1.09 consisted in a crossover design. Each participant VO2max: Maximal oxygen uptake; BMI: Body mass index performed two VO2max assessment as well as BMI at the first and last stage of the pre-season (30 Discussion days far). Each micro-cycle consisted in seven training sessions per week (evening or morning- All players were received a devolution during the evening) distributed within five days and a friendly whole pre-season. Despite circa half of the team, match. Tactical/technical collective exercises (TT) especially older players were committed on an own were also included, each micro-cycle was designed job, independently to the team filiation, due to the as follows: preventives/eccentric exercises (Monday limited resources that clubs provide to athletes at morning); strength-TT (Tuesday); endurance-TT non-elite level. In our opinion, semi-professional (Wednesday) various format of small-sided games football should receive more attention since may be (Thursday evening); Small sided games and TT a transition stage for many young footballers to (Friday morning); Friendly match (Saturday step from amateur to professional leagues. evening); Rest (Sunday). nd Values of VO2max, higher in 2 stage corresponded Procedures to an efficient conditioning training carried out Height and weight were measured without shoes throughout one-month pre-season. Our results are and with light clothing. Height was measured using in accordance with other studies that investigate a metric type stuck to a wooden wall. Weight was the efficiency of aerobic training on anaerobic assessed using a simple balance. Once height and threshold in football players (Castagna et al., 2011; weight were noted, BMI was calculated using a Impellizzeri et al., 2006). However, further standard formula (weight [kg]/height [m2]). Each research should investigate semi-professional participant was measured twice, and the mean football regarding ratings of players upgrading value was used. VO2max was estimated using a field toward elite football or downgrading toward intermittent test (FIT) proposed by Georges Gacon amateur football. (French National Team Manager of middle-distance race runners from 1984 to1994) in 1994 consisting This way, we defined semi-professional football as a of45-second runs alternated with 15-second rests transition phase where young athletes should be (45-15FIT). This test has been recently validated provided to much advantages as possible to prove by Assadi and Lepers (2012). Gacon assumed that their skills, increasing the possibility to upgrade the velocity reached at the end of the 45-15FIT was toward elite football. well adapted for a 30-s/30-s intermittent training session, which may elicit a high percentage of Conclusions VO2max during the exercise. As expected, aerobic fitness improved alongside Statistics pre-season. On the other hand, no significant Data were analysed utilizing SPSS version 21.0 © changes were observed in anthropometric SPSS, Inc. (Chicago, Illness, USA) statistical measurements. Our preliminary results provide the software. Descriptive statistics (mean ± SD) for the basis to characterise physical fitness of semi- different variables were reported. Normality of professional football players. The second step is to distribution was assessed trough Shapiro-Wilks enlarge the sample and to compare data to model test. the design.

68 Nughes, E. et al.: Pre-seasonal aerobic fitness in semi-professional Italian... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 67-69

References

Assadi, H., & Lepers, R. (2012). Comparison of the 45-second/15-second intermittent running field test and the continuous treadmill test. International Journal of Sports Physioliogy and Performance, 7(3), 277-284. Borg, G., Hassmen, P., & Langerstrom, M. (1987). Perceived exertion related to heart rate and blood lactate during arm and leg exercise. Eur J of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 56(6), 679-685. Castagna, C., Impellizzeri, F., Chaouachi, A., Bordon, C., & Manzi, V. (2011). Effect of training intensity distribution on aerobic fitness variables in elite soccer players: a case study. J Strength Cond Res, 25(1), 66-71. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Drust, B., Atkinson, G., & Reilly, T. (2007). Future Perspectives in the Evaluation of the Physiological Demands of Soccer. Sports Medicine, 37(9), 783-805. Drust, B., Reilly, T., & Cable, N.T. (2000). Physiological responses to laboratory-based soccer-specific intermittent and continuous exercise. J Sports Sci, 18(11), 885-892. Helgerud, J., Rodas, G., Kemi, O., & Hoff, J. (2011). Strength and Endurance in Elite Football Players. Int J Sports Med, 32(9), 677-682. Impellizzeri, F., Marcora, S., Castagna, C., Reilly, T., Sassi, A., Iaia, F., & Rampinini, E. (2006). Physiological and Performance Effects of Generic versus Specific Aerobic Training in Soccer Players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(6), 483-492. Impellizzeri, F., Rampinini, E., & Marcora, S.M. (2005). Physiological assessment of aerobic training in soccer. J Sports Sci, 23(6), 583-592. Nevill, A., Holder, R., & Watts, A. (2009). The changing shape of "successful" professional footballers. J Sports Sci, 27, 419-426. Rebelo, A., Brito, J., Seabra, A., Oliveira, J., & Krustrup, P. (2014). Physical match performance of youth football players in relation to physical capacity. European Journal of Sport Sciences, 14(S1), 148-156. Reilly, T., Drust, B., & Clarke, N. (2008). Muscle Fatigue during Football Match-Play. Sports Medicine, 38(5), 357-367. Stølen, T., Chamari, K., Castagna, C., & Wisløff, U. (2005). Physiology of Soccer: an Update. Sports Medicine, 35(6), 501-536. Valente-Dos-Santos, J., Coelho, E.S.M.J., Tavares, O.M., Brito, J., Seabra, A., Rebelo, A., Malina, R.M., et al. (2015). Allometric modelling of peak oxygen uptake in male soccer players of 8-18 years of age. Annal Human Biology, 42(2), 125-133.

PRED-SEZONSKI AEROBNI FITNES KOD POLU-PROFESIONALNIH TALIJANSKIH NOGOMETAŠA: PRELIMINARNI REZULTATI

Sažetak Aerobna kondicija koja se pretpostavlja kao anaerobni prag može diskriminirati između igrača različitih razina konkurentnosti i time paralelni uspjeh koji se smatra sudjelovanjem u višim nacionalnim profesionalnim ligama. Na taj način, utvrđeno je da je maksimalni unos kisika (VO2max) važna odrednica fizičke kondicije u nogometaša.Osim toga, uočena je jaka korelacija između VO2max i veličine tijela izražene kao indeks tjelesne mase (BMI). U ovom je istraživanju sudjelovalo 23 poluprofesionalnih talijanskih nogometaša u kontekstu redovnog ljetnog kampa prije sezone. Mnogi uređaji koji postoje za praćenje treninga i individualnog statusa relativno su skupe i možda nisu dostupni većini nogometnih timova. Mi reproduciramo pouzdano i jednostavno terensko ispitivanje kako bismo procijenili VO2max u dva različita stadija pred sezona. Cilj ove pilot studije bio je usporediti fizičku sposobnost u dva različita stadija razdoblja prije sezone. Za našu hipotezu nije bilo značajnih razlika u obje varijable između dviju faza. VO2max se znatno povećao tijekom razdoblja prije sezone, dok u BMI nije zabilježena značajna razlika. Međutim, ovo istraživanje pruža osnovu za obilježavanje fizičke sposobnosti poluprofesionalnih nogometaša.

Ključne riječi: nogomet, aerobna kondicija, anaerobni prag.

Received: March 09, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Gaetano Raiola University of Salerno, Italy E-mail: [email protected]

69 Kalafatzi, A. et al.: Self-evaluation of parental behaviour towards... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 70-78

SELF-EVALUATION OF PARENTAL BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS CHILDREN-ATHLETES

Antonia Kalafatzi, Dimitrios Gargalianos and Georgios Mavridis

Democritos University of Thrace, Greece

Original scientific paper

Abstract Parental support is a fundamental factor in children’s participation and success in sporting events. The majority of parents behave positively, but behaviours which do not produce positive results are also observed. The purpose of this study was the self-evaluation of parental behaviours and the detection of behaviours that are critical regarding the psychology of a child-athlete. The instrument used was the Q- Parent Behavior Check List, which was completed by 204 parents (106 males and 98 females) of children- athletes who were members of the sports academies of “M.G.S. Ethnikos Alexandroupolis” The results were categorized in two groups according to: a) gender and b) age. Critical parental behaviours were narrowed down to: a) the avoidance of the sport’s dominance in the whole life of the child-athlete, b) the emphasis parents place on fundamental values, c) the limits in parental participation in the training program and d) the parents' provision of resources to their child-athlete. It was concluded that parental gender and age play a decisive role in the exhibition of specific behaviours towards children-athletes. With the appropriate information and education, parents can improve their behaviour towards children-athletes, producing multiple benefits.

Key words: parental behaviour, parental provisions, parents, fundamental values, sports.

Introduction

Self-evaluation of parental behavior towards Tamminen, Black, Sehn & Wall, 2008), and d) in all children-athletes probability, they nourish the future household Parental behaviour towards a child engaging into names of the country's top sporting stage. The sports has proven to play a significant role as relationship between sports and school has regards the young family member's physical, provoked dispute among a number of families. The behavioural, emotional and psychological phenomenon of sporting activities being interrupted development. For example, the correlations of by school obligations is not by any means parental attitudes with their children's outset and uncommon. However, the bibliography shows the continuation of physical activity (Corder, Crespo, exact opposite type of approach. A characteristic Sluijs, Lopez, & Elder, 2012), the child's (age 6-11) example is offered in Shulruf, Tumen and Tolley's or adolescent's (age 12-18) extent of preoccupation research (2008), which has indicated that through with sports (Edwardson & Gorely, 2010), the extent activities properly organized and appropriate from a and quality of parental involvement (Kanters & developmental standpoint, significantly better Casper, 2008), with the parental pressure or academic as wells as social results are produced. It support as suitably perceived by the child-athlete is observed, therefore, that parental involvement in (Wuerth, Lee, & Alfermann, 2004), with the children's sporting development indeed plays a vital establishment of positive relations and role. Eccles and Harold's "Expectation - Value" entertainment through each sporting experience model (1991) highlights the relation between (McCarthy, Jones & Clark-Carter, 2008), and on the people's choices and expectations as regards their other hand with the origination of stress-provoking performance, meaning the importance and the situations, low levels of self-perception and a lack value they see in the options available. The of motivation (Ullrich-French & Smith, 2006). While relevant levels are not determined only by each all the above is presented by researchers as the individual's personal beliefs, but also by the major set of outcomes of parental behaviour influences of their social and cultural environment towards children-athletes, much less emphasis has combined, as well as their personal experiences, been placed on parental self-perception of the tendencies and aptitudes. The options eventually presented behaviour at hand, leading to the stem from interpreting the behaviours and genesis of the aforementioned outcomes. Parental situations encountered in everyday life, rather than involvement in the child's sporting career is well merely experiencing them. Conclusively, parental worth the research, provided that: a) sport is a influence at the beginning, as well as during the widely public domain in which parents are capable course or even at the end of their child's sporting of offering their children-athletes direct and specific career seems decisive, given that many of the feedback, b) their presence in their child-athlete's young one's choices may be subconsciously guided life is critical, c) their influence appears to be by the parents' beliefs. The theory of motivation bipolar, meaning that they may affect their child- works in association with the above. It has been athlete positively and/or negatively (Holt, defined and examined through two of its outcomes.

70 Kalafatzi, A. et al.: Self-evaluation of parental behaviour towards... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 70-78

The first one is examined accordingly with the sports. Consequently, if parents maintain developmental result deriving from the interaction performance-oriented beliefs as a means of goal of the individual with their social environment, attainment, it is only natural that their children's while the second one is touched upon accordingly beliefs will be of a similar nature. Joan, Duda, Harry with the individual's more personal character and and Horn (1993) have proven that children with a takes on the shape of persistence, learning and work-oriented attitude considered their parents' eventually performance (Pelletier et al., 1995). The beliefs to be such, too (White, 1998). Hence, first years of a person's preoccupation with sports development is a dynamic process between the are the most decisive ones as regards the individual and the social environments by which development of their internal motivation, which will they are influenced on a daily basis. It seems, lead them to either the continuation or the therefore, that the development of one's termination of their sporting career (Strachan, personality as well as their ability to adapt to newly Côté, & Deakin, 2009). For that reason, the first founded circumstances may be partially hindered. years during which the essences of sports and physical activity are shaped in the young child's Taking into consideration the above information as perception need to be characterized by a pleasant, well as White, Kavussanu, Tank and Wingate's entertaining environment. In this frame of mind, (2004) general conclusion regarding the direct the role of the parents in the child's encouragement connection between parental ethics, beliefs and to engage into sports and physical activity in moral codes with their child's work- or ego-oriented general appears to be significantly important attitude, the correlation between parental beliefs (Sánchez-Migue, Leo, Sánchez-Oliva, Amado, & with the corresponding tendencies, intentions and García-Calvo, 2013; Strachan et al., 2009). behaviours by children-athletes is made possible. This sort of influence is not one-sided but rather There are three types of motivation: a) internal b) functions as an interactional triangle among external and c) amotivation. The existence of parental psychology and behaviour, the child- Internal Motivation (IM) results into the athlete's personality traits and the environmental participation in sporting activities solely for the stimuli which may bring about either a supportive enjoyment and the satisfaction stemming from it. state of mind or a stressful one (Egberts, Prinzie, On the contrary, External Motivation (EM), relies on Deković, Haan, & Akker, 2015; Weiss & Hayashi, merely external goals, such as the reward for a 1995). certain type of behaviour or action. The last type of motivation is the so-called amotivation. In this Described below are the three roles parents choose type, individuals fail to perceive any sort of to play in order to enhance their child-athlete's interconnection between their efforts and the final sporting experience: a) the role of the "provider" outcome. They are neither internally nor externally of opportunities to engage into sport (e.g. by motivated, and the lack of self-control leads them means of financial support, transportation to to quit sports altogether (Pelletier et al., 1995). sporting facilities, etc.) (Harwood & Knight, 2009; Lauer, Gould, Roman, & Pierce, 2010), b) the role The appearance of each type of motivation depends of the "interpreter" of the child-athlete's sporting directly on the attention given to the result or the experience (Bebetsos, Zetou, & Antoniou, 2014), performance. The emphasis on the result draws the and c) the "role-model" role. As regards this third child-athlete's attention on the display of certain one, the level of parental involvement is positively types of behaviour due to the direct results which and directly associated with the level of derive from them (Bandura, 1977). In the event of entertainment and participation of the child in sport a combination of possibly negative results with any (Côté, 1999; Kanters & Casper, 2008). sort of social disapproval, the EM may end up being an obsession for the child-athlete, with negative Children learn to imitate their parents' reactions in consequences as regards the levels of IM, and of the realm of sports (Harwood & Knight, 2009) and course the child's perceived personal ability and to act accordingly (Lauer et al., 2010). The function self-esteem. In contrast, focusing on performance of "role-models" is shown in research where it was creates the impression that the final result is found that when parents pay attention to physical produced thanks to the successful execution of activity (Moore et al., 1991; Yang, Telama, & every given action (Bandura, 1977). This means Laaksop, 1996) and they themselves are active, that positive feedback and support are capable of their child is more likely to love sport and engage triggering a general increase of EM, and more into it (Moore et al., 1991). In fact, Yang et al. specifically the appearance of high levels of ability, (1996) note that the paternal model plays a more confidence, self-control and significant contribution decisive role in children's preoccupation with sports in the promotion of appropriate physical activity than the maternal does. The beliefs and ethics (Bandura, 1977; Sánchez-Migue et al., 2013; nourished in children's personality, as well as their Ullrich-French & Smith, 2006). The results of the behaviour and performance depend on the extent research conducted by Sánchez and Migue et al., to which parents adopt the aforementioned roles as (2013) add generously to the notion of direct regards their very own values and attitudes interaction of parental behaviour with children- (Harwood & Knight, 2009). Even though the athletes, since they prove that parental offering of "role-models" could be considered encouragement-related beliefs have a direct impact enough for the child-athlete's positive development, on those of their offspring as regards the realm of supportive behaviour is eventually proven to play

71 Kalafatzi, A. et al.: Self-evaluation of parental behaviour towards... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 70-78 the most decisive role in the creation of adequate show interest in their children's sporting activities, confidence levels in the child. Therefore, if parents but participate actively in them, displaying coercive wish for a naturally active lifestyle for their behaviour (Wuerth et al., 2004) Excessive effort for children, it is imperative that they be something their child-athlete's talent development, financial more than simply active role-models (Trost et al., and other types of sacrifice, unawareness of their 2003). It is recommended that a separation of indeed pressing behaviour with an eye to stimulate parent types be made into four large categories: a) their offspring (Anderson et al., 2003), as well as the authoritarian, b) the authoritative, c) the the exploitation of children-athletes for the permissive and d) the uninvolved (Herbert, 1975; satisfaction of their personal needs or the Jago et al., 2011; Steinberg, 1996). The assurance of future financial income (Anderson et "authoritarian" type of parent demands that al., 2003; Lauer et al., 2010) are factors quite children show submission (Jago et al., 2011; capable of bringing into existence not only stress- Sapieja, Dunn, & Holt, 2011) and obedience via provoking situations, but eventually circumstances punitive, coercive and dogmatic tactics (Steinberg, of pressure overall (Anderson et al., 2003). 1996). The "authoritative" type of parent uses reasoning (Jago et al., 2011). Parental self-perceptions and "beliefs" form a system comprising three major elements: a) Despite being characterized by usually ferocious parental perception of a child-athlete's ability, b) behaviour, representatives of this category the emphasis parents place on the given sports simultaneously display more composed and framework (Bois, Sarrazin, Brustad, Trouilloud, & reserved sides of character. They set specific Cury, 2005) and c) parents' expectations as standards for their children's behaviour, but still regards their children's potential success (Bois et rely more on their developmental needs and al., 2005; Roberts, Treasure, & Hall, 1994). ž abilities rather than on absolute personal judgment (Steinberg, 1996). The "permissive" type of parent What is more, when an athlete reaches a high consents to the children's demands (Jago et al., performance standard, what is made noticeable is 2011). Their expectations of their children are not an increase of parental expectations (Côté, 1999; too high and offer the choice of freedom as regards Kanters & Casper, 2008), which are expressed the way children become active and react to through the means each parent may choose in different situations. The "uninvolved" type of parent order to interact with their child-athlete (White et acts with their very own needs and interests as a al., 2004). reference point (Steinberg, 1996). This sort of interaction is usually focused on the Stemming from the aforementioned parent types fundamental ethics, values and habits which are the two wide parental involvement categories: parents attempt to pass on to their children via a) support/reinforcement and b) their preoccupation with sports, as well as the pressure/punishment (Kanters & Casper, 2008; establishment of a long-term relationship with Wilson, 1993; Theodorakis, Goudas & Papaioannou, sport-deriving pleasure (Gould et al., 2006). 2009). Gould, Lauer, Rolo, Jannes and Pennisi (2006) claim that parental involvement and support The ethics enjoying the lions' share of attention in are directly interrelated with the actualization of the bibliography are the emphasis on hard work better sporting performance, increase of the child- with an intention to achieve the goals at hand in athlete's confidence levels (Gould et al., 2006; each case (Duda & Horn, 1993; Gould et al., 2006; Knight & Holt, 2013; Noller, 1994) and, Lauer et al., 2010), the creation and eventual consequently, consolidation of the enthusiasm drive fulfillment of commitments (Lauer et al., 2010), to continue practicing sports (Anderson, Funk, and, generally speaking, the desire for success to Elliott, & Smith, 2003; Knight & Holt, 2013). always be in a clear and obvious position in the child-athlete's mentality and actions (Gould et al., At the same time, McCarthy et al. (2008) state that 2006). psychosocial support on the parents' side plays an integral role in the creation of entertaining sporting Bearing in mind that parents are the primary and experiences for their children-athletes. Parental eventually the most determinant factor influencing "support/reinforcement" is also related to the children in their decision-making process as regards parent roles of the "supplier" and the "interpreter" whether they engage into sports or not (Bois et al., of sporting experience (Eccles & Harold, 1991; 2005; Wuerth et al., 2004), the purpose of the Gould et al., 2006). present study has been the self-evaluation of parental behaviours (e.g. Limits - Rules - Ethics - The supply of abstract resources (e.g. Values, Direct reinforcement and Avoidance of encouragement in success or not) (Lauer et al., Action) and the detection of how these might prove 2010), as well as the disposal of concrete resources critical for the child-athlete's psychology (e.g. (e.g. purchase of equipment) (Côté, 1999; Lauer et pressure or encouragement). al., 2010) constitute elements of parental "support/reinforcement" which take a significantly We have assumed that there are bound to be heavy toll of each given family's finances (Brand et differences between the criteria present in the al., 2011; Côté, 1999). On the other side of the questionnaire and the independent variants, the coin stand those parents who not only support and gender and age of parents defined.

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Methods In total, the questions produced an average of 4,133, with a highest possible value of 5 ("Likert" Participants 5-grade scale). The lowest value observed was The specimen comprised 204 parents, 3,191 and the highest was 4,789. The Cronbach’s a approximately 9% of whom were parents of young index rose as high as 0,834, a value considerably M.G.S. Ethnikos Alexandroupolis Sports Club close to the value of 1, indicating that the results athletes [106 fathers (52%) and 98 mothers were convincingly accurate. The above-mentioned (48%)], with an age average of 43 years (+- 5,58 data is included in Table 2. For the number of years). The agenda included team and individual parents believing they avoid having their children's sports alike, the former group being represented by sport dominating their whole life (trying to football, volleyball and basketball, the latter encourage them to have other interests as well) to consisting of athletics, rhythmic gymnastics, table be established, frequency analysis was conducted. tennis, badminton and swimming. To suit the needs of the research, the specimen was divided From the final results it was understood that as accordingly with the parents' age, with the regards the total of all the parents who participated younger-than-specimen-average ones comprising a (N=204), 118 of them realize that the above percentage as high as 57,8% (118 parents), while statement characterizes them fully, while 56 of the remaining 42,2% (86 parents) was of an older them understand that it characterizes them to a age than the specimen average. considerably large extent. The same analysis was used to find out how many parents believe they put Measurement instrument emphasis on fundamental values. From the results For the actualization of the research purpose, the it was found that there is absolute diversity, with "Q-Parent Behavior Check List" questionnaire by most of them (64) from the total number (N=204) Gould, Lauer, Rolo, Jannes and Pennisi (2006) was finding themselves in the middle of the scale. utilized, modified by Maria Psihountaki (2013), Associate Professor at the National and Moving forward with the frequency analysis, it was Kapodistrian University of Athens-Physical found that out of the 204 parents involved, 155 of Education and Sports Science Faculty included 29 them realize they are fully characterized by the questions and touched upon 3 dimensions of statement regarding the supply of concrete and parental behaviour: a) the "Limits - Rules - Ethics - abstract resources, while 38 of them find the above Values" on the side of the parent, with which they statement characterizing them to a significant guide and mentor their children, b) the "Direct extent. reinforcement" offered by parents to children and c) the "Avoidance of Action" which could possibly Furthermore, 153 believe that they encourage their pose insurmountable obstacles in the way towards children to the fullest by acknowledging all that the further reinforcement of the child's endeavours. they do well, while 39 find that their The answers were given on a 5 Likert-type scale characterization by this action is marked by the (from 1= "does not characterize me at all" to 5 = immediately following value on the questionnaire totally characterizes me). scale. For a discovery to be made as regards the presence of statistically important differences in the Measurement procedure perception about parental avoidance to behave like The research was conducted during the 2015-2016 a coach towards children when an actual coach is in period and the specimen was picked by means of place, among fathers and mothers there was random sampling. The parents in question conducted a value independence check with x2 participated voluntarily and their children were (Chi-square) distribution. actively preoccupied with sports at the time of the questionnaire's completion. Furthermore, the From the results is was concluded that in the parents filled out the measurement instrument N=204 total of parents there is a statistically anonymously during their children-athletes' arrival important difference between fathers and mothers at or departure from the sporting facility. regarding the perception about parental avoidance to behave like a coach when an actual coach is in Results place (x2(4) = 14,604, p<0,05). Utilizing the same sort of analysis for the agent about the offering of The questionnaire was regarded as monofactorial. opportunities for trying different sports, there was As regards the majority of the questions asked, the observed an important statistical difference "Cronbach a" index was satisfactory (AVG=0,834). between fathers and mothers (x2(4) = 11,571, In addition, Frequency Analysis and the non- p<0,05). Addressing the agent for emphasis on parametric test x2 (Chi-square) were utilized. From fundamental values, a value independence check the average values for each question, it was made was carried out with x2 (Chi-square) allocation. apparent that the parents answered above the 5 Likert-type scale midway point. From the standard The results offered an opportunity to realize that in deviation points it was observed that their answers the N=204 total of participating parents, there is for each question did not present much diversity. presented a statistically important difference The average and standard deviation points for each between younger and older parents as far as the questionnaire entry separately are included in Table perception of concrete and abstract resources 1 below. supply is concerned (x2(4) = 13,859, p<0,05).

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Table 1. Data for each questionnaire entry separately

Questionnaire Entry AVG SD 1. Do I emphasize on my child's development and entertainment more than I do on 4,5132 0,81368 winning? 2. Do I have realistic expectations of my child as an athlete? 4,0329 1,13591 3. Do I apply criticism on my child's performance only rarely? 3,6974 1,15110 4. Do I allow my child the freedom to get ready for practice or matchday on their own 3,8553 1,21474 (meaning that I do not do everything for them, like, for instance, carry their bag, bring their water bottle, invite others to train with them, prepare their equipment, etc)? 5. Do I avoid behaving like a coach for my child even though they already have one? 4,1842 1,23643

6. Do I love and support my child regardless of the match result? 4,7895 0,68698 7. Do I highlight to my child the importance of hard work? 4,1908 0,93308 8. Do I provide my child with the opportunity to try different sports? 4,1842 1,06988 9. Do I function as a parent aiming at future happiness? 3,5724 1,25862 10. Do I present my child with a positive and optimistic parental model? 4,1316 0,88163 11. Do I avoid having my child's sport ruling their entire life (I strive for my child to have 4,4539 0,77919 other interests, too)? 12. Do I scold my child when they display unsportsmanlike behaviour on the pitch? 3,8289 1,50397 13. Do I urge my child to carry on when they act lazy or do not work hard enough? 3,1908 1,24875 14. Do I encourage my child to seek new challenges and opportunities? 4,2500 0,88587 15. Do I avoid applying pressure on my child, demanding that they win no matter what? 4,0526 1,35094 16. Do I provide a good example of an active lifestyle? 3,7368 1,13194 17. Do I emphasize on fundamental values such as the saying "if you are going to do 4,2171 0,93439 something, you might as well do it properly"? 18. Do I assist my child with their transportation, offer financial and managerial support 4,7500 0,56674 (e.g. management of time, school subjects, entertainment)? 19. Do I encourage my child, showing acknowledgement of everything they do properly? 4,7171 0,62421 20. Do I try to bring competition's joyful and entertaining side to the fore? 4,6053 0,75606 21. Do I avoid having most of the discussions in the household revolving around my child's 3,6842 1,02564 sport? 22. Am I calm and confident as regards my child's performance when they are competing? 4,1579 0,99072 23. Do I avoid considering my child's sport an investment , expecting to eventually make 4,0658 1,38426 something of it (material earnings, publicity)? 24. Do I offer my child plenty of opportunities and resources, so that they may succeed in 3,9868 1,01634 their sport? 25. Do I allow my child to have their own say/opinion in the decision-making process as 4,4934 0,71869 regards their sport? 26. Do I try to set my own beliefs on my child's sport aside (giving center stage to my 3,9342 1,16614 child's own mind about their sport)? 27. Do I avoid obsessing over my child's sport, considering it do be the most important 4,0461 1,29358 thing in their life?; 28. Do I regard my child primarily as a son/daughter, and secondarily as an athlete? 4,6579 0,83074 29. Do I avoid applying criticism on my child right after the match or on the way home? 3,8882 1,12497 Abbreviations: AVG = Average; SD = Standard Deviation

Table 2. Data for all questionnaire entries in total confirmed, which is the fact that differences among the questionnaire agents and the independent AVG Min Max R Cronbach a variants initially established are indeed existent. Total 4,133 3,191 4,789 1,599 0,834 Taking into consideration the independent variants, Abbreviations: AVG = Average; Min = Lowest such as the specimen's gender and age, it is value; Max = Highest value; R = Range observed that there are similarities with corresponding recent surveys. Starting with the Last but not least, another advantage of the value gender of the participating parents who were 2 independence check with x (Chi-square) conducted picked by means of random sampling, there was was that statistically important differences were detected a relative analogy of fathers and mothers. also observed in another area; that of the agent Respectively, in research by Sánchez-Migue et al. regarding the freedom given to children to maintain (2013) in regard to the relationship between the their own opinion and freedom of speech as regards motivational orientations of parents and their their sport, as well as the decisions they may make children-athletes of team sports, there was 2 in relation to it (x (4) = 9,135, p<0,05). observed the same relative analogy as the one mentioned earlier, with the percentage of fathers Discussion and conclusion rising as high as 51,45%, while that of mothers reached the point of 48,55%. Proceeding with the The main purpose of this study has been the self- specimen age average (approximately 43 years), it evaluation of parental behaviours (e.g. Limits - was found to be in agreement with that of the Rules - Ethics - Values, Direct reinforcement and study conducted by the aforementioned researchers Avoidance of action) and the detection of how these (around 46,46 years of age) and the study by might prove critical for the child-athlete's Dorsch, Smith, and McDonough et al. (2009) psychology (e.g. pressure or encouragement). The (approximately 44,2 years of age), in which the results clarified that the research hypothesis is possibility of parents' socialization through their

74 Kalafatzi, A. et al.: Self-evaluation of parental behaviour towards... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 70-78 children's participation in sports was examined. The third agent of the questionnaire, in which Separately delving into the average ages for each significant statistic differences were brought to the gender of the participants, it was observed that it is surface, was that of emphasis placed on in agreement with the research conducted by Bois fundamental values. To begin with, absolute et al. (2005) placing under the microscope the diversity was observed in the specimen as a total extent to which parental behaviours and beliefs through frequency analysis. Relevant results were about their children-athletes' abilities may predict observed in the research conducted by Shields, juvenile self-perception as regards the abilities of Bredemie, Voi and Power (2005), where parents did the latter. not state that they advise their children to hurt their opponents, even though some claimed that The primary agent of the questionnaire, in which they did give advice regarding payback of there were highlighted significant differences, was responding to some sort of negative behaviour in a that of parental avoidance to behave like a coach similar fashion. It is, therefore, obvious that with an actual one present. Via the non-parametric parental perception as regards the display and Chi-square test there were observed differences in eventually the adoption of the necessary the agent about parental perception regarding their fundamental values by children-athletes is not efforts to substitute the already existing coach and crystal clear. As continuation of this agent's their gender, where it was eventually found that analysis through the non-parametric Chi-square mothers in the specimen realize the essence of the test, there were observed differences in the agent above statement in a percentage almost twice as about parental perception regarding the emphasis high as that which marks the fathers' corresponding they place on fundamental values and their age. It realization. The parents' general tendency to try to was proven that older parents pay more attention replace the existing coach can be further to the impartment of fundamental values to their understood bearing in mind the research by Holt, children-athletes than younger parents do. The Tamminen, Black, Mandigo and Fox (2009), explanation for this phenomenon may be spotted in regarding parental involvement in their children- those situations and experiences characterized as athletes' competitive sports framework. Inside it, more intense, which were faced by older parents the relentless verbal reactions by parents (positive and rendered the implementation of those or negative), the perceived parental knowledge and fundamental values of paramount importance. experience on the sport at hand, as well as the effort to provide parental feedback in connection to The fourth questionnaire agent, in which it, made up a set of indications that efforts to statistically important differences were highlighted, substitute the existing coach were indeed made. was that of the supply of concrete and abstract resources. To start with, in the specimen total and Keeping in mind the results about domination through frequency analysis there were observed avoidance as regards the sport's role in the child- high percentages of total agreement among athlete's life, it was observed that the greatest parents, a result agreeing with the review of the percentage of parents was found to agree either bibliography regarding parental roles in the totally or, at least, quite a lot. The proper sporting framework. The first and most critical of orientation of parents in this study in this specific these roles for the continuation of a child-athlete's agent of the questionnaire is in agreement with the preoccupation with sports is that of the "provider" research by Laurer et al. (2010), where the of opportunities for preoccupation with sports, such interviewed parents were found in good balance as as the purchase of the necessary sporting regards their notions about school performance, equipment, transportation to the relevant sporting family and sporting activity by their child-athlete. facilities, etc (Harwood & Knight, 2009; Lauer et As a continuation of this agent's analysis and al., 2010; Wolfenden & Holt, 2005). through the non-parametric Chi-square test, there were observed differences in the agent about Also, a number of studies agree with the above parental perception of the issue of opportunities finding, focusing on the material as well as the presented to children, which might enable them to socio-emotional support with the display of love, explore and discover different sports. From the compromise and sacrifice on the parents' side bibliography, and more specifically the research by (Dorsch et al., 2009; Gould et al., 2006; Lauer et Jago et al. (2011), the mothers of the specimen al., 2010). As continuation of the analysis of this from the present study are found to be mistakenly agent, and via the non-parametric Chi-square test, oriented as regards this very agent of the there were observed differences in the agent about questionnaire, since the aforementioned parental perception regarding the supply of researchers showed that girls with lenient mothers concrete and abstract resources to their children- display higher percentages of average-high physical athletes for their sport and their age. It was activity. Naturally, in the general expression of this discovered that older parents realize that they result in the present survey, it was observed that provide their children-athletes with greater parents displayed positive perceived behavioural numbers of concrete as well as abstract resources direction, agreeing with Neely and Holt's (2014) than younger parents do. The explanation for this survey, in which a case was made in favour of the phenomenon may possibly be spotted in the prospect of children engaging into multiple sports, existence of a more stable professional especially during the initial stage of sporting environment at the age of 43 or older (AVG of development (stage of Experimentation). specimen age).

75 Kalafatzi, A. et al.: Self-evaluation of parental behaviour towards... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 70-78

Finally, the fifth agent of the questionnaire in which display the tendency (especially fathers) to take the there were observed statistically important place of the already existing, qualified coach. In differences, was that about parental perception conclusion, one might notice that apart from the regarding the offering of opportunities to their education of children by the parents, it is children-athletes to express themselves in relation imperative that parents receive education as well. to their sport, and the parents' age. To begin with, Hence, the design of behavioural codes should not in the specimen total and through frequency discourage sports clubs, but should rather analysis there were observed high percentages of encourage them, since a direct outcome of all that total agreement among parents regarding the will be the creation of higher-quality sporting encouragement they show their children-athletes environments and also the production of sports by acknowledging whatever it may be that they do enthusiasts rather than fanatics. properly. This finding agrees with the previous research by Wuerth et al. (2004), in which the The proposals deriving from the present study are types of parental involvement in the child-athlete's the following: sporting preoccupation during the several stages of their sporting development were examined. In this a) cultivation of sportsmanship and sportsmanlike study, parents and children-athletes made mention conduct for parents of children-athletes, b) of high levels of understanding and average levels establishment of correctional educational programs of parental involvement. for the development of enhancement strategies for the frequency with which parents: i) transport their As a continuation of the analysis of this agent, and child-athlete to and from sporting facilities via the non-parametric Chi-square test, some (Edwardson & Gorely, 2010; Jago et al., 2011), ii) differences were observed in the agent regarding display genuine interest when their child-athlete is parental perception of the issue of presenting their competing (Jago et al., 2011; Egberts et al., 2015; children-athletes with opportunities to express Trost et al., 2003), iii) partake in physical activity themselves, and the parents' age. Therein it was and iv) adopt a positive and optimistic outlook on eventually found that older parents realize that sports and the benefits therein (Edwardson & they offer their child-athlete more opportunities to Gorely, 2010; Trost et al., 2003), c) desire for - express themselves in relation to their sport than and pursuit of - all sorts of opportunities by the younger parents do. parents to join their children in physical activity, so that they may eventually nurture not a champion, This finding in specific was found to be in opposition but rather a human being whose primary with the previous research by Shields et al. (2005), characteristic will be a healthy lifestyle (Edwardson in which, based on the parents' own reports, as & Gorely, 2010), d) briefing sessions for parents at many as 13% of them had criticized their child- the beginning of every season by the club's officials athlete's performance quite harshly. Taking into regarding the role they play in the proper consideration the wider picture of the findings, treatment and development of their children, e) parents in their majority appear to be positively training for parents so that they may become oriented, without noteworthy negative behaviours capable of teaching their children-athletes towards their children-athletes. In their majority, important skills such as time management, which they refuse to restrict their offspring to the sport shall, in turn, enable them to efficiently combine they might be currently preoccupied with. They sports with school obligations, without having one maintain a rather generous stance as regards the taking a toll on the other (Knight & Holt, 2013; concrete or abstract resources they provide for Trost et al., 2003), f) establishment of parent their children-athletes' sport of choice, a fact training institutions (Herbert, 1975) by sports clubs especially true for older parents. On the other as well as public sector members (Jago et al., hand, they fail to pass on to their children-athletes 2011), g) conduct of similar research on larger the fundamental values of sportsmanship, and population and in different geographical areas.

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SAMOPROCJENA RODITELJSKOG PONAŠANJA PREMA DJECI SPORTAŠIMA

Sažetak Roditeljska podrška temeljni je čimbenik u sudjelovanju djece i uspjehu u sportskim događajima. Većina roditelja se ponaša pozitivno, ali se uočavaju i ponašanja koja ne daju pozitivne rezultate. Svrha ovog istraživanja bila je samoprocjena roditeljskih ponašanja i otkrivanje ponašanja koja su kritična u odnosu na psihologiju djeteta sportaša. Upotrijebljeni instrument bio je Popis za provjeru ponašanja kod Q-roditelja kojeg je popunjavalo 204 roditelja (106 muškaraca i 98 žena) djece - sportaša koji su bili članovi sportskih akademija M.G.S. Ethnikos Alexandroupolis. Rezultati su bili kategorizirani u dvije skupine prema: a) spolu i b) dobi. Kritična roditeljska ponašanja bila su sužena na: a) izbjegavanje športske dominacije u cjelokupnom životu djeteta-sportaša, b) naglasak koji roditelji stavljaju na temeljne vrijednosti, c) ograničenja u sudjelovanju roditelja u programu obuke i d) Roditeljima pružanje resursa njihovom djetetu- sportašu. Zaključeno je da roditeljski rod i dob imaju odlučujuću ulogu u izložbi specifičnih ponašanja prema djeci sportašima. Uz odgovarajuće informacije i obrazovanje, roditelji mogu poboljšati svoje ponašanje prema djeci sportašima, stvarajući više koristi.

Ključne riječi: roditeljsko ponašanje, roditeljske odredbe, roditelji, temeljne vrijednosti, sport.

Received: January 19, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Dimitris Gargalianos Democritos University of Thrace, Greece E-mail: [email protected]

78 Alpay, C.B. et al.: Comparison of body components and balance levels... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 79-84

COMPARISON OF BODY COMPONENTS AND BALANCE LEVELS AMONG HEARING-IMPAIRED WRESTLERS AND HEALTHY WRESTLERS

Cemal Berkan Alpay1 and Ozkan Isik2

1Omer Halisdemir University, School of Physical Education and Sports, Niğde, Turkey 2Afyon Kocatepe University, School of Physical Education and Sports, Afyon, Turkey

Original scientific paper

Abstract The purpose of this study is to compare the body components and static and dynamic balance levels of hearing-impaired wrestlers (H-IW) and healthy wrestlers (HW). Thirty-five H-IW and twenty-two HW participated in this research. The body components of the participating wrestlers were obtained by the Bioelectrical Impedance Analyzer (BIA), static and dynamic balance measurements via the Biodex Balance System, and back and leg strengths according to the protocols of back and leg dynamometry. The normality of data was tested by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The independent Samples T Test was used to compare pair wise group variables that followed a normal distribution. Significance was accepted for values of p<0.05 with a 95% confidence interval. No statistically significant difference was found among the values of H-IW and HW in terms of age, height, weight, Body Mass Index (BMI), sporting age, Percentage of Body Fat (PBF), Fat Mass (FM), Free Fat Mass (FFM). On the other hand, that there was a significant difference between back and leg strengths and static and dynamic balance levels among H-IW and HW. As a result, when H-IW and HW were compared, it was found that there was no difference between body components (PBF, FM and FFM) and demographic variables (age, height, weight, BMI, sport age) whereas HW had both higher average back and leg strengths and their dynamic and static balance levels were better than H-IW.

Key words: body components, dynamic balance, static balance, hearing-impaired wrestlers.

Introduction

Wrestling is defined as a sports branch that affects balance can be defined statically as the ability to the performance by the factors such as speed, sustain the support point with small motions and strength, quickness, flexibility, muscular and dynamically as the ability to perform a task while cardiovascular endurance, coordination and maintaining a fixed position (Winter, Patla, and balance, in which aerobics and anaerobic energy Frank, 1990). The postural control of the body and metabolism are used together to bring each other's the balance protection are administered by the back or get technical superiority over his/her Central Nervous System (CNS).The CNS receives opponent in the frame of official rules (Soyduden et information, required for postural and balance al., 2014). The balance is the fundamental control, from the somatosensory system, the component of many daily life activities and sportive vestibular system, and the visual system. The motor skills such as sitting, standing, and walking sensory input alone is not, meanwhile, enough to (İbiş, Iri, and Aktuğ, 2015). It has been reported sustain the postural control. The integrity of the that the balance feature is related to age, gender, postural stability muscle mass depends on the anthropometric structure, and support points efficiency of the systems in the CNS and the (Ünlüsoy et al., 2011, Blaszczyk et al., 2009). complete neural pathways for motor control. The Hearing loss is, according to the World Health somatosensory system senses touching, pressure, Organization (WHO) data, one of the most common pain, joint movements, and positions of joints. types of handicaps observed in the world. It was These inputs are called as proprioception. The reported by WHO that there have been 360 million proprioception is the sum of perceptions of joint hearing-impaired individuals worldwide. 32 million positions and joint movements responsible for the of these are children and 328 million are adults balance and postural control. The movement of with hearing-impairment (Garg and Gupta, 2015). body joints during imbalance periods stimulates the In addition to aforegiven details, 183 million proprioception in the joints (Aksakal and Şen, people, that is to say 56%, are men and 145 2016). Hearing performs a great number of million people, that isto say 44%, are women. important tasks, such as differentiating the About 6% of the world's population is made up of surrounding sounds, defining the direction of hearing-impaired individuals according to the sound, and adjusting the frequency of the acoustic figures given above. It has also been reported that signals. The vestibular system in the inner ear 2/3 of these figures have been livingin developed plays an important role, meanwhile, in stabilizing countries (Chauhan et al., 2015). Hearing loss may the gravity related with posture and walking. The be resulted from many causes such as genetic, vestibular system is operated by means of birth complications, infectious diseases, coronary information from many systems such as hearing, ear infections, various drug uses, and exposure to vision, and muscular structures. The vestibular high noise levels (Reyhani et al., 2016). The system disabled temporarily or permanently

79 Alpay, C.B. et al.: Comparison of body components and balance levels... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 79-84 because of any reason causes various troubles such Back Strength as disorientation in movements, disruption of The back and leg dynamometer (Takei brand) was balance during walking, etc. (Wolff et al., 1998, used to measure back strength. After the subjects Akyuz et al., 2016). There are numerous studies placed their feet on the stand of dynamometer, showing that static and dynamic balance abilities required measurements were completed can be affected negatively in terms of age, gender, accordingly in a body position when they lifted the etiology, and degree of hearing loss in hearing- dynamometer bar vertically up by hands to the impaired individuals (Butterfield and Ersing, 1986; maximum position with their knees and arms Siegel, Marchetti, and Tecklin, 1991; Slobounov stretched, the back straight, and the body slightly and Newell 1994). The control of static and inclined forward (Harbili et al., 2005). dynamic balance is very important for high-quality movements and success performance during Leg Strength training and competitions (Sucan et al., 2005). The back and leg dynamometer (Takei brand) was Balter et al. (2004) reported, that a good balance used to measure the leg strength. After the between experienced athletes is due to long-term subjects placed their feet on the dynamometer repeated training activities that affects motor stand with knees at an angle of 130° - 140°, back responses rather than the more advanced straight, and body in a slightly inclined position, sensitivity of the vestibular system. they lifted the dynamometer bar vertically up using only the legs without using the back at the However, Ashton-Miller et al. (2001) reported, maximum position till they reached their knees to contrary to the above, that a good balance for the the extension (Harbili et al., 2005). athletes was due to person's visual clues and to the training affecting the ability to pay careful attention All of the strength measurements were repeated to the relevant proprioceptive. The relevant three times and the best levels were recorded in measurements of research were conducted in kg. hearing-impaired men national team camps and the senior men's national team camps. The wrestlers at Static and Dynamic Balance Measurements the national team level have been applying The Biodex Balance System (Biodex, Inc., Shirley, generally the same training programs during the New York) was used, in the study, for balance same periods. In this context, the hypothesis of the measurements. The Biodex Balance System current study, that there will be no difference in consists of a swinging platform that allows the terms of body components, but in terms of participant to remain stationary as well as to move strengths and balance performances. forwards, backwards, and sideways as required.

Because H-IW in Turkey can play, if they desires, The general index values were evaluated in the official matches with HW. It has been determined, research. A high general index value indicates, meanwhile, that healthy athletes who receive therefore, a loss of balance at high levels. The medals in the World and European Championships balance scores of "0 degrees" indicate the for Hearing Impaired athletes cannot achieve any maximum possible balance. success in the championships participated by healthy athletes. This indicates, meanwhile, that The platform has a degree of mobility between 0 the performance criteria of H-IW are not sufficient and 12. While 12 is the most stable platform, 0 compared to HW. In this context, the current study constitutes the most movable platform. aimed to compare the body components and static and dynamic balance abilities among H-IW and HW. The static balance and 4th level dynamic balance testing were applied in this study. The tests were Methods performed on the double-foot while standing bolt upright position. The double-foot balance tests Subjects were repeated 3 times, with a period of 30 seconds The subjects of the study consisted of thirty-five H- and a break time of 10 seconds between tests. IW and twenty-two HW. At the beginning of the study, the subjects were informed about the Statistical Analyses purpose of the research subjects and all of the The normality of data was tested by means of the subjects took part in the study with their own Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The independent consents. Samples T Test was used to compare pair wise group variables that followed a normal distribution. Applied Tests A significance was accepted for values of p<0.05 Measuring of Body Weight and Length with a 95% confidence interval. The body weight and heights of relevant participants were measured by Seca brand Results stadiometer with an accuracy of 1 mm. When demographic variables and differences of Measuring of Body Components body components between the H-IW and HW Body components of the wrestlers were measured groups were examined, it was observed that there at athlete mode, wrestling suit with a tare of 250 gr was no significant difference between wrestler through BIA. groups (p>0,05; Table 1).

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Table 1. Comparison of Physical Characteristics and Body Components of Wrestler Groups

Variables Groups N Mean±Std. Dev. t p

Height HW 22 174,73±5,91 1,097 0,277 (cm) H-IW 35 172,63±8,52 Weight HW 22 77,87±12,57 1,471 0,147 (kg) H-IW 35 72,18±16,52 Body Mass Index HW 22 25,37±2,73 1,634 0,108 (kg/m2) H-IW 35 23,96±3,77 HW 12,18±2,42 Sports Age 22 0,637 0,527 (year) 35 H-IW 11,54±5,09 Percentage of Body Fat HW 22 11,45±4,12 1,288 0,204 (%) H-IW 35 9,91±4,78 Body Fat Mass HW 22 9,28±4,53 1,174 0,246 (kg) H-IW 35 7,71±5,50 Free Fat Mass HW 22 68,60±8,86 1,480 0,145 (kg) H-IW 35 64,48±12,08 HW: Healthy Wrestler; H-IW: Hearing-Impaired Wrestlers

Table 2. Comparison of Strength and Balance Levels of Wrestler Groups

Variables Groups N Mean±Std. Dev. t p Leg Strength HW 22 167,00±29,39 3,436 0,001** (kg) H-IW 35 140,07±27,85 Back Strength HW 22 138,80±16,24 5,245 0,001** (kg) H-IW 35 109,87±25,39 HW 22 0,42±0,16 Static Balance -2,199 0,033* H-IW 35 0,57±0,37 HW 22 1,08±0,36 Dynamic Balance -4,359 0,001** H-IW 35 1,85±0,94 *p<0,05, **p<0,001, HW: Healthy Wrestler; H-IW: Hearing-Impaired Wrestlers

When strength and balance levels differences For this reason, visual, proprioceptive sensitivity, between the H-IW and HW groups were examined, and vestibular system should be at improved levels significant differences were observed between the in order to provide postural stabilization in both levels of leg strength, back strength, static balance, cases. and dynamic balance levels (p<0,05; Table 2). This study was planned to compare the body Discussion and conclusion components and balance ability of H-IW and HW.In the current study it has been found no significant The human being needs three sensory systems difference between H-IW (20,74±5,80 year) group primarily to provide his/her orientation in space. and HW (22,09±2,76 year)group in term of age.In These are visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive addition, no statistically significant difference was systems (Teasdale et al., 1993). The visual system observed between physical characteristics (height, is, meanwhile, the first system to schedule our weight, body mass index), body components (PBF, movements and to give us signal for the situations FM, and FFM,) and sports ages (p <0.05). This that prevent us from seeing our way ahead. The suggests that the research group, despite it is vestibular system is, on the other hand, a texture consisted of independent groups, is homogeneous that perceives our linear and angular movements. (in comparable composition). The sporting age The proprioceptive system consists of receptors represents the level of expertise of athletes and sensitive to the positions, velocities, and contacts indicate that there is no difference in the number of made to other objects of body segments and to the training they apply. direction of gravity (Winter, 1995). The sensory information from visual, vestibular, and Regular exercising and sporting increase the proprioceptive systems is used as inputs. In strength proportionally. Caglar et al. (2013) found, uncomplicated situations, meanwhile, only one of as a matter of fact, that there is a difference the three main systems is sufficient (Sucan et al., between the back and leg strengths of hearing- 2005). However, the vestibular deficiency in the impaired athletes and hearing-impaired sedentary sensory system can often cause troubles in motion ones. When we examine, in our research, the perception and balance due to the complicated difference between the leg strengths of the texture of the wrestling since the wrestling has a wrestlers, the average level of leg strength of the complex structure involving the attacks applied by H-IW was found as 140,07±27,85 kg whereas the two wrestlers and / or contra-attacks against the average level of leg strength of HW 167,00±29,39 opponent's attack. kg.

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When the difference between back strengths was dynamic balance of H-IW was obtained as examined, meanwhile, the average of leg strength 1,85±0,94 and the average of the dynamic balance of H-IW was 109.87±25.39 kg whereas the of HW as 1,08±0,36. The results, acquired show average of leg strength of HW was 138.80±16.24 that the static and dynamic balance levels of HW kg. This results show that the strength levels of HW have a lower average than the levels of H-IW. Such have a higher average than the levels of H-IW. a finding shows that HW aremuch more balanced Cigerci et al. (2011) reported, after examining the than the H-IW. Eliöz et al. (2013) reported that the studies accomplished in the literature, in their study averages of healthy soccer players were higher on hearing impaired and healthy sedentary men than the averages of hearing-impaired soccers in that healthy individuals had higher averages in terms of static balance performances of both terms of strength variables. Kitis et al. (2015) groups. Ciğerci et al. (2011) reported, in their compared the back extensor muscle strength and study on hearing-impaired and healthy sedentary quadriceps muscle strength of hearing-impaired people, that the balance levels of healthy individuals and healthy individuals and found that individuals were at a better level. Our research healthy individuals had a higher average than shows similarities to the hearing researches hearing-impaired individuals. Our study has similar accomplished in the literature. results to the studies in the literature. It can be considered that being the lower strength variables It has been determined consequently that there is of H-IW below the variables of healthy wrestlers no difference between body components of H-IW are caused by the defects on their vestibular and HW. Statistically significant differences were system. found, meanwhile, between back and leg strength and static and dynamic balance levels. It is The balance is an important factor to sustain the considered that such an outcome is resulted from body composition and success in sports. It is the loss, premature birth, of vestibular system in the basis of the movement especially for the dynamic hearing-impaired athletes. sports containing sudden movements within and sports branches prosecuted with movement. The This research was applied on hearing-impaired and balance performance is required for all kind of healthy wrestlers in the same branch. The sports (Karakoc, 2016). Many studies point to investigation of body components, balance, and motor dexterity and more specifically balance loss strength differences between the inherently or in hearing-impaired children (Cushing et al., 2008; afterwards hearing-impaired athletes or the Hartman, Houwen, & Visscher, 2011; Livingstone, sedentary ones is so much important in terms of & McPhillips, 2011). Because it is necessary to athlete's health and for the aspects of improving integrate and evaluate the visual, vestibular, and performance. In addition, only limited numbers of somatosensorial information for attaining research have been observed in the literature on appropriate postural stabilization. Wrestling has a hearing-impaired and healthy individuals competing complex structure. For this reason, the vestibular in the same sports branch. For this reason, to system defects in the hearing-impaired ones can accomplish more studies on more different sample cause them to face some troubles of balance levels. groups will give a light to the literature.

When we analyzed the differences between the Conflicts of interest static balance levels of the wrestlers in our The authors declare that there is no conflict of research, the static balance averages of the H-IW interest with this manuscript. were obtained as 0,57±0,37 while the leg strength averages of the HW as 0,42±0,16. On the other Dates of any Congress hand, when the differences between dynamic This study was not presented as an oral or poster balance levels were examined, the average of the at any congress.

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Ciğerci, P., Aksen, P., Cicioğlu, İ., Günay, M., (2011). 9-15 Yaş Grubu İşitme Engelli ve İşitme Engelli Olmayan Öğrencilerin Bazı Fizyolojik ve Motorik Özelliklerinin Değerlendirilmesi. [Evaluation of some physiological and motoric characteristics of 9-15 age group hearing impaired and non-hearing impaired students. In Turkish.]. Selçuk Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 13(S1), 35-37 Cushing, S.L., Papsin, B.C., Rutka, J.A., James, A.L., & Gordon, K.A. (2008). Evidence of vestibular and balance dysfunction in children with profound sensorineural hearing loss using cochlear implants. The Laryngoscope, 118(10), 1814-1823. Eliöz, M., Sitti, S., Koç, M.C., Murt, Z., & Koç, H. (2013). A study on static balance performance of healthy and hearing-ımpaired football players. European Journal of Applied Sciences 5(1), 25-28. Garg, S., & Gupta, K. (2015). Hearing loss, its implications and public health interventions. Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences-JEMDS, 4(98), 16385-16386. Hartman, E., Houwen, S., & Visscher, C. (2011). Motor skill performance and sports participation in deaf elementary schoolchildren. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 28(2), 132-145. Hrysomallis, C. (2011). Balance ability and athletic performance. Sports medicine, 41(3), 221-232. İbiş, S., İri, R., & Aktuğ, Z.B. (2015). The effect of female volleyball players’ leg volume and mass on balance and reaction time. Journal of Human Sciences, 12(2), 1296-1308. Karakoc, O. (2016). The investigation of physical performance status of visually and hearing impaired applying judo training program. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 4(6), 10-17. Kitiş, A., Büker, N., Eren, K.E., Aydın, H., (2015). İşitme engelli kişilerde statik dengeyi etkileyen faktörlerin incelenmesi. [Investigation of factors affecting static balance in hearing impaired people. In Turkish.]. Journal of Kartal Training & ResearchHospital, 26(1), 25-30. Livingstone, N., & McPhillips, M. (2011). Motor skill deficits in children with partial hearing. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53(9), 836-842. Reyhani, T., Mohammadpour, V., Aemmi, S.Z., Mazlom, S.R., Nekah, A., & Mohsen, S. (2016). Status of Perceived Social Support and Quality of Life among Hearing-Impaired Adolescents. International Journal of Pediatrics, 4(2), 1381-1386. Siegel, J.C., Marchetti, M., & Tecklin, J.S. (1991). Age-related balance changes in hearing-impaired children. Physical therapy, 71(3), 183-189. Slobounov, S.M., & Newell, K.M. (1994). Dynamics of posture in 3-and 5-year-old children as a function of task constraints. Human Movement Science, 13(6), 861-875. Soyguden, A., Eker, H., Toy, A. B., & Mumcu, Ö. (2014). The technical analyze of Junior Free Style Wrestling group Championship. Route Educational and Social Science Journal, 1(3), 186-193. Sucan, S., Yilmaz, A., Can, Y., & Süer, C. (2005). Aktif futbol oyuncularinin çeşitli denge parametrelerinin değerlendirilmesi. [Evaluation of various balance parameters of active football players. In Turkish.]. Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 14(1), 36-42. Teasdale, N., Bard, C., LaRue, J., & Fleury, M. (1993). On the cognitive penetrability of posture control. Experimental Aging Research, 19(1), 1-13. Ünlüsoy, D., Aydoğ, E., Tuncay, R., Eryüksel, R., Ünlüsoy, İ., & Çakcı, A. (2011). Postural balance in women with osteoporosis and effective factors. Turkish Journal of Osteoporosis, 17, 37-43. Winter, D.A. (1995). Human balance and posture control during standing and walking. Gait & Posture, 3(4), 193-214. Winter, D.A., Patla, A.E., & Frank, J.S. (1990). Assessment of balance control in humans. Medical Progress through Technology, 16(1-2), 31-51. Wolff, D.R., Rose, J., Jones, V.K., Bloch, D.A., Oehlert, J.W., & Gamble, J.G. (1998). Postural balance measurements for children and adolescents. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 16(2), 271-275. World Health Organization. (2006). Primary ear and hearing care training resource. World Health Organization.

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USPOREDBA TJELESNIH KOMPONENTI I RAZINE RAVNOTEŽE IZMEĐU HRVAČA S OŠTEĆENJEM SLUHA I ZDRAVIH HRVAČA

Sažetak Svrha ovog istraživanja je usporediti sastav tijela i statičke i dinamičke ravnoteže razina hrvača s oštećenjem sluha (H-IW) i zdravih hrvača (HW). Trideset i pet H-IW i dvadeset i dva HW sudjelovalo je u ovom istraživanju. Tjelesne komponente hrvača koji su sudjelovali su dobivene analizatorom Bioelectrical Impedance (BIA), statičkim i dinamičkim mjerenjem ravnoteže putem Biodex Balance System, te snage za leđa i noge prema protokolima leđa i noge. Normalnost podataka testirana je Kolmogorov-Smirnovovim testom. Neovisni test uzoraka T je korišten za usporedbu parnih varijabli koje su slijedile normalnu distribuciju. Značaj je prihvaćen za vrijednosti p <0,05 s 95% intervala pouzdanosti. Nije pronađena statistički značajna razlika između vrijednosti H-IW i HW u odnosu na dob, visinu, težinu, indeks tjelesne mase (BMI), sportski dob, postotak tjelesne masti (PBF), masnu masu (FM), slobodnu masnoću (FFM). S druge strane, došlo je do značajne razlike između jačine prednjih i nogu i statičkih i dinamičkih ravnotežnih razina između H-IW i HW. Kao rezultat toga, kada se uspoređuju H-IW i HW, utvrđeno je da nema razlike između sastavnica tijela (PBF, FM i FFM) i demografskih varijabli (dob, visina, težina, BMI, sportska dob), dok je HW imao prosječno veći stražnji i prednji dio noge te su njihove dinamičke i statičke ravnoteže bile bolje od H-IW.

Ključne riječi: sastav tijela, dinamička ravnoteža, statička ravnoteža, hrvanje s oštećenjem sluha.

Received: March 02, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Ozkan Isık, PhD, Afyon Kocatepe University, School of PhysicalEducationand Sports, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey, Tel: +902722281385 E-mail: [email protected]

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IMPORTANCE OF YELLOW CARDS IN FOOTBALL CONSIDERING FINAL OUTCOME OF THE MATCH AND LEAGUE SYSTEM OF COMPETITION

Valentin Barišić, Davor Lješević and Dario Bašić

University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia

Original scientific paper

Abstract Based on 88 matches of 2014/2015 First Croatian football league we established the importance of yellow cards considering the final outcome of the match and the competition. Using Mann-Whitney test and Pearson correlation coefficient we concluded that yellow cards as situational efficacy indicators do not pose a statistically significant difference between the winning and the defeated team (p=0,93), nor is there a relation to final placement in league system of competition (r=-0,25). These results show that warning the players, especially in the case of yellow card which does not exclude them from the game, has no influence on the game outcome, but there is a need to control the mentioned segment of the game.

Key words: yellow cards, notational analysis, situational efficacy, football, warnings.

Introduction

Matches, team or individual sports or martial arts We analyzed one half-season consisting of 90 competitions can be observed as complex dynamic matches. Due to certain technical difficulties, one systems in which two opposing entities fight for a match was not recorded, and one ended in 3:0 due win (two teams, two pairs, or two individuals). to rule-breaking.

The performance of these entities and its success Sample are determined by level of abilities, skill, and Entities in this research are teams. First Croatian knowledge of players participating in the result of football league consists of 10 clubs. the competition- victory as the final goal. Variable sample In football, this happens in a match. Systemic Matches were described using notated performance observation of the football match shows many indicators (variables) – yellow cards (Bašić et al., characteristic events in the play which repeat 2015) themselves, are recognizable, and can be noted down. These events and their outcomes show a Data collection degree of situational efficacy of players and the Matches were filmed on HDD/DVD in form of video. team, and the level of their performance. Analyzing Using a special computer tool named Courteye the these events can show why a certain team won, or matches were analyzed and prepared for data how the final result of the match was achieved. analysis. Five notators worked on match analysis.

A yellow card is a disciplinary measure that a Statistical analysis referee utilizes/shows, according to game rules, to To determine reliability of gathered data we used the player who broke the rules. the intra-observer variability for differences between different data gathered by the same Yellow cards can be described in two ways, notator (Hughes et al., 2002, 2003, 2004). depending on the role of a player in the rule- breaking situation: the player breaks the rules and For yellow cards we determined a reliability of the yellow card is assigned to him, or the player 100%. For determining differences between extorts the disciplinary measure and the yellow winning and defeated teams, we used Mann- card is assigned to the player on whom the foul Whitney test and Pearson correlation coefficient to was supposedly committed (Bašić et al., 2015). determine the connection between performance indicators and final outcome of the competition. Analyzing the yellow card parameter we can determine if the mentioned situational efficacy Based on analyzed matches we can see the relation indicator is relevant and related to final outcome of between yellow cards as situational efficacy the match and league system of competition. indicators and final placement in league system of competition. Methods We can establish if there are any statistically Analysis material significant differences between winning and Research was done on 88 matches of Max tv First defeated teams considering the said parameter. Croatian football league.

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Results

Table 1. Final placement of teams after the half-season (TEAM), total number of matches played (NM), number of wins (WIN), draws (DRAW) and defeats (LOS), as well as the number of points (PTS), number of points per match (PTS/M) and total number of yellow cards (N-YC), arithmetic mean of yellow cards (AM-YC) and correlation coefficient of yellow cards and final placement (r).

TEAM NM WIN DRAW WIN PTS PTS/M N-YC AM-YC Dinamo 17 13 4 0 43 2,53 23 1,35 Rijeka 18 12 3 3 39 2,17 33 1,83 Hajduk 17 8 5 4 29 1,71 49 2,88 Lokomotiva 18 7 4 7 25 1,39 27 1,50 Zagreb 18 6 6 6 24 1,33 31 1,72 SlavenBelupo 17 5 5 7 20 1,18 26 1,53 Split 17 3 8 6 17 1,00 35 2,06 Istra 1961 18 3 7 8 16 0,89 26 1,44 Osijek 18 4 3 11 15 0,83 44 2,44 Zadar 18 3 3 12 12 0,67 41 2,28 r=-0,25

Table 2. Arithmetic mean (AM) and standard deviation (SD) of yellow cards of winning (WIN) and defeated (LOS) teams, and z-value (z) for determining significance differences and errors (p).

AM SD z p

WIN 1,83 1,33 0,85 0,93 LOS 1,89 1,52

Discussion and conclusion celebrate the goal score), so it is not always the case that a weaker team gets yellow cards. There Based on results (Table 1 and 2) of relatively low can be individual cases of teams who get more correlation coefficient (r=-0,25) and difference in yellow cards due to the way they play (more arithmetic mean between winning (AS=1,83) and agressive approach on the field) or accentuated defeated teams (AS=1,89), which is not statistically charge that the home audience transfers to the significant (p=0,93), we can conclude thatyellow team, which can lead to dysfunctional behaviour card, as a situational efficacy indicator, does not and more risk of getting a yellow card. Or, on the pose a difference between winning and defeated other hand, teams get less yellow cards in matches teamsand is not related to final placement in league on home turf due to home audience pressuring the system of competition. These results are in referee. Results also show that regardless of three accordance with other researchers (Castellano, yellow cards in a larger number of matches and not Casamichana and Lago, 2012; Lago-Penas and playing in the next match, even if it concerns more Lago-Ballesteros,2011; Lago-Penas et al., 2010). quality players, this will not have a negative effect Yellow card is a disciplinary measure utilized in case in league system of competition. of rule-breaking, and can be used in many situations. Even though one might expect that However, in individual key matches (cup system) teams with less technical and tactical knowledge things can be different. We can also conclude that, and less ball possession along with more need for regardless of the yellow card, the players will defense tactical tools would be more prone to equally use dominant defense tactical tools paying breaking the rules and getting yellow cards, this is no attention to the danger of getting the second not the case in this research. Regardless of their yellow card which would exclude them from the placements, teams get about the equal number of game. Based on results for variable yellow cards we yellow cards. Of course, one should make an in- can conclude that it has no significant connection to depth analysis of reasons for getting a yellow card. final placement in league system of competition Sometimes the leading team breaks the rules on and it does not differentiate between winning and purpose (holds the ball, an unallowed way to defeated teams.

References

Bašić, D., Barišić, V., Jozak, R., & Dizdar, D. (2015). Notacijska analiza nogometnih utakmica. [Notational analysis of sports matches. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Leonard Media. Castellano, J., Casamichana, D., & Lago, C. (2012). The use of match statistics that discriminates between successful and unsuccessful soccer teams. Journal of Human Kinetics, 31, 139-147. Hughes, M. (2004). Notational analysis – A mathematical perspective. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 4(2), 97-139.

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Hughes, M. (2004a). Performance analysis – a 2004 perspective. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 4(1), 103-109. Hughes, M., & Franks, I.M. (2004). Notational analysis of sport: Systems for better coaching and performance in sport. London: Routledge. Hughes, M., Cooper, S.M., & Nevill, A. (2002).Analysis procedures for non-parametric data from performance analysis. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 2(1), 6-20. Hughes, M., Cooper, S.M., Nevill, A., & Brown, S. (2003). An example of reliability testing and establishing performance profiles for non-parametric data from performance analysis. International Journal of Computer Science in Sport, 2(1), 34-56. Hughes, M.D., & Bartlett, R.M. (2002). The use of performance indicators in performance analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(10), 739-754. Hughes, M.D., Cooper, S., & Nevill, A. (2004). Analysis of notation data: Reliability, Notational analysis of sport, 189-205, New York: Routledge. Lago-Penas, C., & Lago-Ballesteros, J. (2011). Game location and team quality effects on performance profiles in professional soccer. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 10(3), 465-471. Lago-Penas, C., Lago-Ballesteros, J., Dellal, A., & Gomez, M. (2010). Game-related statistics that discriminated winning, drawing and losing teams. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 9(2), 288-293.

VAŽNOST ŽUTIH KARTONA U NOGOMETU OBZIROM NA KRAJNJI ISHOD UTAKMICE I LIGE SUSTAVA NATJECANJA

Sažetak Na temelju 88 utakmica 2014/2015 Prve hrvatske nogometne lige utvrdili smo važnost žutih kartona s obzirom na konačni ishod utakmice i natjecanja. Koristeći Mann-Whitney test i Pearsonov korelacijski koeficijent, zaključili smo da žuti kartoni kao situacijski pokazatelji učinkovitosti ne predstavljaju statistički značajnu razliku između pobjedničkog i poraženog tima (p = 0,93), niti postoji veza s konačnim plasmanom u ligi sustava natjecanja (r = -0,25). Ovi rezultati pokazuju da upozoravanje igrača, posebno u slučaju žutog kartona, koji ih ne isključuje iz igre, nema utjecaja na ishod igre, ali postoji potreba za kontrolom spomenutog dijela igre.

Ključne riječi: žuti kartoni, notacijska analiza, situacijska učinkovitost, nogomet, upozorenja.

Received: January 22, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspodence to: Davor Lješević, mag.cin University of Zagreb Faculty of Kinesiology Zagreb, Croatia 10000, Horvaćanski zavoj 15 E-mail: [email protected]

87 Yilmaz, A. et al.: The effects of sportive exercises on physical fitness of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 88-93

THE EFFECTS OF SPORTIVE EXERCISES ON PHYSICAL FITNESS OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY

Atike Yilmaz, Gizem Karakaş, Hande Baba Kaya and Zülbiye Kaçay

Sakarya University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sakarya, Turkey

Original scientific paper

Abstract This research was conducted to examine the effects of learn long-term and repetitive physical activities on physical fitness of children with specific learning disabilities. In the study, pre-test - post-test with a control group which one of the real experimental models and intended sampling method was used. Children between 9-12 age with special learning disability were included in the study. This study group (N: 20) ( X age: 10.45±1.23) was separated into two groups as experiment (n: 10) and control (n: 10) by using random sampling method. While the experiment group was included in a 45-minute exercise program for 2 days in a week (in 20 weeks), the control group was not included in any exercise program during this time. In order to measure the physical fitness levels of children with specific learning disabilities, hand-paw force, standing jump, standing-up jump, push-up, straight shuttle, reverse shuttle, squat and flexibility tests were applied. The related tests was applied separately for each child as pre-test and post-test. Descriptive statistics and Wilcoxon signed rank test were used in the analysis of the data. In the analysis, the level of significance was considered as .05 using SPSS 22 package programs. When the results of the analysis were examined, after 20 weeks of exercise, a significant increase in experimental group children was observed in all parameters (paw force, standing jumping, standing jump, push-up, straight shuttle, reverse shuttle, squat and elasticity) according to their own pre-test values and control group. Consequently it can be said that regular and long- term exercises positively contribute to the physical fitness of children with specific learning disabilities and improve their physical fitness levels.

Key words: specific learning disability, exercise, sport, physical fitness.

Introduction

Many factors (Arteche & Murray, 2011; Belsky & Considering these positive effects, it is thought that Pluess, 2012), which reveal learning difficulty long-term and regularly repetitive exercises will findings and are not fully known, are thought to facilitate learning of children with specific learning negatively affect development in children. Although disabilities, thereby as well as physical intelligence of children with learning disabilities is development, it will contribute to their mental normal and above normal, they have a significant development because long-term repetitive neurological disorder at the point of acquisition and behaviors are known to persist and enhance application of speech skills, listening, reading, learning (Sugrue, 2008). With the positive writing, reasoning, self-expression, social developments that can occur in the body along with perception, mathematics, motor functioning, learning, the physical fitness levels of the people organizational skills (Beitchman & Young, 1997; will be increased and they will be progressed Arnold et al., 2005; Mayes & Calhoun, 2006; towards becoming healthier individuals. Sabornie, Evans & Cullinan 2006; Lane, Carter, Pierson & Glaesar, 2006; Silver et al., 2007; Judge Therefore, the strength and importance of this & Bell, 2010; Judge & Watson, 2011; APA, 2013). study is to draw attention to the activities that are Therefore the importance of learning for these regularly carried out in learning difficulties. The children has increased. Exercise is a continuous main problem that needs to be answered in this activity aimed at improving one or more elements way is whether there is a significant difference and of physical fitness (Özer, 2013: 11). It is known improvement in physical fitness levels of people that the adoption and regularization of sportive who did and did not exercise for a long time and exercises started at an early age as a way of life before and after exercise of those who exercised for (İlhan, Kırımoğlu & Filazoğlu Çokluk, 2013), affects a long time. In order to find answers to these individuals and people with specific learning questions; investigating the effects of long-term disability more positively, also it contributes to and repeated exercises on the physical fitness of their social, psychological, physical and mental children with specific learning disabilities was aimed developments (Kırımoğlu, 2008; Morgan, Roberts, in this study. Feinerman, 1971; Haapala, 2013; Ekeland et al., 2005; Fernhall, 1993). This way, sportive exercises Methods are expected to have positive effects on existing physical fitness situations as well as its contribution In this study, in the scope of quantitative research to the development of individuals experiencing the the real experimental model that based on the problem of specific learning disability. positivist view was used (Büyüköztürk et al., 2014).

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In the experimental models, pre-test post-test When looked at the pre-test and post-test data, a control group design was applied. In this model, significant difference in all the parameters was pre- and post-measurements of the control and observed (paw power (z=-2.805, p<.05), flexibility experimental groups generated by neutral (z=-2.842, p<.05), standing long jump (z=-2.829, assignment are taken and the effect of the p<.05), standing vertical jump (-2.842, p<.05), independent variable is tried to be revealed in the push up (z=-2.831, p<.05), shuttle (z=-2.814, experimental group (Karasar, 2015). p<.05), reverse shuttle (z=-2.814, p<.05), squat (z=-2.814, p<.05). Universe and sample Sample of the study was constituted from the When the average values of the tests were children who were diagnosed with the specific examined, the physical fitness parameters’ post- learning disability between the ages of 9 and 12 by test averages were found to be higher than pre-test using the objective sampling method. The fact that and increased. living place of the children has different socio- cultural and socioeconomic diversity, lack of When the differences between the means of the sportive facilities and the children have never done tests were examined, maximum increase was any sporting activity before became a criterion for determined respectively in reverse shuttle ( X pre- the study place. The experimental group (n: 20) ( test=26.90±4.89< X post-test=33.70±6.90), squat ( X age: 10.45 ± 1.23) was divided into X pre-test=21.80±3.76< X post-test=28.50±5.03), and experimental group (n: 10) and control group (n: sit-up ( X =14.60±3.40 < X 10) using the random sampling method (Creswell, pre-test post- =20.90±4.48), while the parameter with the 2016: 158). When the experimental group was test least difference is hand grip strength ( X included in the relevant sportive exercise program pre- X for 20 weeks, the control group did not take any test=17.60±5.70 < post-test=20.67±6.10). action. Table 1. Experimental group pre-test and post-test Data collection tools Wilcoxon analyzes In the study, to measure physical fitness levels of Sum children with specific learning disabilities; hand-paw Mean n of z p Rank force, standing jumping, standing up jump, push- Ranks up, straight shuttle, reverse shuttle, squat and sit- Negative 0 .00 .00 in tests were applied. The relevant tests was Hand Ranks Grip Positive -2.805 .005* applied separately for each child as pre-test and 10 5.50 55.00 post-test. Strengths Ranks Ties 0 Negative 0 .00 .00 Collection of data Ranks The study was conducted in education centers of Flexibility Positive -2.842 .004* 10 5.50 55.00 the children outside of their lesson times and after Ranks getting necessary permits. The experiment group Ties 0 Negative got involved in 45 minutes sports activity for 2 days 0 .00 .00 a week during 20 weeks. During the 45-minute Standing Ranks Long Positive -2.829 .005* lesson, 15 minutes warm-up games, 25 minutes 10 5.50 55.00 Jump Ranks general force exercises and 5 minutes cooling and Ties 0 flexibility exercises were conducted. The control Negative 0 .00 .00 group was not included in any exercise program Standing Ranks Vertical Positive -2.842 .004* during this time. Data was obtained by applying the 10 5.50 55.00 tests as pre-test and after 20 weeks as post-test to Jump Ranks the experimental and control groups. Ties 0 Negative 0 .00 .00 Ranks Analysis of data Push-Up Positive -2.831 .005* 10 5.50 55.00 Descriptive statistics (percent, frequency, Ranks arithmetic mean, standard deviation, kurtosis and Ties 0 Negative skewness) was used for scores obtained from pre- 0 .00 .00 test-post-test data. Wilcoxon signed rank test was Ranks Sit-Up Positive -2.814 .005* used for non-parametric methods in the application 10 5.50 55.00 Ranks of test techniques for the analysis of data. In order Ties 0 to apply non-parametric tests, sample size should Negative 0 .00 .00 not exceed 30 (Altunışık et al., 2007). SPSS 22 Ranks Back Sit- * Positive -2.814 .005 package program was used in the analysis of data Up 10 5.50 55.00 and the level of significance was considered as .05. Ranks Ties 0 Negative Results 0 .00 .00 Ranks Squat Positive -2.814 .005* 10 5.50 55.00 The Wilcoxon signed rank test results for pre-test Ranks and post-test scores of the children in the Ties 0 experimental group are given in table 1. *p<.05

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Table 2. Control group pre-test and post-test According to this, a significant difference between Wilcoxon analyzes experiment and control group was determined in the parameters of hand grip strength (z=-2.118, Mean Sum of n z p p<.05), flexibility (z=-2.356, p<.05), standing Rank Ranks vertical jump (z=-2.508, p<.05), sit up (z=-2.479, Negative 2 7.25 14.50 p<.05), batch sit up (z=-3.186, p<.05) and squat Ranks Hand Grip - Positive .184 (z=-2.773, p<.05). Strengths 8 5.06 40.50 1.328 Ranks Ties 0 It was determined that experiment group had a Negative 1 4.00 4.00 higher average in post test significant parameters Ranks and related parameters were determined to Flexibility Positive -.378 .705 3 2.00 6.00 improve positively in these groups. No significant Ranks differences were found between the experimental Ties 6 Negative and control groups according to the posttest in the 2 3.00 6.00 Standing Ranks parameters of standing long jump (z = -. 340, p> Long Positive -.973 .330 .05) and push-up (z = -1.409, p> .05). 4 3.75 15.00 Jump Ranks Ties 4 Table 3. Experimental and Control Groups Pre-Test Negative 1 4.50 4.50 Mann Whitney-U Analyzes Standing Ranks - Vertical Positive .194 5 3.30 16.50 1.298 Mean Sum of Jump Ranks Parameters Group n U z p Rank Ranks Ties 4 Hand Exp. 10 12.30 123.00 Negative 2 4.00 8.00 Grip 32.000 -1.361 .173 Ranks Strengths Control 10 8.70 87.00 - Push-Up Positive .257 Exp. 10 10.10 101.00 5 4.00 20.00 1.134 Flexibility 46.000 -.305 .760 Ranks Control 10 10.90 109.00 Ties 3 Standing Exp. 10 10.05 100.50 Long 45.500 -.341 .733 Negative Control 10 10.95 109.50 1 3.50 3.50 Jump Ranks - Standing Exp. 10 11.95 119.50 Sit-Up Positive .102 Vertical 35.500 -1.102 .270 5 3.50 17.50 1.633 Control 10 9.05 90.50 Ranks Jump Ties 4 Exp. 10 9.50 95.00 Push-Up 40.000 -.766 .444 Negative Control 10 11.50 115.00 1 4.00 4.00 Ranks Exp. 10 10.10 101.00 Back Sit- Sit-Up 46.000 -.306 .760 Positive -.378 .705 Control 10 10.90 109.00 Up 3 2.00 6.00 Back Exp. 10 12.35 123.50 Ranks 31.500 -1.413 .158 Ties 6 Sit-Up Control 10 8.65 86.50 Negative Exp. 10 11.15 111.50 2 3.50 7.00 Squat 43.500 -.493 .622 Ranks Control 10 9.85 98.50 Squat Positive -.816 .414 4 3.50 14.00 Ranks Table 4. Experimental and Control Groups Post-Test Ties 4 Mann Whitney-U Analyzes

Mean Sum of The Wilcoxon signed rank test results for pre-test Parameters Group n U z p and post-test scores of the children in the control Rank Ranks Hand Grip Exp. 10 13.30 133.00 22.000 -2.118 .034* group of the study are given in table 2. When the Strengths Control 10 7.70 77.00 pre-test post-test data of the control group were Exp. 10 13.60 136.00 Flexibility 19.000 -2.356 .018* examined, no significant difference was determined Control 10 7.40 74.00 Standing Exp. 10 10.95 109.50 in any parameters (paw power/ Hand Grip 45.500 -.340 .734 Long Jump Control 10 10.05 100.50 Strengths (z=-1.328, p>.05), flexibility (z=-.378, Standing Exp. 10 13.80 138.00 p>.05), standing long jump (z=-.973, p>.05), Vertical 17.000 -2.508 .012* Control 10 7.20 72.00 standing vertical jump (z=-1.298, p>.05), push up Jump Exp. 10 12.35 123.50 (z=-1.134, p>.05), sit up (z=-1.633, p>.05), back Push-Up 31.500 -1.409 .159 Control 10 8.65 86.50 sit up (z=-.378, p>.05), squat (z=-.816, p>.05). Exp. 10 13.75 137.50 Sit-Up 17.500 -2.479 .013* No significant difference was determined between Control 10 7.25 72.50 Exp. 10 14.70 147.00 pre and post test results of the control group (p> Back Sit-Up 8.000 -3.186 .001* .05). Control 10 6.30 63.00 Exp. 10 14.15 141.50 Squat 13.500 -2.773 .006* Control 10 6.85 68.50 In the Mann Whitney-U analyzes comparing the pre-test data of the experimental and control Discussion and conclusion groups, no significant difference was found between two groups related to pre-test data (p> .05). No In this study that was conducted to examine the difference between groups in pre-test data of effects of learn long-term and repetitive physical physical fitness parameters was determined (Table activities on physical fitness of children with specific 3). learning disabilities, after 20 weeks of exercise done by the children in experiment group, a Mann Whitney-U analysis results of the post test significant increase was observed according to their data of experimental and control groups are given own pre-test values and control group in all in Table 4.

90 Yilmaz, A. et al.: The effects of sportive exercises on physical fitness of... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 88-93 parameters (hand grip strength, Jump, push-up, sit development (Woodard and Surburg, 2001; up, back sit up, squat and flexibility). The pre-tests Westendorp et al., 2011) was examined, it can be of control and experiment groups gave a similar observed that the regular physical activities have results and it has been a good start in terms of positive effects on children with special needs healthy follow-up of intergroup development. In (Baran, 2012; Demir, 2006; Volman, Vısser & addition, examination of the post test results of Mulders, 2007; Hartman et al., 2010; Top, 2015; control and experiment group showed that 20 Rintala & Loovis, 2013). In parallel with these weeks regular exercise revealed significant studies, there is also studies that show the positive differences in favor of the experiment group and effects of long-term regular exercise on physical this indicates exercises to be effective. The absence fitness of mentally disabled. In these studies, it was of a significant change in pre-test and post-test of a found that the exercise increased positively in the control group is also evidence that the lack of parameters of grip strength, flexibility, vertical regular activity returned to children as negative jump, visual simple reaction time, 20m sprint, development. From these results, it can be said balance, push-up, long jump, sit-rise, sit-up, back that regular and long-term exercises positively sit-up (Biçer et al., 2004; Savucu et al., 2007; contribute to the physical fitness of children with Akyüz et al., 2011; Atan et al., 2016). specific learning disabilities and improve their physical fitness levels. It is also pointed out in the The results support this study and parallel with literature that in addition to the developed physical positive increase in hand grip strength, flexibility, fitness of children with special needs, regular standing up, jump, stopping forward jump, sitting physical activity has positive results in terms of up and down test results. In conclusion, it can be healthy relationships, self-expression and concluded that children with specific learning socialization of children with special needs (Morgan, disabilities may develop inadequacies in their motor Roberts, Feinerman, 1971, Pollatschek & O'Hagan, skills by regular and planned exercises. It is also 1989, 1997, Kırımoğlu, 2008, Pelitbaş, 2000, thought that the development of modules and Haapala, 2013). In the study on children with programs for physical activity and play applications specific learning disabilities, it was concluded that in schools, special education schools, rehabilitation the participation to physical activities enabled the centers for children who have learning disabilities, improvement of coarse and fine motor fitness levels and to be put into practice them regularly under and consolidation of perceptual motor functions the guidance of specialist and trainers are expected (Demirci and Toptaş Demirci, 2016). This study is to contribute positively to children's development. parallel with the study in that it is an experimental Moreover, it is of utmost importance that the study for children with learning disabilities and children are directed to exercise by increasing their results in favor of those participating in physical families’ consciousness level together with the activities. When the literature was examined, exercises for the development of physical fitness of studies that link the physical fitness of children with children with specific learning difficulties (İlhan, learning disabilities to exercise are rarely 2009; İlhan, Kırımoglu & Filazoğlu Çoklu, 2013; encountered. However, when studies on children Esatbeyoğlu and Karahan, 2014). From this point of with learning disabilities are less likely to have view, it is thought that this work will give a light to rough motor skills than children with normal other planned works.

References

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UČINCI SPORTSKIH VJEŽBI NA FIZIČKU SPOSOBNOST DJECE S POSEBNIM TEŠKOĆAMA U UČENJU

Sažetak Ovo je istraživanje provedeno kako bi se ispitali učinci učenja dugotrajnih i ponavljajućih tjelesnih aktivnosti na fizičku sposobnost djece s posebnim teškoćama u učenju. U studiji je predtest - post-test s kontrolnom skupinom kod koje je korišten jedan od pravih eksperimentalnih modela i metoda uzorkovanja. U istraživanje su uključena i djeca od 9-12 godina s posebnim teškoćama u učenju. Ova ispitna skupina (N: 20) (dob: 10,45 ± 1,23) razdvojena je u dvije skupine kao eksperiment (n: 10) i kontrola (n: 10) metodom slučajnog uzorkovanja. Dok je eksperimentalna grupa bila uključena u 45-minutni program vježbanja tijekom 2 dana u tjednu (u 20 tjedana), kontrolna grupa nije bila uključena u bilo koji program vježbanja za to vrijeme. Da bi se izmjerila razina tjelesne kondicije djece s posebnim teškoćama u učenju, primijenjene su ručna snaga, skakanje u stojećem položaju, sklekovi, ravni shuttle, obrnuti shuttle, čučanj i fleksibilnost. Slični testovi primijenjeni su posebno za svako dijete kao pred-test i post-test. U analizi podataka korištene su deskriptivne statistike i Wilcoxonov potpisani rang test. U analizi je razina značenja razmatrana kao .05 pomoću programskih paketa SPSS 22. Kada su rezultati analize ispitani, nakon 20 tjedana vježbanja, u svim parametrima zabilježen je značajan porast eksperimentalne skupine djece (snaga šake, skakanje u stojećem položaju, skok u stojećem položaju, push-up, ravni shuttle, obrnuti shuttle, čučanj i elastičnost) u skladu s vlastitim vrijednostima prije testiranja i kontrolnom skupinom. Slijedom toga može se reći da redovite i dugoročne vježbe pozitivno pridonose fizičkoj sposobnosti djece s posebnim teškoćama u učenju i poboljšavaju njihovu razinu tjelesne kondicije.

Ključne riječi: specifična invalidnost učenja, vježbanje, sport, tjelesna kondicija.

Received: December 29, 2016 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Atike Yilmazi Sakarya University, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sakarya, Turkey Tel: +90 (264) 295 54 54 E-mail: [email protected]

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MUSCLE STRENGTH ASSESSMENT OF UPPER AND LOWER LIMBS IN ELITE MALE KARATE ATHLETES: COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS

Borislav Obradović1, Dejan Madić1, Patrik Drid1, Milica Bogdanovski1 and Goran Sporiš2

1University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Serbia 2University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia

Original scientific paper

Abstract The main aim of this study was to characterize the muscle strength profile the shoulder external and internal rotators and the knee flexors and extensors in elite Serbian male Karate athletes. The second aim was to compare the muscle strength between the hamstrings and quadriceps in male karate athletes of different age groups.The sample was composed of three groups of male karate athletes. First group included seniors (24.1±3.72), the second-juniors (17.6±0.84) and the third group was composed of cadets (15.85±0.69).The following isokinetic parameters were used in the research: Maximal force of right leg extensors (Right_Ext), Maximal force of left leg extensors (Left_Ext), Maximal force of right leg flexors (Right_Flx), Maximal force of left leg flexors (Left_Flx), Maximal force of external rotation of the right arm (Right_Ext_Rot), Maximal force of external rotation of the left arm (Left_Ext_Rot), Maximal force of internal rotation of the right arm (Right_Int_Rot), Maximal force of internal rotation of the left arm (Left_Int_Rot). Based on the discriminant analysis, all variables significantly contribute to the difference between the groups, except maximal force of internal rotation of the right arm. We found that the seniors significantly differ from the cadets in all parameters, and the difference is in favour of seniors (p≤0.05). Seniors and juniors differ in maximal force of left leg extensors, maximal force of right leg flexors, maximal force of internal rotation of the left arm and maximal force of external rotation of the left arm. Juniors and cadets differ in maximal force of left leg flexors and maximal force of internal rotation of the left arm, the difference is in favour of juniors. To conclude, the lower and upper limbs’ isokinetic parameters were significantly higher in the senior compared junior and cadet group. Since only elite competitors were tested, the findings could be of importance for both the selection and training design of karate athletes.

Key words: isokinetic, testing, selection, karate, difference.

Introduction

Karate, being one of the most practised individual model characteristics are obtained, which are and martial art worldwide, shall for the first time be necessary for successful training sessions and included in the Olympic Games, which shall be competitions, but also for the prevention of injuries hosted by the Japanese capital Tokyo in 2020. This in karate. Adequate levels of power and its balance sport includes many static positions and dynamic between the muscles are essential for the proper movements and it is characterised by various functioning and stability of joints. Insufficient strikes, both by fists and feet. Karate is divided into presence of power and disrupted balance of power kata and kumite. Kata represents a set of forms in between the muscles can impede the movement pre-established sequences of offensive and and therefore reduce the physical activity of defensive techniques and movements, while kumite athletes. In order to identify muscle imbalances and is a real match or fight between two competitors prevent possible injuries, the assessment of the under strict rules; they are free to move, use the muscle function after muscle fatigue is very kicks and punches in defensive and offensive important. Relation between hamstrings and manners (Chaabene et al., 2012). In accordance quadriceps (H/Q ratio) is used as a measure of with the development of modern karate, self- knee muscles balance. The imbalance between improvement is of great importance. The highest these two muscle groups is associated with greater level of martial arts is reflected in the fact that the susceptibility to injury in the knee joint. Isokinetic strike is performed at maximum speed and power, dynamometers are widely used for studying but it is stopped at the moment of contact (Mori et muscles functions, because they allow dynamic, al., 2002), so that the opponent does not get hurt objective, accurate and reproductive evaluation (Critchley et al., 1999).In order to properly direct (Siqueira et al., 2002). The isokinetic diagnostics is flow of the modern karate development, the very important in preventing injuries and damages influence of science is necessary, both for a better to the musculoskeletal system. In cases of athletes implementation of the training sessions, and thus when detecting and correcting imbalances of for the improvement of the results. Diagnostics different muscle groups can help prevent injuries, occupies one of leading positions in planning and the isokinetic diagnostics is of essential importance. programming of training processes in karate. Based This type of diagnostics can be used for comparing on of the competitive activities of athletes, basic effects of sports injury treatments, but it can be

94 Oradoić, B. et al.: Musle stregth assesset of upper ad loer lis... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 94-99 also used for analysing different methods. Isotonic measurement. Range of motion of the tested and isokinetic movements are two types of muscle extremity was 90 degrees. The testing started with regimes that are commonly used in sports medicine the warm up and was followed by a period of rest (e.g. for monitoring elite athletes) and functional for 2 minutes before performing maximal rehabilitation (e.g. recovery of muscle strength contraction. Testing the maximum muscle strength after knee surgery) (Remaud et al., 2009). of subjects was carried out at an angular velocity of 60º/sec. Bilateral asymmetry represents the lack of perfect composition of two limbs (Herzog et al., 1989), i.e. According to Burkett (2000) the best choice in the difference between the two corresponding parts terms of muscle strength and endurance of the body that are located on the opposite side in parameters is 60 to 180°/s. Four maximal relation to the medial axis of the body (Jelicoeur, contractions were performed in a row, both for 1963). Impellizerri et al. (2008) used the isokinetic right and left leg and right and left arm. dynamometer for determining the imbalance of power between the hamstrings and quadriceps. The following isokinetic parameters were used in the research: Maximal force of right leg extensors According to them, unilateral and bilateral relations (Right_Ext), Maximal force of left leg extensors have poor relative reliability and are more suitable (Left_Ext), Maximal force of right leg flexors for the detection of major changes that are (Right_Flx), Maximal force of left leg flexors associated with the sports medicine and (Left_Flx), Maximal force of external rotation of the rehabilitation programmes. Based on the testing right arm (Right_Ext_Rot), Maximal force of conducted by using an isokinetic chair, a number of external rotation of the left arm (Left_Ext_Rot), typical imbalances between antagonistic muscle Maximal force of internal rotation of the right arm groups, as well as their specificity for particular (Right_Int_Rot), Maximal force of internal rotation sports, have been identified so far (Golik-Perić et of the left arm (Left_Int_Rot). al., 2011; Drid et al., 2009). Statistical analysis The main aim of this study was to characterize the The data were processed by using the appropriate muscle strength profile the shoulder external and statistical methods in the software package IBM internal rotators and the knee flexors and extensors SPSS 20.0.For all analysed variables the descriptive in elite Serbian male Karate athletes. The second statistics was performed (minimum, maximum, aim was to compare the muscle strength between mean and standard deviation). Due to the small the hamstrings and quadriceps in male karate number of subjects in each group (9-10 athletes of different age groups. participants) the normality of results distribution was analysed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Methods Discriminant analysis was used to determine Subjects whether there are differences between the groups. The sample was composed of three groups of male T-test was used to determine differences between karate athletes. First group included seniors different categories of elite male karate athletes. (24.1±3.72), the second- juniors (17.6±0.84) and the third group was composed of cadets Results (15.85±0.69). All subjects are active athletes that won medals at national and international Table 1 presents the mean, standard deviation competitions. (SD), minimum and maximum values of the parameters obtained during isokinetic tests of knee All measurements were carried out in accordance extensor and flexor muscles and external and with ethical rules and each subject participating in internal shoulder rotator muscles, and also shows the measurements was presented with an statistical significance of Shapiro-Wilk test of explanation of the procedure provided for the normality. If the value of the Shapiro-Wilk test is research and measurement. In the end, less than 0.05 (Sig .< 0.05), distribution does not participants signed the consent confirming that deviate from a normal distribution, and vice versa. they are familiar with the purpose and objectives of measurement, measurement protocol and possible From the results, it can be seen that none of the risks of measurement and that they are voluntarily parameters in all three groups do not differ accept the measuring process. significantly from the normal distribution. In all parameters seniors have the highest means values Procedures in relation to the juniors and cadets. For testing the isokinetic muscle strength of the knee flexors and extensors, as well as external and Based on the discriminant analysis (Table 2), all internal rotations of the shoulder joint, the HUMAN variables significantly contribute to the difference NORM isokinetic dynamometer has been used. between the groups, except maximal force of Before each of tests, the device is calibrated for internal rotation of the right arm. In the further each of the participantin accordance with the processing of the data we analyzed only protocol. One person performed both giving parameters that significantly contribute to the instruction to the patients prior to testing and difference between the groups.

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics

Std. Shapiro-Wilk Variable Group Min Max Mean Deviation (Sig.) senior 164 275 212.78 34.535 .790 Right_Ext junior 129 233 182.80 34.473 .583 cadet 91 194 157.75 32.932 .310 senior 161 278 215.78 35.598 .978 Left_Ext junior 130 231 177.70 39.200 .193 cadet 88 172 147.50 27.140 .061 senior 110 182 145.67 22.650 .851 Right_Flx junior 91 141 123.10 14.310 .291 cadet 69 133 105.63 21.686 .796 senior 95 201 143.44 34.271 .832 Left_Flx junior 96 140 122.40 16.105 .071 cadet 54 132 94.25 23.150 .926 senior 33 61 44.89 9.675 .532 Right_Int_Rot junior 24 49 36.70 7.631 .929 cadet 19 47 31.00 9.681 .770 senior 33 66 45.67 10.416 .392 Left_Int_Rot junior 24 52 36.70 7.150 .306 cadet 20 41 26.63 6.760 .058 senior 26 45 35.00 5.937 .913 Right_Ext_Rot junior 22 42 30.30 6.147 .398 cadet 15 41 27.38 7.726 .961 senior 27 47 35.44 6.106 .679 Left_Ext_Rot junior 20 39 28.40 4.926 .329 cadet 14 34 24.12 5.793 .631 Min-minimum; Max-maximum; SD-standard deviation

Table 2. Discriminant analysis limbs, for the variables that significantly contribute to the difference between groups on the basis of Wilks' Variable F df1 df2 Sig. discriminant analysis.From the results it can be Lambda seen that the seniors significantly differ from the Right_Ext .683 5.575 2 24 .010 cadets in all parameters, and the difference is in Left_Ext .593 8.227 2 24 .002 favour of seniors. Seniors and juniors differ in Right_Flx .573 8.934 2 24 .001 Left_Flx .601 7.966 2 24 .002 maximal force of left leg extensors, maximal force Right_Int_Rot .698 5.189 2 24 .013 of right leg flexors, maximal force of internal Left_Int_Rot .518 11.182 2 24 .000 rotation of the left arm and maximal force of Right_Ext_Rot .804 2.931 2 24 .073 external rotation of the left arm. Differences in all Left_Ext_Rot .572 8.962 2 24 .001 parameters was also in favour of seniors. Juniors and cadets differ in maximal force of left leg flexors Table 3. Difference between age categories and maximal force of internal rotation of the left arm, the difference is in favour of juniors. Sig. Variable Group Mean t (2- Discussion tailed) senior/junior 212.78/182.80 1.891 .076 Right_Ext senior/cadet 212.78/157.75 3.351 .004 The aim of this study was to characterize the junior/cadet 182.80/157.75 1.562 .138 muscle strength profile of shoulder and knee and to senior/junior 215.78/177.70 2.207 .041 compare the muscle strength between the different Left_Ext senior/cadet 215.78/147.50 4.401 .001 age groups. The isokinetic strength parameters of junior/cadet 177.70/147.50 1.848 .083 internal and external shoulder rotation and of knee senior/junior 145.67/123.10 2.626 .018 flexion and extension were significantly higher in Right_Flx senior/cadet 145.67/105.63 3.711 .002 junior/cadet 123.10/105.63 2.056 .056 the senior compared junior and cadet group. The senior/junior 143.44/122.40 1.744 .099 importance of extensor muscles (quadriceps Left_Flx senior/cadet 143.44/94.25 3.420 .004 femoris), as well as the knee joint flexors junior/cadet 122.40/94.25 3.043 .008 (hamstrings) and their relative strength for the senior/junior 44.89/36.70 2.060 .055 integrity and stability of the knee joint, which is the Right_Int_Rot senior/cadet 44.89/31.00 2.953 .010 most complex joint in the human body, is well junior/cadet 36.70/31.00 1.399 .181 known (Dibrezzo et al., 1985). Isokinetic testing senior/junior 45.67/36.70 2.208 .041 Left_Int_Rot senior/cadet 45.67/26.63 4.404 .001 gives accurate assessment of the balance of muscle junior/cadet 36.70/26.63 3.042 .008 strength (Grygorowicz et al., 2010). The strength senior/junior 35.44/28.40 2.781 .013 of quadriceps and hamstrings is mainly quantified Left_Ext_Rot senior/cadet 35.44/24.12 3.908 .001 by torque at maximum voluntary isokinetic junior/cadet 28.40/24.12 1.693 .110 contractions, while torque relations used for assessing the asymmetry of limbs and hamstring Table 3 shows the isokinetic torque values of knee strength compared to the strength of the extensor and flexor muscles and external and quadriceps (Willigenburg et al., 2015).The lack of internal shoulder rotator muscles, in concentric strength in the aforementioned muscle groups can muscle action of dominant and non-dominant increase the risk of lower limbs injuries

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(Willigenburg et al., 2015), but can also help than in men. Bilateral differences in torque between preventing these injuries (Grygorowicz et al., the dominant and non-dominant leg during 2010). Differences in terms of the ratio of muscles eccentric flexors contractions were found and there strength between hamstrings and quadriceps was no difference in the relation among athletes engaged in different sports may hamstrings/quadriceps. depend on the chosen sport, competition level or both, while in sports with similar lower limbs However, with the increase of speed the H/R ratio movements and similar levels of competition any increased, too. Zetaruk et al. (2005) studied five difference between those muscle groups may not different martial arts and came to the conclusion arise (Rosene et al., 2001). that only in taekwondo more injuries are recorded than in karate. Previous results have showed a significant correlation between the H/Q ratio and isokinetic Most injuries in both of these martial arts include speed in men, as well as a significant increase in the lower limbs, followed by the upper limbs, head the H/R ratio with increasing speed, from the and neck and the least frequent are injuries of the lowest to the highest compared speed (Hewett et groin and torso. In addition, they found that al., 2007) .In study of Hewett et al. (1999) younger subjects, those under 18 years, are at a isokinetic dynamometer measurements show that much lower risk of injuring compared to adults. male athletes demonstrate significantly greater H Lower risk of less experienced young subject is peak torque values with increasing maturity. explained on the basis of lower body weights and less technical skills. By regular testing during the season, Golik et al. (2011) found muscle imbalances or lack of strength Scattone-Silva et al. (2012) assessed the level of in 38 athletes (of 196 tested). Bilateral differences torque development in the muscles of the knee and between muscle strength in 5% of knee extensors elbow joints in elite karate athletes in order to and 8%of the knee flexors, for tested angular recognise the adaptation to regular training session velocity of 60º/s were discovered while testing at the martial arts and, in addition, they identified mentioned athletes. the muscle torque or the asymmetry could predetermine the injury of the aforementioned Based on the analysis of previous works, Hewett et joints. al. (2008) concluded that there are significant differences in the relative muscle strength of the Results showed no significant difference between quadriceps and hamstrings at increased isokinetic dominant and non-dominant lower limbs in all speeds between men and women. studied variables during flexion or extension of the knee, at different speeds. Values of the ratio Destombe et al. (2006) concluded that the injuries torque/body weight both in the dominant and non- in karate are fairly common, but are usually minor dominant limbs were very similar, as well as muscle (inferior). Injuries occur more often during training recruitment parameters, with differences of less sessions (63 of 83 injuries) than during the than 10% between the limbs. competition (20 of 83 injuries). The head and limbs are the most injuries regions. Long hours of weekly They concluded that practising karate on a daily training sessions and higher rankings are basis does not lead to bilateral asymmetry of the associated with an increased risk of injury, lower limbs which could be associated with an suggesting that prevention is crucial. increased risk of injury. Rosene et al. (2001) found no significant differences in terms of body sides or In the study Birrer & Halbrook (1988), the majority sport, nor the H/Rratio between athletes engaged of injuries (47%) included lower limbs, 27% of the in different sports. upper limbs and 18% of the injuries included the torso. Only 6.4% of injuries involved the head, face A statistically significant difference in the strength and neck. Muscle strength and balance play a key of the dominant leg in relation to the non-dominant role in targeted acute muscle injuries, while one, at angular velocities of 60 and 180˚/s was rehabilitation programme emphasizes exercises for determined in elite Olympic taekwondo athletes strengthening rather based than specific deficits belonging to different weight categories (Hammami until the normalisation of specific isokinetic et al., 2013). parameters (Croisier, 2004). To some extent the current study is limited by the Results of the study conducted by Aagaard et al. sample sizes for each group. However, we wanted (1998) suggest that the hamstring muscles have all subjects to be elite in age groups, in order to the ability to provide significant dynamic joint have comprehensive conclusions about influence of stability in a fast and strong extension of the knee. karate to muscle adaptations after many years of Rezaei et al. (2014) in his study compared the training. Since only elite competitors were tested, characteristics of bilateral strength flexors and the findings could be of importance for both the extensors of the knee joint in healthy men and selection and training design of karate athletes. To women at speeds between 60 and 80°/s. The conclude, the lower and upper limbs’ isokinetic results showed that torque was higher in men than parameters were significantly higher in the senior in women and the H/R ratio was higher in women compared junior and cadet group.

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References

Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E.B., Magnusson, S.P., Larsson, B., & Dyhre-Poulsen, P. (1998). A new concept for isokinetic hamstring: quadriceps muscle strength ratio. Am J SportsMed, 26(2), 231-237. Birrer, R.B., & Halbrook, S.P. (1988). Martial arts injuries. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 16(4), 408-410. Chaabene, H., Hachana, Y., Franchini, E., Mkaouer, B., & Chamari, K. (2012). Physical and Physiological Profile of Elite Karate Athletes. Sports Medicine, 42(10), 829-843. Croisier, J.L. (2004). Muscular imbalance and acute lower extremity muscle injuries in sport. International SportMed Journal, 5(3), 169-176. Destombe, C., Lejeune, L., Guillodo, Y., Roudaut, A., Jousse, S., Devauchelle, V., & Saraux, A. (2006). Incidence and nature of karate injuries. Joint Bone Spine, 73, 182-188. Dibrezzo, R., Gench, B.E., Hinson, M.M., & King, J. (1985). Peak torque values of the knee extensor and flexor muscles of females. J Orthop Sports PhysTher, 7(2), 65-68. Drid, P., Drapsin, M., Trivic, T., Lukač, D., Obadov, S., & Milosevic, Z. (2009). Asymmetry of muscle strength in elite athletes. Biomedical Human Kinetics, 1(1), 3-5. Golik-Peric, D., Drapsin, M., Obradovic, B., & Drid, P. (2011). Short-Term Isokinetic Training Versus Isotonic Training: Effects on Asymmetry in Strength of Thigh Muscles. Journal of Human Kinetics, 30, 29-35. Hammami, N., Zinoubi, B., Hamdi, F, Nauri, A., Moussa Zouita, A.B., & Dziri, K. (2013). Isokinetic profile of knee muscles in olympic elite taekwondo practitioners. Science & Sports, 28(4), 188-195. Herzog, W., Nigg, B.M., Read, L.J., & Olsson, E. (1989). Asymmetries in ground reaction force patterns in normal human gait. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 21(1), 110-114. Hewett, T.E., Myer, G.D., & Zazulak, B.T. (2008). Hamstrings to quadriceps peak torque ratios diverge between sexes with increasing isokinetic angular velocity. J Sci Med Sport, 11(5), 452-459. Hewett, T.E., Lindenfeld, T.N., Riccobene, J.V., et al. (1999). The effect of neuromuscular training on the incidence of knee injury in female athletes: A prospective study. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 27, 699-706. Impellizzeri, F.M., Bizzini, M., Rampinini, E., Cereda, F., & Maffiuletti, N.A. (2008). Reliability of isokinetic strength imbalance ratios measured using the Cybex NORM dynamometer. Clinical physiology and functional imaging, 28(2), 113-119. Jolicoeur, P. (1963). Bilateral symmetry and asymmetry in limb bones of martesamericana and man. Rev Can Biol, 22, 409-432. Kaeding, C.C, & Borchers, J.R. (2014). Hamstring and Quadriceps Injuries in Athletes: A Clinical Guide, New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Mori, S., Ohtani, Y., & Imanaka, K. (2002). Reaction times and anticipatory skills of karate athletes. Human Movement Science, 21(2), 213-230. Rosene, J.M., Fogarty, T.D., & Mahaffey, B.L. (2001). Isokinetic Hamstrings: Quadriceps Ratios in Intercollegiate Athletes. J Athl Train, 36(4), 378-383. Scattone-Silva, R., Lessi, G.C., Lobato, D.F.M., & Serrão, F.V. (2012). Acceleration time, peak torque and time to peak torque in elite karate athletes. Science & Sports, 27(4), 31-37. Siqueira, C.M., Pelegrini, F.R., Fontana, M.F., & Greve, J.M. (2002). Isokinetic dynamometry of knee flexors and extensors: comparative study among non-athletes, jumper athletes and runner athletes. Rev Hosp Clin Fac Med Sao Paulo, 57(1), 19-24. Willigenburg, N.W., McNally, M.P., & Hewett, T.E. (2017). Quadriceps and Hamstrings Strength in Athletes, 15-28, London: Routledge. Zetaruk, M.N., Violan, M.A., Zurakowski, D., & Micheli, L.J. (2005). Injuries in martial arts: a comparison of five styles. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(1), 29-33.

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PROCJENA MIŠIĆNE ČVRSTOĆE GORNJIH I DONJIH EKSTREMITETA KOD VRHUNSKIH MUŠKIH KARATISTA: USPOREDNO ISTRAŽIVANJE IZMEĐU RAZLIČITIH DOBNIH SKUPINA

Sažetak Glavni cilj ovog istraživanja bio je obilježavanje profila mišićne čvrstoće vanjskih i unutarnjih rotatora ramena i savitljivih i ekstenzorskih koljena kod vrhunskih srpskih karatista. Drugi cilj bio je usporediti snagu mišića između loza i kvadricepsa kod karatista različitih dobnih skupina. Uzorak se sastojao od tri skupine karatista. Prva skupina uključivala je seniore (24,1 ± 3,72), druga juniore (17,6 ± 0,84), a treća grupa bila je sastavljena od kadeta (15,85 ± 0,69). U istraživanju su korišteni sljedeći izokinetički parametri: maksimalna snaga ekstenzora desne noge (Left_Express), maksimalna snaga lijeve noge (Right_Flx), maksimalna snaga savijanja lijeve noge (Left_Flx), maksimalna snaga vanjske rotacije desne ruke (Right_Ext_Rot), maksimalna sila vanjske rotacije lijeve ruke (Left_Ext_Rot), maksimalna snaga unutarnje rotacije desne ruke (Right_Int_Rot), maksimalna snaga unutarnje rotacije lijeve ruke (Left_Int_Rot). Na temelju diskriminativne analize, sve varijable značajno pridonose razlikama između skupina, osim maksimalne sile unutarnje rotacije desne ruke. Utvrdili smo da se seniori značajno razlikuju od kadeta u svim parametrima, a razlika je u prilog starijima (p≤0.05). Seniori i juniori razlikuju se u maksimalnoj snazi ekstenzora lijeve noge, maksimalne snage savijanja desne noge, maksimalne sile unutarnje rotacije lijeve ruke i maksimalne sile vanjske rotacije lijeve ruke. Juniori i kadeti se razlikuju u maksimalnoj snazi savijanja lijeve noge i maksimalne snage unutarnje rotacije lijeve ruke, a razlika je u korist juniora. Zaključno, izokinetički parametri donjih i gornjih ekstremiteta bili su znatno veći u odnosu na juniorsku i kadetsku skupinu. Budući da su testirani samo elitni natjecatelji, rezultati bi mogli biti važni i za odabir i oblikovanje karatista.

Ključne riječi: izokinetički, testiranje, selekcija, karate, razlika.

Received: January 03, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Borislav Obradović University of Novi Sad Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Novi Sad, Serbia Tel: +381 21 4852000 E-mail: [email protected]

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BALANCE STATUS OF IRANIAN ADULTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

Bahman Aalizadeh1, Hassan Mohammadzadeh1 and Farzad Nobakht2

1University of Urmia, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport science, Department of Motor Behavior, Iran 2University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Ardabil, Iran

Original scientific paper

Abstract Introduction: Physiological characteristics and motor abilities are influenced by performing physical activities in typical subjects. However, it is not obvious whether individuals with visual impairment are affected significantly by physical contribution. The purpose of this study was to determine the physical and motor status of 20-34 year old male athletes or non-athletes with visual impairment in Iran. Methods: Sixty-four participants with moderate visual impairment were selected randomly and classified in two groups including goal ball athletes (n=31) and non- athletes (n=33). Anthropometric indicators such as body mass index (BMI), mass of body fat (MBF), Soft Lean Mass (SLM), and percent of body fat (PBF) were evaluated by body composition analyzer. Dynamic balance test was measured via a laboratory device. The data were analyzed using independent t test. Results: The participants with athletic background had a lower BMI, MBF, PBF and higher SLM than non-athletes. Furthermore, non-athletes outperformed the athletes in balance test. However, these differences were not significant between the two groups (P<0.05). Discussion: We can conclude that health related physical characteristics of the athletes with visual impairment were better than those of non-athletes, but they revealed a lower motor ability levels than non-athletes. Implications for Practitioners: Individuals even with visual impairment can take advantages with regard to body composition characteristics by being physically involved, but balance ability seems not to be influenced significantly by the sport participation and it needs specific interventions in such a population.

Key words: balance ability, anthropometric indicators, visual impairment.

Introduction

Health-related physical fitness is indicated (Haibach, Lieberman, & Pritchett, 2011; through a variety of factors such as body kkinen et al., 2006; Pereira, 1990; Johnson- weight status, cardiorespiratory fitness, Kramer et al., 1992; Ribadi et al., 1987; musculoskeletal fitness and flexibility that are Wyver, and Livesey, 2003). No relationship related to health indicators in youth (Institute was reported between visual impairment level of Medicine, 2012). Lack of adequate physical and balance performances by Leonard (1969), activity along with obesity in children and where as other researchers indicated a adolescents is a main concern for public health relationship between balance and increased authorities all over the world. Although some residual vision(Haibach et al., 2011; Pereira, strategies have recently been declared so as 1990; Wyver, & Livesey, 2003). It has been to provide this population with a healthier demonstrated that blind individuals perform lifestyle, high prevalence of risk behaviors can better than their typical counterparts wearing still be observed that might cause negative blindfolds indicating that subjects who are effects later in life (Alhassan & Robinson, blind adapt to their condition (Haibach et al., 2010; Bauman, 2004; Nelson, & Gordon- 2011; Johnson-Kramer et al., 1992; Ribadi et Larsen, 2006). Physical disability prevalence al., 1987).However, a better balance as sensory impairment consequences is performance was not reported in blind children expressed in the visual and auditory compared to their blindfolded sighted systems(visual, 2013). Children and peers(kkinen et al., 2006). Sports contribution adolescents with visual impairment possess is highly useful in developing youth’s physical lower contribution in physical activities and mental health, social adjustment, and (Houwen, Hartman, & Visscher, 2009; Aslan, self-confidence (Solish, 2010). However, Calik, &Kitis, 2012). Therefore, some growing evidence of differences in sports investigations have demonstrated that participation exists between typical individuals individuals with visual impairment show lower and people with developmental delay levels of health-related physical fitness below (Hinckson, & Curtis, 2013). Since individuals the mean in contrast to typical subjects with with visual impairment are more obese and similar age (Greguol, & De Rose Junior, 2009; lack optimal fitness compared to their sighted Korach et al., 2000). Furthermore, numerous peers (Hopkins et al., 1987), physical studies focused upon visual impairment level intervention is effective for possessing and balance but revealed mixed results privileges in regard to the quality of life.

100 Aalizadeh, B. et al.: Balance status of Iranian adults with visual impairment Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 100-103

However, it is not obvious whether physical The best value of three attempts was the score of contribution can have any significant effect balance ability test. upon this population based on the impairment of the visual system. Thus, the purpose of this Statistical analysis study was to determine the physical and Descriptive statistics (means and 95% confidence motor status of 20-34 year old male athletes intervals) were performed for all variables. Normal or non-athletes with visual impairment in distribution of all variables was checked using the Ardabil, Iran. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Independent ttest was used to determine the significance difference Methods between the athletes and non-athletes. The level of significance was set at p<0.05. SPSS software was Participants used for data analysis. Seventy-eight male individuals withvisual impairment (mean age: 27.8 years, SD: 3.5) were Results selected randomly from well-being and rehabilitation center of Ardabil, Iran. They were Anthropometric and motor characteristics of divided into two groups of athletes (n=37) and the subjects are presented in Table 1. The non-athletes (n=41). Athletes were active participants with athletic background had a performing goal ball sport for over 2 years, but lower BMI, MBF, PBF and higher SLM than non-athletes would use sedentary life style. non-athletes. Furthermore, non-athletes Participants and their families were entirely outperformedthe athletes in balance test. informed about the study and provided written However, these differences were not consent. The inclusion criteria was (visual acuity of significant between the two groups (P<0.05). 20/70 to 20/400) for male participants in the age range of 20-34 and exclusion criteria included Table 1 Physical and motor characteristics of the musculoskeletal and neuropsychological disorders. study participants

Six and eight participants were excluded as they Non- possessed those problems in athlete and non- Athlete (n=31) athlete (n=33) athlete groups respectively. The flow diagram is Variables depicted based on Consort that is presented in Mean SD Mean figure 1. The study protocol received approval from the ethics committee of the University of Urmiathat Height 1.72 0.06 1.66 0.09 follows tenets of the World Medical Association (m) Declaration of Helsinki on Ethical Principles for Weight 21.2 70.28 8.70 70.61 (kg) 1 Medical Research Involving Human Subjects BMI (http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies 2 23.67 2.63 25.39 7.49 /b3/). (Kg/m ) Body fat # 18.68 5.04 20.70 8.03 (%) Anthropometric indicators Soft Lean 10.7 52.82 5.69 51.56 Evaluation process of participants was conducted Mass (kg) 4 within a two-day period by the same researcher. 110. MBF (kg) 13.31 4.56 15.90 The first day was assigned to anthropometric 2 Dynamic measurement and second day for motor ability test. 10.9 balance 46.45 8.30 49.15 Height (Holtain Ltd., Crymych, Dyfed, UK) as an 5 (s) anthropometric characteristicwas measuredto the Significant difference # p< 0.05 between athletes and nearest 10 mm using the techniques provided by non-athletes Lohmann et al. (1988) and median value of three measures was considered as criterion.Body Mass Discussion and conclusion Index (BMI), Mass of Body Fat (MBF), Soft Lean Mass (SLM), and Percent Body Fat (PBF) were Growing evidence of differences in sports measured while participants would stand participation exists between typical individuals barefootand without clotheson a body composition and individuals with developmental delay.Lack analyzer (Jebb et al., 2000). of adequate physical activity along with obesity in children and adolescents is a main Balance measurement concern for public health authorities all over Motor ability of all participants was assessed after a the world. Thus, the purpose of this study was short period of warm up using a laboratory device to determine the physical and motor status of (Nourshahi et al., 2011). Individuals were asked to 20-34 year old male athletes or non- stand on a moving plate and keep it in a horizontal athleteswith visualimpairment in Ardabil, Iran. position (measuring dynamic balance test). A light To the best of our knowledge, no study has embedded to the device had two colors such as reported physiological and motor green indicating balance and red showing non- discrepancies among such individuals that this balance status. When the plate couldn’t be kept in a is the first study considering those variables. horizontal position, the light was switched to the Both physical activity and sedentary behavior red color indicating lack of balance. are related to health-related quality of life in

101 Aalizadeh, B. et al.: Balance status of Iranian adults with visual impairment Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 100-103 typical and patient individuals (Meneguci et balance of individuals with visual impairments al., 2015; Taricco et al., 2014). Visual relative to a control group (DavarpanahJazi, et system’s malfunction is a restricting factor al., 2012). However, we found relatively lower that limits people to be highly involved scoresof balance test in athletes compared to physically and decrease the quality of life as non-athletes. Thissmall difference might be consequences. People with visual impairment due to the low body composition indicators are more obese and lack optimal fitness including BMI and PBF of the athletes. Indeed, compared to their sighted peers (Hopkins et low center of gravity because of gaining more al., 1987). Therefore, it is not established if weight in non-athletes can help them to athletes with visual impairment can lose control their balance on the plate. Further and weight due to performing goal ball physical even more importantly, though, goal ball sport activities.We found that physical contributions don’t seem to improve balance characteristics such as Body Mass Index directly and participants need to be provided (BMI), Mass of Body Fat (MBF), and Percent of with specific balance interventions so as to Body Fat (PBF) were lower in athletes enhance theirbalance ability and generalize it compared to non-athletes that are consistent to laboratory devices. We can conclude that with Greguol et al. (2014).It shows that even health related physical characteristics of the such a population can take advantages athletes with visual impairment were better participating sport fields. Different researches than those of non-athletes, but they revealeda have reported mixed results about the level of relatively lowermotor ability levels than non- visual impairment and balance performance athletes. Individuals even with visual (Haibach, Lieberman, & Pritchett, 2011; impairment can take advantages with regard kkinen et al., 2006; Pereira, 1990; Johnson- to body composition characteristics by being Kramer et al., 1992; Ribadi, et al., 1987; physically involved, but balance ability seems Wyver, &Livesey, 2003). Findings of a study not to be influenced significantly by the sport also revealed that utilizing balance-training participation and it needs specific program significantly improved the dynamic interventions in such a population.

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Meneguci, J., Sasaki, J.E., Santos, A., Scatena, L.M., & Damião, R. (2015). Sitting Time and Quality of Life in Older Adults: A Population Based Study. Journal of physical activity & health.‏ 12(11), 1513-1519. Nourshahi, M., Abdoli, B., Rajaeian, A.R., Rahmani, H., Zahedi, H., Arefirad, T., & Kaviyani, M. (2011). Effects of Mountaineering on Physical Fitness and Quality of Life in Aged People. World Journal of Sport Sciences, 5(3), 149-157.‏ Nelson, M.C., & Gordon-Larsen, P. (2006). Physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns are associated with selected adolescent health risk behaviors. Pediatrics, 117(4), 1281-1290.‏ Pate, R., Oria, M., & Pillsbury, L. (2012). Fitness measures and health outcomes in youth. New York: National Academies Press.‏ Pereira, L. M. (1990). Spatial concepts and balance performance: Motor learning in blind and visually impaired children. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 94, 563-573. Ribadi, H., Rider, R.A., & Toole, T. (1987). A Comparison of Static and Dynamic Balance in Congenitally Blind, Sighted, and Sighted Blindfolded Adolescents. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 4(3).‏ Solish, A., Perry, A., & Minnes, P. (2010). Participation of children with and without disabilities in social, recreational and leisure activities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 23(3), 226-236.‏ Taricco, M., Dallolio, L., Calugi, S., Rucci, P., Fugazzaro, S., Stuart, M., Gaudenzi, N., et al. (2014). Impact of Adapted Physical Activity and Therapeutic Patient Education on Functioning and Quality of Life in Patients WithPostacute Strokes. Neurorehabilitation and neural repair, 1(1). Wyver, S.R., & Livesey, D.J. (2003). Kinaesthetic sensitivity and motor skills of school-aged children with a congenital visual impairment. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 21(1), 25-31. *** Visual impairment and blindness [Internet site]. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en ‏

STATUS RAVNOTEŽE IRANSKIH ODRASLIH OSOBA S OŠTEĆENJEM VIDA

Sažetak Uvod: Fiziološke karakteristike i motoričke sposobnosti utječu na obavljanje fizičkih aktivnosti u tipičnim subjektima. Međutim, nije očito jesu li osobe s oštećenjem vida znatno pogođene fizičkim doprinosom. Svrha ovog istraživanja bila je utvrditi fizičko i motoričko stanje 20-34 godina starih muških sportaša ili ne-sportaša s oštećenjem vida u Iranu. Metode: Šezdeset četiri sudionika s umjerenim oštećenjem vida slučajno su odabrani i klasificirani u dvije skupine, uključujući golne kugle (n = 31) i ne-sportaše (n = 33). Antropometrijski pokazatelji kao što su indeks tjelesne mase (BMI), masu tjelesne masti (MBF), mekanu masu (SLM) i postotak tjelesne masti (PBF) procijenili su analizator sastava tijela. Test dinamičke ravnoteže mjeren je laboratorijskim uređajem.Podaci su analizirani neovisnim t testom. Rezultati: Sudionici s atletskom pozadinom imali su niži BMI, MBF, PBF i veći SLM od ne-sportaša. Nadalje, ne-sportaši su nadvladali sportaše u testu ravnoteže. Međutim, te razlike nisu bile značajne između dvije skupine (P <0,05). Rasprava: Može se zaključiti da su fizikalna svojstva sportaša s oštećenjem vida bolja od onih kod sportaša, ali su otkrili nižu razinu motoričke sposobnosti od onih koji nisu sportaši. Implikacije za praktičare: Pojedinci čak i sa oštećenjem vida mogu imati prednosti s obzirom na karakteristike sastav tijela fizičkim uključenjem, ali činjenica da ravnotežna sposobnost ne utječe znatno na sudjelovanje u sportu i da je potrebna posebna intervencija u takvoj populaciji.

Ključne riječi: sposobnost ravnoteže, antropometrijski pokazatelji, oštećenje vida.

Received: January 18, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Bahman Aalizadeh University of Urmia, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport science, Department of Motor Behavior, Iran Tel.: +98 0914 351 7553, E-mail: [email protected]

103 Lovrić, M. et al.: Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 104-109

RELATIONS OF SELF-TESTIMONIES ABOUT SWIMMING SKILLS WITH THE ACTUAL SITUATION IN THE POOL

Mario Lovrić1 and Mislav Papec2

1Ivan Goran Kovačić Elementary school, Vinkovci, Croatia 2Graphics school in Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Original scientific paper

Abstract The sample consists of 264 pupils from two primary schools in -Srijem County, of which 144 are pupils from elementary school M. Reljković Cerna and 120 students from elementary school Ivana Brlić Mažuranić Rokovci-Andrijaševci. The pupils originally completed a questionnaire on self-assessment of swimming knowledge according to Špehar, Gošnik and Fučkar-Reichel (2010) consisting of 12 multiple choice answers of 1 to 5 (I do not know, weak, medium, good, very good) level of swimming knowledge. The second part of the research was conducted at the Lenije swimming hall in Vinkovci, within the swimming school in the "Learn to swim" project. Pool testing was conducted in a way that the knowledge of swimming was evaluated by three kinesiologists, who based the basics of adopting swimming knowledge (Grčić- Zubčević, 1998) determined the initial condition in the pool. Multiple regression analysis established a high, statistically significant degree of correlation between the methods of assessment of swimming knowledge, and accordingly we conclude that the children in this sample well assessed their knowledge of swimming.

Key words: elementary school students, swimming knowledge, self-evaluation, multiple regression analysis.

Introduction

Swimming is an activity that is part of cyclic cardiovascular system, the respiratory system, the monostructural sports activities (Milanović, 2013), child's posture, or the harmonious growth and with equal movements of hands or pendulum that development of the child. Swim or swim training in follow a balanced footwork. Swimming knowledge the pre-puberty increases static and dynamic can be classified into the same important category volume of the lips, improving the connection and as walking, running or jumping. Of particular condition of the big and small airways, and shows importance is the importance of swimming in that swimming training at this time stimulates lung dangerous situations where our knowledge of growth, in line with the development of air passage swimming can save life. Also, good swimming and alveolar pulmonary spaces (Cuurteix, Sur., knowledge can save another life if needed. In 1997). Besides contributing to improved childhood addition to the mentioned body, there are a development, swimming can affect the body's number of positive factors affecting the versatile posture if a disease such as scoliosis, lordosis, or and harmonious development of man, and it can be obesity occurs. Since modern-day children are said that swimming knowledge for modern man is growing dominantly with computers and modern directly in the function of his training and technology, thus neglecting movement and activity, preparation for life and work in modern society more frequent and early problems caused by (Findak, 2002). Swimming is a fundamentally and hypokinesia that reflect poor childhood, impaired utilitatively an important motor skill that is carried bone structure, and increased subcutaneous fat out in a special medium - leads, which, by its tissue. In order to avoid or reduce the negative characteristics (density, viscosity, buoyancy, consequences of swimming, significant preventive- hydrostatic pressure and thermodynamics), corrective and therapeutic influences on the provides sports, recreational and rehabilitative organism of the young child can be achieved activities for infants, children, adults and third- (Topuzov, 1999). Using water-based activities generation persons. To raise awareness and to improves body shape and develops strength, present the benefits of the media and to carry out coordination, volume of movement, and muscular possible activities therein, today and in the future and cardiovascular endurance (Broach and Datillo, will represent the sports, health, education and 1996). If the child passes the swimming school and cultural resources of society. History is the teacher successfully overcame, the possibility of unwanted of life, so it is necessary to remember the old situations and injuries is minimal. Since swimming Greeks, who compared the knowledge of swimming takes place in the water medium, the joints on the with literacy, so they said that the ignorant "can joints are reduced, so bone damage is almost not read or swim". Also, there are many health impossible. Also, swimming knowledge provides benefits. Swimming has great and irreplaceable safety for the child, raises the level of confidence influence on the development of the child, which is and satisfaction (Rogers, Hemmeter, Wolery, manifested in the morphological, functional, 2010). With the earliest youth, swimming and psychological, biomotor and intellectual playing in the water are an indispensable activity development of the young organism (Tošić, 2009). for children to entertain. In order for a child to fit in Some of them have a positive effect on the with other children in such a game, one has to

104 Lovrić, M. et al.: Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 104-109 know how to swim or unfortunately make it swim to or negative attitude toward oneself. The Rosenberg be accepted by others. Often such behaviors lead to Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) is based on the self- themselves and other children in danger of assessment and assessment of global self-esteem, drowning. Therefore, the primary goal should be to e.g. a general evaluation of self-esteem. This refers teach the child to be safe in the water. Children to the degree of conviction of a person to his / her learn most about the game and therefore use and own abilities, their own success, importance or use the game in swimming lessons (Nada Grčić- value (Grolnick and Beiswenger, 2006, according to Zubčević, 2003). Swimming knowledge is also Burić, Macuka, Sorić and Vulić-Prtorić, 2008). essential in all other water activities that are People who have high self-esteem are respectful of carried out either as a sport, recreation or prices, are considered worthy and have a positive kinesitherapy that will be used by the child both at opinion about themselves. an early age and through life. As stated above, the primary goal of non-lubricant training at younger On the other hand, people with low self-esteem are age is safety in the water medium. The secondary often not accepted, often underestimated and have goals emphasize the health benefits of swimming in negative opinions about themselves. Therefore, the middle and senior age. It is well known that a man problem of this research is to establish the wants to live long and high quality so swimming is correlation of self-knowledge about swimming an excellent "tool" that a modern man can raise the knowledge with the objective condition in the pool. quality of life. The aim of this research is to determine whether there is any correlation in the results of self-study Problem and aim on swimming knowledge with the assessment of pool knowledge by three experts. The correlation At present, the Republic of Croatia does not was tested by a five-step scale of swimming pool undertake compulsory training of non-swimmers in knowledge according to Grčić-Zubčević (1998) and elementary schools, which is a major problem due a self-assessment of swimming knowledge to the fact that many children are unable to attend according to Špehar, Gošnik and Fučkar-Reichel private tuition lessons. Present are some of the (2010) composed of 12 multiple choice answers of projects related to training of non-swimmers 1 to 5 students Subjectively evaluate the level of carried out in larger areas of the Republic of swimming knowledge. Croatia, but this is by no means sufficient to allow all children to pass the training of the undamaged Methods and thus reduce the possibility of unwanted situations. Data collection The first part of the research was conducted in the There are 46% of non-swimming children in the classroom. Swabian assessment questionnaire, second grade of primary school (Jusup Dodig, constructed by Špehar, Gošnik and Fučkar-Reichel, 2012) in Međimurje by initial check-up of the third 2010, was used. The questionnaire was filled by the grade of elementary school school year 2011/2012. students with the help of physical and health 80% of students can not cross 25 feet (Horvat, education teachers who are familiar with the way 2012). Studies in the city of Split have shown that the questionnaire is completed. The questionnaire pupils from the second to fourth grade of primary consisted of 12 multiple choice answers of 1 to 5 (I school show a better knowledge of swimming do not know, weak, medium, good, very good), where it is shown that 33% of the pupils where students evaluate the level of swimming (Kuzmanić, 2013). The Red Cross Society of Osijek knowledge subjectively. Participation in the in 2003 conducted a survey on a sample of 10500 research was voluntary and anonymous. The third grade children in 186 elementary schools in second part of the research was carried out at the Slavonia and Baranja. The results of the survey Lenije Swimming Pool in Vinkovci, within the were devastating. About 60% of children of that swimming school in the "Learn to Swim" project. age are non-swollen. However, in order to obtain Pool testing was conducted in a way that the more specific data, it is necessary to analyze the knowledge of swimming was evaluated by three results of self-survey of the surveyed students and kinesiologists, who based the basics of adopting to conduct initial tests at the gym. Given that swimming knowledge (Grčić-Zubčević, 1998) students evaluate their swimming significance determined the initial condition in the pool. Initial through the survey, the question arises as to how evaluation took place at the first lesson training valid this assessment is. course. Based on the demonstrated knowledge of swimming, students are divided into five categories The concept of self-efficacy in his model of according to defined criteria: unsuitable, floating, evaluation was introduced by Canadian floating, floating beginner and swimmer. psychologist Albert Bandura, which means assessing his / her own abilities to successfully Sample of respondents perform different tasks or behaviors. Bandura The survey was conducted on a suitable sample of (1997) determines self-efficacy as an individual's 264 students of two Vukovar-Srijem County assessment of their own ability to organize and primary schools. The sample of respondents in this execute certain actions needed to achieve the study consisted of Ivana Brlić Mažuranić Rokovci- desired outcomes. Rosenberg (1965, according to Andrijaševci elementary school students and Matija Bezinović, 1988) defines self-esteem as a positive Antun Reljković from Cerna.

105 Lovrić, M. et al.: Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 104-109

The sample consisted of pupils from the 5th to the objects from the floor, swimming front crawl, 8th grade of elementary school. 264 students, 144 backstroke and butterfly stroke. The criterion primary school students M.A. Reljković Cerna and variable is a table with ratings of the swimming 120 elementary school students from Ivana Brlić knowledge of swimming ranging from 1 to 5. The Mažuranić Rokovci-Andrijaševci were interviewed described five-step scale criteria: unsuitable, buoy, and tested. semi-diver, swimmer beginner and swimmer.

Sample variables Methods of data processing The prediction set of variables is defined as 12 The data processing was made using the software content claims that describe the subjective package 10.0. The first step in data processing was assessment of swimming knowledge. Credits are the classical rendering of basic statistical variables associated with five-grade grades, from grade 1 to distribution parameters. For all variables, the know to grade 5 very well. The following 12 standard central (arithmetic mean, AS) and statements on swimming knowledge were dispersion parameters (standard deviation, SD, evaluated: floating, keeping the eyes open under range, RAS, minimum, MIN, maximum, MAX, the water, swimming in deep water, jumping to the skewness, SKEW and kurtosis, KURT) are feet and head, moving from a horizontal position to calculated. To establish the correlation of one scale a vertical one and vice versa, diving, diving for with the other, a regression analysis was used.

Results and discussion

Table 1. Frequency (n) and percentage of response grouped according to subjective estimation of swiming knowledge with claims 1 to 12.

Evaluation Self-estimation of swimming skills FREQ./ (questionnaire) % 1 2 3 4 5 UNKNOWN POOR MEDIUM GOOD EXCELLENT n 3 16 120 67 58 1. I can float (calmly lie on the surface). % 1,03 6,09 45,45 25,37 21,96 n 6 31 89 80 58 2. I can keep my eyes open under water. % 2,29 11,74 33,71 30,30 21,96 n 21 105 36 60 42 3. I can swim in deep water. % 7,95 39,77 13,63 22,73 15,90 n 53 82 38 76 15 4. I can jump on my feet. % 20,07 31,06 14,39 28,78 5,68 n 53 82 84 30 15 5. I can jump on my head. % 20,07 31,06 31,81 11,36 5,68 I know how to move from a horizontal n 8 58 99 47 52 6. to a vertical position and vice versa. % 3,03 21,96 37,50 17,80 19,69 n 3 6 68 81 106 7. I can dive. % 1,15 2,27 25,75 30,68 40,15 n 12 10 69 112 61 8. I can dive for objects on the bottom. % 4,56 3,78 26,13 42,42 23,10 n 9 48 111 89 7 9. I can swim breaststroke. % 3,42 18,18 42,04 33,71 2,65 n 99 30 52 68 15 10. I can swim front crawl. % 37,50 11,36 19,71 25,75 5,68 n 152 22 22 39 29 11. I can swim backstroke. % 57,57 8,33 8,33 14,79 10,98 n 196 16 31 14 7 12. I can swim butterfly stroke. % 74,24 6,06 11,75 5,30 2,65

Legend: n - entities; %- percentage

Table 2. Distribution (n) and percentage of total population of students in Ivana-Brlić Mažuranić Elementary School and M. A. Reljković Elementary School in 2016, grouped according to the degree of acceptance of swimming knowledge.

Swimming knowledge Mark N % acquisition

1. Not adapted/unsuitable 1 108 40,90

2. Floater/buoy 2 87 32,95

3. Semi-swimmer 3 53 20,07

4. Swimmer beginner 4 8 3,04

5. Swimmer 5 8 3,04 Legend: n- entities; %- percentage

106 Lovrić, M. et al.: Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 104-109

Table 3. Arithmetic mean (AS), standard deviation (SD), frequency (n) for the questionnaire according to the degree of acceptance of swimming knowledge.

Statistical parameters SELF-ESTIMATION OF SWIMMING SKILLS (QUESTIONNAIRE) AND EVALUATION OF SWIMMING KNOWLEDGE IN THE WATER n AS SD

1. I can float (calmly lie on the surface). 264 3,64 0,89

2. I can keep my eyes open under water. 264 3,64 0,96

3. I can swim in deep water. 264 2,95 1,27

4. I can jump on my feet. 264 2,68 1,24

5. I can jump on my head. 264 2,57 1,15 I can move from a horizontal to a vertical position 6. 264 3,29 1,10 and vice versa. 7. I can dive. 264 4,07 0,88

8. I can dive for objects on the bottom. 264 4,04 0,75

9. I can swim breaststroke. 264 3,14 0,85

10. I can swim front crawl. 264 2,50 1,36

11. I can swim backstroke. 264 2,13 1,49

12. I can swim butterfly stroke. 264 1,56 1,05

Evaluation of swimming knowledge in the water 264 1,95 1,01

Table 4. Beta coefficients and their significance self-assessment of their own estimation of the adoption of swim knowledge and real state in the water.

Statistical parameters SWIMMING KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION ß T p 1. I can float (calmly lie on the surface). 0,17 2,35 0,0114*

2. I can keep my eyes open under water. -0,07 -1,02 0,0192

3. I can swim in deep water. 0,30 3.65 0,0321*

4. I can jump on my feet. 1,05 5,37 0,0000*

5. I can jump on my head. -0,07 -0,40 0,6856 I know how to move from a horizontal to a vertical position and vice 6. -0,26 -2,54 0,0115* versa. 7. I can dive. 0,11 1,43 0,1517

8. I can dive for objects on the bottom. -0,43 -7,80 0,0000*

9. I can swim breaststroke. 0,28 5,37 0,0000*

10. I can swim front crawl. 0,13 1,42 0,1566

11. I can swim backstroke. -0,25 -2,69 0,007*

12. I can swim butterfly stroke. -0,22 -2,44 0,0150*

Evaluation of swimming knowledge in the water 0,71 2,55 0,0115

R= 0.81; p<0.00000*

Legend: ß- standardized regression coefficient; T-coefficient of significance; P- percentage; R-degree of correlation.

Table 1 shows the percentage of subjective to be poorly adopted. Multiple regression analysis responses of students who have assessed their (Table 4) established a high, statistically significant swimming knowledge. Table 3 calculates the (p <0.05) degree of correlation (R = 0.81; p = arithmetic mean and the standard deviation of 0.0000) between two methods of assessing the subjective and objectively estimated swim swim knowledge of the students tested in the knowledge. We can conclude that students evaluate school year 2015/16. From the β coefficients value, simple floating tasks well, while more demanding statistically significant correlation contribution elements and swimming techniques are estimated varies with 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11 and 12 we can

107 Lovrić, M. et al.: Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 104-109 conclude that the children in this sample correctly Given the results that are somewhat different than assessed their knowledge of swimming. Based on expected, it can be assumed that the influence of the obtained results, an alternative hypothesis is last year's non-swimmer training, which was accepted which shows that there is a statistically attended by a large number of respondents who significant correlation between the results in the also participated in the study, influenced a better self-study of the student with the actual swimming assessment of swimming knowledge. However, pool condition. In Table 2, the students were many years of practical work in non-lubricant grouped according to an objective assessment of training and the results of many authors confirm swimming knowledge in the pool and were that an objective assessment of water status can classified into five groups according to the criteria not replace self-pollination as a survey. for adopting swimming knowledge. From the table it is evident that the highest percentage of pupils is The estimate of the swimmers' knowledge of an classified into the initial two categories: unsuitable educated kinesiologist is much more objective. The 40.9% and buoy 32.95%. respondent within one grade must meet more criteria, while in the self-assessment (interview) Conclusion the respondent in the given statement only evaluates one criterion in a subjective manner. The results of this research have shown that Therefore, self-knowledge about swimming students of elementary schools Ivana Brlić knowledge through the survey can help us to form Mažuranić Rokovci-Andrijaševci and Matija Antun a "rough" and superficial image of the swim Reljković from Cerna well rated their knowledge of knowledge of a particular population. For a swimming. Multiple regression analysis established "deeper" analysis of swimming knowledge the a high degree of correlation between the two survey is not enough and it is necessary to use the methods of assessing swiming knowledge. swim swimming assessment of swimmers.

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108 Lovrić, M. et al.: Relations of self-testimonies about swimming skills with... Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 104-109

Špehar, N., Gošnik, J., & Fučkar Reichel, K. (2010). Subjektivna procjena znanja plivanja studentske populacije. [Subjective evaluation of the student population swimming knowledge. In Croatian.]. Zagreb: Croatian Association of Sports Recreation. Tošić, S. (2010). Utjecaj fleksibilnosti na rezultate u plivanju. Neobjavljen magistarski rad. [Influence of flexibility on swimming results. Unpublished Master's thesis. In Croatian.]. Niš: Faculty of Sport and P.E. Topuzov, I. (1999). Classification of the sports depending on the oxidative stress. Bulgaria: National Sports Academy Vassil Levski.

POVEZANOST SAMOISKAZA O ZNANJU PLIVANJA SA STVARNIM STANJEM U BAZENU

Sažetak Uzorak ispitanika čini 264 učenika dviju osnovnih škola Vukovarsko-srijemske županije, od čega su 144 učenika iz osnovne škole M. A. Reljković Cerna te 120 učenika iz osnovne škole Ivane Brlić Mažuranić Rokovci-Andrijaševci. Učenici su prvotno ispunjavali upitnik o samoprocjeni plivačkog znanja prema Špehar, Gošnik i Fučkar-Reichel (2010) koji se sastoji od 12 tvrdnji s višestrukim izborom odgovora od 1 do 5 (ne znam, slabo, osrednje, dobro, izrazito dobro) kojima učenici subjektivno procjenjuju razinu znanja plivanja.Drugi dio istraživanja proveden je na vinkovačkom dvoranskom plivalištu „Lenije“, u sklopu škole plivanja u projektu „Naučimo plivati“. Testiranje u bazenu je provedeno na način da su znanje plivanja ocjenjivala tri kineziologa, koji su na temelju ljestvice usvojenosti znanja plivanja (Grčić-Zubčević, 1998.) utvrdili inicijalno stanje u bazenu. Višestrukom regresijskom analizom utvrđen je visok, statistički značajan stupanj korelacije između dvije metode procjene plivačkog znanja pa sukladno tomemožemo zaključiti da su djeca u navedenom uzorku dobro procijenila svoje znanje plivanja.

Ključne riječi: učenici osnovne škole, samoiskaz, stvarno znanje plivanja, višestruka regresijska analiza.

Received: January 03, 2017 Accepted: March 20, 2017 Correspondence to: Mario Lovrić Ivan Goran Kovačić Elementary school, Vinkovci, Croatia Tel: 032 332 390 E-mail: [email protected]

109 Guidelines for authors Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 110-111

GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS

Aim & Scope Language Acta Kinesiologica - International Scientific English with Croatian abstracts. Journal of Kinesiology is published twice a year containing review and scientific Article types (sometimes professional and preliminary Article can be one of the following: communication) articles in all wide areas of 1. Professional paper – usually known topics kinesiology (human movement science). In and thematic expressed in new manner, addition, articles can be published from or in new field of application, other scientific areas if do satisfy higher 2. Preliminary scientific communication – degree of correspondence with kinesiology. new ideas but without strict proof through research, General publishing policy 3. Original scientific paper – complete Each submitted article first passes through project, from idea, through research to evaluation according to journal intentions, suggestions, editing (preparations), format, and general 4. Review paper – mostly conceptual satisfaction. If satisfies those criteria, will be approach based on several projects and sent as blind (without information about literature/researches comparison. authors) to anonyms referees. Authors take all responsibility for article contents and References ethics. Journal can ask special statement Journal uses APA reference citation (egg. from authors about originality of research as Publication Manual of the American well as statement that article is not Psychological Association, 5th edition, published or sent to any other publication. 2001). Literature may contain only the Author's rights remain, but journal can freely authors cited in the text. We accept articles dispose with article in sense of reprint or in electronic form exclusively (e-mail, CD, other types of publication distributions. disc). Authors have right for one printed copy of journal and further copies by 50 % of full Address for articles submission price. All other questions stand in order with Acta Kinesiologica – Physical Education standard law presumptions in society. Pedagogues Association, Ljubuški to: Article preparation Editor-in-Chief: Assoc. Prof. Žarko Bilić, PhD, It is recommended that the structure of 88320 Ljubuški, Put za crveni grm, Bosnia & article include Abstract, Introduction, Herzegovina, e-mail: [email protected], Problem and aim, Methods, Results, or to: Discussion and conclusions, References. This Executive editor: Assoc.Prof.Dobromir recommendation is not a firm obligation for Bonacin, PhD, 21212 K.Sućurac, F.Tuđmana authors but helps a way for publishing and 113,Croatia,e-mail: further ideas understanding. Articles are not [email protected], restricted in amount, but if article contains or to: more than 7 journal pages the author can be Assistant Editor: Danijela Bonacin, MSc, informed about additional payment for 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, printing costs. Expected size is 12000 Croatia, e-mail: [email protected] characters without tables and figures (exceptionally 14000). All tables should be Note standardized (e.g. Excel) and photos and Articles that do not satisfy requirements will other illustrations made in format that allows be immediately return to corresponding good printing result (600 dpi). Journal takes author for corrections. rights to manage illustration for printing preparation, and author will be informed by Other e-mail. Additional information can be viewed at address: http://www.actakin.com/. Issue Payment price: 15 Euro, Overseas: 30 Euro + postal We do not charge our authors, but they can fee. Journal copyright and distribution send reasonable donation (up to max 200 Eu according to law. per article). Acta Kinesiologica ®: All rights app.

110 Upute za autore Acta Kinesiologica 11 (2017) Issue 1: 110-111

UPUTE AUTORIMA PRILOGA

Namjera i svrha časopisa Jezik priloga Acta Kinesiologica – međunarodni znanstveni Engleski uz sažetke na hrvatskom. časopis iz područja kineziologije, publicira se dva puta godišnje i objavljuje pregledne i Vrste članaka izvorne znanstvene članke (ponekad Članci mogu biti kako slijedi: prethodna priopćenja i stručne priloge) iz 1. Stručni članak – obično poznata tematika područja kineziologije u svim širim ali izražena na neki novi način ili u novom kineziološkim utilitetima, kao i priloge iz području primjene, drugih područja i disciplina, ako imaju visok 2. Prethodno znanstveno priopćenje – nova stupanj korespondencije s kineziologijom. ideja ali izražena bez striktnih dokaza kroz istraživanje, Opće odredbe o prilozima 3. Izvorni znanstveni članak – kompletan Svaki prilog se vrednuje u odnosu na to projekt, od zamisli, preko istraživanja do odgovara li prilog intenciji časopisa, a zatim prijedloga, se upućuje na recenzije. Autori sami snose 4. Pregledni rad – uglavnom konceptualni odgovornost za sadržaj, kao i etičnost svega pristup utemeljen na više projekata ili što je u prilogu. Od autora se može zatražiti usporedbe referenci/istraživanja. posebna izjava da članak nije objavljen u drugoj publikaciji, kao I izjava o etičnosti Navodi referenci eventualno izvršenog istraživanja. Sport Navodi literature, kao i drugi oblici Sceince, u skladu sa zakonom, ne ugrožava formatiranja teksta, bit će prihvaćeni po APA autorska prava autora objavljenih priloga, ali standardu (npr. Publication Manual of the zadržava pravo distribucije u suglasju s American Psychological Association, 5th pravnim uzusima i bez dodatne konzultacije edition, 2001). Prilog se šalje isključivo u s autorima, s čim su autori objavom elektronskom obliku (e-mail, CD, disk,...). suglasni. Autori imaju pravo na jedan besplatni primjerak tiskanog časopisa. Adrese za dostavu priloga Dodatne primjerke plaćaju sa 50 % popusta Acta Kinesiologica – Društvo Pedagoga po primjerku. Sva ostala pitanja rješavaju se Tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, Ljubuški u skladu s propisima općenito u društvu. za:

Glavni urednik Prof. Žarko Bilić, PhD, 88320 Priprema priloga Ljubuški, Put za crveni grm, Bosnia & Preporuča se da se autori pridržavaju forme Herzegovina, e-mail: [email protected], koja uključuje: Sažetak, Uvod, Problem i cilj, ili za:

Metode, Rezultati, Rasprava i zaključak, Izvršni urednik: Prof.dr.Dobromir Bonacin, Literatura, Abstract. Ova preporuka nije 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, kruto pravilo i nipošto ne obvezuje autore Croatia, e-mail: [email protected], priloga, ali olakšava put do publiciranja i ili za: kasnijeg lakšeg razumijevanja materije. Prilozi nisu ograničeni veličinom, ali ukoliko Pomoćni urednik: Danijela Bonacin, MSc, prelaze 7 stranica u časopisu, od autora 21212 Kaštel Sućurac, dr.F.Tuđmana 113, Croatia, e-mail: [email protected] može biti zatraženo da sami osiguraju dodatna sredstva za tisak. Očekivana veličina je 12000 znakova bez tablica i slika (iznimno Napomena 14000). Sve tablice trebaju biti standardne Prilozi koji ne ispunjavaju uvjete ili je (npr. MS Excel), a ilustracije u formatu i potrebna dodatna konzultacija, bit će žurno rezoluciji koja osigurava kvalitetan tisak (600 vraćeni autoru na korekcije. dpi). Časopis zadržava pravo radi pripreme za tisak dodatno urediti svaku ilustraciju, o Ostalo Dodatne informacije mogu se dobiti na čemu se konzultira ili informira autora e- mailom. adresi:http://www.actakin.com/. Cijena po primjerku: 15 Eura. Cijena za inozemstvo: -distribucija Plaćanje 30 Eura+poštarina. Umnožavanje u skladu sa zakonom. Časopis ne naplaćuje svojim autorima, ali oni mogu uplatiti jednu razumnu donaciju (do Acta Kinesiologica najviše 200 Eura po članku). ®: Sva prava pridržana.

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