The English Influence On

Philippa Maurer-Stroh

THE ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON MODERN FRENCH, GERMAN AND ITALIAN – a comparative lexicographical study based on Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch, Le Nouveau Petit Robert and lo Zingarelli

DIPLOMARBEIT zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Magistra der Philosophie

Studium: Anglistik und Amerikanistik mit der individuellen Fächerkombination "Angewandte Romanistik"

Universität Klagenfurt Fakultät für Kulturwissenschaften

Begutachter: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Allan R. James Institut: Anglistik und Amerikanistik

Klagenfurt, Dezember 2001

EHRENWÖRTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG

Ich erkläre ehrenwörtlich, dass ich die vorliegende Schrift verfasst und alle ihr vorausgehenden oder sie begleitenden Arbeiten durchgeführt habe. Die in der Schrift verwendete Literatur sowie das Ausmaß der mir im gesamten Arbeitsvorgang gewährten Unterstützung sind ausnahmslos angegeben. Die Schrift ist noch keiner anderen Prüfungsbehörde vorgelegt worden.

Klagenfurt, 19.Dezember 2001

THE ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON MODERN FRENCH, GERMAN AND ITALIAN – a comparative lexicographical study based on Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch, Le Nouveau Petit Robert and lo Zingarelli

Diploma thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Magistra philosophiae at the Institute for English and American Studies at the University of Klagenfurt

supervisor: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Allan R. James

by Philippa Maurer-Stroh

Klagenfurt, December 2001 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Univ.-Prof. Dr. Allan James for supervising this thesis. Furthermore, I wish to express my being deeply grateful to him for introducing me to the topic of (English) linguistics. His enthusiasm concerning this topic and the highly comprehensive explanations in his lectures brought me to, finally, know what I am aiming at in professional life. Attending his lectures, I have learned to love ‘linguistic signs’, analyse them, interpret them, put them in relation.

I would also like to thank Chris Upward and Fred Swartz for making relevant newspaper articles available on the Internet, all the people responding to my questionnaires and Martine Vitteau and Julius Wallner for providing me the answers to the two missing French questionnaires.

Further acknowledgements go to my close friends for supporting me, each of them in her/his own special way. Especially, I would like to thank Ingrid Fernandez de Retana for constructive criticism and useful discussions as to the final reading of this paper.

Finally, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my family. My parents, for providing me the opportunity to make my studies. Dad, for keeping me in a good mood when I was just to throw away the word lists, Mum for lending me her new notebook and for her ever presence when computer problems occurred, Grandma for causing some diversion with her parrot, Sebastian for his support not only concerning layout of a diploma thesis and Johannes for his being my contact to important topics other than studies.

PREFACE

“The definition of an Anglicism, in all its parameters, is itself an issue that anticipates in microcosm virtually every important element of the vast debate that will unfold in the pages of this volume.”

(Michel Piccone, 1996)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface 1 Table of contents 2 Abbreviations 6 1. Introduction 7 1.1. The influence of the English language on other languages 9 1.1.1. The English influence on French, German and Italian 10 1.1.1.1. Langue versus parole 10 1.2. Procedure 11 1.3. The fundamental definition 12 2. The Corpus 13 2.1. An introduction to lexicography 13 2.1.1. How a word finds its way into a dictionary 16 2.2. Presentation of the dictionaries 17 2.2.1. The Concise Oxford Dictionary 18 2.2.2. Le Nouveau Petit Robert 21 2.2.3. Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch 23 2.2.4. lo Zingarelli 26 2.2.5. Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua italiana 29 2.2.6. Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen 30 2.2.7. Les mots anglais du franíais 31 2.3. Assembling the corpus data 32 2.3.1. Search criteria 32 2.3.2. Problems with the results 34 3. Terminology and status of linguistic borrowing 36 3.1. Linguistic borrowing from foreign languages – models of reference 37 3.1.1. Maurizio Dardano 37 3.1.2. Karin Viereck 38 3.1.3. Wolfgang Viereck 40 3.1.4. Mirosłav Jabłoński 42 3.1.5. Ulrich Busse 43 3.1.6. A new approach towards loan terminology 44 3

3.2. The model of reference for this paper 45 3.2.1. Linguistic borrowing from English in French, German and Italian 46 4. English Internationalisms 54 4.1. Authentic English Internationalisms 54 4.1.1. List of authentic English Internationalisms 55 4.1.2. Pseudo-Anglicisms as English Internationalisms 57 4.1.3. General monolingual dictionaries versus special dictionaries of foreign words 61 4.1.4. English Internationalisms, their linguistic properties and the role they play in the replica languages 63 4.1.4.1. Graphology and orthography 64 4.1.4.2. Phonetics and phonology 65 4.1.4.2.1. Vowels and diphthongs 67 4.1.4.2.2. Consonants 69 4.1.4.3. Morphology and syntax 70 4.1.4.3.1. Parts of speech 71 4.1.4.3.2. Gender 72 4.1.4.3.3. Plural marking 75 4.1.4.3.4. Other syntactic indications 76 4.1.4.4. Semantics and stylistics 77 4.1.4.4.1. English Internationalisms on the semantic level 77 4.1.4.4.1.1. Semantic narrowing 79 4.1.4.4.1.2. Semantic extension 79 4.1.4.4.1.3. Semantic shift 80 4.1.4.4.2. English Internationalisms on the stylistic level 81 4.1.4.5. Authentic English Internationalisms – assimilated forms causing ambiguity 82 4.2. Assimilated Internationalisms 83 4.2.1. Assimilation according to the rules of grapheme-phoneme relation and representation 83 4.2.2. Assimilation on the morphological level 85 4.2.2.1. Verbs 85 4.2.2.2. Nouns 86 4.3. Prospects 87 4

5. Attitudes towards English influence and the use of Anglicisms 89 5.1. Questionnaires 89 5.1.1. Procedure 91 5.1.2. Results 94 5.1.2.1. French 94 5.1.2.2. German 99 5.1.2.3. Italian 103 5.1.2.4. Comparison 107 5.1.3. The ‘Top Ten‘ of Anglicisms in the examined languages 112 5.2. Projects in progress against the use of Anglicisms 115 5.2.1. La Loi Toubon 115 5.2.2. ‘Verein deutsche Sprache‘ and ‘Wiener Sprachblätter‘ 117 5.2.3. Italian projects 118 6. Conclusion 119 7. Bibliography 123

Appendices 128 A. E-mail correspondence as to Le Nouveau Petit Robert and Duden 129 a. Latest version of LNPR 129 b. Problems with Duden- Die deutsche Rechtschreibung 129 B. Corpus lists 132 a. Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch 132 b. Le Nouveau Petit Robert 145 c. lo Zingarelli 157 C. English words according to Microsoft spell check 169 a. Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch 169 b. Le Nouveau Petit Robert 177 c. lo Zingarelli 183 D. Direct lexical borrowings – English Internationalisms in DDUWB, LNPR, LOZ, LMADF, PS, WBÜA 190 E. Direct lexical borrowings in LMADF, PS and WBÜA 194 F. Phonetic transcription 196 G. Questionnaires 201 a. French 202 5

(1) Questionnaire 202 (2) Survey results 203 (3) Examples of Anglicisms 204 b. German 205 (1) Questionnaire 205 (2) Survey results 206 (3) Examples of Anglicisms 207 c. Italian 208 (1) Questionnaire 208 (2) Survey results 209 (3) Examples of Anglicisms 210

ABBREVIATIONS

COD The Concise Oxford Dictionary DDUWB Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch LMADF Les mots anglais du français LNPR Le Nouveau Petit Robert LOZ lo Zingarelli PS Le parole straniere nella lingua italiana WBÜA Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen

1. INTRODUCTION

In its easiness of grammatical construction, in its paucity of inflection, in its almost total disregard of the distinctions of gender excepting those of nature, in the simplicity and precision of its terminations and auxiliary verbs, not less than the majesty, vigour and copiousness of its expression, our mother tongue seems well adapted by organization to become the language of the world.

(a reviewer of the British periodical The Athenaeum, 1848)1

Beyond doubt, this prophecy proves to be true, as English, in fact, has become the global language in these days.

So, what makes a global language? Is it simple grammatical structure? Certainly not. According to David Crystal, ‘the world authority on English language’, the fact that English is the global language has little to do with structure or its number of speakers, but

“It is much more to do with who those speakers are. Latin became an international language throughout the Roman Empire, but this was not because the Romans were more numerous than the people subjugated. They were simply more powerful. And later, when Roman military power declined, Latin remained for a millennium as the international language of education, thanks to a different sort of power – the ecclesiastical power of the Roman Catholicism. There is the closest link between language dominance and cultural power, and this relationship will become increasingly clear as the history of English is told […]. Without a string power-base, whether political, military or economic, no language can make progress as an international medium of communication. Language has no independent existence, living in some sort of mystical space apart from the people who speak it. Language exists only in the brains and mouths […] of its users. When they succeed, their language succeeds. When they fail, their language fails.”2

In other words, the fact that English, nowadays, has become the global language is mainly due to the dominance of the English speaking world throughout recent history. Starting to spread in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution from Great Britain to rest of the world, the English language, or more accurately its influence, first appeared around 1750 in other European countries. The interest in England, then, was not only due to economic reasons, but also (mainly) to socio-cultural reasons, with other nations just favouring English style, opinions, fashions and games.

1 Crystal, English as a global language, p. 6 2 Crystal, English as a global language, p. 5 8

Soon, the English language set out on a new triumphant progress, now, originating in the United States – since, by the end of the 19th century, America had overtaken Britain in its economic power.

With the invention of the steamship and the railway in the early 19th century and the spread of communication systems (telegraph and telephone) in the latter half of the century, people started to get in contact with each other – even over a long distance. The urge for a common means of communication for the first time became apparent – and it was only natural to give English this status.

Likewise, in the 20th century, the English language continued to hold a prominent position in the field of communication, and, in course of time, due to the ever increasing power of the US and new technologies, “the language has penetrated deeply into the international domains of political life, business, safety […], entertainment, the media and education. The convenience of having a lingua franca available to serve global human relations and needs has come to be appreciated by millions. Several domains […] have come to be totally dependent on it – the computer software industry being the prime example.”3

To have a lingua franca, thus, provides mankind with the possibility of interacting on the international level – and this is why it is primarily English that is taught as a second language in various nations4.

In recent time, however, it is not the English language in its complexity as a language system getting the upper hand in global communication / education that gives rise to ongoing discussions, it is primarily the English language as a source language to widespread linguistic borrowings that causes linguistic uproar. Yet, linguistic borrowing from foreign languages is but one phenomenon of how the lexicon of a language develops (as will be dealt with later on).

3 Crystal, English as a global language, p. 25 4 David Crystal states in English as a global language that, world-wide, a total of 337 million represent those who have learned English as a first language compared to 235 million who have learned English as a second language. 9

1.1. The influence of the English language on other languages

Linguistic borrowing is, perhaps, the most obvious result of language contact. Due to nowadays’ permanent exposure to English, it is only natural that languages will adopt some expressions.

Daniel K. Sokol5 gives the reasons:

• “Lexical borrowing is today the result of the international socio-economic exchange. Science, sport and technology, the media and so many other activities to which men are devoted to, are the determining factors of lexical borrowing.”

• “Many linguists […] believe in the self-explanatory ‘law of least effort’ which, in this case, would claim that […] speakers favor anglicisms because the words are concise, take little time to pronounce and are consequently better adapted to today’s hectic lifestyle.”

• “Borrowings occur through an impossibility to find an equivalent in one’s language […]”.

• “We use them, too, even when the analogies exist, for team or group spirit and to indicate its special and technical character, particularly to the group, which, in our minds, we would lose by using a word from everyday language […]”

• “One uses them out of snobbery […] and one uses them out of laziness. English today is more fashionable than ever […], especially among the young, and this has resulted in a great proliferation of English words.”

• “One of the main ways English words are adopted by the public is by the press. […] the language of journalists and advertising agents is indeed strongly marked by anglicisms […] they simply introduce the English word as it is, either for a touch of ‘couleur local’ or simply because they like neologisms, wish to be up-to-date and couldn’t care less about the norm.”

• “English’s prominence on the Internet (95% of the Internet pages are in English) will no doubt cause a sharp increase in borrowed words.”

• “Television is undoubtedly the most effective language proliferator. […] The link between English and trendiness/modernity can be traced, amongst other things, to the very high number of English and American films and soaps on the screens. […] Television’s direct and indirect effects can also be applied to radio and pop music.”

With regards to purist tendencies, it is interesting to note that, although English has become the most generous donor of words to other languages, the English language once

5 Sokol, Lingua non grata, http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/August2000/art242000.htm 10 was one of the most hospitable languages of the world as to its acceptance of foreign loans.6

1.1.1. The English influence on French, German and Italian

For the purpose of this paper, I will try to analyse the influence of the English language on modern French, German and Italian. I will, however refrain from drawing up statistical studies on the occurrence of English words in native press, as this field has been comprehensively covered7.

What I want to do is to go even further – I will not take into consideration ephemeral words or ‘trendy’ ad-hoc formations in the media, but I will base my analysis on dictionary entries, meaning, on words that have been judged worth being mentioned in a general monolingual dictionary8: A foreign word having found its way into a (native) general reference book, in my consideration, is the best proof of evidence for lexical influence, if not to say lexical integration.

1.1.1.1. Langue versus parole

In this paper, I am, thus, not dealing with Saussure’s parole (the concrete utterances of a speaker as to sociolinguistic backgrounds, pragmatics, stylistics, etc.), but I will demonstrate how the English language influences modern French, German and Italian on the langue level, namely concerning the language system itself – that is to say that this paper, for the most part, will not include actual language usage, but will be based on findings following lexicographical principles.

6 cf. Filipovic, English as a word donor, http://www.intellectbooks.com/europa/number5/hart.html 7 see: Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen; Viereck K., Influence of English on Austrian German; Supanz, Anglizismen in der italienischen Presse; Fink, Von "Kuh-Look" bis "Fit for Fun" 8 For the purpose of this paper I will refer to Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch for the German speaking world, to Le Nouveau Petit Robert for the French speaking world and Lo Zingarelli for the Italian speaking world. 11

“Wörterbücher werden nicht gemacht, um jeweilige Ausschnitte der Sprachwirklichkeit zu erfassen, sondern vielmehr dazu, dass sie dann, wenn sie benutzt werden, hilfreich dazu beitragen können, den jeweiligen Sprachwirklichkeitszustand eines Benutzers-in-actu anhand einer Suchanfrage in einen anderen zu überführen. [...] Das Gesamt der lexikographischen Methoden ist geradezu daraufhin angelegt, die Sprachwirklichkeit nicht ins Wörterbuch zu lassen, sondern ein sortiertes und portioniertes Wissen über Sprachen und deren Gebrauch zu präsentieren, ein Datenangebot, das den erfolgreichen Benutzer in die Lage versetzt, die Möglichkeit seines Verstehens und Sprechens zu verbessern und damit die von ihm erlebte Sprachwirklichkeit punktuell zu verändern.“9

1.2. Procedure

First of all, I will deal with the corpus of this study and will give a brief introduction to the principles of lexicography along with the presentation of my reference material (Chapter 2 – The Corpus).

Subsequently, I will try to untangle confusion as to loan terminology, comparing different approaches to linguistic borrowing and by providing a new model of my own (Chapter 3 – Terminology and status of linguistic borrowing).

Chapter 4 – English Internationalisms is dedicated to the primary object of this paper. Within this section I will compare my corpus lists as to equivalent word forms in French, German and Italian.

Judging from my findings, English Internationalisms have to be divided into genuine English Internationalisms and assimilated forms of Internationalisms. I will, thus, deal with these two forms separately.

The first subsection on English Internationalisms deals, first of all, with varying spelling and pronunciation. Secondly, I will demonstrate how genuine English Internationalisms take on grammatical gender in the three replica languages in question. Subsequently, I will point out major differences at the semantic level and go into some detail as to the use of English words on the stylistic level.

9 Wiegand, Fremdwörterbücher und Sprachwirklichkeit, p. 73 12

Assimilated Internationalisms, on the other hand, will be dealt with as to their linguistic level of integration: sound-symbol realisation and morphology.

The last chapter of this thesis, Chapter 5 – Attitudes towards English influence and the use of Anglicisms, quite in contrast to my remarks in 1.1.1.1. (langue versus parole), will be primarily based on parole studies.

I sent questionnaires to speakers10 of French, German and Italian covering the following questions:

1. When do non-native speakers of English in the examined language communities most probably use English words a. orally / in writing? b. in working life / in everyday life ? 2. Why do people in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds use Anglicisms? 3. Are people aware of using so-called loan blends, hybrid forms with one English element and one of the native language? 4. What are the speakers’ attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms with respect to their mother tongue? Where do they think the influence comes from? Do they still notice English words in actual language usage? Are there cases of a provocative use of Anglicisms to be observed? 5. Where do people most frequently notice the use of English words?

As a second step within this chapter I will demonstrate corrective efforts being made against the English influence and discuss projects that are now in progress against Anglicisms.

1.3. The fundamental definition

Essential to this thesis (and to any other thesis on Anglicisms) is, undoubtedly, the definition of the expression ‘Anglicism’. For the purpose of this paper I will define Anglicisms, according to Michel Piccone, as: “any borrowing from English that constitutes a new word”11. Hence, in this paper, I will not differentiate between Americanisms and Briticisms.

10 This summer (2001), I decided to subscribe to French, German and Italian news groups in the Internet in order to get some e-mail addresses to which I sent my questionnaires translated into the respective languages. 11 Piccone, Anglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French, p. 3 13

2. THE CORPUS

As already mentioned in the introductory notes, my analysis of the English influence on the French, German and Italian speaking worlds will be primarily based on the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries of French, German and Italian: Le Nouveau Petit Robert, Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch and lo Zingarelli.

Within this section I will, therefore, start with a brief overview of the principles of lexicography. As a second step, I will present each of the general dictionaries in detail. Subsequently, I will give some information concerning special dictionaries of foreign words. Concluding this chapter, I will demonstrate my procedure in finding the lists of words that, then, act as the corpus for this thesis.

2.1. An Introduction to lexicography

“Lexicography is often defined as ‘compiling dictionaries’, which first and foremost lays stress on the product, i.e. dictionaries. However, it is perfectly possible to work on lexicography without actually writing dictionaries […]. It would therefore be more correct to define lexicography in the following way: Lexicography is a branch of applied linguistics which consists in observing, collecting, selecting, and describing units from the stock of words and word combinations in one or more languages. In cases where two or more languages are involved simultaneously, the description takes on the nature of a comparison between the vocabularies of the languages in question.”12

It is the last two sentences of this quotation that exactly describe the primary object of this paper. In the following chapters I will analyse and compare special ‘units of the stock of words’ in the French, German and Italian language, namely the units being labelled as Anglicisms (what exactly the term Anglicism stands for will be discussed in the subsequent chapter on terminology). The basis for my study will be the linguistic units provided by a French, a German and an Italian monolingual dictionary.

How are these linguistic units presented in a (monolingual) dictionary?

12 Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 1 14

• As to Svensén13, a dictionary, firstly, describes the formal characteristics of a word (how the word is spelt, how it is pronounced, how it is inflected and how this word forms derivatives or compounds).

• Secondly, dictionaries present the semantic characteristics of words (what a word means).

• Thirdly, the combinational characteristics of a word are demonstrated (how the word combines with other words, how this word is to be employed in a text).

• In addition to these linguistic statements, dictionaries also provide information on pragmatics and stylistics.

These four levels of a word’s description found in a dictionary (format, meaning, construction patterns and style) are called the ‘microstructure’ of a dictionary. The microstructure, thus, represents the format each single entry in a dictionary reveals. However, it does not only concern the four parts an entry consists of, but also involves typographical (type-size and type-face) conventions throughout the whole dictionary, as well the use of abbreviations, punctuation and symbols. I will deal with microstructure in more detail when presenting the dictionaries I consulted for this paper.

With the microstructure to be referred to as the structure and format of each entry, the macrostructure of a dictionary means “the relative arrangement of the dictionary entries”14. Macrostructure, thus, comprises questions such as methods of arranging the words.

For the most part, dictionary entries are arranged by their spelling and in alphabetical order. Svensén refers this type of dictionary as a dictionary in semasiological format – in contrast to onomasiological formats (words with shared semantic features are grouped together, e.g. Thesauri) and syntagmatic dictionaries, where the focus lies on the combinational aspects of the words (e.g. valency dictionaries)15.

13 Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 3 – 4 14 Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 223 15 cf. Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 17 15

The alphabetical arrangement of words can either be word-by-word or letter-by-letter, as Svensén demonstrates with the following example16:

word-by-word letter-by-letter

pass pass pass away passage pass for pass away pass off passenger pass out pass for pass up passion passage passive passenger pass off passion pass out passive passport passport pass up password password

Other matters the macrostructure of a dictionary deals with are whether one entry constitutes one paragraph or whether there is more than one entry per paragraph. The below example17 shows (1) a one-entry-per-paragraph-arrangement and (2) an arrangement that puts more than one entry in a paragraph:

(1) Zwischengericht n entrée [course] Zwischengeschoß n mezzanine [floor] Zwischengröße f intermediate size Zwischenhandel m intermediate trade

(2) Zwischengericht n entrée [course] Zwi- schengeschoß n mezzanine [floor] Zwi- schengröße f intermediate size Zwischen- handel m intermediate trade

Before turning to the question of what the criteria are for a word to find its way into a dictionary, let me just quote Svensén on the fact that lexicographers ‘have a really hard job’:

16 Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 224 17 taken from Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 224 16

“It is not only the information needs of different categories of user that are of importance. An equally important factor is their ability to find and make use of the information given. Here the lexicographer is forced into a difficult balancing act. On the one hand, the dictionary must contain as much information as possible without becoming unnecessarily bulky; on the other hand, this information must not be so compressed that the intended user will not be able to utilize it. […] He has to find the right entry word […]. […] When the right entry word is found, the user also has to find the right section within the entry, and within that section the material is grouped in a certain order and presented according to certain conventions […]. In order to help users with this, more or less detailed ‘instructions for use’ are given at the beginning of a dictionary, where these conventions are more or less clearly explained. Hartmann […] observed the discouraging fact that introductory explanations are very seldom consulted and that users rarely take the trouble to learn the various codes, symbols, and abbreviations used in dictionaries […]”18

2.1.1. How a word finds its way into a dictionary

Before the actual process of collection and selection of material, a number of decisions as regards the size and aim of the dictionary must be taken. Furthermore, a dictionary must be authentic, meaning it must include only such linguistic signs that actually exist. In order to prove this, the lexicographers have to find evidence for the words in several sources, written and spoken. In addition, the editors of a dictionary have to prove the representativeness of a word, that is to say the word must occur often enough, with a certain frequency, in a language19.

It is for these reasons that you do not find ephemeral words or ad-hoc formations in a dictionary. Both are phenomena that I would claim as typical for today’s hectic life: one might feel ‘up-to-date’ when using fashionable words (that will ‘pass away’ only after a few months to be replaced by another fashionable expression) or one creates a new word only for a moment, a particular situation, out of laziness and not wanting to search for a more appropriate word.

Generally speaking, big publishing houses, such as Dictionnaires Le Robert, Dudenredaktion, Klett, Langenscheidt, Larousse, Centro Lessicografico Sansoni, Zanichelli, etc., each have their own linguistic index cards providing information about the sources where the words have been found, in which context, number of occurrences, etc. And it was in the 1980s that “computer applications began to a alter the methods and

18 Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 16 19 cf. Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 40 – 42 17 potential of lexicography”20. Gone are now the days of manual sorting and transcribing, with vast lexical databases (continuously updated)21 that also provide special search modes enabling users to ask special questions, such as ‘show all words with English etymology’.

2.2. Presentation of the dictionaries

Dictionaries come in all shapes (printed in book format, electronic on CD-ROM, etc.) and sizes (from pocket dictionaries with about 10,000 entries to special dictionaries for advanced linguistic studies that cover more than 60,000 entries), they can be monolingual or bilingual, arranged in a semasiological, onomasiological or syntagmatic format (see definitions above) and dictionaries can be general or restricted (specialised dictionaries of dialects, slang, neologisms, professional jargon, foreign words, etc.)

Thus, the requirements the dictionaries I use for this thesis have to meet are:

• general • monolingual • hugest possible coverage (more than 60,000 entries) • electronic version (for easy to access searching in many ways) • latest version

The basis of analysis for this paper will be the following prevailing general monolingual dictionaries:

In the French speaking world:

- 60,000 entries - 300,000 meanings

20 Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 111 21 The hugest and most interesting to use lexical database (in German) I found in the internet is COSMAS at http://corpora.ids-mannheim.de/~cosmas/ 18

In the German speaking world:

- 140,000 entries

In the Italian speaking world:

• lo Zingarelli 1998 in CD-ROM (LOZ), © Zanichelli editore S.p.A. – Bologna. © I.CO.GE: Informatica S.r.l. - Trento

- 134,000 entries

My English reference is:

• The Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD), 9th Edition. CD-ROM version of Oxford’s best selling dictionary, © Oxford University Press 1997 – 99, © Software: TEXTware A/S. Licensed to the Focus Multimedia Limited

I also consulted these special dictionaries of foreign words (see Chapter 4: English Internationalisms):

• De Mauro, Tullio / Mancini, Marco : Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua italiana. Milano: Garzanti Linguistica, divisione di Utnet S.p.A. 2001 (PS) • Pogarell, Reiner / Schröder, Markus [ed.]: Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen. 2., erweiterte Auflage, Paderborn: IFB-Verlag 2000 (WBÜA) • Tournier, Jean: Les mots anglais du franíais. Paris : Éditions Belin 1998 (LMADF)

2.2.1. The Concise Oxford Dictionary

The COD is a semasiological general monolingual dictionary that organises its entries in alphabetical order, by means of the letter-by-letter principle:

19 new New Age New Age music new arrival new birth new born new broom Newcastle disease newcomer new deal newel Newfoundland

In addition, the COD mentions only one entry per paragraph. new /nju:/ adj. & adv. adj. 1 a of recent origin or arrival. b made, invented, discovered, acquired, or experienced recently or now for the first time (a new star; has many new ideas). 2 in original condition; not worn or used. 3 a renewed or reformed (a new life; the new order). b reinvigorated (felt like a new person). 4 different from a recent previous one (has a new job). 5 in addition to others already existing (have you been to the new supermarket?). 6 (often foll. by to) unfamiliar or strange (a new sensation; the idea was new to me). 7 (often foll. by at) (of a person) inexperienced, unaccustomed (to doing something) (am new at this business). 8 (usu. prec. by the) often derog. a later, modern (the new morality). b newfangled. c recently affected by social change (the new rich). 9 (often prec. by the) advanced in method or theory (the new formula). 10 (in place names) discovered or founded later than and named after (New York; New Zealand). adv. (usu. in comb.) 1 newly, recently (new-found; new-baked). 2 anew, afresh. a new one (often foll. by on) colloq. an account or idea not previously encountered (by a person). newish adj. newness n. [Old English niwe, from Germanic]

There are, however, derivatives that are mentioned in the same paragraph (newish, newness) and that would break the letter-by-letter order – as these two words do not have a special headword entry.

The COD’s electronic version reveals the following microstructure:

When you first load the dictionary you are presented with the main window. This is divided into two main areas. On the right is the entry window: this is where the dictionary's entries are displayed. On the left is the word wheel: all the headwords in the dictionary are listed here22 (double-click on the word you want to have displayed). Above the word wheel is an input box. This is where you type the words you want to look up.23

Headwords, in COD, are typed in bold, each meaning of these is given a separate subsection (each subsection headed by an Arabic number).

Attached to the headwords, the COD provides their pronunciation (according to the IPA alphabet – with RP accent) and information on word class (in italics)24.

22 Note that the entry window on this picture does not display all COD’s entries, but only entries that show the word performance. 23 based on the HELP options found in COD 24 Plural marking is only explicitly mentioned when irregular. 21

The paraphrasing and definition section in the entries shows the following typographical principles:

• Information on combinational principles are presented in round brackets and in italics: (attrib.) or with the word to be combined in italics: (usu.foll. by of). They precede the definitions and paraphrases (in contrast to examples given – that follow the definitions). • Information as to the level of style is typed in italics: colloq. • Information on subject fields are shown in round bracket and normal type-face: (of a duty etc.) • Examples are usually put in round brackets and typed in italics: (made such a performance about leaving).

Following the definitions section the COD usually gives evidence of the words’ etymology: new … [Old English niwe, from Germanic]

Interesting with the COD is that you can double-click every single word in the entry text to get its definition as a headword (this function more or less replaces cross-reference in a book-shaped dictionary).

2.2.2. Le Nouveau Petit Robert

The Nouveau Petit Robert fulfils all of my above requirements – even if I only have the 1997 version, it is the latest electronic one to have been published (see appendix A).

As on the level of macrostructure, the entries in LNPR are arranged in alphabetical order. They are organised by the letter-by-letter principle as can be seen below: névrotique new-look newsmagazine newton newtonien, ienne nez ni

LNPR principally mentions one entry per paragraph, only disrupting this method by cross- references (which are highlighted, but do not attract more attention than do the headwords): after-shave [aftZYGDv] n. m. inv. • 1959; mot angl. ♦ Anglic. Produit que les hommes appliquent sur leur visage après s'être rasés. ⇒ après-rasage. Flacon d'after- shave. Des after-shave. —Adj. inv. Lotion after-shave.

In the following I will outline the microstructure of the LNPR’s electronic version.

The right hand window shows all the headwords listed in LNPR (alphabetical, letter-by- letter), with the left hand window to display the entries. Above the list of headwords is an input box to type in words for a simple search modus.

The headwords in LNPR are presented in bold, presented in a serif typeface. They are followed by the pronunciation (IPA symbols)25 and the information on parts of speech in sans-serif typeface.

Before displaying the (different) meaning(s) of a word, LNPR provides information on the word’s etymology, preceded by the • symbol (in contrast to the COD it also states the date the word has entered the French lexicon and – in brackets – the date the word first appeared in the host language)

If an expression has a general style or subject field label, this is shown by ♦ going before the definition section26. The semantic subsections are each preceded by an Arabic number and ♦. Next are placed subject field, register and style labels (typed in sans-serif).

Following the definitions and paraphrases, (synonymic) cross references are indicated by ⇒, with the (underlined) word in bold. Subsequently, examples of how to use the word are typed in italics (usually, these examples also include information on plural marking).

LNPR on CD-ROM also provides the possibility to just double-click a word in an entry text to get its meaning.

2.2.3. Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch

Actually, before choosing Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch as my German reference, I wanted to use Duden – Die neue deutsche Rechtschreibung. However, my findings in consulting the dictionary were not all satisfactory (see appendix A).

The DDUWB acts as one of the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries (along with the above stated Duden – Die neue deutsche Rechtschreibung). It is layouted in semasiological format and alphabetises its entries letter-by-letter:

25 following the rules of British English pronunciation 26 It is interesting to note that LNPR gives 776 out of 60,000 entries the ‘Anglicism’ label. 24

Newcomer New Delhi New Hampshire New Jersey New Look New Mexico New Orleans New-Orleans-Jazz News Newsgroup Newsletter Newton

Again, DDUWB also states one entry per paragraph, just giving evidence of derivatives or compound forms within the entry:

Af|ter|shave ['—:¶¥ŸÉ•©∂], das; -[s], -s, Af|ter- Shave-Lo|tion, (auch:) Af|ter|shave|lo|tion ['—:¶¥ŸÉ•Í∂'¨ØäÉŸÆ], die; -, -s [engl. after shave = nach der Rasur]: nach der Rasur zu verwendendes Gesichtswasser.

The DDUWB’s electronic version looks like this:

Corresponding to COD and LNPR, the electronic version of the Duden –Deutsches Universalwörterbuch also presents two windows – the window listing the entries on the left side (here again the window does not show all entries, but the ones that are labelled as having English etymologies) and the window displaying the actual entry on the right side. Above these two windows you see the input field for words you want to have looked up.

On the level of microstructure, the DDUWB reveals the following organisation:

Headwords are typed in bold and attached is their spelling in IPA format27 (the vast majority is British English based) and information on word class. However, the actual naming of part of speech does not follow common rules of lexicography, i.e. just classifying the words under n (noun), v (verb), adj (adjective) , adv (adverb), interj (interjection), etc.

The DDUWB only explicitly classifies words that are not nouns as to their corresponding part of speech with < > :

se|xy ['∫¤´≥©, auch: '≥¤´≥©] [engl. sexy, zu: sex, Sex] (ugs.): sexuell attraktiv od. zu einer entsprechenden Wirkung verhelfend: s. Wäsche; sie, er ist, wirkt s.; ich finde sie, ihn s.

lif|ten [zu engl. to lift, 1Lift]: 1. a) (Med.) durch 2Lift heben, straffen: die Gesichtshaut, den Busen l.; b) (ugs.) jmdn. einem 2Lift unterziehen: sich l. lassen. 2. a) (bes. Technik) in die Höhe heben, wuchten: die Behälter ans Tageslicht l.; b) (Jargon) anheben, erhöhen: die Preise l. hipp, hipp, hur|ra! [zu engl. hip, gebraucht zur Einleitung von Hochrufen u. Trinksprüchen, H. u., u. hurra]: Ruf, mit dem man jmdn., etw. feiert, jmdn. hochleben lässt.

Nouns are treated as to their attributed grammatical gender and case, giving their nominative singular definite article, followed by the inflexion of the genitive case and the plural marking.

27 This exclusively applies for difficult-to-pronounce-words. 28 sw. V. meaning ’schwaches Verb’, inflecting along the stem + -ete / (haben) ge + stem + –et) pattern 26

Particular to the DDUWB are the hints provided for word division, represented by the symbol | in the headword.

Information on etymology is shown in square brackets using the terminology of Carstensen/Busse (to English … , from English …, etc.) – which I will deal with in more detail in the next chapter concerning loan terminology.

Definitions in DDUWB are typed in italics, with examples of use attached in normal typeface.

Style level, subject field and register labels are put into round brackets:

Bro|ker ['¢≤Øä´Ÿ], der; -s, - [engl. broker, eigtl.ÿ= Weinhändler < anglofranzösisch. brocour, H.ÿu.] (Börsenw.): Effektenhändler. ea|sy ['i:zi] [engl.] (ugs.) leicht, locker: alles e., Leute! (es gibt keine Probleme, keinen Grund zur Aufregung).

The electronic version of DDUWB also has the function to just double-click any word to display its meaning (as have COD and LNPR)

2.2.4. lo Zingarelli

Lo Zingarelli, quite in contrast to the other dictionaries of my reference, although also semasiologically formatted and alphabetically arranged, uses the word-by-word principle29: new new age new deal new entry New Jersey new look

29 The word-by-word principle works on the electronic version. What the printed version looks like I cannot tell, but I assume both versions to be equivalent. 27 new wave news newsletter newsmagazine newton newtoniano newyorkese

As to the distribution of entries per paragraph, LOZ also makes use of the one-entry-per- paragraph-method – with derivatives to interrupt this pattern:

pesca (1) o (lett., dial.) persica [lat. persica, nt. pl. di persicum ‘pesca’, propr. ‘(frutto) della Persia’, da Persia ‘Persia’] A s. f. 1 Frutto del pesco | Pesca noce, V. nocepesca | Pesca (alla) Melba, pesca sciroppata servita su un gelato alla vaniglia, con guarnizione di salsa di lamponi, panna montata e pezzetti di mandorle (dal n. della soprano australiana N. Melba (1861- 1931) cui il grande cuoco A. Escoffier (1847- 1935) la dedicò) | Volere la pesca monda, (fig.) volere i frutti di q.c. senza faticare per ottenerli. 2 (tosc.) Lividura di percosse | Percossa che lascia il segno. 3 (fig., fam.) Occhiaia, borsa sotto gli occhi: la ragazza così gracile, così pallidina, con quelle pesche sotto gli occhi (VERGA). B in funzione di agg. inv. · (posposto al s.) Che ha il colore del frutto omonimo | Rosa pesca, rosa lievemente aranciato. || peschetta, dim. | peschina, dim. | pescuccia, dim.

The COD’s electronic version’s microstructure shows headwords in sans-serif typeface – which is unusual compared to the other dictionaries I refer to.

Attached to the headword is, along lexicographical principles, the pronunciation. As to words borrowed from another language, lo Zingarelli not only presents the (assimilated) Italian pronunciation of a loan/foreign word, but also states the original pronunciation. In the case of English being the host language of linguistic borrowing it is only the Zingarelli which exclusively shows American English (AE) pronunciation:

28 charter AE (in LOZ) /»tÉh—:¢tŸ¢/ British English (BE) (in COD) /»tÉ—:tŸ/ pole position AE (in LOZ) / phoäJpŸÃzÍÉn/ BE (in COD) /»pŸälÃpŸ»zÍÉ(Ÿ)n/ scanner AE (in LOZ) /»skënŸ¢/ BE (in COD) /»skanŸ/

The microstructure of the electronic version of LOZ reveals the following:

Contrary to my other reference dictionaries, the LOZ does not state part of speech information right after the headword / its pronunciation, but only classifies the headwords as belonging to a word class after the etymological information. The part of speech marking, in LOZ, also includes the marking of plural inflexion.

Subsequently, the meanings(s) of the word are given (organised by Arabic numbers).

Within the entries, subject field, style and register labelling is presented in italics put into round brackets: (est.), (ling.)

Examples of the use of the headwords are given in italic typeface after the definition.

2.2.5. Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua italiana (PS)

This specialised dictionary of foreign words not only mentions English words in the Italian lexicon but also words of Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Hindi, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish origin (just to mention a few examples).

PS is semasiologically formatted and arranged alphabetically, following the letter-by-letter principle. To have access to foreign words organised as to their host language, the PS provides source language indices in its back matter (technical term used in Svénsen30).

Notes from the editor say that 4,320 entry words are of English origin (compared to a full coverage of 10,650 headwords), which would give a total of 41%.31

Concerning the microstructure of PS, headwords are typed in bold, followed by their IPA spelling in its assimilated Italian form and their syllable division.

Etymology is presented in square brackets – providing the original English pronunciation, the ways of derivation and the date of first occurrence in Italian.

Meaning(s) are subdivided by Arabic numbers, followed by examples in italics.

management /ma»nadíment/ (ma-na-ge- TS and CO label subject fields: ment) s.m.inv. TS ammin.az. [1973; ingl. tecnico-specialisto and comune management /»mënÍdímŸnt/ pl. managements, der. di (to) manage ‘dirigere, ammin.az represents a further amminstrare] 1 l’insieme delle attività register division: relative alla direzione e alla gestione di amministrazione aziendale un’azienda o di un’organizzazione pubblica estens. marks semantic o privata 2 CO estens., l l’insieme dei extension dirigenti dell’azienda stessa: decisioni prese dal. m.

30 cf. Svénsen, Practical Lexicography, p. 234 31 Compare this figure to words of French origin (1669 entry words = 16%) and words with German origin (328 headwords = 3.1%). 30

2.2.6. Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen (WBÜA)

The Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen is freely available in the Internet32 and provides an excellent reference corpus – as an alphabetical list of English-German equivalents. However, it lacks any kind of lexicographical microstructure.

The WBÜA lists about 3,500 Anglicisms that are (as subjectively judged by the editors) superfluous as to the German vocabulary.

Although lacking microstructure (with the exception of: notes from the editors in italics), the WBÜA does have a macrostructure (semasiological and letter-by-letter arranged). It is, however, although claimed to be a German monolingual reference, primarily layouted as a bilingual dictionary, providing equivalents to the headwords: listing Auflistung lite AE für → light little klein, kurz, wenig live1 leben, wohnen live2 zeitgleich, direkt, unmittelbar, vor Ort, persönlich, vor allen in Medien, auch in : live-act Auftritt Livesendung Direkt- übertragung Denglisch load laden, Beladung lob Überkopfball

Ulrich Busse, one of the authors of the German reference on Anglicisms33 (Carstensen, Broder / Busse, Ulrich: Anglizismen-Wörterbuch – Der Einfluß des Englischen auf den deutschen Wortschatz nach 1945. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter 1993), remarks on the WBÜA34:

“Die Herausgeber geben an, den Kern der Anglizismen im Deutschen erfasst zu haben, indem sie Wörter aus allen gesellschaftlichen Bereichen gesammelt haben, mit denen ein normaler Mensch in Berührung kommen kann.’ […] Eine kleine Stichwortauswahl illustriert allerdings, dass die

32 It can be downloaded at http:///www.vds-ev.de (the sites of ‘Verein Deutsche Sprache’). 33 There is another dictionary on Anglicisms now in print that, according to Busse, seems to have high potential: Görlach, Manfred: UDASEL – A Usage Dictionary of English in Selected European Languages. Oxford. 34 I found this article only after consulting WBÜA for my thesis (chapter 4). 31

Auswahl an Anglizismen […] äußerst heterogen und zuweilen wahllos erscheint. [...] In ihrer Frequenz, in ihrem diachronen wie synchronen Fremdheitsgrad und in ihrer Zugehörigkeit zur Gemeinsprache bzw. Fachsprachen und in einigen Fällen der Zugehörigkeit des deutschen Sprachsystems überhaupt, sind diese Anglizismen völlig unterschiedlich zu bewerten. Eine Dokumentation im Sinne von Belegung findet nicht statt. Jegliche Art von lexikographischer Mikrostruktur fehlt diesem Glossar völlig, und Kriterien, an denen die vermeintliche Überflüssigkeit gemessen werden kann, fehlen ebenso; sie existieren wohl nur in den Köpfen der Herausgeber.“35

2.2.7. Les mots anglais du franíais (LMADF)

LMADF is a special dictionary on foreign words in, primarily, onomasiological format: it groups words together that belong to the same semantic field:

• sports and leisure • science • social • legal, political, economic • technical • arts • everyday life • miscellaneous

The index in the back matter of the dictionary, however, displays all the headwords in alphabetical (letter-by-letter) order.

As far as the microstructure of LMADF is concerned, it is layouted along the following principles.

The headwords are typed in bold, with the IPA pronunciation attached, followed by an ‘assimilated’ syllable-spelling pronunciation in round brackets. Furthermore, information on parts of speech is provided, as well as information on plural marking and etymology (citing dates of first occurrence).

LMADF (as do French language dictionaries in general) not only gives native equivalents or synonyms, it also provides ‘recommendations officiels’ proposed by Committees

35 Busse, Typen von Anglizismen, p. 145 - 146 32 engaged in language purism36. I will deal with these committees as a phenomenon in the French speaking world later on.

after-shave [aftóÄÉ¤v] (af-teur-chèv), adj. et n. m. invar. 1959. Se dit d’une lotion à utiliser sur le visage, après rasage. Litt. Date of first citation in French

« après-rasage ». De after « après » et shave Literal translation (Litt.) , v. et n. « (se) raser, rasage ». Emp. intégré, d’usage commercial et un peu snob, en French equivalent (in italics) concurrence avec lotion après-rasage, n. f., ce dernier préférable. French syllable-spelling pronunciation (in round brackets) lay-out [l¤awt] (lè-aoutt), n. m., pl. invar. ou en –s, 1971. Étude préliminaire, projet, Information on style and pragmatics plan, maquette. De lay out « étaler devant (with Emp. = loan word) soi, disposer, préparer ». Emp. Snob et inutile. Voir équivalents dans la définition.

broker [br‘kór] (bro-keur), n. m. dat.? Agent chargé des transactions sur les valeurs mobilières dans les Bourses des pays Official recommendation published in anglophones. Litt. « courtier », Emp. a J.O. (Journal officiel) Culturel peu utile. Le J.O. (11.10.91) recomm. courtier, n. m.

2.3. Assembling the corpus data

For the purpose of this paper, I intended to ‘create’ lists of words of each of the general monolingual dictionaries containing words that are marked with English etymology.

2.3.1. Search criteria

In this context, LNPR and LOZ are the only electronic dictionaries to give access to this search modus. DDUWB’s search engine can just be consulted for either headword entries or search in complete text (meaning entry text). It is for this reason that I had to consult all of the electronic dictionaries in question for the occurrence of ‘English’ in complete text.

36 LNPR states 196 of those ‘recommendations officiels’, e.g. arrière-plan for background, liste de vérification for check-list, publipostage for mailing, individuel for single, navire-citerne for tanker, etc. 33

My search criteria – according to the abbreviations used in the dictionaries –, thus, were:

• LNPR: “angl” OR “amér” OR “anglic” in complete text = 2771 (4.6% of the total)

• DDUWB: “engl” OR “amerik” in complete text = 3167 (2.3%)

• LOZ: “ingl” OR “amer” in complete text = 3126 (2.3%)

2.3.2. Problems with the Results

As my formulation of search criteria also lets headwords be listed that merely have the term ‘English’ (in whatever form or language) be inherent in their entry text, the resulting lists (see appendix B) are by no means representative as to ‘English words in French, German and Italian); e.g. also listed are hybrid forms (words consisting of one English element and one native element) as well as English proper names37.

The DDUWB takes this problem even further, with only marking so-called ‘base’ words, with, occasionally, their derivatives and compounds left without a label:

37 At this point I made use of the Microsoft © Word 1997 GB spell check and found out that LNPR contains 1316 English spelled headwords = 2.2% (of the total number of entries), DDUWB contains 1809 English headwords = 1.3% and LOZ contains 1803 English headwords = 1.3% (see appendix C).

Marked ‘English’ in DDUWB Trainer trainieren Training

Not marked ‘English’ in DDUWB Training on the Job Trainingsanzug Trainingsdress Trainingseinheit Trainingshose Trainingsjacke Trainingslager Trainingsmöglichkeit Trainingsprogramm Trainingsschuh Trainingszeit

Nonetheless, in the following, the lists mentioned in 2.3.1. (appendix B) will represent my corpus material: I do not only want to prove evidence for spelling correspondences in the English, French, German and Italian dictionaries to go in for ‘English Internationalims’ (where the lists of words resulting after the English spell check would be sufficient), but I also want to point out similarities on the international level (imperialism – impérialisme – Imperialismus – imperialismo) and work on the characteristics of linguistic borrowing in general – as demonstrated in the subsequent chapter.

3. TERMINOLOGY AND STATUS OF LINGUISTIC BORROWING

Within this chapter, my primary object will be to untangle and clear up the terminological confusion concerning linguistic borrowing. To start with, I will deal with several different models of loan terminology (Busse, Dardano, Jabłoński, Viereck K. and Viereck W.) – in order to arrive at a comprehensive model of my own. This model, then, will be the basis for a more detailed look at linguistic borrowing from English concerning French, German and Italian.

As already mentioned in my introductory chapter, linguistic borrowing from foreign languages is but one phenomenon of how the lexicon of a language develops38. The following display illustrates this:

How the lexicon of a language develops:

(to illustrate these word formation processes I will add some examples from English)

• Internal borrowing (from dialects, sociolects etc. of the same language) • External borrowing (linguistic borrowing from foreign languages) • Derivation (by means of adding affixes to create new words): e.g. child-ish, un-predictable, etc. • Compounding (joining of two separate words to produce a single form): e.g. sunburn, desktop publishing • Ad-hoc- and ex-nihilo-formation (totally new words are created = coinage): e.g. aspirin, Kleenex (trade names as source), etc. • Blending (two separate forms merge into each other to form a new word; usually the beginning of one word is combined with the end of the other word): e.g. brunch (from breakfast and lunch), smog (from smoke and fog), etc. • Clipping (clipping only concerns the reduction of one word): e.g. fax (facsimile), ad (advertisement), sitcom (from situation comedy), etc. • Back-formation (involves the reduction of a word to form another part of speech): e.g. option – to opt, editor – to edit, etc. • Conversion (the function of a word is changed without reduction = functional shift): e.g.

butter – to butter (a noun becomes a verb), must – a must (a verb becomes a noun), empty – to empty (an adjective becomes a verb), etc. • Semantic shift (the verb undergoes a shift in meaning): e.g. wife (in former times this word was referred to ‘women in general’ and has undergone a semantic shift to its nowadays meaning of ‘a married woman’) • Sigle words (they are formed from the initial letters of a set of words, their pronunciation remains this set of letters): e.g. CD, VCR, etc. • Acronyms (these are sigle words that are pronounced as single words): e.g. NASA, laser, Aids, etc.

38 cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 8 – 9 37

3.1. Linguistic borrowing from foreign languages – models of reference

In the following, I will critically deal with points of strength and weaknesses of various models of loan terminology. For reasons of comparability I put these various approaches into diagrams.

3.1.1. Maurizio Dardano

Summarising Dardano’s definitions concerning loan terminology I come to the following diagram:

Fig.1: Maurizio Dardano’s model of loan terminology 38

First, Dardano39 distinguishes between unadapted and adapted Anglicisms. Unadapted Anglicisms, here, refer to direct borrowings from English: dumping, marketing, trust, boom, flirt, jet, etc. Adapted Anglicisms are defined as words having undergone assimilation as to native patterns in phonetics (English words are pronounced according to the spelling-pronunciation correspondence in Italian) and morphology, e.g. manageriale (manager), flirtare (flirt), decentralizzare (to decentralise), accettabilità (acceptability), etc.

Dardano moves on to calques, loan blends (compound forms of one English and one Italian element) and semantic loanwords (meaning that existing words take on new meanings). Calques, he states, involve the creation of new words and he differentiates between homonymic calques (words that reproduce all elements of the English source word) and synonymic calques (translated forms of the English model).

Here, the first terminological problem arises: Does the verb ottimizzare, for example, stand as a graphological and morphological assimilated form to to optimize, is ottimizzare a homonymic calque or is it a simple derivative of the Italian word ottimo?

Thus, we see that for my own summarising model at the end of this section I will have to more clearly distinguish assimilated forms, derivatives and homonymic loan words.

3.1.2. Karin Viereck

The next terminological approach I will deal with is the model of Karin Viereck40. In her article in “English in contact with other languages”41 she provides a clear and detailed description of different forms of linguistic borrowing from other languages. She classifies loan words according to a three-folded model: zero substitution, partial substitution and full substitution. However, she only gives detailed information on zero (direct borrowing) and partial substitution (loan blends), leaving totally aside full substitution – as the following illustration reveals:

39 cf. Dardano, Influence of English on Italian, p. 237 – 247 40 Viereck K., Influence of English on Austrian German, p. 161 – 162 41 Bald / Viereck W., English in contact with other languages, p. 159 – 177 39

Fig.2: Karin Viereck’s model of loan terminology

Here I will not go into detail concerning a further description of the contents of Viereck’s model, as the main points of her approach are distinctly demonstrated and exemplified in the diagram above.

When ‘creating’ my own model I will primarily refer to Viereck’s model in classifying loan blends (here: partial substitution) in genuine and pseudo categories. I will also make use of Viereck’s grouping of assimilated forms (here: modification) into phonetic/phonemic or phonemic-graphemic (meaning the representation of the sound- symbol relation) and inflectional (concerning morphology). 40

3.1.3. Wolfgang Viereck

The next model I will take into consideration when making up my own model of reference is Wolfgang Viereck’s approach towards loan terminology42.

Fig.3: Wolfgang Viereck’s model of loan terminology

42 Viereck W., The Influence of English on German, p. 115 – 119 41

In accordance with Karin Viereck, Wolfgang Viereck classifies English influence into zero substitution, full substitution and partial substitution.

Wolfgang Viereck refers tozero substitutions as words that are taken over directly from English, but that are only partially borrowed semantically (meaning that these words do not take along all the meanings they have in the source language).

He also classifies English words that are used with a non-English meaning in the host languages as belonging to direct borrowings (zero substitution), e.g. City in German has the sense of English city-centre.

Other English words used with a non-English meaning are what Viereck calls semantic and lexical pseudo-loans, e.g. dressman (for male model), handy (for mobile phone).

Along with morphological pseudo-loans, according to Wolfgang Viereck, are genuine loan words that have undergone a process of morphological assimilation to the replica language, e.g. infinitive inflexion of verbs in German, such as jobben, checken, etc.

As to my model of reference, I will not classify these morphologically adapted words as pseudo-forms, but simply as assimilated forms of direct borrowings – with ‘pseudo’ only being attributed to words that ‘look’ English but have a non-English meaning in the host languages (these are named semantic and lexical pseudo loan words in Wolfgang Vierecks’s model; see above).

Concerning Viereck’s sub-categories of full substitution, semantic loans, loan renditions, loan translations and loan creations, I will classify all of them as synonymic calques (with reference to Dardano in 3.1.1.).

Partial substitution, in the above model, is not further divided into genuine and pseudo loan blends, as in Karin Viereck’s model.

3.1.4. Mirosłav Jabłoński

As to clarity and precision, this approach (illustrated in the diagram below) will constitute the basis for my later model.

Fig.4: Mirosłav Jabłoński’s model of loan terminology

Jabłoński43 bases his three-fold classification of linguistic borrowing on the semiotic triangle44, describing each word as having a form and a meaning. Thus, linguistic borrowing in this context either involves a borrowing of both, form and meaning, a borrowing of meaning only or a borrowing of form only:

• A borrowing of form and meaning can be sub-divided into foreign words in their original spelling and foreign words in their assimilated form (following native patterns in the replica languages). • A borrowing of meaning only involves the reproduction of a foreign word via native word formation processes. • As to pseudo-loans, Jabłoński, refers to them as the borrowing of a foreign word only on the formal level.

In spite of all its comprehensiveness, Jabłoński’s model leaves loan blends totally aside.

3.1.5. Ulrich Busse

Ulrich Busse is one of the authors of the most frequently consulted German reference books concerning Anglicisms, the “Anglizismen-Wörterbuch” (I have referred to this dictionary already in chapter 2: The corpus).

For reasons of completeness as to loan terminology I will now shortly illustrate Busse’s main points. I will, however, not take his model into consideration when drawing up my own model of terminology of linguistic borrowing – as I claim his classification to be similar to Jabłoński’s model.

In the front matter of his dictionary45, Busse classifies Anglicisms as linguistic borrowings

43 Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 9 – 12 44 I will be dealing with the semiotic triangle in more detail when demonstrating my own model of reference. 45 Busse/Carstensen, Anglizismen-Wörterbuch, p. 18* - 19* 44

• from English x (borrowing of form and meaning) • in accordance with English x (borrowing of meaning) • to English x (borrowing of form)

3.1.6. A new approach towards loan terminology

In correspondence with Jabłoński’s model, the basis for classification of my model is the so-called semiotic triangle46:

notion / meaning

word / lexeme

form relatum / thing

Fig.5: The semiotic triangle

A word comes with a form and a meaning. Basically, both, form and meaning together, refer to a special thing, the relatum (direct borrowing). However, it may well be the case that only the form of a word refers to a thing (pseudo-borrowing) or only the meaning is borrowed (semantic borrowing).

As to loan blends I have classified them as being somewhere in between borrowing of form and borrowing of meaning – but, then, I have explicitly attributed them a borrowing of meaning only, since loan blends involve native elements and are, thus, no longer regarded as formally belonging to the source language, in our case English.

Another basic consideration was to group semantic borrowings along the synonymic- homonymic principle stated by Dardano (see 3.1.1.).

46 Lyons, Einführung in die moderne Linguistik, p. 413 45

3.2. The model of reference for this paper

Fig.6: The present model of loan terminology 46

3.2.1. Linguistic borrowing from English in French, German and Italian

In the following, I will provide definitions and examples for the categories of the above diagram. The examples of linguistic borrowing in French, German and Italian are taken from my corpus list – with occasional reference to the special dictionaries of foreign words.

The four main categories are:

I. direct / lexical borrowing II. lexical pseudo-borrowing III. partially substitutional borrowing (loan blends) IV. fully substitutional borrowing (semantic borrowing)

I. direct / lexical borrowing

Direct lexical borrowings are words that are taken over directly (with form and meaning) from English into the lexicons of the replica languages. A distinction can be made between:

1. genuine loans 2. partially assimilated forms

1. genuine loans

I refer to words as genuine loans if they represent an exact reproduction of the English spelling (except for capitalisation in German and varying hyphen- and compound spelling). In the next chapter, it will be these genuine loans that I will call ‘English Internationalisms’ – provided that they occur in all three replica languages.

English French German Italian boom boom boom boom marketing marketing marketing marketing sandwich sandwich sandwich sandwich

2. partially assimilated forms

Partially assimilated forms are slightly altered borrowings from English. They are assimilated: a. along grapheme-phoneme representation and relation b. on the morphological level c. as to semantics and stylistics a. grapheme-phoneme representation and relation

Grapheme-phoneme representation and relation involves native patterns of the sound- symbol realisation, meaning that the French language, for example, realises the ‘u’ grapheme in a word as [y], whereas a speaker of German or Italian would most probably pronounce it as [u]. The Englishman, according to the different rules of phonotactics, realises ‘u’ as [ju] or [ä], [å], etc.

Grapheme-phoneme representation can be further divided in

- graphology and orthography - phonology and phonetics

(1) graphology and orthography

On the level of graphology and orthography, assimilation along the grapheme-phoneme relation means that a replica language replaces an English grapheme by the native equivalent when English pronunciation is to be obtained:

English French German Italian boomerang - Bumerang - tick tique - - photo - - foto

(2) phonology and phonetics

As to phonetics and phonology, assimilation in the replica languages also takes place according to native rules of sound-symbol realisation. For detailed information on how these patterns work, see the section on assimilated forms in the next chapter. b. morphological level

Morphologically assimilated forms have undergone a morphological adaptation to the replica language. Morphological adaptation covers

- inflectional morphology - derivational morphology

(1) inflectional

Inflectional morphology primarily involves affixes (for the most part: suffixes) to indicate grammatical functions of a word (part of speech, gender and plural marking, tense marking, etc.):

English French German Italian to format formater formatieren formattare He formatted the floppy Il a formaté la disquette. Er hat die Diskette Ha formattato il disk. formatiert. dischetto.

(2) lexical / derivational

Derivational morphology is used to create new words in a language. As far as linguistic borrowing is concerned, the replica languages take up (or assimilate) derivational affixes from English:

English French German Italian mini- minijupe Minirock minigonna -ity -ité -ität -ità

49 c. semantics and stylistics

Assimilation on the semantic and stylistic level is dealt with in full detail in the next chapter.

II. lexical pseudo-borrowing

Lexical pseudo-loans are words that are made out of English word-building material, but have a non-English meaning, with some of them that do not even exist in this form in the English language.

English French German Italian handy (useful) - Handy (mobile phone) - dance hall dancing - dancing champion recordman - recordman male model - Dressman - jogging footing - footing

III. partially substitutional borrowing (loan blends)

Loan blends are compound words consisting of one English element and one element of the host language. As to their correspondence to an English equivalent, they are classified as follows: a. genuine b. pseudo a. genuine

Genuine loan blends, strictly speaking, are originally English compound words where one element has been translated into the replica language:

English French German Italian charter flight vol charter Charterflug volo charter tramway - - tramvia showbusiness - Showgeschäft -

50 b. pseudo

Pseudo loan blends are compound words of one English and one native component, but the entire word has no English counterpart:

English French German Italian stress disease - Managerkrankheit - leading industry - - industria leader briefcase attaché-case - -

IV. fully substitutional / semantic borrowing (calques)

Semantic borrowings involve a full substitution of an English word by native elements. These substitutions can be:

1. synonymic calques 2. homonymic calques

1. synonymic calques

Synonymic semantic borrowing involves: a. semantic loans b. loan translations c. loan renditions d. loan creations & formal neologisms a. semantic loans

If an existing word, under English influence, adopts a new meaning, it is called a semantic loan.

English French German Italian goal but (formerly: - - destination, aim, end) to fire - feuern (formerly: to make - fire) comfort - - conforto (fomerly: encouragement, consolation)

b. loan translations

Loan translations are direct translations of an English word into a replica language.

English French German Italian soap opera - Seifenoper - skyscraper gratte-ciel - grattacielo pocket radio radio de poche - - honeymoon miel-lune Honigmond luna di miele

c. loan renditions

Compounds of which one part has been directly translated while the other one is conveyed freely into the host language are called loan renditions:

English French German Italian jukebox - Musikkiste - fair play franc-jeu - - knock-out - - fuori combattimento

d. loan creations & formal neologisms

Loan creations involve English words (actually, only the meaning is transferred) that are rendered completely freely in the host languages. Strictly speaking, loan creations are linguistically independent from the donor language and, thus, represent formal neologisms. These can be :

- monolexematic words - paraphrases 52

(1) monolexematic words

Monolexematic neologisms consist of only one free lexeme (that is usually combined with a bound morpheme).

English French German Italian pipeline - - oleodotto software logiciel - - leggings - Beinling

(2) paraphrases

Plurilexematic loan creations are, generally speaking, paraphrases of a foreign meaning.

English French German Italian spot message publicitaire - - leasing location avec option - - d’achat - provider - Internetanbieter - software - - insieme di componenti modificabili field research - Erhebung von Daten im - Außendienst

2. homonymic calques / fully assimilated forms

According to my own model of reference, homonymic calques and fully assimilated forms fall together in their definition: On the one hand, they are fully integrated according to the principles of grapheme-phoneme representation and they are adapted as to the morphological and semantic /stylistic level, on the other hand, they still reveal the original elements of the English source word:

English French German Italian to vulcanise vulcaniser vulkanisieren vulcanizzare elf elfe Elfe elfo

Concluding this chapter, I believe it correct to say that all of the categories and examples mentioned above, strictly speaking, correspond to the definition of Anglicisms I gave in the introductory chapter, as they all represent a linguistic sign that has come into being through the influence of the English language. It is, however, the convention that fully assimilated forms and synonymic calques do not have Anglicism status.

4. ENGLISH INTERNATIONALISMS

What is an English Internationalism? For the purpose of this paper, I will largely refer to the definition of Jabłoński47, who defines English Internationalisms as words that have been directly borrowed from English into several host languages of different language families. He states that all direct borrowings from English can acquire the status of an English Internationalism. Furthermore, he argues that among these either genuine loans (leaving aside gender classification and flexion in the host languages) or assimilated forms can be found.

In the following, I will deal with both types of English Internationalisms. I will, however, treat them separately, claiming that only genuine loans are authentic English Internationalisms.

Adapted forms, on the one hand, represent but one phenomenon of linguistic borrowing – and, thus, lexical development – due to current (linguistic) globalisation. On the other hand, these assimilated forms of international character are the results of older Greek and Latin influences.

4. 1. Authentic English Internationalism

First of all, I consider reference of an English word in all three general monolingual dictionaries other than English as being sufficient to indicate its internationality. Furthermore, the authentic English Internationalism requires accurate reproduction as a headword in the dictionaries, ignoring capitalisation in German and hyphen-spelling as well as spelling of compounds in all languages.

These criteria may be regarded as too superficial – as they only work on the basis of the comparison of headwords that show no more than the basic grammatical form of a word (nouns in the nominative singular, adjectives in the positive singular, adverbs in the positive, verbs in the present infinitive active), without any hints to its usage. It is for this reason that I will have a closer look at the words according to linguistic fields concerning

47 cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 17 55 structure and use of language, namely phonetics and phonology, graphology (orthography), morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics in one of the following sections.

4.1.1. List of authentic English Internationalisms

The list below has been created by means of sorting out according to the following obligatory criteria:

(1) reference in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ (2) correspondence of the headwords in their spelling (ignoring capitalisation, hyphens and alternative compound spelling) (3) reference in COD (words that fulfil (1) and (2) but are not headwords in COD are put in brackets and dealt with in the subsequent section)

aftershave Boy Scout chow-chow ecstasy air bag brainstorming clearing ecu (aquaplaning) brain trust clip enduro (auto-stop) brandy clipper engineering baby break clown establishment babysitter bridge cluster eyeliner babysitting briefing coach (factoring) backgammon broker COBOL fair play background brunch cockney fan bacon budget cocktail fanzine badminton bug Coke fast food banjo bulldozer container feedback bar bungalow copyright feeling barbecue bunker corner festival baseball bus cornflakes fifty-fifty BASIC, basic business cottage film bazooka bye-bye cover girl finish beagle bypass cowboy flash beat byte crack flashback beatnik cab cracker flipper (bébé) caddie crash Flop bebop call-girl cross-country folk best-seller camp curling folklore big bang camping cutter football bingo campus dancing Fortran bit cardigan dandy fox terrier blackout cargo dealer freak blazer cartoon Derby (free jazz) blizzard cash design frisbee blues cash flow designer funk bluff casting (Devon) gadget boat people cent discount gag bobtail charter dock gang body-building checklist (doping) gangster boogie-woogie check-up dragster garden party boom cheeseburger drink gay boss chewing gum drive gentleman bowling chintz driver gentleman’s box chip dry agreement boy Chippendale (dumping) getter 56 girl (made in) racket standard glamour mailing radar standby globe-trotter majorette (rafting) star goal management ragtime starter golf manager RAM sterling gospel marketing ranch steward grill mascara rand stick grog maser ranger stock groggy match rap stop hamburger medium rating stretch handicap meeting ready-made striptease happening memorial recital sulky (happy end) (merchandising) redingote swap hardware Miss, miss reggae sweater hickory mohair remake swing high-tech motel reporter take-off hip mustang revival talk show HIV net revolver tandem hobby new look riff tank hockey nightclub rock tartan hooligan non-stop ROM tee horsepower nylon rugby teenager hot dog off saloon telex hovercraft office sandwich tender husky offshore scanner tennis (impeachment) opossum scat terminal in out science fiction test input output score thriller Irish coffee outsider Scotch, scotch ticket ISO overdrive scout tie-break Jacuzzi oxer scratch timing jazz pacemaker self-government toast jeep paddock self-made man top jet pamphlet set Tory jet set panel setter totem jigger par sex appeal training jingle patchwork sexy transistor job pattern shaker (trekking) jockey pedigree sherry trench coat (jogging) peeling shocking trial (joint venture) pellet shopping trip jukebox penalty show trolley (kart) penny show business trust (karting) performance single tuner ketchup pick-up sit-in tunnel kidnapper ping-pong skateboard turf kidnapping pipeline sketch tweed kilt pixel skinhead twill kiwi plaid slice twinset knickerpocker, playback slip twist knickerpockers playboy slogan underground knockout pointer slow vamp know-how poker smash van kumquat pole position smog (video-) lady polo smoking VIP lambswool pool snack bar volleyball laser pop snob Walkman lasso pop art soap opera wapiti leader popcorn software warrant leasing porridge sonar waterproof lift poster soul weekend lifting premier speaker western light prime time spider Whig limerick promotion spin whisky, whiskey linoleum pub spinnaker whist Linotype public relations spleen wigwam live pudding spoiler Yankee lob pullover sponsor yard lobby punch sport Yorkshire terrier loft punk spot yuppie look putt spray (zapping) (looping) puzzle sprint zoom lord quasar squash lunch rack squaw

4.1.2. Pseudo-Anglicisms as English Internationalisms

The above list gives evidence of 452 identical English headwords in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ. However, 20 of these words show no headword entry in COD. My first thought was that these words must be what are called pseudo-Anglicisms, words only ‘looking’ English on the formal level but that do not have English meanings. I will, therefore, have a closer look on these words: aquaplaning As the headword aquaplane can be used as a noun and a verb, the ‘ing’-form does exist. However, the English ‘- ing’, mainly used as an inflectional suffix marking the present participle of a verb, is principally used in the replica languages as a derivational suffix to create nouns. But as this phenomenon can also be found in the processes of word formation in the English language system (with the ‘–ing’ being used as a derivational suffix forming gerunds and nouns from verbs) and as one of the two definitions provided of to aquaplane in the COD corresponds to the definition given in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ, aquaplaning is secured its status as an English Internationalism. auto-stop The COD lists both, auto and stop as headwords, but there is no evidence of a compound form of these, although a sample sentence under the headword stop makes a connection between the words (the vehicle was brought to a stop). Nonetheless, the intended meaning of ‘to hitch-hike’ found in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ is not offered by the COD, which would make auto-stop belong to the category of pseudo-Anglicisms, even on the international level. bébé This headword represents a very peculiar case: As mentioned further above, my search criteria in the electronic dictionaries (occurrence of ‘engl’, ‘angl’ or ‘ingl’) were to be applied to the complete texts, the resulting list of words not only stating English headwords, but also words that show evidence of the criteria in the full entry text. In the case of bébé, it made its way into the Anglicism lists by means of various reasons. The DDUWB states bébé as being borrowed from French, with the French word being an 58 assimilated form of the English word baby. The LOZ also mentions French as being the donor language of the borrowing, and it also states that this word might have come to France via the English baby. The LNPR, then, gives evidence of the 1793 adaptation of English baby in its lexicon. It is for these reasons stated that, for the purpose of this synchronic analysis, bébé is neither an English Internationalism nor a pseudo-Anglicism, but a borrowing from French with international quality, a Francisism.

Devon The COD mentions Devon only in paraphrasing the headword Devonian (‘of or relating to / a native of Devon, in SW England’). LNPR and LOZ define devon as spoon-baits or spinners, which are devices used in fishing. Both of them refer to the name of Count Devon. The DDUWB, on the other hand, refers Devon to a period of the Palaeozoic era – as does the COD with a second definition of Devonian though. The word Devon, thus, is not an English Internationalism. doping, dumping & factoring Dope, dump and factor are all listed as headwords in the COD. They can be used as nouns or verbs and, therefore, the justification for their being English Internationalisms is obvious (see aquaplaning). The same observation can be made with the following words: jogging, rafting, trekking and merchandising. free jazz The DDUWB, as well as LNPR and LOZ state free jazz as a form of jazz music whose characteristics are improvisation and disharmony. Although the COD contains both, free and jazz as a headword, the notion free jazz has not (yet) found its way into the dictionary. Nonetheless, I would, in this case, claim free jazz to be an English Internationalism. happy end The term happy end may well be the most stated example of a pseudo-Anglicism. As the correct English word is happy ending, one might argue for a case of morphological pseudo-loan.

59 impeachment The COD states the verb to impeach as headword (with the corresponding meaning in LNPR, DDUWB and LOZ) and indicates the noun impeachment as well as the adjective impeachable in bold type-face after the definition section – which proves evidence of its being international. joint venture The COD states joint and venture as headwords, but the term joint venture is not found. Here again I think that the word has just not yet found its way into the dictionary, the term being perfectly international (see: free jazz). kart LOZ and the DDUWB refer kart to the abbreviation of go-kart, with go-kart being cited as a variation of go-cart in the COD. LNPR gives no cross-reference to go-kart. Strictly speaking, kart would not meet the requirements for being regarded as an English Internationalism, but I dare say that the abbreviations cart or kart might be used in informal English as well. karting In contrast to the above statement that the host languages often derive nouns ending in ‘ing’ from English verbs, karting is a genuine pseudo-Anglicism. Go-kart as well as go- cart are marked as nouns only, meaning that there is no ‘to (go-)kart’ in English. looping Here we come across another incidence of a morphological pseudo-Anglicism. The COD cites loop as noun and verb, thus offering the replica languages the possibility for ing- derivation. The French, German and Italian dictionaries define looping as a manoeuvre in which a plane describes a vertical circle – which is the COD’s definition of the noun loop. made in Although this collocation has no headword entry in the COD, one would forgive me in arguing that the notion made in is perfectly English and international.

60 video- The prefix video- (along with mini-, midi-, cyber-, etc.) is given a special status in the DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ, and it is cited as a headword with reference to its property of being the first element in numerous compound words related to broadcasting, recording and reproducing visual material. In this sense, video- acts as an Internationalism since the COD, besides noun and verb, also classifies the headword video as adjective. Evidence for the internationality of video(-) are numerous subsequent entries in all dictionaries. Videoclip in DDUWB, vidéoclub, vidéodisque and vidéotex in LNPR, video art, videoclip, videofrequenza, videogame, videomusic, videotape and Videotex in LOZ and video camera, video cassette, videoconference, video diary, videodisc, etc. in COD. These examples, however, also show that video(-) is only to be regarded an Internationalism on the formal level of this investigation. Actual language usage in the replica languages, namely the compounding with native elements, and its Latin origin (videre) might even lead to the assumption that video(-) is by no means English, but a fixed element of the vocabularies of numerous languages due to a long-ago linguistic influence. zapping The COD’s stating of the verb to zap with its definition as ‘to move rapidly between TV channels’ and its correspondence to the definitions in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ might imply an international character. However, actual usage favours the term channel hopping when referring to a noun.

Correspondence of a French, German, Italian and English headword in spelling, however, does not guarantee its not being a pseudo-Anglicism. Take the word flipper, for example. Its definition in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ show that the correct English word must be pinball (a game in which small metal balls are shot across a board and score points by striking pins with lights etc.), rather than English flipper (a broadened limb of a turtle, penguin, etc., used in swimming.).

Or let us turn to the much cited smoking (which the three dictionaries in question define as a man’s suit usually worn on formal occasions) that would be dinner jacket in English. However, the word smoking holds an exceptional position in the field of linguistic borrowings, being adapted from other languages at a time when it was actually termed smoking jacket in English, with first occurrences of British dinner jacket and American 61 tuxedo only in somewhat later periods.48 The term smoking, thus, might be regarded as a clipped form (an informally shortened version) in French, German and Italian vocabulary rather than being a pseudo-Anglicism in the classical sense, like dressman (male model) and handy (mobile phone) in German, and footing (jogging) and recordman (champion) in French and Italian.

4.1.3. General monolingual dictionaries versus special dictionaries of foreign words

Working the three lists of my corpus for correspondences, I wondered about the relatively low number of coexisting occurrences of an English word in all three dictionaries. Also counting the numerous parallel correspondences in two of the dictionaries as English Internationalisms, the 452 words of the list above would roughly amount to one third of the total number. But since my definition of internationality requires an occurrence in the dictionaries of three other languages than English, I will refrain from dwelling on this subject too long.

What I did do, however, was to consult the special language dictionaries mentioned in chapter 2, for the words that were missing to my required ‘threesomes’: ‘Les mots anglais du franíais’ (LMADF) for French counterparts to a German-Italian occurrence, ‘Le Parole Straniere della lingua itlaliana’ (PS) for Italian correspondences to a French-German correlation and ‘Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen’ (WBÜA) for German matches to a French-Italian relation.

With the help of these special dictionaries I found another 313 parallels – which would result in a total of 765 English Internationalism (see appendix D), 59% of these found in the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries, 41 % in the special dictionaries of foreign words (as can be seen in the diagram below).

48 Busse, Typen von Anglizismen, p. 139 – 140 62

Total of LMADF, PS & WBÜA = 41%

LMADF (53% of the total 22% of 41%)

PS DDUWB & 8% (21%) LNPR & LOZ 59% WBÜA (26%) 11%

Fig.7: English Internationalisms across the 6 dictionaries

Another interesting aspect to mention is that 53% of the 313 missing threesomes (here I refer to the right side figure 7) were found in the French dictionary of foreign words, compared to 21% in the Italian reference and 26% in the special dictionary of German (see appendix E). These numbers not only show a certain affinity between the German and Italian vocabularies in the way they deal with the flux of omnipresent English words, they might also mirror the respective nation’s attitudes towards the spread of English into their lexicons.

As stated further above, to find way into a general monolingual dictionary is by no means a valid proof for the existence of a word. There might be far too few occurrences in reference material, or the lexicographer might take it as an ephemeral word, etc. As a matter of fact, LNPR, with France even restricting the use of some English words by law, ‘ignores’ more than twice as many Anglicisms as DDUWB and LOZ do. The below ranking of negative attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms might, therefore, be explained against the background of the nations’ efforts being made against English influence (see figure 7): (1) the Loi Toubon in France (53%), (2) organisations and societies in Austria and Germany (26%), (3) occasional campaigns in Italy (21%).

As was indicated in the introductory notes to this chapter I will now drop theoretical and formal approaches towards English Internationalisms and move on to a more practical analysis in relation to the way they function or behave in the French, German and Italian language systems.

4.1.4. English Internationalisms, their linguistic properties and the role they play in the replica languages

For a closer examination on how Internationalisms, ‘abstract’ headwords in the preceding sections, fit the structure and use of language within the individual systems and how these correlate, I will analyse 45 (10%) randomly picked words with reference to the 6-level- model in Crystal49. As this model is based on the requirements for spoken language only, I have slightly modified it in terms of adding categories needed for written language (typed in bold-face).

language

structure pragmatics use

medium of transmission grammar meaning (semantics)

phonetics graphology morphology syntax lexicon discourse & phonology & orthography & text

Fig.8: An overall model of language structure (after Crystal 1997)

Since this study is based on dictionaries, I have access to both, the written and the spoken channel. Leaving aside the very theoretical aspect of such a study, as dictionaries on no account represent actual language usage, they provide exactly the information I need for a thorough examination on several levels of language (see also ‘Principles of dictionary- making’). I will, thus, subdivide this section as follows:

1. Graphology and orthography 2. Phonetics and phonology 3. Morphology and syntax 4. Semantics and stylistics

49 Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 83 64

The following words will be the basis for my analysis:

air bag flashback management take-off beagle folk new look thriller blizzard gadget overdrive toast boom globe-trotter performance tuner broker happening pole position underground business hooligan poster warrant cardigan impeachment recital weekend charter Irish coffee sandwich yuppie container jigger scanner zoom cross-country jukebox science fiction drive ketchup shocking establishment light sweater

4.1.4.1. Graphology and orthography

The chapter on English Internationalisms was introduced by my stating the requirements English words in general monolingual dictionaries have to meet: accurate reproduction as a headword, BUT ignoring capitalisation in German and hyphen-spelling as well as spelling of compounds in all languages. I will, just for the purpose of this section, not only refer to the 452 English Internationalisms but also consult the complete lists (appendix B).

Ignoring capitalisation in German is a rather obvious aspect not to take into consideration when working with Germanic and Romance languages. Apart from capitalisation of proper names, it is only the German language that capitalises nouns in general.50

Hyphen-spelling and compound spelling usually go hand in hand, representing just one oddity in orthography concerning the language systems of the languages examined in this

50 “Die Großschreibung der Substantive nahm im 13. Jahrhundert ihren großen Ausgang von der Großschreibung der Eigennamen (vor allem bei Personennamen und geographischen Namen.) Die Verwendung von Großbuchstaben diente hier vor allem der Kennzeichnung von Wörtern, die inhaltlich als besonders bedeutsam erschienen, beim Vorlesen hervorgehoben oder betont werden sollten. Die Ausweitung der Großschreibung auf andere Substantivklassen fand überwiegend im 16. Jahrhundert statt. Zunächst wurde die Großschreibung auf eigennamenähnliche Bezeichnungen übertragen, wie etwa auf Bezeichnungen von Völkern und Sprachen, von Festen und Feiertagen, von Tieren, Pflanzen, Zeit- und Maßeinheiten. Die zunehmende Ausweitung der Großschreibung auf immer weitere Bereiche führte dann im 17. Jahrhundert dazu, dass die Funktion der Großschreibung umgedeutet wurde: Sie wurde nun seltener als ein Mittel zur Hervorhebung gesehen, sondern diente vielmehr der grammatikalischen Markierung der Wortart Substantiv.“ (Duden Newsletter from Oct. 18th 2001)

65 paper. Nevertheless, general tendencies can be observed: the French and Italian language tends to composition via prepositions (chambre à coucher, camera da letto), the German language shows a great tendency to so-called ‘monster-compounds’, making one word out of several elements (most famous perhaps: Fußballweltmeisterschaftsqualifikationsspiel), and the English language most commonly favours separate pre- or post-modifying to hyphen-spelling (air bag, video cassette recorder, a vase with handles, etc.)

As for the spelling of Anglicisms the confusion goes even further. However, working on the lists, a certain regularity in the dealing with compounds borrowed from English may be detected: DDUWB tends to take up the original form (be it separate, directly combined or hyphen-spelling), LNPR shows a tendency to primarily apply hyphen-spelling and LOZ usually takes up the English spelling, be it hyphen- or separate spelling (direct compounding seldom occurs). Looking at the loan blends (compound words of one English Element and one element of the native language), we get to know that they are treated as being native to the language system in German, and, thus, form monstrous constructions (Holdinggesellschaft, Medienbartering, Nonproliferation, Tuftingverfahren). As mentioned in chapter 4, French and Italian lack this uncompromising composition of foreign and native elements, either using the English notion as it is (Italian) or employing native paraphrases (French).

4.1.4.2. Phonetics and phonology

This study is based on dictionaries and I have to rely on the lexicographers’ thorough examining of the way words are pronounced in a language (for the pronunciation of each of the 45 words given in the dictionaries see appendix F), but I assume that the pronunciation of English words in actual language usage differs considerably from the pronunciation given in a dictionary:

Jabłoński51 found out that dictionaries tend to maintain English pronunciation. Actual usage, however, greatly varies and depends on various factors:

51 cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 33 – 34 66

- the speaker’s attitudes towards Anglicisms (snobbism, linguistic purism, etc.) - the level of education and social status of the speaker - the speaker’s knowledge of English - the age of the speaker (whether he belongs to the older or younger generation) - the speaker’s acquaintance with the expression (intelligibility, familiarity, etc.) - the context in which the word is used

Jabłoński states that difficulties in pronunciation occur when an English word is directly borrowed into a replica language without any modification. Speakers with a low command of English would, then, certainly tend to spelling pronunciation (realising the word according to native grapheme-phoneme relations). Furthermore, he points out that bilingual speakers or speakers with English as their first foreign language will tend to pronounce it in the English way and speakers wanting to express their high education and knowledge will tend to an exaggerated pronunciation in some English native accent. He argues that, all the same, as long as the English words are not assimilated to the native patterns of the host languages in graphology, there will be variations in spelling.

For the purpose of my examination, however, I have strictly kept to the pronunciation provided in the dictionaries, trying to detect a certain pattern.

In the early stages of my investigation on pronunciation the COD did not seem to be suitable as reference for English pronunciation patterns, as it provides RP pronunciation and the majority of international English words nowadays have their origin in the US, but on a closer view the following becomes clear: It does not really matter for my study whether the word is pronounced in the British or American way, what counts is whether there is zero transmorphemisation, compromise transmorphemisation or free transmorphemisation.52 Zero transmorphemisation takes place when the English word is pronounced in the English way, compromise transmorphemisation may also be called assimilated pronunciation (partial imitation of the English pronunciation) and free transmorphemisation is spelling pronunciation according to native grapheme-phoneme (symbol-sound) patterns.

52 cf. Filipovic, English as a word donor, http://www.intellectbooks.com/europa/number5/hart.html

The DDUWB and LOZ show a great tendency towards zero transmorphemisation. Among the 45 sample words I only found two cases of free transmorphemisation in Italian for recital, pronounced as /»r¤tÉital/ or /r¤tÉi»tal/ and yuppie, pronounced as /»juppi/. DDUWB gives evidence of four cases of free transmorphemisation, with cardigan, globe-trotter, warrant and yuppie, pronounced as /»kardigan/, /»glo:bŸtr‘t–/, /va»rant/ and /»jäpi/. The LNPR, however, proves my hypothesis that English words in France tend to be pronounced in the French way. As examples let me mention: blizzard /blizaÄ/, cross- country /kÄ‘skuntÄi/, jukebox /íykb‘ks/, management /manaímS/ and science fiction /sjSsfiksjT/ .

Compromise transmorphemisation is by far the most frequently applied means of pronunciation in the examined replica languages. It is for this reason that I will now go into more detail concerning variations in vowel, diphthong and consonant realisation.

4.1.4.2.1. Vowels and diphthongs

Starting with the realisation of English vowel phonemes and diphtongs in the replica languages (that offer the most significant variations), my results are the following :

COD DDUWB LNPR LOZ ¤: ¤, e:, ¤:– ¤, i ¤ Í Í i i u: u: u:, y u: a: ar aÄ ar ‘ : ‘ : oÄ or a ë, ¤ a ¤, ë å a, å u, ó a, å “ ‘ ‘ ‘ ä ä u ä i: i: i i Ÿ –, ‘ óÄ, ¤Ä, ó er, o Ÿä oä, o: ‘, o ‘, o åÍ ai, aÍ aj ai, aÍ

• The English [¤:] is most commonly realised as [¤] in French, German and Italian, with variations in sweater, the [¤] pronounced as [e:] in German and [i] in French (this can be regarded as a form of hyper-correction, strictly pronouncing ‘ea’ as [i:] wherever it occurs), and in airbag, which the DDUWB transcribes as [¤:–].

• [Í] in LNPR and LOZ is primarily transcribed as [i], being articulated in a slightly more close manner, whereas DDUWB sticks to the English mid-closed vowel. Some variations can be seen in the pronunciation of management, pronounced with [a] in French and Italian and gadget /»gadíÍt/, being transcribed as /gadí¤t/ in LNPR and /»gadíet/ in LOZ.

• Principally, [u:] is maintained in all the examined host languages, with only the French language offering an [y]-variation in jukebox and an [y] in tuner.

• In contrast to the (non-rhotic) British variation of English, French, German and Italian are rhotic languages, meaning, they always pronounce the ‘r’ (in whatever variation). As examples let me mention cardigan and charter, being transcribed with an [—:] in British English, [ar] in German and Italian and [aÄ] in French. The same also holds true for the [‘:] in performance, which is pronounced as [‘Ä] in French and [or] in Italian, with only German maintaining the ‘very British’ pronunciation [‘:].

• The (British) English [a] in German is either pronounced as [ë] or [¤] and [¤] or [a] in Italian: scanner /»sk¤n–/ (DDUWB) and /s»kanner/ in LOZ or flashback /»flëÉbëk/ (DDUWB) and /fl¤É»b¤k/ in LOZ. The LNPR principally maintains [a].

• The phoneme [å] to represent ‘ou’ or ‘u’ in the English Language, is only applied once in the DDUWB and LOZ (underground in German and cross-country in Italian). Vice versa, the similar – but more back and mid-open [a] is articulated in cross-country in German and in underground in Italian. LNPR, however, transcribes cross-country as /kÄ‘skuntÄi/, and underground as /óndóÄgÄaund/ or /Xd¤ÄgÄ(a)und/.

• The English [“], for the most part, is pronounced as [‘] in the host languages, e.g. shocking /»É“kÍñ/ (COD), /»É‘kÍñ/ (DDUWB), /É‘kiñ/ (LNPR) and /»É‘kkin(g)/ (LOZ).

• The [ä], as in new look, is principally maintained: /»nju:»läk/ in DDUWB and /nju»läk/ in LOZ, but /njuluk/ in LNPR.

• [i:] is most likely to be shortened in the replica languages: e.g. LNPR and LOZ transcribe weekend as /wik¤nd/.

• The ‘famous’ [Ÿ] sound seemed to need some extra investigation, as I found more than ten variant pronunciations. However, there is only one regularity to be detected: [Ÿ] in English nouns ending in -er (broker, globetrotter, scanner, sweater, tuner) tend to be pronounced as the more open [–] in German, as [óÄ] or [¤Ä] in French and [er] in Italian. Other alterations of [Ÿ] are: [ó] in French ketchup, [‘] in German container, and [o] in Italian container.

• As for the English diphthongs, it was interesting to find out that [Ÿä] is chiefly pronounced as [oä] in German, with two occurrences of [o:] in toast and globe-trotter. LNPR usually transcribes [Ÿä] as [‘], as in broker /bÄ‘kóÄ/, overdrive /‘vóÄdÄajv/ and poster /p‘st¤Ä/, but it also gives evidence of [o] in toast and pole position. Concerning the phonetic transcription in LOZ, the English diphthong [Ÿä] in the Italian language tends to be pronounced either as [‘] or [o].

• The English [åÍ] becomes [ai] or[aÍ] in German and Italian and [aj] in French (drive, Irish coffee, etc.) whereas [aä] is usually maintained in all three examined host languages (e.g. underground).

4.1.4.2.2. Consonants

Here are the most obvious alterations concerning consonant articulation:

• German words usually tend to end in a voiceless plosive rather than the voiced English version: air bag /»¤:–b¤k/, blizzard /»blÍz–t/. • French and Italian do not pronounce the ‘h’ at the beginning of a word (hooligan and happening) – even if it is a loan / foreign word (or can this fact be regarded as a prove of the word’s being adapted to the French and Italian lexicon?). • The English [w] is usually articulated as [v] in French and German (sweater, warrant). • The Italian language is likely to avoid consonant clusters which are difficult to pronounce, rendering jukebox as /díub»b‘ks/ (gemination), joint venture as /dí‘i»v¤ntÉur/, stand-by as /st¤m»bai/ and happening as /»¤ppenin/. On the other hand, the Italian language also tends to intensify the single occurrence of consonants: yuppie /»juppi/, thriller /»triller/, scanner /s»kanner/, pole position /polpo»ziÉÉon/, happening /»¤ppenin/. • [ô] as in thriller is maintained only in the German language, with a French alteration to [s] and the Italian version [t]: /»ôrÍlŸ/ (DDUWB), /sÄilóÄ/ (LNPR) and /»triller/ (LOZ).

4.1.4.3. Morphology and syntax

Headwords in dictionaries fulfil certain functions. In addition to their function of merely proving evidence of the ‘existence’ of a word in language’s lexicon, they give hints to spelling and – sometimes – recommended word division. Furthermore, they are always marked as to their grammatical form (meaning, part of speech, irregularities, etc.) and, thus, indicate how the words are treated (in sentences and utterances) when actually producing speech according to syntactic patterns.

This section, thus, comprises the examination of the 45 English Internationalisms in question regarding (1) parts of speech, (2) labelling of grammatical gender in the replica languages and (3) plural marking , along with (4) other syntactical hints (the way words are to be combined within an utterance to show relationships in meaning) provided by the dictionaries.

To start with, I made up the following table illustrating the linguistic information attached to the headwords in COD, DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ. 71

4.1.4.3.1. Parts of speech

COD DDUWB LNPR LOZ I. n (noun) 28 0 0 0 n AND v (verb) 11 0 0 0 n AND adj (adjective) 2 0 0 0 n AND adj AND adv (adverb) 1 0 0 0 n AND adj AND adv AND v 2 0 0 0 adj AND adv 1 0 0 0

II.

n m (noun masculine) 0 11 33 0 n m inv (invariable plural)) 0 7 2 31 n m sg (only in singular) 0 2 0 0 n m var (variable plural) inv / -s 0 2 0 0 -e / -s 0 1 0 0 inv / Engl pl53 0 0 0 2

n n (noun neuter) 0 8 0 0 n n inv 0 0 0 0 n n sg 0 1 0 0 n n var -e / -s 0 1 0 0

n m OR n n 0 3 0 0 n m OR n n inv 0 0 0 0 n m OR n n sg 0 0 0 0 n m OR n n var inv / -s 0 2 0 0 -es / -s / -e 0 1 0 0

n f (noun feminine) 0 1 3 0 n f inv 0 0 0 2 n f sg 0 2 0 0 n f var -es 0 1 0 0 inv / Engl pl 0 0 0 1

n m AND n f 0 0 2 0 n m AND n f inv 0 0 0 2 n m AND n f var 0 0 0 0 inv / Engl pl 0 0 0 1

adj inv 0 2 2 2

n m AND adj 0 0 1 0 n m inv AND adj inv 0 0 1 3 n m AND adj inv 0 0 1 0 n m var (inv / Engl pl) AND adj inv 0 0 0 1

Table 1: Parts of speech labels for English Internationalisms

The above chart shows that in a list of 45 Internationalism, we not only find nouns directly borrowed from English (as was my hypothesis, since verbs always take on native inflectional morphemes and adjectives are also most likely to be altered by inflection), we also find 2 adjectives, invariable (uninflected), of course: light and shocking. As for French and Italian we also learn that there are some words belonging to both types of parts of

53 one of the plural variations is the English plural 72 speech, namely adjective and noun. These are folk, new-look and underground in French and charter, folk, sandwich and underground in Italian. However, we do not find any evidence of such words belonging to two word classes in the German list. Actually, I only found one German Internationalism in the 453-words-list that fits into the group of nouns and the group of adjectives: top.

Comparing section II to section I in the table, one will notice at once that there are several English Internationalisms that are also used as a verb in the English language54, with some of them also existing in the host languages in their verbal form. However, for the purpose of the examination of Internationalisms, they cannot be taken into consideration since verbs in the examined replica languages have to be morphologically assimilated and are, thus, no longer exact reproductions of the English words. We see boomen, chartern and toasten in DDUWB, tostare and zumare in LOZ and boumer, chartériser, driver, sandwicher, warranter and zoomer in LNPR. As for these adapted forms I will go into more detail in the following chapter.

4.1.4.3.2. Gender

The English language differs from the majority of other European languages by not having a grammatical but a natural gender. Since grammatical gender attribution is obligatory in the examined host languages, Anglicisms as well as English Internationalisms have to take up one of the three (German) or two (French and Italian) grammatical genders when integrated in the foreign language systems. According to Jabłoński55, nouns are classified by reason of the following criteria:

1. natural gender 2. phonological and graphological structures 3. analogy with the nearest native equivalent (translation) 4. morphological factors such as suffix analogies

54 beagle, boom, broker, charter, drive, jigger, sandwich, toast, warrant, zoom 55 cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 91 73

The above table 1 reveals that 23 nouns out of 43 German Anglicisms (nouns) are masculine56, another 10 are neuter57 and 6 are either masculine or neuter58. For reasons of comparability I will, only for the purpose of this analysis, treat German neuters as being masculine – assuming that it is the masculine gender in French and Italian corresponding to the German neuter. The total number of 39 ‘masculine’ English Internationalisms in DDUWB would, therefore, amount to 91% compared to four feminine nouns59 (9%). LNPR states 38 words to be of masculine gender60 (88%), 3 feminine nouns61 (7%) and 2 substantives (5%) that can either be feminine or masculine62. The results in LOZ were similar: 37 masculine substantives63 (86%), 3 feminine nouns64 (7%) and 3 nouns (7%) that can be either used as feminine or masculine65. Thus, the analysis demonstrates that English Internationalisms, generally, show a great tendency to be attributed a masculine (neuter) grammatical gender in the replica languages:

m n 100% n & m 90% f 80% f & m 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% DDUWB LNPR LOZ

Table 2: Percentage of noun genders in English Internationalisms

56 German masculine nouns: Airbag, Beagle, Blizzard, Boom, Broker, Cardigan, Charter, Container, Drive, Folk, Globetrotter, Hooligan, Irish Coffee, Jigger, Overdrive, Scanner, Sweater, Thriller, Toast, Tuner, Underground, Warrant, Yuppie 57 German neuter nouns: Business, Crosscountry, Establishment, Gadget, Happening, Impeachment, Management, Recital, Weekend, Zoom 58 German nouns either neuter or masculine: Flashback (Flash-back), Ketchup, New Look, Poster, Sandwich, Take-off 59 German feminine nouns : Jukebox, Performance, Poleposition, Science-Fiction (Sciencefiction) 60 French masculine words: airbag, beagle, blizzard, boom, broker, business, cardigan, charter, container, cross-country, drive, establishment, flash-back, folk, gadget, happening, hooligan, impeachment, irish coffee, jigger, jukebox, ketchup, management, new look, overdrive, poster, recital, sandwich, scanner, sweater, take- off, thriller, toast, tuner, underground, warrant, week-end, zoom 61 French feminine nouns: performance, pole position, science-fiction 62 French nouns either masculine or feminine: globe-trotter, yuppie 63 Italian masculine nouns: airbag, beagle, blizzard, boom, broker, business, cardigan, charter, container, cross-country, drive, establishment, flashback, folk, gadget, happening, impeachment, Irish coffee, jigger, jukebox, ketchup, management, new look, overdrive, poster, recital, sandwich, scanner, sweater, take-off, thriller, toast, tuner, underground, warrant, weekend, zoom 64 Italian feminine nouns : performance, pole position, science-fiction 65 Italian nouns either feminine or masculine: globe-trotter, hooligan, yuppie 74

Concerning the predominant group of masculine nouns in French and Italian, this classification is mainly due to suffix analogies and the tendency of unmarked nouns to adopt masculine gender. Unmarked nouns are nouns that do not provide morphological clues as to which class of grammatical gender they would fit best: blizzard, cardigan, cross-country, drive, flash-back, folk, gadget, etc. Suffix analogies, on the other hand, imply a certain morphological indication: English nouns ending in –ment are analogous to French substantives ending in –ment and Italian nouns ending in –mento. They are, therefore, treated as masculine. Nouns ending in –er are dealt with as the masculine suffix –eur in French and the Italian masculine –ore.

As for the nouns ending in –tion and –ance another analogy can be observed, with the corresponding native suffixes –zione / –anza in Italian and –tion / –ance in French to mark feminine substantives.

The German language is a bit more complicated regarding gender attribution as there are three grammatical genders, namely feminine, masculine and neuter, which have been, as to unmarked nouns, almost arbitrarily fixed: der Airbag, der Boom, das Gadget, der Folk. The grammatical gender of these nouns sometimes cannot even be explained by means of the nearest equivalent, as this would be das Luftkissen for der Airbag, die Hochkonjunktur or die Nachfrage for der Boom, der Werbeartikel for das Gadget and die Volksmusik for der Folk.

There are, on the other hand, quite a number of ‘native’ suffix analogies to be observed: nouns in –tion are feminine (Poleposition, Sciencefiction), nouns in –ment, –ness and –ing are neuter (Happening, Establishment, Business, Impeachment, Management) and substantives ending in –er are masculine (Broker, Scanner, Jigger). However, there is one exception: Poster is classified as being primarily treated as neuter (probably owing to ‘das Bild’).

A comparison of the words in each gender category on the level of all three host languages proves my assumption that German neuter nouns are treated as masculine in French and Italian since I did not find a German neuter Anglicism in the feminine sections of my Italian and French results.

4.1.4.3.3. Plural marking

Plural marking of English Internationalisms in French shows a certain regularity with 40 occurrences of the plural –s grapheme (and three cases of invariable plural: jukebox, new look, take-off). It is, however, doubtful whether the [s] or [z] is actually realised in spoken language.

As for the plural of Internationalisms in the Italian language my analysis demonstrates a general tendency to invariability (38 cases of invariability and 5 occurrences of variation: either English plural or invariable plural), a finding that is justified and taken further by Maurizio Dardano66:

“A norm which has been met with a great deal of consensus in the recent past prescribes that foreignisms of high frequency should not take on a plural marker (for example, il bar – i bar, il film – i film, lo sport – gli sport); on the other hand, those of low frequency should retain the English plural. Since this distinction appears for the most part to be based on subjective criteria, there is a prevailing tendency in today’s press never to indicate the plural; […] Also in essay writing use oscillates; the plural marker appears above all in specialist texts (quotations of technical terms).”

However, the only words to which LOZ attributes the possibility of retaining the English plural are globe-trotter, Irish coffee, jukebox, pole position and sandwich, words that undoubtedly are frequently used.

The German language, represented by DDUWB, for the most part preserves the English plural ‘s’ (20 occurrences), furthermore, there are three nouns that are assigned the status of an uncountable noun in singular (Folk, Underground and Business) and seven nouns with invariable plural (Broker, Container, Globerotter, Scanner, Sweater, Thriller, Tuner). With all of them ending in –‘er’, one might argue that this category of words has been assimilated to German native patterns of plural construction due to their being listed in a German monolingual dictionary, but what about Poster and Jigger? Each word is attached variant plurals (either invariable or the English plural ‘s’). Other variant plural markings are Sandwichs/Sandwiches/Sandwiche and Toasts/Toaste.

66 Dardano, English influence on Italian, p. 238 – 239 76

4.1.4.3.4. Other syntactic indications

Parts of speech markings and information on plural marking right at the beginning of the entry (after the headword) indicate syntactic construction patterns, as they are clear clues to how the English words are to be employed in the language systems of the host languages (nouns are differently to be dealt with than verbs or adjectives).

There is no need to point out that DDUWB, in addition to parts of speech and plural indications also states the marking of the genitive case, since the German language has different inflexion in its four cases. I will, however, refrain from dwelling on the grammatical cases as they are of little relevance to my comparison with the French and the Italian language (both of them only attributing cases to pronouns)67.

As I have already covered plural inflexion of nouns, I will now turn to the special category of nouns that are also used as adjectives in French and Italian:

With the French adjective-nouns only folk is inflected in both cases (un chanteur de folk, des groupes folks), new-look is both, invariable as a noun and when acting as an adjective, and underground is inflected when used as noun and invariable in adjectival use (les undergrounds, des films underground). The Italian Internationalisms charter, folk and underground are invariable, thus uninflected, as nouns and as adjectives (il volo charter, una canzone folk, delle commedie underground), whereas sandwich is invariable in adjectival use (le strutture sandwich) and can be inflected when used as a noun (due sandwiches al prosciutto).

67 I came across an interesting commentary concerning misspelling of the possessive/genitive case in German which is due to English influence: “The widespread misspelling of ‘s in the genitive singular nouns in German, especially in proper names, such as Goethe’s Gedichte, Shakespeare’s Dramen, Frank’s Bücher, Berlin’s Denkmäler, likewise goes back to the English model. In England, too, it came about erroneously. This can be demonstrated by its historical origin: beside the original inflected genitive singular (Middle English the king(e)s son, German des Königs Sohn) stood the possessive dative (Middle English the king (h)is son, German dem König sein Sohn). As the latter popular construction had spread out in the early New English period the grammarians of the 17th century, who endeavoured to regulate the English language but were still unfamiliar with its history, mistook his with its weakly pronounced h- for the origin of the genitive ending and recommended therefore to put an apostrophe before the genitive -s in order to show that one or more letters had been left out. This equation of the two grammatical constructions did by no means apply to feminine nouns, as for example the queen her son, which, however, did not prevent the early English grammarians from transferring the masculine ‘s out of its pretended his to the genitive singular of all the nouns. This linguistic misconception also led at the same time to the restricted use of the genitive ‘s to the possessive case.” (Lehnert, English loans in GDR German, p. 141 – 142) 77

4.1.4.4. Semantics and stylistics

The primary object of this section is to point out correspondences, similarities and divergence in the use of Anglicisms on the semantic (referring to the meanings provided by the dictionaries) and on the stylistic level (referring to style levels and the speaker’s attitudes68.)

4.1.4.4.1. English Internationalisms on the semantic level

“Lexikalische Einheiten werden nie von Sprache zu Sprache als vollständige ’dictionary entries’ entlehnt. Die Entstehung eines Wortes kann nur in konkreten Lebenssituationen geschehen, d.h. ’in the form of a concrete path. If a word has been borrowed in more than one situation, it may have more than one sense in the borrowing language, and consequently the dictionary entry of this word in the borrowing language will have more than one path.’.“69

These ‘paths’ mentioned above, on the practical lexicographical level are visualised as shown in the following entry taken from LNPR:

performance [pDYfCYmSs] n. f. • 1839; mot angl., de l'a. fr. parformance (XVIe), de parformer « accomplir, exécuter » 1♦ Résultat chiffré obtenu dans une compétition (par un cheval, un athlète). Les performances d'un champion. Performance homologuée. Une médiocre performance. —Voiture classée première à l'indice de performance, selon sa cylindrée. — Les performances d'un cadre, d'un vendeur. Les performances d'une usine, d'un produit. ◊ Psychol. Test de performance : test non verbal d'appréciation des facultés intellectuelles. — (1966) ◊ Ling. Réalisation d'un acte de parole par une personne (encodage ou décodage). Compétence et performance. 2♦ Résultat optimal qu'une machine peut obtenir. Les performances d'un ordinateur, d'un avion, d'un système. ◊ Fig. Exploit, succès. ⇒ prouesse. Le travail a été exécuté en moins de temps qu'il n'était prévu, c'est une belle performance! « Le capitaine-adjoint ne fut pourtant pas ébloui par cette performance » (Dorgelès).

Thus, the noun performance encloses two paths leading to two different meanings. Meaning 1 is further divided into two paths (meanings special to particular subject fields: psychology and linguistics) and meaning 2 encloses a sub-path to the metaphorical meaning of the word.

68 cf. Svensén, Practical Lexicography, p. 183 – 186 69 Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 120 78

‘Using’ these lexicographical paths to examine semantic variations, I found out that 17 out of 45 headwords show exactly corresponding paths in all three dictionaries: air bag, blizzard, cardigan, container, cross-country, globe-trotter, hooligan, impeachment, Irish coffee, jukebox, ketchup, pole position, science-fiction, shocking, thriller, weekend and yuppie.

These words almost exclusively have only one meaning cited in the four examined dictionaries – except for pole position which additionally takes on the metaphorical meaning of ‘privileged status’ or ‘preferential treatment’ in French and Italian and container whose second ‘path’ points to a semantic narrowing (specification) in German, as it is referred to as ‘a box used for the shipment of books’.

A second group of words (8 cases) reveals corresponding meanings in all three replica languages in question, but borrows only one meaning from the original English word:

• beagle (takes on the meaning of ‘a small hound of a breed with a short coat, used for hunting’, but neglects ‘an informer or spy’) • establishment (borrows only the meaning of The Establishment, leaving aside eight other meanings, e.g. ‘a place of business’, ‘a household’, ‘a Church system organised by law’) • folk (is referred to as the colloquial abbreviation of English folk music, overlooking other meanings, such as ’people in general’ and ‘one’s parents or relatives’) • happening (does not borrow the much ‘broader’ meaning of ‘an event or occurrence’ from English, but is cited as ‘an improvised or spontaneous theatrical etc. performance’ only) • management (excludes ‘the technique of treating a disease’ and ‘trickery or deceit’ in its borrowing process from English, only referring to ‘the action or process of managing’ and ‘the professional administration of business concerns and the people engaged in this’) • new look (takes on the general meaning of ‘revised or new appearance or presentation’ and ignores the specialised English ‘a style of women’s clothing introduced after the Second World War, featuring long full skirts and a generous use of material in contrast to wartime austerity’) 79

• overdrive (does not apply to the second meaning in English: ‘a state of high or excessive activity’ and only borrows ‘an additional speed-increasing gear’) • recital (is referred to as ‘the performance of a programme of music by a solo instrumentalist or singer’, leaving aside ‘a detailed account of’, ‘a narrative’ and ‘the part of a legal document that states the fact’)

Jabłoński70 states that semantic integration of a foreign word into the lexicon of a host language is not only restricted to a quantitative reduction (as with the eight preceding words), but “it also affects the internal structure of such an entry [scil. in a dictionary] modifying its paths … This leads to the phenomenon traditionally known under the headings of the narrowing, extension and shift of meaning.”71

Thus, the third group comprises 20 cases of semantic variation concerning the borrowing from English, with the French, German and Italian languages each acting differently when taking over original English words: boom, broker, business, charter, drive, flashback, gadget, jigger, light, performance, poster, sandwich, scanner, sweater, take-off, toast, tuner, underground, warrant and zoom.

4.1.4.4.1.1. Semantic narrowing

A narrowing of meaning takes place when a word being borrowed from a foreign language takes on a ‘specialised’ meaning in a replica language – only covering a small part of the definition in its original meaning, e.g. in German the meaning of container is narrowed down to ‘a boxed used for shipment of books’ and boom is reduced to ‘Hausse an der Börse’.

4.1.4.4.1.2. Semantic extension

Extension or broadening in meaning occurs when a foreign word or loan word additionally takes on another meaning, one the word does not have in the donor language, but that can be traced back to one of the original meanings e.g.:

70 cf. Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 121 71 Jabłoński, Rezeption englischer Internationalismen, p. 121

• drive, in German, is broadened to ‘a special type of jazz music characterised by ever accelerating rhythm’ • gadget, in German, is referred to as ‘a small gift to consumers for advertising reasons’ (what is, strictly speaking, a semantic shift), whereas the French and the Italian language take on a meaning quasi antonymous to the original English one: ‘a useless object or innovation’ • performance, in French and Italian, is added the meaning of ‘ numeral result in a competition, e.g. number of points of a horse in a show jumping, or number of points achieved by an athlete’ • sandwich, used as an apposition, is metaphorically used in French and Italian as ‘a kind of structure’; in German it also denotes a special piece of equipment used in a political campaign (it is in form of two advertising placards worn on chest and back) • pole position, in French and Italian, takes on the metaphorical meaning of ‘privileged status’ or ‘preferential treatment’ • take-off, in Italian, is also used for marking the beginning of an economical rise in underdeveloped countries

4.1.4.4.1.3. Semantic shift

A shift in meaning takes place when the meaning / or one of the meanings of the borrowed word has nothing in common with its original meaning in the source language, e.g.:

• Apart from the original meaning of the word, boom in French also denotes ‘a scandal’ or ‘a provoking advert’. Another meaning describes the ‘annual party of a French school named H.E.C.’. • The Italian meaning of jigger is altered to ‘a machine used for colouring textiles’. In French, jigger is labelled ‘a device for electric transformation’. • The English meaning of flashback (‘a scene in a film or novel set in time earlier than the main action) undergoes a semantic shift in German to ‘a conditioned drugged state without actually taking drugs’ (and is broadened to ‘a long ago episode of one’s life that suddenly comes to one’s mind’ in Italian)

4.1.4.4.2. English Internationalisms on the stylistic level

Stylistics is defined as a branch of linguistics that studies variation in language use (style):

“Style is seen as the (conscious or unconscious) selection of a set of linguistic features from all the possibilities of a language. The effects these features convey can be understood only by intuitively sensing the choices that have been made (as we react to the linguistic impact of a religious archaism, a poetic scheme, or a joke), and it is usually enough simply to respond to the effect in this way. But there are often occasions when we have to develop a more analytical approach, as when we are asked our opinion about a particular use of language. Here, when we need to explain our responses to others, or even advise others how to respond […], our intuition needs to be supplemented by a more objective account of style. It is this approach which is known as stylistics.” 72

Since my reference material on English Internationalisms is based on dictionaries and by no account applies to actual (individual) language usage, this section only covers a theoretical approach to the use of English words. I will, however deal with the question of stylistics in more detail – and on a more practical level – in chapter 6: Attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms.

The Dudenredaktion claims foreign words to fulfil the following stylistic functions:73

• Refinement on the connotative and associative level

Sie ermöglichen inhaltliche Nuancierung durch Hervorrufung spezifischer Assoziationen. Unerwünschte Assoziationen oder nicht zutreffende Vorstellungen können durch Fremdwortgebrauch vermieden werden. Durch so genannte Bezeichnungsexotismen, Wörter, die auf Sachen, Personen und Begriffe der fremdsprachigen Umwelt beschränkt bleiben, kann wirkungsvoll ein kulturspezifisches Kolorit erzeugt werden. Daneben vermögen Fremdwörter ein bestimmtes Lebensgefühl zum Ausdruck zu bringen. Wer so redet, möchte jugendlich, dynamisch, zeitgemäß (trendy) und weltläufig wirken, und dazu dienen heute vor allem englische Fremdwörter (Anglizismen).

• Refinement on the style level

Fremdwörter erlauben eine Nuancierung der Stilebenen Sie können verschiedene Stilhöhen erzeugen: eine gehobene, eine neutrale, aber auch eine umgangssprachlich-jargonhafte.

72 Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopedia, p. 66 73 cf. Dudenredaktion: Zum Thema. Das Fremdwort – Freund oder Feind at http://www.duden.de

Nicht selten erscheint das Fremdwort eleganter, da pointierter, bisweilen auch klanglich besser zum Wortsinn passend. Auch subjektive Haltungen und Einstellungen kann es zum Ausdruck bringen. Fremdwörter ermöglichen Variation im Ausdruck. Um störende Wiederholungen zu vermeiden, gibt es zum Fremdwort oft keine Alternative.

• Refinement on the sociolinguistic level:

Fremdwörter haben versachlichende Funktion und ermöglichen dadurch das taktvolle Sprechen über heikle, unangenehme oder tabuisierte Themen. Fremdwörter ermöglichen die Anspielung auf Bildungsinhalte. Sie stellen Wissensappelle dar und haben dadurch sozial integrierende bzw. ausgrenzende Funktion.

• Refinement on the level of text production

Fremdwörter können eine Signalfunktion haben, d. h., sie können Aufmerksamkeit erregen. So finden sich Fremdwörter (vor allem Anglizismen) häufig in der Kommunikationsbranche, im Marketing und in der Werbung. Fremdwörter ermöglichen Präzision und Kürze. Diese erfüllen stilistisch zwar keinen Selbstzweck, können aber in bestimmten Redesituationen oder Textsorten (z. B. in der Fachsprache) wünschenswert sein. Manche Fremdwörter, vor allem Fachwörter, lassen sich überhaupt nicht durch ein einziges deutsches Wort ersetzen; oft müssten sie umständlich umschrieben werden.

4.1.4.5. Authentic English Internationalisms - assimilated forms causing ambiguity

Having thoroughly analysed 45 ‘genuine’ English Internationalisms by means of their pronunciation, I may conclude that, strictly speaking, the majority of the examined words would fall under the category of assimilated Anglicisms, as they are assimilated on the phonological level. On the international level, speakers of English, French, German and Italian will surely understand compromise transmorphemisation, but will a German speaker understand the French /manaímS/ (management) or the Italian /»r¤tÉital/ (recital), both occurrences of free transmorphemisation?

In addition, summarising my results of semantic variations in linguistic borrowing, I would argue that there are quite a number of words that are not unmistakably to be understood by speakers of English, French, German and Italian when interacting (see group three), with the Englishman speaking of jigger as ‘an iron golf club with a narrow face’ for example and the Italian referring to jigger as ‘a machine used for colouring textiles’.

It is for such reasons that I would have to revise my former requirements (accurate reproduction in spelling as a headword, ignoring capitalisation in German and hyphen- spelling as well as spelling of compounds in all languages) by adding two more requirements an authentic Internationalism has to meet, namely zero transmorphemisation or compromise transmorphemisation AND variation in meaning only in terms of narrowing or quantitative reduction of the original meanings.

Thus, having analysed 45 English words that occur in a French, German and an Italian monolingual dictionary, only 12 words meet the above requirements: air bag, cardigan, container, globe-trotter, impeachment, Irish coffee, jukebox, ketchup, shocking, thriller and weekend.

For the purpose of this paper, however, I will stick to my claim that the introductory sorting (the list of 452 words) to represent English Internationalisms, as assimilated forms show quite more considerable divergence in their characteristic features.

4.1. Assimilated Internationalisms

Assimilation of foreign words primarily involves assimilation according to the rules of grapheme-phoneme realisation and representation in the replica language and assimilation on the morphological level (inflectional and derivational).

4.2.1. Assimilation according to the rules of grapheme-phoneme realisation and representation

In my huge corpus of more than 9,000 words I found forty occurrences of ‘foursomes’ with grapheme-phoneme assimilation, meaning that a host language modifies foreign words (that-are-to-be-integrated) by means of an assimilated spelling corresponding to native symbol-sound relations.

Here are some examples: 84

English boomerang German Bumerang

English cashmere French cachemire German Kaschmir

English kangaroo French kangourou German Känguru Italian canguro

English cheque German Scheck

English cheviot French cheviotte

English clubhouse German Klubhaus

English foxtrot German Foxtrott

English tick French tique

Interesting to note is that within these 40 occurrences of assimilation through grapheme- phoneme representation, the Italian language only once modifies the spelling of an ‘English’ word (kangaroo – canguro), by replacing the ‘k’ by the more commonly used ‘c’ and assimilating ‘oo’ to ‘o’. The ‘u’ might be the result of the English [Ÿ] also being assimilated to native sound patterns.

On the whole, it is primarily the German language that assimilates English words by means of grapheme-phoneme relations, with 12 cases of replacing initial ‘c’ by ‘k’: Kaschmir, Kalypso, Kamera, Kameramann, Känguru, Kanter, Katgut, Klubhaus, Kommando, Kondom, Kricket, Krocket.

In syllable ending, however, it is mainly French that integrates an English word in spelling: cachemire, kangourou, caravane, cheviotte, condome, skif, snif, starlette, tique, transfert, zip.

4.2.2. Assimilation on the morphological level

I dare say that assimilation on the morphological level (be it inflectional or derivational) is the best clue to claim a foreign word to be fully adapted by a host language.

4.2.2.1. Verbs

To start with, let us turn to the morphological assimilation of verbs. Generally speaking, this assimilation follows certain rules in the replica languages examined. Principally, English words are assimilated by adding the infinitive inflections

• -en (and -ieren for English verbs ending in -ise) in German: boomen, dopen, flirten, klicken, mixen, sniffen, zoomen and kannibalisieren, hypnotisieren, makadamisieren, optimieren, randomisieren, realisieren, standardisieren, visualisieren, vulkanisieren • -er in French: boycotter, doper, cannibaliser, cliquer, coloniser, distancer, formater, merceriser, mixer, quantifier, tatouer, zoomer • -are in Italian: boicottare, cannibalizzare, cliccare, colonizzare, dopare, dribblare, formattare, implementare, randomizzare, tatuare

There are, however, certain irregularities to be found in the German assimilation process:

• Certain English verbs not ending in -ise do take on the German -ieren: boykottieren, formatieren, implementieren

As for verb inflection, assimilated English verbs act as if they were native –a point of major discussion concerning the German language. One might argue that the mention of a word in the prevailing German monolingual dictionary, the Duden, is proof enough to apply native German inflection rules, and it is. Uncertainties only arise with the spelling of 86 the past participle of words that are not stated in the DDUWB as being ‘native’ or adapted, e.g. forwarden – ich habe forgewardet / ich habe geforwardet, downloaden – ich habe gedownloadet / ich habe downgeloadet. These words generally follow the rules of the nearest native equivalent (weiterleiten – ich habe weitergeleitet, herunterladen – ich habe heruntergeladen).

4.2.2.2. Nouns

As a general observation, most of the morphologically assimilated nouns cited as ‘English’ in DDUWB, LNPR and LOZ are of Greek and/or Latin origin. The most commonly found derivational morphemes, thus, are:

• -cracy/-cratie/-kratie/-crazia: to form nouns of state and quality (from Latin ‘-cratia’ and Greek ‘-kratia’ = ‘strength, power’) • -ism/-isme/-ismus-/ismo: to form nouns, especially denoting systems, principles and ideologial movements (from Latin ‘-ismus’ and Greek ‘-ismos’ or ‘-isma’) • -ist/-iste/-ist/-ista: to form personal nouns (from Latin ‘-ista’ and Greek ‘-istes’) • -ity/-ité/-ität/-itá: to form nouns denoting quality or condition (from Latin ‘-itas’) • -tion/-tion/-ion/-zione: to form nouns denoting action, condition, etc. [also: -ion, -ation, -ition, -ution] (from Latin ‘-tio’)

As examples of morphological assimilation originating in Greek and Latin influences let me mention:

English plutocracy French plutocratie German Plutokratie Italian plutocrazia

English behaviourism French behaviorisme German Behaviorismus Italian behaviorismo

English adventist French adventiste German adventist Italian avventista

English electricity French électricité German Elektrizität Italian elettricità

English acculturation French acculturation German Akkulturation Italian acculturazione

Apart from Greek and Latin influences, there are other cases of morphological assimilation to be detected:

• The English suffix -er, in French, is likely to be replaced by -eur (assembleur, handicappeur, joggeur) or -aire (dispensaire, partenaire) • The Italian language tends to add a final vowel to English words (alligatore, dollaro, elfo, flanella, monitore)

Concluding the section concerning assimilated forms of English Internationalisms, I would like to point out once again that morphologically assimilated forms of borrowed words as well as foreign words adapted by native grapheme-phoneme patterns are no longer felt as being an ‘intruder’ to the lexicon of the host languages.

4.3. Prospects

Before turning to ‘Attitudes towards Anglicisms’ let me just set up the following hypothesis for the future borrowing from English and/or the development of the French, German and Italian lexicon to come. This thesis can only be backed by my lexicographical and highly theoretical reference material and is, therefore, based on my being a native speaker of German: 88

As we have boomen as verb for Boom or chartern according to Charter in German, tostare as verb to toast and zumare corresponding to zoom in Italian and boumer, charteriser and zoomer in French, I dare say that – in the long run – the vocabularies of the examined replica languages will also take on (some of) the verbal forms (if they exist) of English nouns being in the dictionaries.

My assumption, although rather subjective, is based on the following facts:

Apart from ‘older’ forms, such as filmen, grillen, handicappen, kidnappen, liften, puzzeln, sponsorn, sprayen, stoppen, testen, we have the following verbs in German vocabulary, even though they are not evidenced in DDUWB. broken broker to act (or behave like a broker) brunchen brunch to have a brunch chippen chip to perform a golf shot called ‘chip’ clustern cluster to arbitrarily put together unsuitable things crashen crash to be involved in a car crash dancen dance (esp. in ‘abdancen’) to dance in an untamed manner floppen flop to result in a fiasco jazzen jazz to produce jazz music (to dance to jazz music) jetten jet to move quickly from one place to another (usually over long distances) jobben job to work rappen rap to produce rap music scannen scanner to ‘read’ printed texts or pictures and transfer them to the computer swingen swing to dance toppen top to achieve a place or position higher than something else twisten twist to dance

And I may argue that it won’t be long until we even get forms such as: brainstormen, breaken, finishen, glamourisieren, jaccuzieren, lunchen, matchen, scouten, singeln, etc. in German, or brainstormer, jacuzzer, singler in French and breakare, glamourizzare, lunchare and scoutare in Italian.

5. ATTITUDES TOWARDS ENGLISH INFLUENCE AND THE USE OF ANGLICISMS

In the preceding chapters I have pointed out how English words are dealt with in the French, German and Italian languages. My analysis here has been primarily based on dictionary entries of the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries of the languages in question, but, as already mentioned in chapter 2, dictionaries by no means represent actual language usage. And it is for this reason – and the fact that ongoing discussions concerning the flux of English words seem to be prominent in (not only) linguistic circles – that, in this chapter I will deal with people’s attitudes towards Anglicisms in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds.

Furthermore, in a separate section in this chapter I will refer to projects aimed against English influence that are currently in progress.

5.1. Questionnaires

The method appropriate to my research project would seem to be the use of questionnaires. As a technique I adopted the multiple-choice modus – since this procedure is the only way to get comparable results. The questions were selected along the following criteria:

1. When do non-native speakers of English in the examined language communities most probably use English words a. orally / in writing? b. in working life / in everyday life ?

In this context I assume that Anglicisms will be equally applied in working and everyday life in the German and the Italian speaking world, with a majority of Anglicisms used in everyday life in the French speaking community.

As for the distribution of Anglicisms in text and discourse, I expect English words to be primarily used in spoken discourse in all three language communities in question. 90

2. Why do people in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds use Anglicisms?

This set of questions deals with stylistics in language usage. As answers to opt for I proposed: (1) because English words are shorter and more precise than the corresponding word in one’s mother tongue, (2) because there is no equivalent in one’s mother tongue, (3) because the use of English words seems to indicate a certain kind of trendiness and modernity, (4) because some English words are internationally fixed and/or used and (5) in order to avoid repetition of words in speech or writing.

I assume that the answers (1) and (4) are most likely to be given by the majority of speakers of French, German and Italian, with only a small percentage to selecting (2) and (5) in French and a prevalence of German speaking people choosing (3).

3. Are people aware of using so-called loan blends, i.e. hybrid forms with one English element and one of the native language?

Undoubtedly, I expect all speakers involved in my research to answer this question with a clear ‘yes’.

4. What are the speakers attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms with respect to their mother tongue? Where do they think the influence comes from? Do they still notice English words in actual language usage? Are there cases of a provocative use of Anglicisms to be observed?

I presume speakers of French to not opt for English words to enrich the French language and I think that there will be only a small number of people choosing the option that English words are no longer noticed in everyday language usage.

The majority of the speakers of German and Italian, however, will surely give as an answer that they no longer notice English words and that they enrich their mother tongue.

Concerning the origin of the spread of English words in other languages’ vocabularies, I expect all three language communities to opt for the dominance of the US in various sectors such as economy, technology, etc. 91

As to the use of English words due to snobbery or showing-off I am not sure about the answers to be selected in the various languages, but I think that primarily speakers of German might opt for this answer.

5. Where do people most frequently notice the use of English words?

Within this section I proposed the following fields of application: sports, techniques and technology, the Internet, youth language, advertising, science, business and economy and politics.

Most probably, as for myself, the ranking in all language communities will be: Internet, youth language, sports, business and economy, advertising, technology, science and politics.

5.1.1. Procedure

As the object of my research project was to find out about the attitudes of speakers of French, German and Italian towards the use of English words, my method implied addressing these peoples of the different language communities. But how address them and get a representative choice? I decided to subscribe to French, German and Italian news groups and chat rooms in the Internet in order to get some email addresses to which I sent my questionnaires translated into the respective languages (The English version of my questionnaire is shown in the following on page 93, with the French, German and Italian versions to look at in appendix G).

Without doubt, my sending e-mails to other users of the Internet slightly distorts my results, since knowledge of English can be taken for granted with people familiar with the Internet. However, this method seemed to me the only possibility to get appropriate feedback.

Unfortunately, from more than 100 e-mails I sent to each, speakers of French, German and Italian, only about 30 people were willing to support my statistical study by answering my questionnaire. I got thirty-eight e-mails from speakers of German, twenty-nine from speakers of Italian and twenty-eight from speakers of French. 92

For reasons of comparison I had to fix the number of questionnaires to deal with. I decided to analyse thirty questionnaires, meaning, to just leave out eight questionnaires from German speakers (the ones coming in last), to ask a friend to send e-mails to Italian friends of his and to address the Société Française in Klagenfurt in order to get the missing answers.

In my questionnaires I also asked people to fill in their age and gender – as I really expected to make out some correlation (in age at least). It is, however, the case that no central points can be drawn from the answered questionnaires. It is for this reason that I will not consider age and gender when analysing the results of the questionnaires in the subsequent chapter.

Still, as to the question of possible correlation concerning gender, it is noteworthy that it was primarily male participants in German, namely 23 out of 30 (77%), and principally female contributors in French (21 out of 30 = 70%) and Italian (23 out of 30 = 77%).

Another aspect I will not take into consideration in the analysis of the answered questionnaires but that, certainly, is worth mentioning is the distribution of age. Looking at age as regards the participants of my project on attitudes towards the English influence on other languages, I found out that one can best make out these five age groups: From 15 to 24, from 25 to 34, from 35 to 44, from 45 to 54 and from 55 to 64. The only analogy to be detected is that speakers of French, German and Italian between 25 and 34 alike were most ready to answer my e-mail:

16 15 14 French 14 11 German 12 Italian 10 10 8 7 8 6 5 6 44 4 2 2 1 1 2 0 0 15 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64

Fig.9: The distribution of age concerning the answered questionnaires 93

Here is the English version of my questionnaire:

QUESTIONNAIRE

Help!!! Anglomania!!! My name is Philippa Maurer-Stroh and I am studying English linguistics at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. At the moment I am working on my diploma thesis and I would like to kindly ask you for you help in this matter. All I would need is about 3 minutes of your time ... So, what is it about? I am carrying out a survey of the use of / and attitudes towards English words in modern French / German / Italian. Well then, please take your time to answer the following questions and return the questionnaire to me. The questionnaire is anonymous and your answers shall only be used to draw up a statistical study of the current usage of language in the French / German / Italian speaking world.

Please mark with a cross where applicable -> replace o by x (you can give more than one answer)

1. I use English words o in working life o in everyday life

o in writing o orally

2. I use English words o because they are shorter and more precise – example(s): o because there is no French / German / Italian equivalent – example(s): o because they are "in" – example(s): o if the terms are internationally fixed / used – example(s): o in order to avoid repetition of words in speech or writing – example(s):

3. I also use o hybrid forms – compound words of both languages (marketing téléphonique, Last-Minute-Angebot, calciatore-manager)

4. The use of English words o enriches the French / German / Italian language o is due to the dominant role of the US in several sectors o displays a certain kind of snobbism or showing-off o does not strike me any longer, I sometimes do not even notice them

5. I notice English words, terms and expressions primarily in the field of o sports – example(s): o techniques & technology – example(s): o the Internet – example(s): o youth language – example(s): o advertising – example(s): o business & economy – example(s): o science – example(s): o politics – example(s):

Age: Gender:

Thank you !!! 94

5.1.2. Results

To start with, in this section I will deal with the results of the respective languages separately. This analysis is, then, followed by a summarising comparison of the languages involved.

5.1.2.1. French

When setting up the questionnaire, my hypothesis as to the distribution of Anglicisms in spoken discourse and written texts was that the majority of speakers of all languages would opt for the use of English words in spoken language – as is justified by the below diagram.

none in writing 7% 7%

both 37% orally 49%

Question 1a

Fig.10: Anglicisms in (French) spoken discourse and written texts I did not, however, assume that 37% of the speakers of French would select both areas of application (in writing and orally) since this figure implies not only a rise in the percentage of English words used in spoken language, but also an increase in occurrences of English words in French texts.

***

As to my assumption that the use of Anglicisms in everyday language will dominate in the French spoken word (as La Loi Toubon to some extent restricts the use of English words), the following illustration reveals that there is quite a balance in France concerning diffusion of Anglicisms: 34% selected ‘working life’ as the area of predominant use of 95

English words, 33% opted for ‘everyday life’ and 30% tend to use them equally often in both areas.

none 3%

working life both 34% 30%

everyday life 33%

Question 1b

Fig.11: Anglicisms in (French) everyday and professional use

To back this result I found some plausible explanations of why speakers of French often (also) use English words in their job, although the French state constantly tries to intervene:

• “The dominance of English as a language of scientific publication dictates the language of scientists. A study carried out in 1984 among researchers in Strasbourg […] revealed that 85 percent of the information they treated was in English and 12.5% in French.”74 • “The use of English in industry is a direct result of the internationalization of the economy. […] A company usually operates at four levels: applied research, manufacturing, management, and marketing. Since the application of research depends on scientific researchm it involves more or less the same linguistic practices as those of the laboratory; this expains the frequent use of English. In manufacturing, the use of English may be due to the use of techniques engineered in that language, or the use of tools and machines with accompanying notices in English ”75 • “At the managerial level, English is used to facilitate communication between staff and members from different linguistic backgrounds, between different branches of the company located in different countries, and in the use of electronic hardware (mainly computers) […].”76 • “Large international companies have institutionalized English as a company language which means that its use is compulsory for any form of written and oral communication within the company […].”77

***

74 Truchot, The spread of English, p. 66 – 67 75 Truchot, The spread of English, p. 67 – 68 76 Truchot, The spread of English, p. 68 77 Truchot, The spread of English, p. 68 96

The diagram below verifies my assumption that ‘shorter and more precise’ and ‘internationally used’ (as attributed characteristics of English words in a foreign lexicon) will dominate in my findings on the use of Anglicisms in the French speaking world.

shorter & more precise 28% no equivalent 25%

avoid repetition 4%

"in" 15% internationally fixed/used 28% Question 2

Fig.12 The use of Anglicisms in French

As to ‘no equivalent’, I was of the opinion that this criterion of use will fall under one of the minor represented categories, such as ‘in order to avoid repetition’ or ‘to imply a certain kind of trendiness’ – since there are even committees in France that are constantly in search of a French equivalent (be it an older word that gets a new meaning or a neologism), a phenomenon I will deal with in the second part of this chapter.

***

Hybrid forms

no 33%

yes 67%

Question 3

Fig.13: The use of hybrid forms in French 97

Hybrid forms, as I assumed, are used by far the majority of all speakers of French. It is the 67%, however, that strikes me (since I expected a 100% ‘yes’). One might argue, here, that people are probably not even aware of using these forms, i.e. they no longer notice them (a hypothesis that is justified by the following illustration).

***

no longer recognised enrichment 37% 22%

snobbism US dominance 8% 33% Question 4

Fig.14: French attitudes towards Anglicisms

It is nteresting to note that in France, a nation full of linguistic purists, 22% claim English words to enrich the French language and 37% state that they no longer notice the use of Anglicisms (an indication of the full integration of some English words).

Only 8% of the speakers of French bother about some people’s use of English as a means of snobbery.

***

The last section of my questionnaire concerns the distribution of English words in varying sectors of both everyday and working life.

As was my assumption, it is primarily in the field of computers, namely the Internet that detect English words can be detected(27%), followed by sports (21%) and technology amounting to 19% (a branch that I would have ranked as the penultimate): 98

technology 19% internet 27%

sports 21%

youth politics language 2% science 10% advertising 4% business & 11% economy Question 5 6%

Fig.15: The distribution of English words in various sectors (French) ***

Surprisingly, there were quite a number of people who would not let anything stop them from commenting on my proposed answers when filling in the questionnaire. I am, however, grateful for their contributions that I will herewith quote.

• « Les mots anglais enrichissent la langue française, mais ils l'appauvrissent aussi. » (8)78 • « Les mots anglais peuvent enrichir la langue française par certains points, mais il est vrai que hors de la vie professionnelle, je ne les utilise que peu. » (11) • « Je me rend compte que j'utilise des mots anglais, sans vraiment m'en rendre compte, c'est pour cela que je n'ai pas pu donner beaucoup d'exemple. » (15) • « J’emploie peu de mots anglais, je ne suis pas opposée à cette langue, mais je pense que ma langue est assez riche pour qu’on trouve les mots pour s’exprimer. Bien sûr il faut parfois réfléchir pour éviter la facilité, mais c’est pour moi un plaisir de trouver le bon mot pour m’exprimer en français. » (20) • « Des expressions internationalement fixées ? Je n’en ai pas d’exemples qui me viennent à l’instant, c’est plus au travail que le vocabulaire me revient. » (23) • « Ils sont souvent plus courts, mais je ne suis pas sure qu’ils soient plus précis, par exemple : ‘week-end’ pour ‘fin de semaine’, ou encore ‘chewing-gum’ pour ‘gomme à mâcher’ (ici les Franíais ont traduit le mot anglais car ce sont les Américains qui ont ‘inventé’ le produit et donc le nome qu’il porte). Dans ce 2 cas le mot franíais est la traduction littérale du mot anglais. » (25) • « En règle générale utiliser des mots anglais pour un Franíais est le signe que l’on est à la mode, ‘branché’, c’est surtout vrai dans les milieux artistiques, des affaires, du commerce et surtout chez des adolescents et les ‘jeunes adultes’. » (25)

78 found in the eighth questionnaire to be sent back 99

• « Les mots anglais enrichissent la langue franíaise, oui, mais en même titre que toutes les autres langues étrangères (si nous ‘empruntons’ des pratiques, des produits, des habitudes … il est normal d’adopter le mot d’origine.) » (25) • « Ce je pense la principale raison : la prédominance des USA dans l’économie mondiale … c’est normal est nécessaire. » (25) • « Les mots anglais pour moi sont une forme de vantardise : OUI, quelque fois, ía dépend … dans la bouche d’artistes je trouve ía stupide et prétentieux, me je le coníois tout à fait dans le milieu des affaires où bon nombre des gens sont obligés de maîtriser l’anglais s’ils veulent survivre. » (25) • « Je remarque les mots anglais surtout dans le domaine de l’internet, j’ai même remarqué l’apparition d’un nouveau mot : le verbe ‘forwarder’ (il faut le prononcer à la franíaise !) » (25) • « Je remarque les mots anglais surtout dans le domaine de la politique : NON, les hommes politiques font attention à ne pas trop employer de mot anglais (Ils défendent la culture franíaise !!) et ce surtout depuis la LOI de Monsieur Toubon (ancien ministre de la culture) qui n’interdit pas mais subordonne l’emploi des mots étrangers, dans la publicité par exemple, à sa traduction en franíais. » (25) • « Je n’ai pas vraiment mis d’exemple, car je ne les retiens pas … et je n’en vraiment emploie pas beaucoup, sauf un peu dans mon boulot, forcement je suis informaticienne … et donc les langages sont en anglais. » (26)

5.1.2.2. German

As for the distribution of Anglicisms in speech and writing, the German results back my previous assumption that English words are most likely to be used in spoken language.

none 0% both in writing 23% 7%

orally 70% Question 1a

Fig.16: Anglicisms in (German) spoken discourse and written texts

***

100

The results on the diffusion of Anglicisms in working and/or everyday life in the German speaking world reveal certain similarities to the French findings.

none 0% both working life 30% 33%

everyday life 37% Question 1b

Fig.17: Anglicisms in (German) everyday and professional use It is, however, the case that everyday use in German is more frequently to be found than professional use of Anglicisms (whereas the French results demonstrate the contrary – with only a marginal difference though).

***

no equivalent shorter & more 23% precise 27%

"in" 12%

avoid repetition 3%

internationally fixed/used Question 2 35%

Fig.18 The use of Anglicisms in German

The diagram above, once again, verifies my assumption that ‘shorter and more precise’ and ‘internationally used’ (being stated as typical characteristics of English words in a foreign lexicon) will dominate in my findings on the use of Anglicisms. 101

Only 12 % opt for the use of an English word in order to suggest trendiness – a figure that I would have assumed to be higher in the German speaking world.

***

As to the use of compound words consisting of one German and one English element, 87% of the speakers of German state that they are well aware of using them – as the illustration below reveals.

Hybrid forms

no 13%

yes Question 3 87%

Fig.19: The use of hybrid forms in German

Among the examples given for hybrid forms were: Emailadresse, Webseite and Downloadkapazität. ***

no longer recognised enrichment 33% 27%

snobbism 5% US dominance 35% Question 4

Fig.20: German attitudes towards Anglicisms 102

The above diagram shows that approximately one third of the speakers of German see the origin of the English influence in the predominant position of the US. 33% obviously no longer notice the use of English word in the German language, 27% would say that the English language enriches the vocabulary of German – and only 5% argue that the use of Anglicisms might indicate a form of snobbery.

***

The ‘German’ branches in which English words are most frequently to be observed are: the Internet (21%), youth language (18%) and business & economy and technology with 15%.

internet 21% technology youth 15% language 18%

sports advertising 13% 11% politics science business & 2% 5% economy Question 5 15%

Fig.21: The distribution of English words in various sectors (German)

***

Like certain speakers of French, three speakers of German could not help but add extra information:

• « Prinzipiell bin ich gegen eine Ver-englischung unserer deutschen Sprache, aber beruflich bin ich leider an sie gebunden, da ich als Netzwerktechniker blöd angesehen werden würde, würde ich "Wegweiser" zu einem Router oder "Schalter" zu einem Switch sagen. Diese Wörter, oder besser die dazugehörigen Dinge, sind nicht im deutschen Sprachraum entwickelt oder erfunden worden. Daher meiner Meinung nach die englische Sprachbetitelung. » (3) • « Die englischen Fremdwörter bereichern die deutsche Sprache wo es angebracht ist, jedoch nicht immer. » (14) • « Es gibt natürlich auch viele Anglizismen, die uns als solche gar nicht mehr auffallen. » (28)

103

’Surfing’ through the numerous German pages concerning the use of Anglicisms I found the following – rather witty – letter posted in a forum against the English influence on German vocabulary:

“Daß die sog. deutsche Sprache zu großen Teilen englische, lateinische und französische Einflüsse aufnahm, ist ganz natürlich und steht im Zusammenhang mit dem natürlichen Fluß zwischen Völkern und Sprachen. Viele fremde Wörter wie Spaghetti oder so werden auch nicht mehr als fremd wahrgenommen. Der Unterschied zur heutigen Denglisch-Scheiße ist, daß früher (und auch heute noch) Fremdwörter in die deutsche Sprache einfließen, um Lücken zu besetzen und um neue Tätigkeiten oder Dinge zu beschreiben, und die ’Neuwörter’ nicht aus Gründen der ’Coolness’, ’Hipness’ oder Verbraucherverarschung vorsätzlich verbrochen werden. Es gibt doch keinen Grund, warum das Ortsgespräch CityCall heißen muß - da will jemand etwas normales cool, geil und hip machen. Es gibt aber einen guten Grund, warum Spaghetti Spaghetti heißen ... weil ’lange dünne Nudeln ohne Loch in der Mitte’ ein zu sperriger Begriff ist. Es ist also ein Unterschied, ob der neue Begriff nur aus Coolness einen deutschen allgemein verständlichen Begriff verdrängen soll, oder ob er die Sprache um eine zusätzliche Nuance (aha. Französisch!) bereichert ! Warum also kann der Key Account Manager nicht wie immer Hausmeister heißen ? Warum kann der Backshop nicht Bäckerei heißen ? Warum geilen sich viele Leute am Begriff ’Händy’ auf, kommen sich geil und international vor weil’s ja gar so ’internäschionäl’ klingt, aber keine Sau auf der englischsprachigen Halbkugel kann sich darunter was vorstellen ? Wo soll das hinführen, wenn Sprache nicht mehr zur Kommunikation dient, ’tschuldigung, wo die speech nicht mehr for communication techniques used wird, sondern nur noch geil klingende, sinnentleerte Floskeln enthält ? ’Meeten wir um oh-eighthundred am Citypoint zum Chillen ? Wir können ja auch shoppen oder einfach nur etwas walken’ oder der neueste Vorstoß aus dem Sport: ’Rope-Skipping hält fit’ ach wie geil ... ich bin ja so toll, so geil, so hip, so in, ich mache Rope-Skipping !, daß das schon vor dreitausend Jahren die Griechen machten, und seither alle Kinder, bloß halt uncool, ungeil, unhip als Seilhüpfen, das kümmert die nicht. Warum ist ’Rope-skipping hält fit’ besser als ’Seilspringen hält gesund’??????“79

5.1.2.3. Italian

Interesting to note when referring to the Italian results of the distribution of Anglicisms in spoken and written language is that, quite in contrast to the French and German findings, only 7% would use English words in both written texts and spoken discourse (23% in the German and 37% in the French language). As was my assumption, the majority opts for the use of Anglicisms in spoken Italian rather than written documents. See the diagram below:

79 DENGLISH nervt (Forum) at http://www.f23.parsimony.net written by ’Dyson’ on January 15th 2001

104

none 10% in writing both 27% 7%

orally 56% Question 1a

Fig.22: Anglicisms in (Italian) spoken discourse and written texts

***

As to the situational context, 44% of the Italians would preferably use English words in ‘working life’.

none both 3% 13% working life 44%

everyday life 40%

Question 1b

Fig.23: Anglicisms in (Italian) everyday and professional use

40% state using Anglicisms in everyday situations and only 13% indicate a use in both, professional and everyday casual context.

***

105

The Italians primarily tend to use English words when there is no Italian equivalent to be found or if a notion or expression is internationally used.

avoid repetition shorter & more internationally 2% precise fixed/used 24% 31%

"in" 11% no equivalent 32%

Question 2

Fig.24: The use of Anglicisms in Italian

There is some indication (24%) that the Italian speaking world refers to Anglicisms as to be shorter and more precise than words in the mother tongue.

Only 11% use English words to show or suggest modernity and no more than 2% would use an English word in a (written or spoken) text for a stylistic reason such as avoidance of word repetition. ***

Hybrid forms

no 30%

yes 70%

Fig.25: The use of hybrid forms in Italian 106

Concerning hybrid forms of English and Italian words, we observe a 70 : 30 relationship, with 70% of the Italians stating that they do use loan blends.

*** The majority of the speakers in the Italian language community claims to no longer notice English words (43%). 31% of the Italian answers show that the English language is seen to have enriched / enrich the Italian language.

no longer recognised enrichment 43% 31%

US dominance snobbism 23% 3% Question 4

Fig.26: Italian attitudes towards Anglicisms *** The answers concerning the diffusion of Anglicisms in sectors reveal a certain kind of balance, but, again, with the Internet on top, followed by sports and business & economy.

sports technology 17% 9% politics 8% internet science 24% 8%

business & economy youth 14% advertising language 12% 8% Question 5

Fig.27: The distribution of English words in various sectors (German) 107

Here are the Italian comments on my questionnaire:

• « Le parole inglesi fanno parte dell'uso comune che ne viene fatto da parte dei media. » (6) • « In campo educativo vengono usati spesso i termini inglesi vision e mission. » (9) • « Goal = quasi nessuno consce l'equivalente in lingua italiana – rete! » (12) • « Ultimamente ci sono sempre più pubblicità televisive in inglese – come se tutti lo capissero! » (12) • « In Italia si parla solo da 'devolution' – che sarebbe il passaggio di potere dal Governo centrale a quello regionale – e non di 'devoluzione', che ha lo stesso significato. » (12) • « In Italia l'uso della lingua inglese è molto diffuso ma questo non c'è discapito della nostra lingua madre, ma è visto bensi come un arricchimento culturale. » (12) • « Le parole inglesi mi permettono di comunicare con persone che non conoscono l'italiano. » (13) • « Tutte le parole usate in internet sono inglesi. » (14) • « Risponderti non è stato molto facile perché usiamo l’inglese abbastanza correntemente, quindi, non riesco a focalizzare esattamente le parole inglesi che uso, perché ormai mi sembrano normali. » (28)

5.1.2.4. Comparison

This section will now compare the results concerning the attitudes towards Anglicisms in the French, German and Italian language communities.

First, let me turn to the use of English words in speech and writing.

25 French German 20 Italian

15 Question 1a

0 in writing orally both none

Fig.28: Comparison – Anglicisms in French, German and Italian spoken discourse 108

Generally speaking, non-native speakers of English (of whatever nationality) more frequently make use of English words in spoken language than they would employ in texts written in their mother tongue.

The Italians seem to use more English terms in written documents than do speakers of French or German. Speakers of the German language, on the other hand, tend to most frequently employ English words in oral communication, with speakers of French ranking highest indicating a balanced diffusion of Anglicisms in the spoken AND written channel.

10% of the Italians claim to never use English words when communicating, compared to 7% in the French language community. I would have assumed the figure of French speakers who do not make use of English words to be considerably higher, as France holds a prominent position regarding purism in language usage.

*** Moving on to the comparison of situational use of English words, it is interesting to note that, on the whole, the Italians claim to use Anglicisms either in their profession or in everyday life, whereas speakers of French and German tend to apply English words equally in both contexts.

12 French German 10 Italian

Question 1b 6

0 working life everyday life both none

Fig.29: Comparison – Anglicisms in French, German and Italian everyday and professional use

*** 109

The following diagram backs my hypothesis that, generally speaking, English words are used for their being shorter and more precise than the native equivalent, that they are employed due to a lack of an equivalent in French, German or Italian and that their occurrence their being internationally fixed (see also previous chapter).

French 25 German Italian 20 Question 2

0 shorter/more no equivalent "in" international avoid repetition precise

Fig.30: Comparison – The use of Anglicisms in French, German and Italian

*** As to the use of hybrid forms, it is primarily the German language which takes on compounds of one English and one native element.

30 French German 25 Italian 20

10 Question 3 5

0 hybrid forms 'YES'

Fig.31: Comparison – The use of hybrid forms in French, German and Italian

*** 110

The below illustration shows that, basically, speakers of the languages examined no longer notice English words in everyday/professional usage – with this being a clear clue to full integration into one’s (or a language’s) vocabulary.

Speakers of German more openly admit seeing the English influence as an enrichment to their other tongue than do Italians – and speakers of French.

I would have thought that US dominance is an obvious indication as to why the English influence on other nation’s lexicons steadily grows, but the figures say that it is primarily the German speakers who follow my assumption – along with the French speakers’ judgement. Few Italians (less than half the speakers of German) see the origin of the ever spreading use of English words as US dominance. Here the question arises where they would, then, see its source …

20 French 18 German 16 Italian 14 Question 4 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 enrichment US dominance snobbism not recognised

Fig.32: Comparison – French, German and Italian attitudes towards Anglicisms

Also interesting to point out is the ranking of language communities that claim the use of Anglicisms to be a mere indication of showing-off: French – German – Italian.

111

The last point of my comparison concerns the distribution of English words in the fields of sports, technology, the Internet, youth language, advertising, business & economy, science and politics.

18 sports 16 15 16 technology 18 8 23 internet 26 22 8 youth language 22 7 9 advertising 14 11 5 Italian business & economy 18 13 German 3 science 6 French 7 2 politics 2 7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Question 5

Fig.33: Comparison – The distribution of English words in various sectors

As to the diffusion of Anglicisms in subject fields, the only correspondences the above diagram reveals are seen concerning the Internet and sports. Distribution considerably differs in youth language (with German speakers opting for more than twice as many occurrences as do Italians and speakers of French), business & economy (with once again the ‘Germans’ more frequently noticing English words in this sector) and politics (with, this time, Italian vocabulary noticeably differing from French or German language use).

***

Within the next section I will turn to the examples of English words in use given in the respective questionnaires.

112

5.1.3. The ‘Top Ten’ of Anglicisms in the examined languages

In the questionnaires I not only asked people to select an appropriate answer, I also asked them to give examples to each answer80 and it was interesting to find out that only two English terms rank in the top ten of French, German and Italian results :

(to) download and e-mail.

(1) French examples 1 football (8)81 2 mail (8) 3 week-end (8) 4 marketing (7) 5 web (6) 6 corner (5) 7 download (4) 8 e-mail (4) 9 goal (4) 10 handball (3) 11 planning (3) 12 basket ball (2) 13 browser (2) 14 bug (2) 15 chewing-gum / chewinggum (2) 16 cool (2) 17 être fair play (2) 18 fun (2) 19 hit (2) 20 management (2) 21 parking (2) 22 PC (2) 23 penalty (2) 24 process (2) 25 sandwich (2) 26 skate (2) 27 surfer (2)

Interesting to note is that four Anglicisms ranking in the French top ten are not mentioned in LNPR: mail, web, download, e-mail. This fact may be due to my ‘ol d’ 1997 electronic version of the Petit Robert, as I definitely claim these words to actually have penetrated the French lexicon – although there is evidence of e-mail (with its variation mail) to have been

80 the complete lists of examples are found in appendix G 81 indicating the number of mentions 113

‘abolished’ in 1997: “Die Délégation générale à la langue franíaise, zuständig für die Reinhaltung der französischen Sprache, hat die E-Mail abgeschafft – und die Académie franíaise hat zugestimmt. S tatt des ungeliebten Anglizismus, mag er auch weltweit verbreitet sein, heißt es in Frankreich künftig mél für messagerie électronique. In allen offiziellen Schriftstücken ist fortan nur noch diese Form zulässig.“82

(2) German results 1 Cool / cool (15) 2 Download / download (9) 3 Email / email (5) 4 Computer / computer (4) 5 Internet / internet (4) 6 cash flow / cashflow (3) 7 Server / server (3) 8 Birdie (2) 9 Browser / browser (2) 10 cd-rom / CD-ROM (2) 11 chat (2) 12 Corner (2) 13 Deal (2) 14 Eagle (2) 15 EBIT (2) 16 freefly (2) 17 homepage (2) 18 in (2) 19 kids (2) 20 lamer (2) 21 net (2) 22 o.k. / ok (2) 23 Out / out (2) 24 RAM (2) 25 Router / router (2) 26 shit (2) 27 Switch / switch (2) 28 web (2) 29 website (2) 30 Workshop (2) 31 WWW (2)

15 out of 30 persons (50%) stated cool as an example of an Anglicisim in German. Nevertheless, cool is not included in the list of English Internationalism s containing 452

82 Keine E-Mail in Frankreich in ’Die Welt’, on July 5th, 1997 at http://www.oedt.kfunigraz.ac.at/anglizismen/9Frankr.htm 114 words nor in the expanded list of 765 words (also comprising entry words in specialised foreign words dictiona ries).

The Duden – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch mentions nine of the given examples, with only Birdie83 having no entry in this monolingual dictionary of the Germa n language.

(3) Italian results 1 e mail / email / e-mail (9) 2 hardware (6) 3 budget (5) 4 software (5) 5 spot (5) 6 download (4) 7 goal (4) 8 leader (4) 9 manager (4) 10 provider (4) 11 week end / weekend / week-end (4) 12 basket (3) 13 business (3) 14 corner (3) 15 devolution (3) 16 account (2) 17 beach volley / beachvolley (2) 18 browser (2) 19 bug (2) 20 feeling (2) 21 file (2) 22 film (2) 23 internet (2) 24 Know how / knowhow (2) 25 link (2) 26 personal trainer (2) 27 plug-in (2) 28 raster scanning (2) 29 summit (2) 30 target (2) 31 trading on line (2) 32 web (2) 33 world wide web (2)

Lo Zingarelli, my Itali an referen ce, does not prove evidence of download and provider.

83 Birdie refers to the game of golf, meaning you succeed in finishing a ‘hole‘with one stroke under par (the assumed average for professional players). 115

5.2. Projects in progress against the use of Anglicisms

To conclude this chapter, I will now go into some detail concerning the national efforts being made against En glish influence in the French, German and Italian vocabulary. I will, however, refrain from dwelling on minute information or interpretation as to the different projects, but briefly outline their main purposes (and provide the corresponding web sites for further reading).

At this place, let me mention the personal interest I took in dealing with this section. Undoubtedly, I am w ell aware of the English influence on several – if not to say – all languages, but why fi ght Anglicisms? I do ‘love’ my German mother tongue with all its difficulties in gramma r, I cannot help but feeling as if I were ‘special and privileged’ when speaking melodious French and it is definitely the Italian language that implies a certain kind of Mediterranean lifestyle along with ‘real’ culture, but I also appreciate the expressiveness of the English language. It is for these reasons that I would just argue to not opt for either English influence or French, German and Italian linguistic purism – let vocabularies develop in their natural way: languages are ‘living’ constructions, borrowing words, assimilating words, losing words, etc.

Nonetheless, there are efforts being made against the use of Anglicisms …

5.2.1. La Loi Toubon

“Language policy in France includes status planning and corpus planning. Status planning involves the application of a law passed in 1994 entitled Law on the Use of the French language, known as the Loi Toubon (from the name of the minister who proposed it). Corpus planning consists of Terminology Committees (commissions terminologiques) established since 1972 in each ministry to devise and promote French words. The 1975 language law made the use of the French terms obligatory, but this obligation was suppressed by the 1994 law.”84

So, what does the 1994 Loi Toubon say? (The original text is to be seen in the Internet in its original French version, along with an English and a German version, at http://www.culture.fr/dglf/lois/presentation_lois.html)

84 Truchot, The spread of English, p. 74 – 75 116

According to Truchot85, la Loi Toubon

• makes it a right for a contribution to be read in French (at a conference taking place in France)86. • (in theory) excludes the domain of professional use – except that work contracts and collective agreements have to be written in French • makes French obligatory on French radio and television channels • makes sure that, above all, information to consumers is the only domain that the law really addresses • declares French to be the language of education (with the exception of the teaching of foreign languages) • obliges speakers of French to use terms coined by the ministerial Terminology Committees (as this obligation met with fierce opposition and was considered to be an infringement of individual liberties, the French Constitutional Council retained the obligation only for state communications and suppressed it for common use)

Paradox as it may seem, the ‘Cahier de termes officielles’ (containing English words that are recommended or obligatorily to be replaced by French equivalents or neologisms) published in 1994 by the government and the Terminology Committees is the most comprehensive list of Anglicisms in the French language (it is, however, not up-to-date and you should therefore consult the Internet homepages of the Délégation générale à la langue franíaise, which will be dealt with in the footnotes to the subsequent paragraph).

Additionally to the current work of the various Terminology Committees (each covering different sector, such as sport, the Internet, etc.)87, the French ministry of culture and the French tourism association collaborate in the Internet, on the one hand, to ‘internationalise’ the French language (with 84% of the homepages held in English compared to 1.8% French homepages) and, on the other hand, to call for constructive help in ‘creating’ new

85 cf. Truchot, The spread of English, p. 74 86 ... with a more compelling measure included in the first version of the law stating that funds can only be given to scientific research the results of which are published in French 87 Interesting to look at are http://crete.argyro.net/lexique/liste.cfm (for the French Olympic sports terminology), http://www.olf.gouv.qc.ca/ressources/golf/golf.html (for recommended language use when playing golf in the French speaking world), http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/cogether/16-03-99- internet.html (for French Internet terminology) and http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/foot.htm (for football terminology) 117 words to avoid Anglicicms at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf.88 These pages provide an excellent overview of French-English equivalents.

5.2.2. ‘Verein deutsche Sprache’ and ’Wiener Sprachblätter’

“As a country that designed this specific language policy, France appears to be an exception in Europe. This may suggest that it is the only country to fight the spread of English in Europe. This would be a superficial observation. The main difference lies in the fact that France has advertised its policy whereas other European countries have proceeded differently.”89

The German speaking world does not have any kind of language policy, it has, however, associations and societies which resist Anglicisms.

In Germany, it is primarily the ’Verein deutsche Sprache’ (formerly: ’Verein zur Wahrung der deutschen Sprache’) which consequently ’fights’ English influence. The primary object and aims of the association may be seen at http:///www.vds-ev.de.

In Austria, it is the ‘Verein Muttersprache’ that publishes ‘Wiener Sprachblätter’ – leaflets dealing with purism on the level of language and language contact – and argue for a restriction on the use of English words.

Last year (2000), ’Verein Deutsche Sprache’ and ’Wiener Sprachblätter’ started a petition as to the use of English words, the results of which will be only available by 200290 at: http://www.vds-ev.de/denglish/anglizismen http://mailbox.univie.ac.at/~fischeg4/Unterschriftenaktion.html.

Here is a sample of the petition of ‘Wiener Sprachblätter’:

88 Braselmann, Sprachpolitik in Frankreich, p. 23 89 Truchot, The Spread of English, p. 75 90 I asked ’Wiener Sprachblätter’ for intermediary results, but they did not answer my e-mail 118

Sehr geehrter Herr Bundeskanzler Dr. Schüssel! Sehr geehrte Frau Vizekanzler Dr. Riess-Passer!

Im Europäischen Jahr der Sprachen ersuchen wir Sie, sich für die Pflege und den Schutz unserer Muttersprache einzusetzen und gegen Sprachverfall aufzutreten. Unsere Muttersprache wird derzeit von Anglizismen überflutet, die zum Großteil überflüssig sind: die freshe Milch statt die frische Milch, Event statt Ereignis / Veranstaltung, Family-life statt Familienleben, Prime time statt Hauptsendezeit usw. usf. zu sagen stellt keine kulturelle Bereicherung dar. Auch „angloide“ Wörter zu erfinden, die es im Angloamerikanischen gar nicht gibt (z.B. Handy, Twen, Smoking), läuft eher auf eine Verarmung als eine Bereicherung unserer Muttersprache hinaus. Weit über 50% der Österreicher beherrschen Englisch nicht, werden also vom öffentlichen Leben ausgeschlossen, aber auch Einwanderer aus dem Osten, die Englisch in der Schule nicht gelernt haben; das „Denglische“ ist also

undemokratisch und ausländerfeindlich.

Die Rechtschreibung wird erschwert, denn Squatter oder downloaden sind schwerer zu schreiben als Hausbesetzer und herunterladen. Wenn zu viele deutsche durch englische oder scheinenglische Ausdrücke ersetzt werden, wird unsere Literatur, auch die des 20. Jahrhunderts, bald unlesbar werden.

Wir ersuchen Sie aus diesen Gründen, auf öffentliche Stellen und auf Rundfunk und Fernsehen, die ja einen öffentlichen Bildungsauftrag haben, einzuwirken, mehr verständliche einheimische Ausdrücke zu verwenden.

[Es sind auch Unterschriften aus anderen Ländern als Österreich willkommen! Bitte ausdrucken, unterschreiben und, wenn möglich, ablichten, viele Unterschriften sammeln und senden an: Verein „Muttersprache“, Wien, Postfach 173, A 1081 Wien, Österreich]

5.2.3. Italian projects

As I did not find any evidence of Italian projects against the use of Anglisicms in the Internet, I consulted two persons that have sent back to me the questionnaires concerning attitudes towards the use of Anglicisms, both of them confirming that there is ‘nothing’ being done in order to prevent English words to penetrate the Italian vocabulary:

“Sarò felice di aiutarti se mi è possibile. Per rispondere alle tue domande, in Italia non esistono enti, società, istituzioni ufficiali che vigilano sugli influssi delle lingue straniere. Un tempo esisteva l’Accademia della Crusca ed alcune volte qualcuno tende a proporre limiti all’uso di queste influenze estere, ma senza successo.”

“Rispondo con piacere alle tue domande, anche perché sono una insegnante e capisco il valore del grande lavoro che stai per fare. Mi informerò, ma non credo che ci siano leggi di questo genere. Ora abbiamo un governo abbastanza aperto riguardo a questo.”

119

6. CONCLUSION

With this study I endeavour to demonstrate how Anglicisms (any borrowing from English that constitutes a new word) are dealt with in the language systems of French, German and Italian. The sources for my analysis are the prevailing general monolingual dictionaries of the languages stated (English, German, French and Italian): The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English language, Duden –Deutsches Universalwörterbuch, Le Nouveau Petit Robert and Lo Zingarelli.

Starting with theoretical introductory approaches to lexicographical principles (the structure of dictionaries) and the presentation of the corpus data for this paper (chapter 2: The Corpus), I continue with the methodology of linguistic borrowing and different models of loan terminology: Examples as to the various ways of linguistic borrowing are given with reference to a model I created out of five customary models of terminology (chapter 3: Terminology and status of linguistic borrowing).

The primary object of this paper is to compare dictionary entries in French, German and Italian: On the one hand, I deal with correspondences and variations concerning these three replica languages and, on the other hand, I go into some detail on the subject of assimilation and adaptation as to the distinctive features of borrowed English terms in foreign vocabularies (chapter 4).

Chapter 4, dealing with English Internationalisms, thus, is divided into two main sections: Authentic and assimilated English Internationalisms.

In the first part of my analysis of English Internationalisms I deal with authentic forms of borrowings from English, meaning words that are directly borrowed from English and adapted by a foreign lexicon in an unaltered way:

On the level of graphology and orthography of compound words borrowed from English, direct lexical borrowings into German tend to take up the original English spelling (be it separate, directly combined or spelled with hyphen). The French language primarily applies hyphen-spelling to English loan words and the Italian dictionary proves evidence of 120 an (only) occasional use of directly combined compound words. For the most part, the Italian language also tends to adapt compounds in their original English form.

As to the phonetics/phonology level, it can be stated that, principally, English Internationalisms (strictly speaking all Anglicisms) are realised as a partial imitation of the English pronunciation in French, German and Italian alike.

Concerning morphology and syntax, English Interationalisms primarily apply to inflectional morphology in the language systems of the replica languages. Characteristics of borrowed English Internationalisms (exact reproductions of an English expression in all three host languages) reveal that English nouns are, predominantly, attributed a masculine (occasionally also neuter in German) grammatical gender. Furthermore, they are usually marked with a plural ‘s’ in French and German, but are invariable in the Italian language system.

The stylistics section reveals that English Internationalisms (generally, all words borrowed from another language) fulfil several functions: They denote different kinds of style, they motivate associations and connotations, they endorse euphemism and they act as a signal in text production.

As far as semantics is concerned, my observation results in direct lexical borrowings from English tending to only adopt one original meaning to the replica language – with occasional semantic narrowing (e.g. container in German), repeated semantic extensions, (e.g. pole position in French and Italian), and even shifts in meaning (e.g. boom in French).

The second part of chapter 4 deals with assimilated English Internationalisms, i.e. words that have undergone various kinds of assimilation processes in order to fit the linguistic systems of the replica languages in question.

Derivational morphology, in this paper, primarily concerns assimilated forms of English Internationalisms – since English loans assimilated on this level have undergone a native process of word formation by means of creating new words of different categories out of a borrowed stem by adding derivational morphemes. Without doubt, the prime example of this phenomenon of interference of direct lexical borrowing and native word formation 121 processes is the derivation of verbs out of borrowed English nouns, e.g. the German boomen from boom, the French charteriser from charter and the Italian zumare from zoom.

Other examples of derivational morphology are assimilated nouns. These forms mainly originate in the Greek and Latin language, but they are, nevertheless, treated as Anglicisms, since the dictionaries in question claim them to infiltrate the French, German and Italian language systems via English influence.

My dealing with Anglicisms on the stylistic level brought me to think about a more practical approach to this study on the English influence on modern French, German and Italian. Several questions arose: Why do non-native speakers of English use English words in their mother tongue and when do they employ them? What is their attitude towards this use? Are there domains in which Anglicisms are primarily to be observed? In view of these queries, I decided to compose questionnaires to be sent to speakers of French, German and Italian (chapter 5: Attitudes towards English influence).

In general, the resulting answers on attitudes towards the English influence in French, German and Italian language systems reveal that

• non-native speakers of English primarily employ English words in oral communication • Anglicisms are used equally frequent in professional and everyday life • English words seem to be principally employed for their being shorter and more precise, for there being no native equivalent and for their being internationally fixed • speakers of French, German and Italian no longer really notice English words in actual language usage • English words, chiefly, are said to be an enrichment of the host language’s lexicon – with the outstanding position of the US to be the cause of their spread • in French, German and Italian alike, it is principally the domain of the Internet and sports which most frequently provide evidence of English words

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Dealing with people’s attitudes, I also became aware of associations (and even laws) to take action against the ‘English burden’.

Therefore, in the second section of chapter 5, I refer to the major projects (laws, petitions, etc.) now in progress against English influence – expressing my own hope for mankind not to opt for ‘false’ linguistic purism in the French, German and Italian speaking worlds since languages are ‘living’ constructions.

***

We do not know what lies in store for us in the future, but let me emphasise once again that linguistic borrowing is but one phenomenon in the development of a language’s vocabulary.

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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Dictionaries a. General monolingual dictionaries

4. The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 9th Edition. CD-ROM version of Oxford’s best selling dictionary, © Oxford University Press 1997 – 99, © Software: TEXTware A/S. Licensed to the Focus Multimedia Limited b. Special dictionaries of foreign words

1. De Mauro, Tullio / Mancini, Marco : Dizionario delle parole straniere nella lingua italiana. Milano: Garzanti Linguistica, divisione di Utnet S.p.A. 2001

2. Pogarell, Reiner / Schröder, Markus [ed.]: Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen. 2., erweiterte Auflage, Paderborn: IFB-Verlag 2000

3. Tournier, Jean: Les mots anglais du franíais. Paris : Éditions Belin 1998

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(2) Reference material a. Books

1. Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986

2. Braselmann, Petra: Sprachpolitik und Sprachbewusstsein in Frankreich heute. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 1999

3. Busse, Ulrich/Carstensen, Broder: Anglizismen-Wörterbuch. Vol.1. Berlin: de Gruyter 1993

4. Crystal, David: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997

5. Crystal, David: English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1997

6. Jabłoński, Mirosłav: Regularität und Variabilität in der Rezeption englischer Internationalismen im modernen Deutsch, Französisch und Polnisch. Tübigen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 1990

7. Lyons, John: Einführung in die moderne Linguistik. München: C.H. Beck 1995

8. Piccone, Michel D.: Anglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French. Amsterdam: Benjamins 1996

9. Stickel, Gerhard [ed.]: Neues und Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter 2001

10.Svensén, Bo: Practical Lexicography. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press 1993 125

b. Contributions and articles

1. Busse, Ulrich: “Typen von Anglizismen“, in: Stickel, Gerhard [ed.]: Neues und Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter 2001, 131 – 155

2. Dardano, Maurizio: “The influence of English on Italian”, in: Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 231 - 252

3. Lehnert, Martin: “The Anglo-American influence on the language of the German Democratic Republic“, in: Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 129 – 157

4. Truchot, Claude: “The spread of English – from France to a more general perspective” in World Englishes, Vol. 16, No.1 1997, 65 – 76

5. Viereck, Karin: “The Influence of English on Austrian German”, in: Bald, Wolf- Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 159 – 177

6. Viereck, Wolfgang: “The Influence of English on German in the past and in the Federal Republic of Germany”, in: Bald, Wolf-Dietrich / Viereck, Wolfgang [ed.]: English in contact with other languages. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 1986, 107 – 128

7. Wiegand, Herbert Ernst: “Fremdwörterbücher und Sprachwirklichkeit“, in: Stickel, Gerhard [ed.]: Neues und Fremdes im deutschen Wortschatz. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter 2001, 59 – 88

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(3) Web sites

1. Sokol, Daniel K.: “Lingua non grata” at: http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/August2000/art242000.htm

2. Filipovic, Rudolf: “English as a word donor to other languages of Europe”, at: http://www.intellectbooks.com/europa/number5/hart.html

3. Dudenredaktion: “Das Fremdwort – Freund oder Feind“ in: Zum Thema, at http://www.duden.de

4. Dyson: DENGLISH nervt (Forum) at http://www.f23.parsimony.net

5. “Keine E-Mail in Frankreich” in Die Welt, on July 5th, 1997 at http://www.oedt.kfunigraz.ac.at/anglizismen/9Frankr.htm

(4) Further reading a. Books

1. Supanz, Elvira: Die Anglizismen im Rahmen der Wirtschaftsberichterstattung in der italienischen Presse. Klagenfurt: 1983

2. Fink, Hermann: Von “Kuh-Look” bis “Fit for Fun”. Frankfurt am Main, Wien: Lang 1997 b. Web sites

1. “COSMAS” (German lexical database) at http://corpora.ids-mannheim.de/~cosmas/

2. “La loi Toubon” at http://www.culture.fr/dglf/lois/presentation_lois.html

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3. “French Olympic sports terminology” at http://crete.argyro.net/lexique/liste.cfm

4. “French Golf vocabulary” at http://www.golf.gouv.qc.ca/ressources/golf/golf.html

5. “French Internet terminology” at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/cogether/16-03-99- internet.html

6. “French football terminology” at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf/foot.htm

7. “Official French-English equivalents” at http://www.culture.fr/culture/dglf.

8. “Verein deutsche Sprache” at http:///www.vds-ev.de.

9. “Wiener Sprachblätter” at http://mailbox.univie.ac.at/~fischeg4/

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APPENDICES

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A. E-MAIL CORRESPONDANCE AS TO LE NOUVEAU PETIT ROBERT AND DUDEN a. Latest version of LNPR

Subject: RE: Le Petit Robert sur CD-ROM Date: Wed, 7 Mar 2001 16 :30 :12 +0100 From: France Boutique [email protected] To: Philippa Maurer-Stroh [email protected]

Bonjour, Il n’y a pas eu de réédition depuis la 1997, il devrait y en avoir une mais pas avant la fin de l’année. Cordialement

>------Original Message------>From: Philippa Maurer-Stroh [SMTP: [email protected]] >Sent: mardi 6 mars 2001 12 :42 >To: [email protected] >Subject: Le Petit Robert sur CD-ROM > > Madame, Monsieur, > Je suis une étudiante des langues et je suis en train de faire mon diplôme (Anglicisms > in the French-, German- and Italian speaking worlds). > C’est la raison pour laquelle j’aurais besoin de la version du PETIT ROBERT sur > CD-ROM la plus actuelle parce que maintenant je n’ai que la version du 1997. > Veuillez me faire connaître s’il y a une version plus actuelle. > Dans l’attente de votre réponse, je vous prie d’agréer, Madame, Monsieur, > l’expression de mes sentiments les meilleurs. > Philippa Maurer-Stroh

*** b. Problems with Duden – Die deutsche Rechtschreibung

Subject: Antwort: Duden Online-Anfrage bzgl. Produktinformationen Date: Fri, 3 Aug 2001 13:41:24 +0200 From: [email protected] To: [email protected]

Sehr geehrte Frau Maurer-Stroh, alle Titel, die Sie nennen - "Duden - Das große Fremdwörterbuch", "Duden - Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache" und das Universalwörterbuch - sind für Ihre Recherche geeignet; sie basieren auf gewissenhaften Untersuchungen des heutigen Sprachgebrauchs und sind auch als CD-ROM bei Ihrem Buchhändler erhältlich. Allerdings wird keinem dieser Werke die Herkunft der Komposita nochmals angezeigt, wenn bereits die Herkunft des

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Grundwortes und die des Bestimmungswortes jeweils unter den entsprechenden Lemmata beschrieben wurden. Sie müssten also tatsächlich, wenn die Suche nach "engl." beispielsweise unter anderem "Baby" ergeben hat, die zugehörigen Komposita von Hand auswerten.

Zitieren dürfen Sie unsere Werke natürlich (unter Angabe der Quelle) - wir freuen uns darüber!

Einzelne Artikel aus der PC-Bibliothek kopiere ich über das "Copy-and-Paste"-Verfahren häufig in andere Dokumente; dazu müssen diese aber erst geöffnet und der Inhalt markiert werden. Teile der Stichwortliste können in ein Benutzerwörterbuch kopiert werden; das Benutzerwörterbuch können Sie dann exportieren.

Bei weiteren technischen Fragen wird man Ihnen gerne unter der Nummer (0 18 05) 12 45 78 behilflich sein. Haben Sie noch Fragen sprachwissenschaftlicher bzw. lexikographischer Natur, so wenden Sie sich bitte telefonisch an die Duden-Sprachberatung (E-Mails können wir leider nur ausnahmsweise beantworten). Anrufe aus dem Ausland beantworten wir nach wie vor kostenfrei. Sie erreichen uns unter der Telefonnummer +49 6 21 39 01-4 21.

Mit freundlichen Grüßen und den besten Wünschen für das Gelingen Ihrer Arbeit

Franziska Münzberg

Duden-Sprachberatung

PS: Falls Sie sich für unseren kostenlosen Newsletter interessieren, besuchen Sie unsere Homepage unter http://www.duden.de

------Original [email protected] An: [email protected] Kopie: 25.07.01 02:25 Thema: Duden Online-Anfrage bzgl. Produktinformationen Abteilung: Produktinformationen Anmerkung: Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren,

Ich studiere an der Universität Klagenfurt, Österreich, Anglistik und Romanistik, und bin gerade dabei, meine Diplomarbeit zum Thema "Anglicisms in modern French, German and Italian - a comparative study" zu schreiben. Nun ist es so, dass ich die jeweiligen Standardwerke, sprich Duden, Robert und Zingarelli, in ihren elektronischen Versionen auf Gemeinsamkeiten untersuchen will, um sog. Internationalismen (bezüglich Graphologie, Aussprache und Semantik)der Gegenwartssprache zu finden. Nach meinen ersten Versuchen einer Gesamterfassung der "Anglizismen" im Duden-Die deutsche

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Rechtschreibung 22 (Buchstaben A bis H), bemerkte ich, dass über die Hälfte der im Wörterbuch eingetragenen Anglizismen nicht markiert ist () (z.B. markiert: Baby, Babysitter; unmarkiert: Babyaktie,Babyboom, Babyfon, Babyjahr, Babynahrung, babysitten, Babyspeck, Babyzelle - Komposita, die in anderen Einträgen im Duden unter fallen würden) und somit eine weitere elektronische Suche wenig Erfolg verspräche.

Es ist mir klar, dass der Duden – Die deutscheRechstschreibung keineswegs als Universalwörterbuch anzusehen ist. Müßte ich demnach zum Duden-Fremdwörterbuch greifen, um die gewünschtenInformationen zu bekommen (und stellt das Fremdwörterbuch auch den tatsächlichen Sprachgebrauch dar?) oder wäre der Duden-DeutschesUniversalwörterbuch ausreichend? Der Duden- Das große WB der deutschen Sprache? Oder haben Sie andere Vorschläge? Zudem fiel mir auf, dass es nicht möglich ist, die gesamten gefunden Einträge in ein anderes Dokument zu kopieren. Meine Frage bezüglich der Benutzung des elektronischen Wörterbuchs wäre also, ob ich überhaupt dazu berechtigt bin, die Einträge im Duden als Quelle der Anglizismen im Gegenwartsdeutsch in meiner Diplomarbeit zu verwenden (sprich: Basis für Fragebögen, lexikographische Auseinandersetzung mit den verschiedenen Einträgen, Korpusmaterial für den Vergleich mit dem Robert und dem Zingarelli zur Suche nach Gemeinsamkeiten, Internationalismen, etc.)?

Ich hoffe, Sie können mir in dieser Sache weiterhelfen, zumal ich mich gerade wegen des großen Aufstandes um den Gebrauch von Anglizismen und der großen Zahl an verschiedensten veröffentlichten "Wörterbüchern" (ich kann mich in meiner Arbeit aus Gründen der Aktualität nur teilweise auf DAS Werk der deutschen Anglizismen-Bearbeitung von Carstensen und Busse beziehen) an ein Standardwerk der deutschen Sprache richte. Dass sich eine Sprache täglich ändert ist mir ebenso klar, wie die Tatsache, dass es einer langen Prozedur bedarf, ein Wort überhaupt in das WB aufzunehmen. Es geht mir bei meiner Diplomarbeit allein darum, herauszufinden, welchen Anglizismen-Wortschatz (für diesen Zweck: eindeutig erkennbare englische Wörter) die jeweilige Sprache in der zuletzt veröffentlichten elektronischen Form aufweist und ob es Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen den Sprachen, Internationalismen, gibt.

Ich danke Ihnen im Voraus für die Hilfe und verbleibe

Mit freundlichen Grüßen

Philippa Maurer-Stroh Email: [email protected] Name: Philippa Maurer-Stroh Strasse: Jerolitschstr. 3 PLZ: 9201 Ort: Krumpendorf Land: Österreich

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B. CORPUS LISTS a. DUDEN – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch : "engl" in complete text (3128) + "amerik" in complete text (125) [3167] abgefuckt ASCII- Code Barmixer Blockbuster Aborigine ASEAN Barrel Blockhaus Abort Assembler Base Bloody Mary abseits Assembling Baseball Blow-out Abstinenz Assessment-Center BASIC Blow-up Abstract Assist Basizität Bluebox Acid Atoll Basketball Bluechip Acid House Attack Basset Bluejeans Action Attacke Batchprocessing Bluemovie Action-Painting Attraktion Batter Bluenote Adapter aufdatieren Batterie Blues Additiv Aus Bazooka Bluescreen Adresse ausflippen Beachvolleyball Bluff Advantage ausknocken Beagle BMX-Rad Adventist ausloggen Beam Board Aerobic Außenseiter beamen Boarding-House Aftershave Aussperrung Beat Boarding-School Aggregat Austenit Beatgeneration Boatpeople Agitation Austerity Beatnik Bobby Agitator Autocar Beaufortskala Bobsleigh agitieren Automation Beauty Bobtail Agreement Autostopp Bébé Bodybuilding ahoi Average Bebop Bodycheck Aids AWACS Bed and Breakfast Bodyguard Airbag Axminsterteppich Begum Bodyshaping Airbus ® Behaviorismus Bodystocking Airconditioner Baby Bel Bodystyling Airedaleterrier Babysitter Benchmark Bodysuit Airline Babysitting Benchmarking Boiler Airmail Bachblütentherapie Bessemerbirne Bombast Airport Bachelor Bestseller Bond Albatros back Betarezeptorenblocker Bonus Alderman Back bidirektional Boogie-Woogie Ale Backgammon Bigband Booklet ALGOL Background Bigbang Bookmark Alien Backhand Big Business Boom Alligator Backlash Bigpoint Booster Allrounder Backlist Bike Boot Allroundman Backslash Biker Boot American Way of Life Back-up Bildschirmschoner booten Amerikanismus Bacon Bilge Bootlegger Amphetamin Badminton Bingo Bordcase Anakonda Bahncard ® Bingocard Boss Analyst Ballade Bionik Bossing Anchorman Ballyhoo Bischof Bottleneck Anchorwoman Bananenrepublik Bit Bottleparty Anglikaner Bananensplit Bitterlemon Bowdenzug anglikanisch Band Blackbox Bowiemesser Anode Bandit Blackout Bowle Antilope Bandleader Blackpower bowlen antörnen Banjo Blank Bowler Apartment Banker Blankvers Bowling Appeal Banking Blaubuch Bowlinggreen Appeasement Bantamgewicht Blaujacke Bowls Appetizer Baptismus Blaustrumpf Box Approach Baptist Blazer boxen Aquaplaning Bar Blend Boxer architektural Barbecue Blind Date Boxkalf Armutsgürtel Bark blitzen Boy Artdirector Barkeeper Blizzard Boyfriend

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Boygroup Callboy Chatgroup Coke Boykott Call-by-Call chatten Coldcream boykottieren Callcenter Check Coldrubber Boyscout Callgirl Check College Braindrain Callingcard checken Collie Brainstorming CAM Checklist Colonel Braintrust Camcorder Checkpoint Colt ® Branding Camp Check-up Combo Brandmanager campen cheerio Comeback brandneu Camper Cheeseburger COMECON, Comecon Brandy Camping Cherry-Brandy Comedy Break Campus Chesterfield Comedy-Show Breakdance canceln Chesterkäse Comicstrip Breakdancer Candle-Light-Dinner Cheviot Coming-out Break-even-Point Cannabis Chewinggum Common Sense Brecher Canvassing Chief Commonwealth Bregen Canyoning Chillies Compact Disc Bridge Cape Chill-out-Room Compiler briefen Caravan Chinatown Computer Briefing Caravaning Chintz Concept-Art Brigg Cardigan Chip Connection Brodem care of Chippendale Constable Broiler Carepaket Choke Consulting Broker Cargo Chopsuey Container Browning Carjacker Chow- Chow containerisieren Browser Carjacking Christian Science Contest Brunch Carol Chutney Controller buchen Carport CIA Controlling Buchmacher Carrier cif,c.i.f. Convenience-Foods Buddleia Carsharing Cinemascope cool Budget Cartoon Cinerama ® Cool Jazz Bug Cartoonist CIP Coolness Buggy Carver City Coordinates Bulldogge Carving Claim Cop Bulldozer cash Clan Copyright Bullterrier Cash Clarkia Core Bully cash and carry clean Corned Beef Bumerang Cashewnuss Clearing Corned Pork Bungalow Cashflow Clerk Corner Bungee-Jumping Casting clever Cornflakes Bunker Castle Cleverness Corporate Identity Bunny Castor ® Cliffhanger Cosa Nostra Burger Catboot Clinch Cottage Burn-out Catch-as-catch-can Clip Cotton Bus catchen Clipper ® Couch Buschmann Catcher Clog Count Business Caterer Cloth Countdown business as usual Catering Clown Counter Business-Class Caterpillar Clownerie Counterpart Butler Catwalk Cluster Countertenor Butterfly CB-Funk Coach Countess Butterflymesser CD coachen Countrymusic Button CD-Player Coaching County Button-down-Hemd Cent Coat Court bye-bye Center Cob Cover Bypass Centre-Court Cobbler Covergirl Byte Chairman COBOL Cover-up Chairwoman Coca Cola ® Coverversion Cab Champion Cockerspaniel Cowboy Cable-Transfer Champions League Cockney Cowgirl Cache Change Cockpit Cox' Orange CAD Charleston Cocktail Crack Caddie Chart Cocooning Crack Caddy Charter c.o.d. Cracker Cafeteria chartern Code Crash Calf Chasuble Codeswitching Cream California Chat Coffeeshop Crew

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Crime Department downloaden Elektrolyt cross Derby Dragrace Elektron Cross Design Dragracing Elfe Crosscountry designen Dragster E-Mail Cross-over Designer Draht Emitter Cruise-Missile Designerdroge Drain Emmy [Award] Cruisergewicht Designerfood Dream-Team Emoticon Cruising Deskresearch Dress emotiv Cumberlandsauce, Desktop-Publishing Dressing Empathie Cumberlandsoße Desperado Dressman Empire Cup destabilisieren dribbeln Emu Curling detektieren Dribbler Emulation curricular Detektiv Dribbling Emulator Curriculum Detektor Drill Encoder Cursor Devon drillen encodieren Cut Didgeridoo Drink Encoding Cutaway Digest Drive Encounter cutten Digit Drive-in-Kino Enduro Cutter digital Drive-in-Lokal Engineering Cybersex Dildo Driver English spoken Cyberspace Dime Dropkick Englishwaltz dimmen Drop-out Enkulturation Daddy Dimmer Drops Entertainer Daily Soap Dingi Drugstore Entertainment Dame Dingo Drum entnazifizieren Dampfer Dink Drummer Environment Dampfmaschine Dinner dry environmental Dampfschiff Dinnerjacket Dschungel Epistemologie Dancefloor Dip Dschunke Equalizer Dancing dippen Dual-Band-Handy Equipment Dandy Direct Mailing Duke Erdling Dandyismus Discjockey Dumdum Ergonomie, Ergonomik Darling Discount Dummy Erstschlag Darts Disengagement Dumping ESA Dash Diskette Dunking Eskalation Date diskret Duty-free-Shop Eskapismus Daten Dispatcher DVD Esquire Datenautobahn Displaced Person DVD-Player Essay Datenhighway Display Dynamo Essential Datenverarbeitung dissen Establishment Daviscup Dissidenz E Euphuismus Daytrading Distrikt Eagle evangelikal D-Day Diversifikation Earl Event Deadline Dixieland easy Everglaze Deal DNA Ebene Evergreen dealen Dock Economyklasse Everybody's Darling Dealer docken Ecstasy Exchange Debugging Docking Ecu, ECU exklusiv Decoder Dogge Edinburgh Expander decodieren Dogger editieren Export Deep-Freezer Dogskin Editor exportieren Deficit-Spending do it yourself! Editorial Express Defroster Dokumentalist Edutainment Extended degenerativ Dokusoap EFTA extra dry Dekonstruktion Dolby-System Egghead extrinsisch Dekonstruktivismus Dollar Egotismus Extruder Dekontamination Dolly Egotrip ey dekorieren Domain Einhandsegler Eyecatcher Delicious doodeln Einkaufszentrum Eyeliner Demonstration Dope einloggen demonstrieren dopen einmal Facelifting Denker Doping Eire Face-to-Face- Denkfabrik Doublebind elaboriert Kommunikation Denomination Dover Electronic Cash Facility-Management Denotation Dow-Jones Electronic Commerce Fact denunzieren down Elektrode Faction-Prosa Deodorant Download Elektrolyse Factoring

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Factory of the Future fixen Freeclimbing Getter Factory-Outlet Fixing Free Jazz Gettoblaster Faden Fizz Freestyle Gewerbefreiheit Fading Flagge Free TV Ghostwriter fair Flame-out Freidenker G.I., GI Fairness Flammeri Freihandel Gig Fairplay Flanell Freimaurer Gig Fairychess Flap Friedenspfeife Gig Fake Flash Friedensrichter Gigue Faksimile Flashback Frisbee Gimmick Fallout Flashlight Frontman Gin Fan Fleece Frontmann Ginger Fannings Flibustier Froschmann Gingerale Fantasy Fliegengewicht Froster Gingerbeer Fanzine Flintglas Full Dress Gin Tonic FAQ Flip Full House Gipfel Farad Flipchart Full Service Gipfelkonferenz farbig Flipflop Full Speed Girl Farm Flipper Full-Time-Job Girlie Farmer flirten Fun Give-away Fashion Float Functional Food Glamour fashionabel floaten Fundamentalismus Glamourgirl Fast Food Floating Funk glamourös Favorit Flockdruck funkig Gleiter FBI Floor Funsport Glencheck Feature Flop Fußball Global Player Federgewicht Floppy Disk Fuzzi Globetrotter Feedback Flotation Fuzzylogik, Fuzzytheorie G-Man Feeling flotieren Goal Feim Flower- Power G-7-Staat Goalgetter Feldarbeit Fluoreszenz Gadget Goalie Feldforschung Flüssigkristallanzeige Gag Go-go- Fellow Flutlicht gaga Go-go-Boy Fellowship Flyer Gagger Go-go-Girl Fender Flying Dutchman Gagman Go-in Fenier Fog Gallon Gokart Fenster Fokus Gallone Golden Delicious Fenz Folder Gameboy Golden Goal fest Folk Gameport Golden Twenties Festival Folklore Gameshow Golf Festplatte Folksong Gang Golfer feuern Font Gangster Gong Fiche Foot Gangway goodbye Fieldresearch Football Gardenparty Goodwill Fieldwork Forechecking Gardinenpredigt Goodwillreise fiftyfifty Forehand Gartenstadt Gorilla Fight Foreign Office Gasolin Go-slow fighten Form Gate Gospel Fighter Forsythie GATT Gospelsinger File FORTRAN Gault Gospelsong Filibuster Forward gay Gotcha Film Fosburyflop Gecko gotisch Filou fotogen Gehirnwäsche Graffito Final Fotografie Geisha Grahambrot Finish Fotoshooting Geisterstadt Grammy [Award] finishen foul Geld Grand Old Lady Firewall Foul Gemeingeist Grand Old Man firstclass foulen Gemeinplatz Grandslam First Lady Four-Letter-Word Gemeinwohl Grapefruit Fischauge Foxterrier generativ Graphem Fisheye Foxtrott Generikum Grass Fission Frack Genozid Gräting fit Frame Gentleman Grauzone Fitness Franchise gentlemanlike Greenback fitten Freak Gentleman's Agreement, Greencard Fitting freakig Gentlemen's ... Greenhorn Fix Freeclimber Gesicht Greenpeace

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Greyhound harmlos hollerithieren Icon Greyhoundbus Harmonika Holocaust Idiolekt Grill Hattrick Hologramm Ifor grillen Häuptling Holographie Image Grillroom Haut Holster imaginabel Grizzlybär Havelock Homebanking Impact Grog HD-Diskette Homecomputer Impeachment groggy Headhunter Homefighter Implementation Groove Headline Homeland implementieren Groundhostess Headliner Homelearning Import Groupie Hearing Homepage Imprint Grubber heavy Homerule in Grunge Heavymetal Hometrainer in Gruppendynamik Hedgegeschäft homo homini lupus Incentive Gruppensex Heilsarmee honen Inch G-String Heimatland Honey Incoming Guide Heißsporn Honeymoon in concert Guinea Held Honigmond incorporated Gully Helikopter hooked Incoterms Gurkha Heliport Hooligan Indentgeschäft Guttempler Heliskiing Hootenanny Independence Day Helium Hop Indian Habit Heman Hop Indianersommer Habituation Hemlocktanne Hornpipe Indie Hack Henry Horror Industrial Design hacken Hermetik Horse Industrial Engineering Hacker Herrenreiter Horsepower Infight Hair-Stylist Hexenjagd Host Infoline Halbblut hey Hostess informal halbmast Hickory Hotdog Ingot Halbzeit hieven Hot Jazz Ingrainpapier Halfcourt high Hotline Ingroup Halfpipe Highball Hotpants Inlaid hallo High Church House Inlay Halloween High End Hovercraft Inliner Ham and Eggs High Fidelity HTML Inlineskate Hamburger Highimpact Hughesapparat inlineskaten Hammondorgel Highlife Hula-Hoop Inlineskater Händedruck Highlight Hully-Gully Input handeln Highriser Human Counter Inselhopping Handicap Highschool Human Engineering Insert handicapen High Snobiety Humbug Insertion Handicapper High Society Humor Insider Handling Hightech Humorist instant Handout, Hand-out Hightech Hümpel Instrumental Hands Highway Humpen Interface Handy Hijacker Hundredweight Interlockware Handyman Hillbilly Hunter internal Hang-over Hillbillymusic Hurrikan international Happening Hinterbänkler Husky Internet happy Hinterwäldler Hustle Interpreter Happyend hip Hut Interrailpass Happy few Hip-Hop Hydrant Interview Hardbop hipp, hipp, hurra! Hydrofoil Intranet Hardcopy Hippie Hype intrinsisch Hardcore Hipster Hyperlink Intro Hardcover Hit Hyperon investigativ Harddisk hitchhiken Hypersonikbereich Investment Harddrink Hitchhiker hypersonisch Ion Harddrug Hitzeschild Hypertext Ionenaustauscher Hardedge HIV Hyperurbanismus Ionenfalle Hardliner Hobby hypnagog, hypnagogisch Ionisation Hardrock Hochtechnologie hypnotisieren ionisieren Hardselling Hockey Hypnotismus Iridium Hardstuff Holdinggesellschaft Irish Coffee Hardtop Hole -ical Irish Stew Hardware Holidays Icing ISDN

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Ismus Kanonenfutter Kommodore Kybernetik ISO Kanter Kommunismus Isolationismus Kanu Komödiant Label Isolationist Kardinal kompatibel Labiovelar Isotop Kart Kompetenz Labour Party Kartätsche kompilieren Labskaus Jacht Karting Kompliment Lacrosse Jacketkrone Katamaran konditionieren Ladino Jackpot Katgut Kondom Lady Jacuzzi Kathod Konferenz ladylike Jagdgrund Keeper Konformismus Lag Jahrmarkt keep smiling Konformist Lambskin Jak Keks Kongregationalist Lambswool Jamboree Kelt Konnektor lamellar Jamsession Kerosin Konnotation Landart Jamswurzel Ketchup konnotativ Landratte Jazz Kettcar ® Konservatismus Landrover Jeans Keule konservativ Landseer Jeep Key-Account- Konsol lange Jersey Management Konstabler Laptop Jesus People Keyboard Konstrukt Lärm Jet Kfor kontakten Laser Jetlag Kick Konter Laserdrom Jetliner Kick-and-rush kontern Lasso Jetset Kickboard konterproduktiv last, not least Jetstream Kick-down kontextual, kontextuell Lastex ® Jett kicken Kontroller Last-Minute-Angebot Jigger Kickstarter kontrollieren Late-Night-Show Jingle Kid Konverter Latin Lover Jingo kidnappen Konvertit Latino Jingoismus Kidnapper Konvoi Lautsprecher Jitterbug Kidnapping Konzentrationslager Law and Order Jive Kif konzeptualisieren Lawntennis Job killen konzeptuell Layout jobben Killer Konzern LCD Jobber Killerwal Konzertina Leader Jobhopping Kilt Kopilot Lean Management Jobrotation King Korb Lean Production Jobsharing Kitchenette Kord Learning by Doing Jockey, Jockei Kiwi Korporation leasen Jogging Kiwi Korund Leasing Joint Klick kracken leben Joint Venture Klipper Kraul Lebensqualität Jo-Jo Klon kraulen Ledernacken Joker Klosett Kraut Leggings, Leggins Joystick Klub kreativ Legionärskrankheit Jukebox Knickerbocker Kreuzverhör Legislatur Jumbojet Knittelvers Kricke Leitartikel Jump Knochen Krieg Lerner Jungfernrebe knock-out Kriegführung Level Junk- Art Knoten Kriegspfad Lias Junkfood Know-how Krill Liberalismus Junkie Knüller Krocket Liebe Juror Koalition Kronkolonie Liebesmüh, Liebesmühe Jury Koedukation Kronzeuge Lifestyle just intime Koffein Krupp Lifetimesport Jute Koks Kryotron Lift Juxtaposition Kollateralschaden Krypton Lift kolloid, kolloidal Küchenkabinett liften Kabine Kolloid Ku-Klux-Klan Lifting Kaffeehaus Kolonisation Kuli Liftkurs Kaffer kolonisieren Kulm Liger Kaki Kolonist Kumquat light Kaleidoskop Kombination Kung-Fu Lightshow Kalzium Komfort Kurzgeschichte Liliputaner Känguru komfortabel kurzsichtig Limerick Kanister Komitee Kutter Limit

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Linearbeschleuniger Majorette midi Movie Link makadamisieren Midlife-Crisis, Moxa Linke Make-up Midlifecrisis Moxibustion Linoleum Makrobefehl Mikrofon Mucke Linotype Mall Mikroprozessor Muffin Lipgloss Malm Milch Mulch live Management Military Mull Liveact Management-Buy-out Mimikry multikulti Lob managen Mindmap Multimedia lobben Manager Mindmapping Multimediashow Lobbyismus manch mini Multiple-Choice- Lobbyist Manchester Minimal Art Verfahren Location Manchester Minimal Music Multiplex Loch Mandarinente Mink Multitasking Loft Mandrill mint Mummy Log Mangrove Mintsoße Mumps Loge manipulativ Miss Mungo Logge Mann Missile muren Logger Manpower Missing Link Muring Logistik Manual Mist Musical Logo Manufaktur misten Mustang Lokomotive Marchingband Mister Muttertag Lolli Marina Mittelgewicht Muzak Longdrink Marker Mittsommer Mylady longline Marketing Mixed Mylord Longseller Marketingmix Mixed Drink Myriade Look Marquess Mixed Media Mystery loopen Mary Jane Mixed Pickles Looping Mascara mixen Nabob Lord Maser Mixer Nachrichtenmagazin Lordship Master Mob NAFTA Lore Match mobben Nähmaschine Lori Matchstrafe Mobile Namedropping Loser Maus mode Nappa Lost Generation Mauspad Mode NASA Lot Mc-Job Model NATO Lotion Mediation Modem Natron Lotse Medienbartering Modern Jazz Nautik Louisiana medium Modul Navaho, Navajo Lounge Medium modular Navel love Medium Mogul Necking Lover Medley Mohair Negativ Lovestory Meeting Moiré Negrospiritual Löwe meets Mokassin Nelson Lowimpact mega-in Mokka Neon LP Megalopole Moleskin Neptunium Luftbrücke mega-out Monarchist Nerv lugen Mehrheit Moneymaker nervös Lumineszenz meliorativ Monitor Net Lunch Melton Monocoque Netiquette ly Memorial Monopoly Network lynchen Memory Monotype Neufundländer Menjoubart Monster Neurose made in ... Mentalität Monsun Neutron Magazin Menü Moonboot New Age Magnum Merchandising Moorhuhn Newcomer Mahonie Merlin Mopp New Look Mailbox Meson moppen News mailen Mesotron Morgenluft Newsgroup Mailing Message morphen Newsletter Mailingliste Messe Morphing Newton Mailorder metallic Morsealphabet New Wave Mainliner Methodismus Motel nibbeln Mainlining Methodist Motion-Picture Nibble Mainstream methodistisch Motocross Nigger Maisonette Mickymaus Mount Nightclub Major Microburst Mountainbike Nightskating

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Nippel Operationsresearch Parasailing Pie Nobody Operator parboiled Piedmontfläche no future Opossum Paria Piek no iron Opposition Park Pier No-Name-Produkt oppositionell Parka piercen Non-Book Optical Art Park-and-ride-System Piercing Non-Essentials optional parken Pilling Non-Fiction Oral History Parkingmeter Pin Non-Food Orbit Parlament Pinboard Nonkonformismus orbital Parlamentarier Pincheffekt Nonkonformist Orbital parlamentarisch Pingpong Nonproliferation Orbiter Parsec pink Nonsens Order parsen Pint nonstop ordern Parser Pin-up-Girl North Dakota Organizer Parsing Pipe Norther Orgware Partner Pipeline Nostalgie Oscar Party Pistole Notebook out Pass Pit Notepad Outback passen Pitbull Novel Food Outcast Passwort pitchen Novellette Outdoor Patchwork Pitchpine Nubuk outen Pattern Pixel Nugget Outfit Patternpraxis Plaid nuklear Outfitter Pax Plastics null Outgroup Payback Plastik Nullwachstum Outing Paying Guest Plastiksprengstoff Nylon Outlaw Payout Play-back out of area Pay-per-View Playboy OAPEC Outplacement Pay-TV Playgirl OAU Output Pazifik Playmate Oberhaus Outsider Peak Play-off obsessiv Outsourcing Peanuts Playstation Ochsenschwanzsuppe Overall Pedigree Plenum Odds overdressed Peeling PLO OECD Overdrive Peer Plot Off Overflow Peerage Plotter Offbeat Overheadprojektor Peergroup Plumpudding Offbrands Overkill Pellet Plutonium Offenmarktpolitik Oxer Pemmikan Pneumatik Office Oxid Penalty Pocketbook Offkommentar oxidieren P.E.N.-Club, PEN-Club Pogo off limits Oxtailsuppe Penholder Pointer offline Penizillin Point of Sale Offroader Pace Penny Poker Offsetdruck Pacemaker Penthouse Pokerface offshore Packagetour Pep Polaroidkamera Offshorebohrung Pad Percussion Poleposition offside Paddel Performance Political Correctness okay paddeln Performanz Poll Okkurrenz Paddock permanent press Polo Oldie Pager Permit Pony Oldtimer Paket Pershing Pool on Palaver Personalcomputer poolen Onanie Palladium Personalityshow Pop on call palmieren Petticoat Pop-Art One-Man-Show PAL-System Petting Popcorn One-Night-Stand Pamphlet Pfadfinder Popper online Panel Pferdeschwanz Porridge on the road Panorama Pferdestä rke Port on the rocks Pantry Pharo Portabilität Op-Art Panty Phosgen Portable OPEC Paper Piaster Porter Open-Air-Festival Paperback Pica Portlandzement open end Papiertiger Pickelhering possessiv Opening Par Picknick Post Open Shop Paragliding Pick-up Post Operating Paralympics Pidginenglisch Postdoc

140 posten Punk Readymade Rigg Poster Punkrock Reaktor Rikscha postmodern Punsch Realignment Rips Pot Puppet realisieren Riverboatshuffle Pot Puritaner Realityshow RNA Pound Puritanismus Real-Time-System Roadie Power Purser Rebound Roadmanager powern Purserette Rebreak Roadmovie Powerslide Push Receiver Roadster Prärieauster pushen Recital Roastbeef präsentieren Pusher recyceln Robber Präsenz Push-up-BH Recycling Robinson Präserve Putt Redingote Roboter Prau Puzzle Redpower Rock Premier Puzzler Referee Rockabilly premium Pyjama Referent Rock and Roll Preprint Referenz rocken Presbyterianer Q-Fieber Reformer Rocker presbyterianisch Quadrosound Reggae Rock'n'Roll Presenter Quäker registered Rodeo Preshave Qualifikation Rehabilitation roger Pressure-Group qualifizieren rehabilitieren röhren Preview Quark Reise Roll-back Primary Quarter Rekord Rollerblade Primerate Quarterback Rekorder Rollerskate Primetime Quarterdeck Rekurrenz Roll-on-roll-off-Schiff printed in ... Quasar rekursiv ROM Printer Queen Relaunch romantisch Printing-on-Demand Quellprogramm relaunchen Rommé Printmedium Quenching relaxed Rooming-in Prisoner of War Quickie relaxen Rotarier Producer Quickstepp Relaxing Rotary Club Product-Placement Quicktest Release Rothaut Professional Quilt Releaser Rotlichtviertel Profiler Quiz relevant Rotor Profitcenter Relevanz Round-Table-Konferenz programmieren Rachitis Relish Routing Progressive Jazz Racingreifen Remake Rowdy Prohibition Rack Remix Royal Proliferation Racket REM-Phase Rubber prominent Rackjobbing Rendezvous Rubber Prominenz Rad Repeatperkussion Rugby promoten Radar Report Rum Promoter radikal Reporter Rumpsteak Promotion Radio Reprint Run Propeller Radom Republikaner Runninggag Provider Raft Research Runway provisorisch Rafting Researcher Rushhour Prozedur Raglan Reservation Rye Prozentpunkt Ragtime respektabel psychedelisch Raigras Retrieval Sabbatical Pub Rally Retriever Sabbatjahr Publicity Rallye Retrovirus Safe Public Relations RAM Return Safer Sex Publikum Ramie Reverend Sago Puck Ranch Reverse saisonal Pudding Rancher Review Salesmanager pullen Rand Revival Salmonelle Pullmanwagen randomisieren Revolution Saloon Pullover Ranger Revolver Sample Pullunder Ranking Revolvingkredit Sampler Pulp Rap Reyon Sandwich Pulper Rating Rezession Sandwichman Pulsar Rattan Rhythm and Blues SAS Pumpgun raubeinig Richterskala Saum Pumps Rave Rickettsie Scaling Punch Reader Riff scannen

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Scanner Sentimentalität Sinn Snobismus Scanning Separate Sioux Snooker Scat Separatismus Sir Snow Scene Separatist Sitcom Snowboard Schal Sequel Sit-in Snowboarder schanghaien sequenziell Six Days Snowboarding Scharpie Sequoia Sixty-nine Soapopera Schauer Sergeant Skalp Soccer Scheck Serial Skateboard Social Costs Scheckbuch Serife skateboarden Society Schedbau Serve-and-Volley Skateboarder Sodar Schelf Server skaten Sodium schiften Service Skater soft schinden Session Skeetschießen Softart Schlemm Set Skeleton Softball Schlitten Set Sketch Softcopy schmal Setter Skiff Softdrink Schmant Sex Skiffle Softdrug Schmauch Sex and Crime Skinhead Softeis schneiden Sex- Appeal Skinner-Box soften schocken Sexer Skipper Softie Schoner Sexismus Skooter Softrock Schöpfung sexy Skore Softsculpture Schrapnell Sfor Skript Software schrill Shag Skriptgirl Sonar schrillen Shake Skull Song schrinken Shakehands skullen Songwriter Schulter Shaker Skuller Sonnyboy Schwindler Shampoo Skunk Soor Science-Fiction Shanty Skyeterrier sophisticated Scientology Share Skyjacker Sorter Score Shareholder Skylab SOS scoren Shareholder-Value Skylight Souchong Scotch Shareware Skyline Soul Scotchterrier Sheriff Slack Sound Scout Sherpa Slacker Soundkarte Scrabble Sherry Slang Soundtrack Scrapie Shirt Slapstick Sousaphon scratch Shit Sleeper South Dakota Scratching shocking Slice Sozialismus Screen Shooting slicen Sozialist Screening Shootingstar Slick Spacelab Scrollen Shop Slip Spaniel SDI shoppen slippen sparren SDP Shopping Slipper Sparring Seaborgium Shopping-Center Slogan Speaker Seal Shorts Sloop Special Sealskin Short Story Slot Speech SEATO Shorttrack slow Speed secondhand Shorty Slowfox Speedwayrennen Secondhandshop Shouting Slum spektakulär Secret Service Show small Spektrum Seehund Showbiz Smalltalk Spenzer Seersucker Showbusiness smart Spider Segregation Showdown Smartcard Spike Seifenoper Showman Smash Spillage Selbst Showmaster Smiley Spin Selbstbestimmung Shredder Smog Spinnaker Selbstverwaltung Shrimp Smoking Spin-off Selektion Shuffle SMS Spiritismus selektiv Shuffleboard Snack Spiritual Selfgovernment Shuttle Snackbar Spiritual Song Selfmademan Sideboard Snail-Mail Spleen Seller Sightseeing Sniff Splendid Isolation Selling-Center Silk sniffen splitten Sensor Single Sniffing Splitting sentimental Single Snob Spoiler

142 sponsern stoppen Synchronisation Television Sponsor Stoppuhr synchronisieren Telex Sponsoring Story Syncopated Music Temperenz Sponsorship Straddle Syndet Tendenz Sport straight Syndikat Tender sportiv Straps Synthesizer Tennis Sportsmann Streetball Synthetics tentativ Sportswear Streetwork Szene Terminal Spot Streetworker Terrier Spotlight Strei Tab Test Spray streiken tabu testen sprayen Stretch Tabula rasa thermal Sprayer Stringtanga Tabulator Thermopane Spread Strip Tachometer Thinktank Spreading Stripper Tacker Thrill Sprinkler Striptease Tag Thriller Sprint Strobolight Tag ticken sprinten Strontium Tagesordnung Ticker Sprinter Stuhl taggen Ticket Spurt Stunt Taifun Tie-Break spurten Stuntman Take Tiffanylampe Squash stylen Take-off timen Squaw Styling Take-over Time-out Stagediving Stylist Talk Timer Stagflation Sub talken Timesharing Stainless Steel suborbital Talker Timing Standard Suburbanisation Talkshow Tintenstrahldrucker standardisieren subversiv Tamagotchi Tipp Stand-by Subwoofer Tamtam tippen Standing Suffragette Tandem tippen Standing Ovations suggestiv Tangram tipptopp Stand-up Sulky Tank Toast Star Sunbelt tanken toasten Starlet, Starlett Super- G Tanker Toaster Stars and Stripes Superlearning Tape Toddy Start Supermarkt Tarot Toeloop starten supersonisch Tartan Toffee Starter Supervision Task Token Start-up Supervisor Taskforce Tomahawk Statement Supreme Court tätowieren Tommy Staufferfett Surfboard Tatsache Toner Steak surfen Tattersall Tonic Steakhaus Surfer Tattoo Tool Steamkracken Surfing Taxiway top Steckenpferd Surprise-Party T-Bone-Steak Top Stenografie Survey Teach-in Top Stenotypist Survivaltraining Teak topgesetzt Stepp Swap Team Toplader steppen Swapgeschäft Teamwork topless stereophon Swapper Tearoom Topmanagement Stereophonie Sweater Teaser toppen Sterling Sweatingsystem Techno topsecret Stern Sweatshirt Technokrat Topspin Stetson Sweepstake Technokratie Topten Steuereinheit Sweet technokratisch Törn Steward Sweetheart Teddy Tory Stewardess Swimmingpool, Teddybär Totem Stick Swimming-Pool Tee Touch Sticker Swing Teen Touchscreen Stillleben Swing Teenie, Teeny tough Stock swingen telegen Tourist Stoff Swinger Telegramm Tower stoned swinging Telepathie Township stonewashed Swinging telepathisch Trace stop switchen Teleprompter ® Track Stop-and-go-Verkehr Switchgeschäft Teleshopping Trackball Stop-over Symposion Teletext Trademark

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Trading Trustee USA Wechselwähler Traditional Jazz Tschandu USB Wedge Trailer T-Shirt User Wedgwood Trainee Tube utilitär Weekend Trainer tubeless Utilitarismus Weißbuch trainieren Tudorbogen Utopie Wellness Training Tuftingverfahren Weltergewicht Training on the Job tunen Vamp Westen Traktor Tuner Van Western Tram Tuning vegan Westerner Tramp Tunnel Vegetarier Whalewatching trampen Turf Vektor Whig Tramway Turkey Ventilator Whirlpool Trance Turmalin Veranda Whisky Tranquilizer Turn Verdikt Whist Transfer Turnaround Viagra ® Whistler transferabel Tutor Vibraphon Whitecoat transferieren Tweed Victoryzeichen White-Collar-Kriminalität Transistor Twen Video WHO Transmitter Twill video-, Video- Who's who Transponder Twinset Videoclip Wigwam Transporter Twist Video-on-Demand Wildcard Transputer Twist Viktimologie Winder Trap twisten VIP Windjammer Trapper Tycoon Viper Window Trapschießen virtuell Windowshopping Trash Überflussgesellschaft Virus Wissen Traum überholen Viscount Witz Traumfabrik Überlebenstraining Viscountess Wolke Travellerscheck überziehen visualisieren Wolkenkratzer Travestie UFO, Ufo vital Womanizer Trawl Ufologie vitalisieren Women's Lib Trawler Ulster Vitamin Worcestersoße Trax Umweltschutz Voicemail Workaholic Treatment umziehen Volapük Workout Treiber UN Volkslied Workshop treideln Uncle Sam Volkswirtschaft Workstation Trekkie Undercoveragent Vollblut Worldcup Trekking Underdog volley World Games Trekkingbike underdressed Volley World Wide Fund for Nature Trenchcoat Underflow Volleyball World Wide Web Trend Underground Vorhang Worst Case Trendscout Understatement Voucher wow Trendsetter UNESCO V. S. O. P. Wrestling trendy unfreundlich Vulgarität Wurmloch Trepang UNICEF Vulkanisation Triade Union Jack vulkanisieren Xetra Trial Unisex X-Strahlen Trial-and-Error-Methode Unperson Wad Trichine unplugged Wafer Yankee Trick Untergrund Waggon Yard tricky Untergrundbahn Wakeboard Yellow Press Trifle Unterhaus Walkie-Talkie Yips Trigger Unternehmensberater Walkman YMCA Trimm Unternehmensberatung Wallaby Yorkshireterrier trimmen Unternehmensforschung WAP Youngster Trip Unternehmer Wapiti Yuppie Triptyk unterprivilegiert Warm-up YWCA Trolley Unterschied Warp Trolleybus Unterseeboot Warrant Zahn Tropical Unze wash and wear zappen Trouble Update waterproof Zapping Troygewicht Upgrade Waterproof Zebra Truck Upperclas waterresistant Zeit Trucker up to date Watt Zelluloid Trucksystem Urknall WC Zenerdiode Trust URL Website Zerealie

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Ziehungsrecht zivil zoomen Zimbabwe Zivilisation Zug Zipp ® Zombie Zyklon Zirkus Zoom

145 b. Le Nouveau Petit Robert – "anglic OU angl OU amér" in complete text [2771] abalone – n. m. amant, ante – n. auditeur, trice – n. bazooka – n. m. aberration – n. f. amendement – n. m. austénite – n. f. beagle – n. m. abiogenèse – n. f. amender – v. tr. autocar – n. m. beat – adj. inv. ablater – v. tr. amer, ère – adj. et n. autoérotisme – n. m. beatnik – n. ablatif – n. m. et adj. m. autofocus – adj. beaupré – n. m. ablation – n. f. amer – n. m. automate – n. m. bébé – n. m. abolitionnisme – n. m. amèrement – adv. automation – n. f. be-bop – n. m. abolitionniste – n. et américium – n. m. autoreverse – adj. inv. because – conj. et adj. amphétamine – n. f. auto-stop – n. m. prép. abrasif, ive – n. m. et anaconda – n. m. avoirdupoids – n. m. behaviorisme – n. m. adj. analycité – n. f. axone – n. m. benji – n. m. A.B.S. – n. m. angioneurotique – adj. berçant, ante – adj. absentéisme – n. m. angledozer – n. m. baba – n. berkélium – n. m. abzyme – n. f. angliche – adj. et n. baby – n. m. bermuda – n. m. accélérine – n. f. angustura – n. f. baby-boom – n. m. best-seller – n. m. accession – n. f. anion – n. m. baby-foot – n. m. inv. bichlamar – n. m. acculturation – n. f. anomalon – n. m. baby-sitter – n. bicycle – n. m. ace – n. m. antibiotique – adj. et n. baby-sitting – n. m. bienvenue – n. f. acétification – n. f. m. backgammon – n. m. bifteck – n. m. acétylcoenzyme – n. f. anticlinal, ale, aux – background – n. m. big-bang – n. m. acquisition – n. f. adj. bacon – n. m. bigot, ote – adj. et n. acre – n. f. antilope – n. f. badge – n. m. bile – n. f. acronyme – n. m. antipsychiatrie – n. f. badlands – n. f. pl. bill – n. m. acte – n. m. antiskating – n. m. badminton – n. m. bingo – n. m. A.C.T.H. – n. f. antitrust – adj. baffle – n. m. biodégradable – adj. actuaire – n. apache – n. et adj. bagage – n. m. biodégradation – n. f. actualisation – n. f. apéritif, ive – adj. et n. balbuzard – n. m. bioénergie – n. f. adaptation – n. f. m. balisage – n. m. biorythme – n. m. adepte – n. aplanétique – adj. ballast – n. m. bit – n. m. admittance – n. f. approche – n. f. ballon – n. m. bitter – n. m. A.D.N. – n. m. après-rasage – n. m. et ball-trap – n. m. black – n. et adj. adrénaline – n. f. adj. banana split – n. m. black-bass – n. m. inv. adrénergique – adj. aptéryx – n. m. inv. blackbouler – v. tr. adresse – n. f. aquaplaning – n. m. bang – interj. et n. m. black-jack – n. m. adventiste – n. arbovirus – n. m. inv. black-out – n. m. inv. aérobic – n. f. arc – n. m. inv. banian – n. m. black-rot – n. m. affidavit – n. m. argent – n. m. banjo – n. m. blazer – n. m. afro – adj. inv. argon – n. m. banque – n. f. blinder – v. afro-cubain, aine – adj. armée – n. f. bantoustan – n. m. blister – n. m. after-shave – n. m. inv. A.R.N. – n. m. baptisme – n. m. blizzard – n. m. agnosticisme – n. m. arrière-plan – n. m. baptiste – adj. et n. bloc – n. m. agnostique – adj. arrimer – v. tr. bar – n. m. bloc-notes – n. m. agrippement – n. m. arrow-root – n. m. barbecue – n. m. bloc-système – n. m. aigre – adj. artefact – n. m. baril – n. m. bloody mary – n. m. aigri, ie – adj. ASA – n. m. inv. barmaid – n. f. inv. aigrir – v. ASCII – n. m. barman – n. m. bloomer – n. m. aimer – v. tr. asdic – n. m. barn – n. m. blue-jean – n. m. airbag – n. m. ASIC – n. m. baromètre – n. m. blues – n. m. airedale – n. m. aspartame – n. m. baron, onne – n. bluff – n. m. albacore – n. m. assembleur, euse – n. baronnet – n. m. blush – n. m. albatros – n. m. associationnisme – n. barracuda – n. m. boat people – n. m. albédo – n. m. m. baryum – n. m. inv. ale – n. f. assomption – n. f. bas-bleu – n. m. bob – n. m. algol – n. m. assuétude – n. f. base – n. f. bobsleigh – n. m. allégeance – n. f. atoll – n. m. base-ball – n. m. bobtail – n. m. alligator – n. m. attaché-case – n. m. basic – n. m. body – n. m. allitération – n. f. attaquant, ante – n. basique – adj. bodybuilding – n. m. allo – interj. attention – n. f. basket – n. m. boghead – n. m. aloès – n. m. attorney – n. m. bateau – n. m. boghei – n. m. alphapage – n. m. attractif, ive – adj. battant, ante – n. bogie – n. m. alternative – n. f. attraction – n. f. battle-dress – n. m. bogue – n. f., cour. n. aluminium – n. m. auburn – adj. inv. inv. m. a.m. – loc. adv. audit – n. m. bay-window – n. f. bol – n. m.

146 bollard – n. m. bus – n. m. catgut – n. m. chow-chow – n. m. bondage – n. m. bush – n. m. cathode – n. f. chris-craft – n. m. bondérisation – n. f. business – n. m. catogan – n. m. chromatide – n. f. boogie-woogie – n. m. businessman – n. m. cattleya – n. m. chrominance – n. f. bookmaker – n. m. bye-bye – interj. C.B. – n. f. chutney – n. m. booléen, enne – adj. by-pass – n. m. inv. CD-ROM – n. m. inv. cibiste – n. boom – n. m. byte – n. m. ceinture – n. f. C.I.F. – adj. ou adv. boomerang – n. m. cellular – n. m. cinérama – n. m. booster – n. m. cab – n. m. celluloïd – n. m. ciné-shop – n. m. bootlegger – n. m. cabin-cruiser – n. m. cénozoïque – adj. cladisme – n. m. boots – n. f. pl. cabine – n. f. cent – n. m. et f. cladistique – adj. bort – n. m. câbler – v. tr. centile – n. m. cladogramme – n. m. bosco – n. m. câblogramme – n. m. centrosome – n. m. clairance – n. f. boss – n. m. cachemire – n. m. céphalosporine – n. f. clam – n. m. boulder – n. m. caddie – n. m. céréale – n. f. clamp – n. m. bouledogue – n. m. caddie – n. m. cérébroside – n. m. clap – n. m. bouline – n. f. C.A.F. – adj. ou adv. cerveau – n. m. clapman – n. m. boulingrin – n. m. cafétéria – n. f. chacal – n. m. clash – n. m. boumeur – n. m. cake – n. m. chaîne – n. f. claymore – n. f bourbon – n. m. cake-walk – n. m. châle – n. m. clean – adj. inv. bousin – n. m. californium – n. m. challenge – n. m. clearing – n. m. bowling – n. m. call-girl – n. f. challenger – n. m. clergyman – n. m. bow-window – n. m. calypso – n. m. chambray – n. m. climax – n. m. box – n. m. cambrien, ienne – n. chamito-sémitique – clinomètre – n. m. box – n. m. m. et adj. adj. et n. m. clinorhombique – adj. boxe – n. f. caméra – n. f. champignon – n. m. clip – n. m. boxer-short – n. m. caméraman – n. m. chapeau – n. m. clip – n. m. box-office – n. m. camp – n. m. charge – n. f. clipper – n. m. boxon – n. m. camping – n. m. charter – n. m. cliquer – v. intr. boy – n. m. camping-car – n. m. chartiste – adj. et n. clone – n. m. boycott – n. m. campus – n. m. chat, chatte – n. close-combat – n. m. boy-scout – n. m. canette – n. f. chatterton – n. m. clown – n. m. brachiation – n. f. canif – n. m. cheap – adj. inv. club – n. m. bradykinine – n. f. canner – v. tr. check-list – n. f. club – n. m. brain drain – n. m. cannibaliser – v. tr. check-up – n. m. inv. club-house – n. m. brainstorming – n. m. canoë – n. m. cheddar – n. m. cluster – n. m. brain-trust – n. m. canter – n. m. cheeseburger – n. m. coach – n. m. brandy – n. m. cantilever – adj. inv. et cheese-cake – n. m. coalition – n. f. braquet – n. m. n. m. cheftaine – n. f. coaltar – n. m. break – n. m. capacitance – n. f. chelem – n. m. cob – n. m. break – n. m. capacitation – n. f. chemin de fer – n. m. cobol – n. m. breakfast – n. m. capital-risque – n. m. chèque – n. m. coca-cola – n. m. inv. bréchet – n. m. car – n. m. cherry – n. m. cocker – n. m. breuvage – n. m. caravane – n. f. cheviotte – n. f. cockney – n. et adj. brick – n. m. caravaning – n. m. chewing-gum – n. m. cockpit – n. m. bridge – n. m. carborundum – n. m. chicotin – n. m. cocktail – n. m. bridge – n. m. carcinome – n. m. chien-loup – n. m. cocooning – n. m. briefer – v. tr. cardigan – n. m. chiffe – n. f. code – n. m. briefing – n. m. car-ferry – n. m. chihuahua – n. m. coder – v. brise-lames – n. m. cargo – n. m. chimioluminescence – coke – n. m. bristol – n. m. caronade – n. f. n. f. col – n. m. broker – n. m. carpette – n. f. chinook – n. m. cold-cream – n. m. brook – n. m. carrick – n. m. chintz – n. m. colin – n. m. brunch – n. m. carriériste – n. chip – n. m. collapser – v. intr. brushing – n. m. carter – n. m. chippendale – adj. inv. colley – n. m. budget – n. m. cartoon – n. m. chips – n. f. pl. colloïde – n. m. bug – n. m. cash – adv. et n. m. chiropracteur – n. m. colombe – n. f. buggy – n. m. cash-flow – n. m. chiropraxie – n. f. colombite – n. f. bugle – n. m. casimir – n. m. chisel – n. m. colonisation – n. f. building – n. m. casse-croûte – n. m. chlorofluorocarbone – coloniser – v. tr. bulbe – n. m. inv. n. m. colorisation – n. f. bulldozer – n. m. casting – n. m. chloroquine – n. f. coloriser – v. tr. bull-finch – n. m. catalpa – n. m. choc – n. m. combinaison – n. f. bull-terrier – n. m. catalyse – n. f. choke-bore – n. m. come-back – n. m. inv. bun – n. m. catamaran – n. m. cholinestérase – n. f. comité – n. m. bungalow – n. m. catch – n. m. choquer – v. tr. commando – n. m. bunker – n. m. caténane – n. f. chorus – n. m. commodité – n. f.

147 commodore – n. m. coopératif, ive – adj. cryotron – n. m. dépression – n. f. commune – n. f. coopérative – n. f. cryptobiose – n. f. derby – n. m. communicabilité – n. coordinateur, trice – n. cryptocommuniste – déridage – n. m. f. et adj. adj. et n. dériver – v. intr. communication – n. f. coprocesseur – n. m. cubilot – n. m. derrick – n. m. compact, e – adj. et n. copyright – n. m. culturalisme – n. m. désaisonnaliser – v. tr. m. coquerie – n. f. culturel, elle – adj. désappointé, ée – adj. compétence – n. f. coqueron – n. m. curling – n. m. désappointement – n. compétitif, ive – adj. cordite – n. f. curry – n. m. m. compétition – n. f. corned-beef – n. m. custom – n. m. désappointer – v. tr. compilateur, trice – n. corner – n. m. cutter – n. m. descriptivisme – n. m. compilation – n. f. corn-flakes – n. m. pl. cyan – n. m. design – n. m. compiler – v. tr. cornique – adj. cybernétique – n. f. designer – n. comportement – n. m. coroner – n. m. cycle – n. m. desk – n. m. compost – n. m. corozo – n. m. cyclone – n. m. desperado – n. m. compound – adj. inv. corporation – n. f. destroyer – n. m. et n. corral – n. m. dada – n. m. détecter – v. tr. compulsion – n. f. correct, e – adj. daïquiri – n. m. détecteur, trice – n. m. concéder – v. tr. corréler – v. tr. dalmatien, ienne – n. et adj. concentration – n. f. cortisone – n. f. dalton – n. m. détection – n. f. concerner – v. tr. cosy – adj. daltonisme – n. m. détective – n. m. concertina – n. m. cosy – n. m. dancing – n. m. détonique – n. f. condenseur – n. m. cotidal, ale, aux – adj. dandy – n. m. dévaluation – n. f. conditionné, ée – adj. cotinga – n. m. darwinisme – n. m. dévaluer – v. tr. condom – n. m. cotre – n. m. D.A.T. – n. m. développement – n. m. condominium – n. m. cottage – n. m. dead-heat – n. m. devon – n. m. conformiste – n. et adj. country – n. f. ou m. dealer – n. m. dévonien, ienne – adj. confort – n. m. inv. dealer – v. tr. et n. m. confortable – adj. couponnage – n. m. débat – n. m. dichroïsme – n. m. conglomérat – n. m. court – n. m. débatteur – n. m. différence – n. f. congrès – n. m. court-circuiter – v. tr. déboguer – v. tr. digest – n. m. connotatif, ive – adj. couscous – n. m. débriefer – v. tr. digicode – n. m. connoter – v. tr. couvrir – v. tr. débutant, ante – adj. et digit – n. m. consistant, ante – adj. covelline – n. f. n. digital, ale, aux – adj. consolidé, ée – adj. et covenant – n. m. décade – n. f. digitaliser – v. tr. n. cover-girl – n. f. décideur, euse – n. diluvium – n. m. consortium – n. m. cow-boy – n. m. décimaliser – v. tr. dinghy – n. m. constable – n. m. cow-pox – n. m. inv. déclassifier – v. tr. dingo – n. m. consumérisme – n. m. crack – n. m. décoder – v. tr. dinosauriens – n. m. consumériste – adj. et crack – n. m. décollage – n. m. pl. n. cracker – n. m. décoller – v. directif, ive – adj. contact – n. m. cracking – n. m. déconnecter – v. tr. direction – n. f. contacter – v. tr. craquage – n. m. déconnexion – n. f. disco – n. m. et adj. container – n. m. crash – n. m. décontracté, ée – adj. discount – n. m. contraceptif, ive – adj. crasher (se) – v. pron. décrément – n. m. discounter – n. m. et n. m. crawl – n. m. défaitisme – n. m. discriminatif, ive – contraception – n. f. créatif, ive – adj. et n. défenestration – n. f. adj. contredanse – n. f. m. défi – n. m. dispatcher – n. m. contre-exemple – n. m. crédible – adj. déflation – n. f. dispatcher – v. tr. contrôle – n. m. crédit – n. m. défoliant, iante – adj. dispatching – n. m. conurbation – n. f. cricket – n. m. et n. m. dispensaire – n. m. convent – n. m. critique – n. et adj. défoliation – n. f. disqualifier – v. tr. convention – n. f. cromlech – n. m. défolier – v. tr. disque – n. m. conventionnel, elle – crooner – n. m. déforestation – n. f. disque-jockey – n. m. adj. et n. m. croquet – n. m. délétion – n. f. disquette – n. f. convertible – adj. et n. cross-country – n. m. delirium tremens – n. distal, ale, aux – adj. m. crossing-over – n. m. m. inv. distancer – v. tr. convict – n. m. inv. délivrer – v. tr. distribution – n. f. convivial, iale, iaux – croup – n. m. dengue – n. f. distributionnalisme – adj. croupion – n. m. denim – n. m. n. m. convivialité – n. f. crown-glass – n. m. déodorant, ante – n. m. distributionnel, elle – cooccurrence – n. f. inv. et adj. adj. cookie – n. m. crucial, iale, iaux – déontique – adj. division – n. f. cool – adj. inv. adj. déontologie – n. f. dock – n. m. coolie – n. m. cruiser – n. m. département – n. m. docker – n. m. coopérant, ante – adj. cryogénique – adj. déplacé, ée – adj. dodo – n. m. et n. cryophysique – n. f. dépouille – n. f. dog-cart – n. m.

148 dogger – n. m. écu – n. m. esquire – n. m. fax – n. m. dogue – n. m. éditer – v. tr. essai – n. m. feed-back – n. m. inv. dollar – n. m. éditeur, trice – n. essayiste – n. feeder – n. m. domestique – adj. et n. éditorial, iaux – n. m. est – n. m. feeling – n. m. dominion – n. m. effecteur, trice – adj. establishment – n. m. fennec – n. m. dopage – n. m. et n. m. est-allemand, ande – ferler – v. tr. dope – n. f. efficience – n. f. adj. ferromagnétisme – n. doper – v. tr. efficient, iente – adj. estérase – n. f. m. doping – n. m. égaliseur – n. m. estérification – n. f. ferry-boat – n. m. doris – n. m. égotisme – n. m. esterlin – n. m. festival – n. m. doux, douce – adj. et égrotant, ante – adj. estran – n. m. fiat – n. m. inv. n. élastine – n. f. étai – n. m. fifty-fifty – loc. adv. et dragline – n. f. elbot – n. m. étambrai – n. m. n. m. dragster – n. m. électret – n. m. étanche – adj. et n. f. film – n. m. drague – n. f. électricité – n. f. ethnocentrisme – n. m. finaliser – v. tr. drain – n. m. électrique – adj. étrangeté – n. f. finish – n. m. drastique – adj. électrocuter – v. tr. eugénique – n. f. et finitude – n. f. drave – n. f. électrocution – n. f. adj. firman – n. m. draver – v. intr. électrode – n. f. eugénisme – n. m. fish-eye – n. m. draveur – n. m. électrolyse – n. f. eugéniste – n. fission – n. f. dravidien, ienne – adj. électrolyser – v. tr. euphuisme – n. m. fixe – n. m. et n. m. électrolyte – n. m. eurasien, ienne – adj. flanelle – n. f. drawback – n. m. électron – n. m. et n. flash – n. m. dressing-room – n. m. électronique – adj. et évitement – n. m. flash-back – n. m. dribble – n. m. n. f. évolution – n. f. flasher – v. dribbler – v. tr. électrostriction – n. f. excavateur, trice – n. flaveur – n. f. dribbleur, euse – n. elfe – n. m. excentricité – n. f. flèche – n. f. drift – n. m. élisabéthain, aine – excentrique – adj. et n. flexion – n. f. drifter – n. m. adj. excise – n. f. flibustier – n. m. drill – n. m. élusif, ive – adj. excitabilité – n. f. flint-glass – n. m. inv. dring – interj. embouteiller – v. tr. exciton – n. m. flipper – n. m. drink – n. m. émergent, ente – adj. exemplarité – n. f. flipper – v. intr. drive – n. m. émission – n. f. exerciseur – n. m. flirt – n. m. drive-in – n. m. inv. émulateur – n. m. exfiltration – n. f. flirter – v. intr. driver – n. m. émuler – v. tr. exfiltrer – v. tr. flocage – n. m. driver – v. encadrement – n. m. exhaustif, ive – adj. flock-book – n. m. drone – n. m. endogamie – n. f. expert, erte – adj. et n. flop – interj. et n. m. droper – v. tr. endomorphisme – n. m. flottation – n. f. drop-goal – n. m. m. expertise – n. f. flou, floue – adj. et n. droppage – n. m. endorphine – n. f. exportation – n. f. m. drugstore – n. m. enduro – n. m. et f. exporter – v. tr. fluorescence – n. f. drummer – n. m. énergétique – adj. et n. express – adj. et n. m. fluorescent, ente – adj. drums – n. m. pl. f. express – adj. et n. m. flush – n. m. dry – adj. inv. et n. m. énergie – n. f. expression – n. f. F.M. – n. f. inv. dry farming – n. m. énergisant, ante – adj. exprimer – v. tr. F.O.B. – adj. inv. duffel-coat – n. m. et n. m. exquis, ise – adj. foil – n. m. dumper – n. m. engineering – n. m. extéroceptif, ive – adj. folk – n. m. et adj. dumping – n. m. enképhaline – n. f. extra-dry – adj. inv. folklore – n. m. dundee – n. m. entraîner – v. tr. eye-liner – n. m. football – n. m. duplex – n. m. environnement – n. m. footballeur, euse – n. durham – n. et adj. environnemental, ale, facteur – n. m. footing – n. m. dyke – n. m. aux – adj. factoring – n. m. forcing – n. m. dynamisation – n. f. éocène – n. m. factuel, elle – adj. forfait – n. m. dynamiser – v. tr. épiphénomène – n. m. faculté – n. f. formalisation – n. f. dysgénique – adj. épirogenèse – n. f. fading – n. m. formaliser – v. tr. dysidrose – n. f. épirogénique – adj. fair-play – n. m. inv. format – n. m. épistémologie – n. f. fairway – n. m. formater – v. tr. ébonite – n. f. épluchette – n. f. faisabilité – n. f. forsythia – n. m. écaille – n. f. EPROM – n. f. falot, ote – adj. forteresse – n. f. échiquier – n. m. équimolaire – adj. falsifiable – adj. fortran – n. m. écholocation – n. f. équipotentiel, ielle – fan – n. fournaise – n. f. échoppe – n. f. adj. fanzine – n. m. foxé, ée – adj. éclaireur, euse – n. ergonomie – n. f. faradique – adj. fox-hound – n. m. écluse – n. f. érythromycine – n. f. farce – n. f. fox-terrier – n. m. écosystème – n. m. érythropoïétine – n. f. far west – n. m. inv. fox-trot – n. m. inv. écraser – v. tr. escalade – n. f. fast-food – n. m. frac – n. m. ecstasy – n. f. escalator – n. m. faucon – n. m. franchisage – n. m.

149 franc-maçon, onne – n. gimmick – n. m. haut, haute – adj., n. id est – loc. conj. et adj. gin – n. m. m. et adv. idiolecte – n. m. frangeant – adj. m. gin-rummy – n. m. haut-parleur – n. m. iguanodon – n. m. freak – n. girl – n. f. hebdomadaire – adj. et illumination – n. f. free-jazz – n. m. inv. glacé, ée – adj. n. m. I.L.S. – n. m. free-lance – adj. inv. et glamour – n. m. héler – v. tr. immatérialiste – n. n. glamoureux, euse – héliport – n. m. immature – adj. free-martin – n. m. adj. hello – interj. immelmann – n. m. freezer – n. m. glass – n. m. herd-book – n. m. immun, une – adj. frein – n. m. globe-trotter – n. héritabilité – n. f. impeachment – n. m. french cancan – n. m. G.M.T. – loc. hickory – n. m. impédance – n. f. frisbee – n. m. nominale hi-fi – n. f. inv. et adj. impérialisme – n. m. fuel – n. m. goal – n. m. inv. impérialiste – n. et adj. full – n. m. goal-average – n. m. highlander – n. m. implémentation – n. f. full-contact – n. m. golden – n. f. high-tech – n. m. inv. implémenter – v. tr. fun – n. m. gold point – n. m. hip – interj. implosif, ive – adj. funboard – n. m. golf – n. m. hippie – n. et adj. importation – n. f. funéraire – adj. gombo – n. m. histogramme – n. m. importer – v. tr. funk – n. m. et adj. goretex – n. m. hit-parade – n. m. imprédictible – adj. funky – n. m. et adj. gospel – n. m. hittite – adj. impulser – v. tr. inv. goût – n. m. HIV – n. m. in – adj. inv. furole – n. f. grâce – n. f. H.L.A. – adj. inapproprié, iée – adj. fusel – n. m. grade – n. m. hobby – n. m. in-bord – adj. inv. grader – n. m. hockey – n. m. incapacitant, ante – GABA – n. m. inv. gramophone – n. m. holding – n. m. ou f. adj. et n. m. gadget – n. m. granny smith – n. f. hold-up – n. m. inv. incident, ente – adj. gaélique – adj. et n. inv. holster – n. m. incohérence – n. f. gag – n. m. grapefruit – n. m. home – n. m. inconditionnel, elle – gagman – n. m. gratte-ciel – n. m. homéostasie – n. f. adj. gallois, oise – adj. et n. green – n. m. homespun – n. m. inconstitutionnel, elle gallon – n. m. grigner – v. intr. home-trainer – n. m. – adj. galopant, ante – adj. grill – n. m. honorable – adj. incorruptible – adj. gambusie – n. f. grizzli – n. m. hooligan – n. m. incoterm – n. m. gang – n. m. grog – n. m. hormone – n. f. incrément – n. m. gangster – n. m. groggy – adj. inv. hors-bord – n. m. inv. indécidable – adj. gap – n. m. groom – n. m. horse-ball – n. m. indésirable – adj. et n. garden-party – n. f. groupe – n. m. horse-power – n. m. inductance – n. f. garde-robe – n. f. groupie – n. inv. induline – n. f. gastrine – n. f. guidance – n. f. hors-la-loi – n. inv. inertiel, ielle – adj. gauche – adj. et n. guiderope – n. m. hospitalisme – n. m. inexhaustible – adj. gaur – n. m. guinée – n. f. hot – adj. inv. inflation – n. f. gay – adj. inv. gunite – n. f. hot-dog – n. m. inflationniste – adj. gelé, ée – adj. gutta-percha – n. f. houppelande – n. f. influence – n. f. gemmologie – n. f. gymkhana – n. m. hourra – n. m. information – n. f. gène – n. m. house-boat – n. m. informel, elle – adj. et génératif, ive – adj. h – n. m. inv. hovercraft – n. m. n. m. génération – n. f. habituation – n. f. humoriste – n. et adj. ingénierie – n. f. générer – v. tr. haddock – n. m. humoristique – adj. initialiser – v. tr. génétisme – n. m. haggis – n. m. humour – n. m. initier – v. tr. gentiane – n. f. haire – n. f. hurdler – n. m. inlay – n. m. gentleman – n. m. half-track – n. m. hurricane – n. m. inoculation – n. f. gentleman-farmer – n. hall – n. m. husky – n. m. inoculer – v. tr. m. halloween – n. f. hydrocraquage – n. m. input – n. m. gentlemen's agreement hamburger – n. m. hydrofoil – n. m. insane – adj. – n. m. hameau – n. m. hypnose – n. f. insanité – n. f. gentry – n. f. hammerless – n. m. hypnotisme – n. m. inscriptible – adj. géopolitique – n. f. et handicap – n. m. hystérésis – n. f. insémination – n. f. adj. hanté, ée – adj. insert – n. m. géosynclinal, aux – n. hanter – v. tr. ICBM – n. m. inv. insertion – n. f. m. happening – n. m. iceberg – n. m. instrumentalisme – n. gestalt-thérapie – n. f. happy end – n. m. ou f. ichtyol – n. m. m. getter – n. m. happy few – n. m. pl. icone – n. m. insuline – n. f. geyser – n. m. haquenée – n. f. iconicité – n. f. intelligence – n. f. G.I. – n. m. hard – adj. et n. m. iconique – adj. intension – n. f. gibbérelline – n. f. hardware – n. m. idéation – n. f. interchangeable – adj. gift – n. m. harmonica – n. m. idéomoteur, trice – intercourse – n. f. gigue – n. f. has been – n. m. inv. adj. interface – n. f.

150 interférence – n. f. juke-box – n. m. inv. légionellose – n. f. lougre – n. m. interférent, ente – adj. jumping – n. m. législatif, ive – adj. lovelace – n. m. interférer – v. intr. jungle – n. f. législature – n. f. loyal, ale, aux – adj. interfluve – n. m. junior – adj. et n. légume – n. m. et f. loyalisme – n. m. interlingual, ale, aux – junkie – n. et adj. leishmania – n. f. loyaliste – adj. et n. adj. jury – n. m. lemmatiser – v. tr. L.S.D. – n. m. interlock – n. m. jute – n. m. lemon-grass – n. m. luddisme – n. m. interlope – n. m. et inv. lumière – n. f. adj. kaki – adj. inv. et n. m. lepton – n. m. lump – n. m. interlude – n. m. inv. lettre – n. f. lunch – n. m. intermédiation – n. f. kaléidoscope – n. m. lévitation – n. f. lune – n. f. intéroceptif, ive – adj. kangourou – n. m. lias – n. m. lurex – n. m. interpréteur – n. m. kaoliang – n. m. liberty – n. m. inv. lutte – n. f. intertidal, ale, aux – karma – n. m. libre-échange – n. m. lyddite – n. f. adj. karman – n. m. libre penseur, euse – lyncher – v. tr. interview – n. f. kart – n. m. adj. et n. lyric – n. m. intron – n. m. karting – n. m. libre-service – n. m. introspection – n. f. keepsake – n. m. lidar – n. m. macadam – n. m. intubation – n. f. kelvin – n. m. lift – n. m. macho – n. m. invariant, iante – adj. kénotron – n. m. lifter – v. tr. mackintosh – n. m. et n. m. kentia – n. m. liftier, ière – n. maçon – n. m. investir – v. tr. kerma – n. m. lifting – n. m. made in – loc. adj. investissement – n. m. kerrie – n. m. ligand – n. m. magasin – n. m. ion – n. m. ketch – n. m. ligase – n. f. magasiner – v. intr. irish coffee – n. m. ketchup – n. m. light – adj. inv. magazine – n. m. irish stew – n. m. kick – n. m. lime – n. f. magenta – n. m. irresponsable – adj. kidnapper – v. tr. limerick – n. m. magnat – n. m. ISBN – n. m. kidnapping – n. m. liminal, ale, aux – adj. mail-coach – n. m. ISO – n. m. inv. kilt – n. m. liner – n. m. mailing – n. m. isolationnisme – n. m. kimberlite – n. f. linkage – n. m. maintenance – n. f. isooctane – n. m. kinesthésie – n. f. links – n. m. pl. maïzena – n. f. isospin – n. m. king-charles – n. m. linoléique – adj. majorette – n. f. isostasie – n. f. inv. linoléum – n. m. majorité – n. f. isotope – n. m. kipper – n. m. linotype – n. f. malais, aise – adj. et n. item – n. m. kit – n. m. linter – n. m. malle – n. f. itinérant, ante – adj. kitchenette – n. f. lion – n. m. malnutrition – n. f. kiwi – n. m. liposome – n. m. malocclusion – n. f. jack – n. m. kiwi – n. m. liqueur – n. f. malposition – n. f. jackpot – n. m. klaxon – n. m. lisette – n. f. malt – n. m. jacuzzi – n. m. kleenex – n. m. lisp – n. m. mambo – n. f. jamboree – n. m. klystron – n. m. lissage – n. m. mamie – n. f. jam-session – n. f. knickerbockers – n. m. listeria – n. f. inv. management – n. m. jaquette – n. f. pl. listing – n. m. manager – n. m. jazz – n. m. knock-down – n. m. live – adj. inv. manager – v. tr. jazzman – n. m. inv. living-room – n. m. mandrill – n. m. jazzy – adj. inv. knock-out – n. m. inv. livre – n. m. mangrove – n. f. jean – n. m. et adj. inv. lloyd – n. m. manifold – n. m. jeep – n. f. know-how – n. m. inv. loader – n. m. mannitol – n. m. jenny – n. f. koala – n. m. lob – n. m. mappe – n. f. jerk – n. m. krypton – n. m. lobby – n. m. marasque – n. f. jéroboam – n. m. kumquat – n. m. lobéline – n. f. marée – n. f. jerrycan – n. m. loch – n. m. marginal, ale, aux – jet – n. m. label – n. m. lock-out – n. m. inv. adj. et n. jet-set – n. m. ou f. lad – n. m. lock-outer – v. tr. marginalisme – n. m. jet-stream – n. m. lady – n. f. locuteur, trice – n. marijuana – n. f. jigger – n. m. lambswool – n. m. loft – n. m. marina – n. f. jingle – n. m. laser – n. m. loge – n. f. marine – n. m. job – n. m. lasso – n. m. look – n. m. marketing – n. m. jockey – n. m. lasting – n. m. looping – n. m. marlin – n. m. jodhpur – n. m. LAV – n. m. inv. loquet – n. m. marron, onne – adj. jogger – v. intr. lavage – n. m. loran – n. m. marshal – n. m. joggeur, euse – n. lawrencium – n. m. lord – n. m. marshmallow – n. m. jogging – n. m. leader – n. m. lord-maire – n. m. martini – n. m. joint – n. m. leadership – n. m. lorry – n. m. maryland – n. m. joint venture – n. f. leasing – n. m. loser – n. m. mascara – n. m. joker – n. m. leggins – n. f. pl. lot – n. m. maser – n. m. jubarte – n. f. leghorn – n. f. loto – n. m.

151 massif, ive – adj. et n. miroir – n. m. nectarine – n. f. oléfine – n. f. m. MIRV – n. m. inv. et négatif, ive – adj. et n. oléoduc – n. m. mastère – n. m. adj. inv. négocier – v. ondinisme – n. m. mastiff – n. m. miss – n. f. negro-spiritual, als – n. one man show – loc. match – n. m. missile – n. m. m. subst. m. match-play – n. m. mitogène – adj. et n. néguentropie – n. f. one-step – n. m. maternage – n. m. m. néoblaste – n. m. onlay – n. m. materner – v. tr. mixage – n. m. néolithique – adj. et n. open – adj. inv. matrilinéaire – adj. mixer – v. tr. m. opérande – n. m. matrilocal, ale, aux – mixeur – n. m. néonatal, ale – adj. opérationnel, elle – adj. mobile – adj. et n. m. néonatologie – n. f. adj. maul – n. m. mobile home – n. m. néoprène – n. m. opératique – adj. maximiser – v. tr. mocassin – n. m. net – n. m. opossum – n. m. meccano – n. m. modern style – n. m. neuropsychologie – n. opportuniste – n. et médecine-ball – n. m. inv. f. adj. média – n. m. mohair – n. m. neutron – n. m. opportunité – n. f. médium – n. m. moire – n. f. névrose – n. f. opsine – n. f. médium – n. m. molalité – n. f. new-look – n. m. inv. optimisation – n. f. meeting – n. m. moleskine – n. f. et adj. inv. optimiser – v. tr. méga- mongolisme – n. m. newsmagazine – n. m. optoélectronique – n. mégalopole – n. f. moniteur, trice – n. nicol – n. m. f. et adj. mégaphone – n. m. monitorage – n. m. night-club – n. m. ordalie – n. f. mégohm – n. m. monitoring – n. m. niveau – n. m. ordinal, aux – n. m. meilleur, e – adj. monoclonal, ale, aux – niveleuse – n. f. ordinateur – n. m. mélatonine – n. f. adj. noble – adj. et n. ordre – n. m. melting-pot – n. m. morne – adj. no man's land – n. m. oriel – n. m. mémorandum – n. m. morphème – n. m. inv. ostéopathe – n. mémorial, iaux – n. m. morse – n. m. nominé, ée – adj. ostéopathie – n. f. mentalité – n. f. MOS – n. m. non-conformiste – n. ouah – interj. merceriser – v. tr. motel – n. m. et adj. ouest-allemand, ande – merchandising – n. m. motion – n. f. non-directif, ive – adj. adj. et n. merise – n. f. motoneurone – n. m. non-linéaire – adj. out – adv. et adj. inv. mess – n. m. motopaver – n. m. non-retour – n. m. outlaw – n. m. message – n. m. motor-home – n. m. non-sens – n. m. et output – n. m. méthadone – n. f. motorship – n. m. adj. outrigger – n. m. méthionine – n. f. mot-valise – n. m. non-stop – adj. inv. et outsider – n. m. méthodisme – n. m. mound – n. m. n. inv. over arm stroke – n. méthodiste – adj. et n. moviola – n. f. non-violence – n. f. m. métropolitain – adj. et mucoviscidose – n. f. nord – n. m. et adj. overdose – n. f. n. m. muffin – n. m. inv. overdrive – n. m. microdissection – n. f. mule-jenny – n. f. norrois, oise – n. et ovni – n. m. microélectronique – n. multidimensionnel, adj. oxer – n. m. f. et adj. elle – adj. novélisation – n. f. oxford – n. m. microforme – n. f. multigrade – adj. NTSC – n. m. micro-instruction – n. multilinéaire – adj. nubuck – n. m. pacemaker – n. m. f. multimètre – n. m. nuisance – n. f. pacfung – n. m. micromanipulation – multiprocesseur – n. numérologie – n. f. pack – n. m. n. f. m. et adj. m. nursage – n. m. package – n. m. microminiaturisation – muntjac – n. m. nurse – n. f. packaging – n. m. n. f. muon – n. m. nursery – n. f. paddock – n. m. microphone – n. m. music-hall – n. m. nylon – n. m. paddy – n. m. inv. microprocesseur – n. must – n. m. pager – n. m. m. mustang – n. m. objecteur – n. m. pair – n. m. microtubule – n. m. mutant, ante – adj. et obsolescence – n. f. pairesse – n. f. midship – n. m. n. obstétricien, ienne – n. pal – n. m. mildiou – n. m. myosotis – n. m. obstruction – n. f. palace – n. m. mile – n. m. occlusion – n. f. pale-ale – n. f. milk-bar – n. m. nabla – n. m. occurrence – n. f. paléolithique – adj. et milk-shake – n. m. napalm – n. m. off – adj. inv. et adv. n. m. millage – n. m. narcoanalyse – n. f. office – n. m. paletot – n. m. mille – n. m. narcodollars – n. m. pl. officiel, ielle – adj. et palladium – n. m. milord – n. m. natif, ive – adj. et n. n. palynologie – n. f. minable – adj. et n. navel – n. f. offset – n. m. pamphlet – n. m. minijupe – n. f. navicert – n. m. offshore – adj. inv. et pamphlétaire – n. minoen, enne – adj. nébulisation – n. f. n. m. pamplemousse – n. m. minorité – n. f. nébuliseur – n. m. O.K. – adv. et adj. inv. pancosmisme – n. m. miocène – adj. et n. m. neck – n. m. okapi – n. m. pandémonium – n. m.

152 panégyriste – n. pesticide – n. m. et polyembryonie – n. f. privilégié, iée – adj. et panel – n. m. adj. polyribosome – n. m. n. panorama – n. m. pétition – n. f. polysome – n. m. problème – n. m. panthéisme – n. m. pétrel – n. m. pomélo – n. m. procédure – n. f. panthéiste – adj. et n. phanie – n. f. poney – n. m. processeur – n. m. paquebot – n. m. phénologie – n. f. pongé – n. m. processif, ive – adj. par – n. m. phloème – n. m. pool – n. m. producteur, trice – adj. paracétamol – n. m. phonématique – adj. et pop – adj. inv. et n. parian – n. m. n. f. pop art – n. m. production – n. f. parka – n. f. ou m. photo-finish – n. f. pop-corn – n. m. inv. professionnaliser – v. parkérisation – n. f. photogénique – adj. popeline – n. f. tr. parking – n. m. photographie – n. f. population – n. f. professionnel, elle – parkinson – n. m. photon – n. m. porridge – n. m. adj. et n. partenaire – n. phraséologie – n. f. portable – adj. profil – n. m. partenariat – n. m. phytotron – n. m. porter – n. m. progénote – n. m. partition – n. f. pianola – n. m. porteur, euse – n. et progiciel – n. m. parton – n. m. piccalilli – n. m. adj. programmer – v. tr. passing-shot – n. m. pickles – n. m. pl. portfolio – n. m. progressif, ive – adj. passivation – n. f. pickpocket – n. m. portland – n. m. projectif, ive – adj. patate – n. f. pick-up – n. m. inv. portlandien – n. m. projet – n. m. patch – n. m. picr(o)- positionnement – n. m. promotion – n. f. patchouli – n. m. pidgin – n. m. positionner – v. tr. promotionnel, elle – patchwork – n. m. piémont – n. m. positon – n. m. adj. patentage – n. m. pilchard – n. m. possiblement – adv. prompteur – n. m. paternalisme – n. m. ping-pong – n. m. inv. poster – n. m. propène – n. m. patrilinéaire – adj. pin's – n. m. postmoderne – adj. propfan – n. m. patrilocal, ale, aux – pin up – n. f. inv. potassium – n. m. proprioceptif, ive – adj. pionnier, ière – n. et potentialisation – n. f. adj. patronnesse – adj. f. et adj. potentialiser – v. tr. prorogation – n. f. n. f. pipe – n. f. potlatch – n. m. proroger – v. tr. pattern – n. m. pipeline – n. m. potto – n. m. prospect – n. m. pattinsonage – n. m. piper-cub – n. m. poudingue – n. m. prospecter – v. tr. pauliste – adj. et n. pipi-room – n. m. poule – n. f. prospecteur, trice – n. paupériser – v. tr. piquer – v. practice – n. m. prospection – n. f. paupérisme – n. m. pitchpin – n. m. praxis – n. f. protéide – n. m. pause – n. f. pixel – n. m. prédictif, ive – adj. proton – n. m. P.C. – n. m. placard – n. m. prédiquer – v. tr. providence – n. f. pécan – n. m. placebo – n. m. préférentiel, ielle – providentiel, ielle – pedigree – n. m. plaid – n. m. adj. adj. pédiment – n. m. plan – n. m. prégnance – n. f. proxémique – n. f. peeling – n. m. planning – n. m. prégnant, ante – adj. psychédélique – adj. peep-show – n. m. plantation – n. f. premier, ière – adj. et psychodrame – n. m. pellet – n. m. planteur, euse – n. n. pub – n. m. pemmican – n. m. plastic – n. m. prépayer – v. tr. public, ique – adj. et n. pénalisation – n. f. plateforme – n. f. préraphaélite – n. m. et m. pénaliser – v. tr. play-back – n. m. inv. adj. publiciste – n. penalty – n. m. play-boy – n. m. presbytérianisme – n. public-relations – n. f. pénéplaine – n. f. plein-emploi – n. m. m. pl. péniche – n. f. plénum – n. m. presbytérien, ienne – pudding – n. m. pénicilline – n. f. pli – n. m. n. puddler – v. tr. penny – n. m. pliocène – adj. et n. m. présentation – n. f. puffin – n. m. penthouse – n. m. ploutocrate – n. m. présidentiel, ielle – pugiliste – n. m. pentode – n. f. ploutocratie – n. f. adj. pullman – n. m. pep – n. m. plum-cake – n. m. press-book – n. m. pull-over – n. m. peppermint – n. m. plum-pudding – n. m. presse-bouton – adj. pulsar – n. m. peptide – n. m. plutonisme – n. m. inv. pulsé – adj. m. perceptionnisme – n. p.m. – loc. adv. pressing – n. m. punch – n. m. m. poinsettia – n. m. pression – n. f. punch – n. m. performance – n. f. point – n. m. pressurisation – n. f. punching-ball – n. m. performatif – n. m. pointer – n. m. pressuriser – v. tr. punk – n. et adj. pergélisol – n. m. poker – n. m. prêt-à-porter – n. m. purée – n. f. permafrost – n. m. polaroïd – n. m. prévalence – n. f. puritain, aine – n. et permalloy – n. m. pole position – n. f. primage – n. m. adj. permissif, ive – adj. policeman – n. m. primal, ale, aux – adj. puseyisme – n. m. permissivité – n. f. politicien, ienne – n. et prime – n. f. push-pull – n. m. inv. permittivité – n. f. adj. prime time – n. m. putt – n. m. personnalisme – n. m. polo – n. m. prion – n. m. putter – n. m.

153 putto – n. m. rap – n. m. résumé – n. m. sabbatique – adj. puzzle – n. m. rash – n. m. retard – n. m. saccharine – n. f. P.V.C. – n. m. inv. rastaquouère – n. m. et retriever – n. m. sachem – n. m. pyjama – n. m. adj. rétrospective – n. f. sacral, ale, aux – adj. pyrex – n. m. rating – n. m. rétrovirus – n. m. sacralisation – n. f. pyridoxine – n. f. ratio – n. m. révertant – n. m. S.A.E. – adj. ray-grass – n. m. inv. revisiter – v. tr. saga – n. f. Q.I. – n. m. inv. rayonne – n. f. revitalisation – n. f. saloon – n. m. Q-mètre – n. m. réactance – n. f. revitaliser – v. tr. salut – n. m. quadruplex – n. m. ready-made – n. m. revival – n. m. sammy – n. m. quaker, quakeresse – inv. revolver – n. m. sanatorium – n. m. n. réaliser – v. tr. revolving – adj. inv. sanctuaire – n. m. quakerisme – n. m. réarmement – n. m. revue – n. f. sanderling – n. m. qualification – n. f. rebours – n. m. rewriter – v. tr. sandwich – n. m. qualifié, iée – adj. récession – n. f. rewriter – n. m. sarcastique – adj. qualité – n. f. récital – n. m. rewriting – n. m. sati – n. f. et m. inv. quantification – n. f. record – n. m. rhéologie – n. f. saumâtre – adj. quantifier – v. tr. recordman – n. m. rhéostat – n. m. saveur – n. f. quantum – n. m. recordwoman – n. f. rhum – n. m. savoir-faire – n. m. quarantième – adj. et récursif, ive – adj. rhumb – n. m. inv. n. redingote – n. f. rickettsie – n. f. scalaire – adj. quartette – n. m. référence – n. f. rickshaw – n. m. scalp – n. m. quartile – n. m. référent – n. m. rideau – n. m. scalper – v. tr. quart-monde – n. m. référentiel, ielle – adj. riff – n. m. scanner – n. m. quasar – n. m. reflex – adj. et n. m. rifle – n. m. scanner – v. tr. quassine – n. f. réflexible – adj. rift – n. m. scat – n. m. quaternion – n. m. reformage – n. m. rigorisme – n. m. scenic railway – n. m. quercitron – n. m. réformiste – n. et adj. rime – n. f. schilling – n. m. quichenotte – n. f. réfrangible – adj. ring – n. m. schipperke – adj. et n. quick – n. m. reggae – n. m. et adj. ripper – n. m. m. quille – n. f. inv. ripple-mark – n. f. schlass – n. m. quinine – n. f. réhoboam – n. m. R.N.I.S. – n. m. schooner – n. m. quintette – n. m. relation – n. f. roadster – n. m. science-fiction – n. f. quorum – n. m. relax – adj. et n. rob – n. m. scone – n. m. quota – n. m. relaxation – n. f. rock – n. m. et adj. sconse – n. m. QWERTY – adj. inv. relaxer – v. tr. inv. scoop – n. m. réluctance – n. f. rockeur, euse – n. scooter – n. m. r – n. m. inv. reluquer – v. tr. rocking-chair – n. m. score – n. m. racer – n. m. rem – n. m. rodéo – n. m. scotch – n. m. rack – n. m. remake – n. m. roi – n. m. scotch – n. m. racket – n. m. remix – n. m. roller – n. m. scotcher – v. tr. racketteur – n. renaturation – n. f. rollier – n. m. scotch-terrier – n. m. m.efunden rente – n. f. ROM – n. f. scotisme – n. m. radar – n. m. rentrée – n. f. romantique – adj. scottish – n. f. rade – n. f. réorchestration – n. f. romsteck – n. m. scoured – n. m. radian – n. m. répartition – n. f. rookerie – n. f. scout, scoute – n. m. et radical, ale, aux – adj. réplication – n. f. roquette – n. f. adj. et n. reporter – v. tr. rosbif – n. m. scrabble – n. m. radiomètre – n. m. reporter – n. rosicrucien, ienne – scraper – n. m. radôme – n. m. répresseur – n. m. adj. et n. scratch – adj. inv. radoter – v. intr. reprint – n. m. rot – n. m. scratcher – v. raft – n. m. reprographie – n. f. rotary – n. m. script – n. m. rafting – n. m. reps – n. m. roténone – n. f. script – n. m. ragtime – n. m. réservation – n. f. rouge – adj. et n. script-girl – n. f. raid – n. m. réserve – n. f. rough – n. m. scrub – n. m. raider – n. m. résident, ente – n. et round – n. m. scull – n. m. rail – n. m. adj. routine – n. f. sea-line – n. m. railroute – n. m. résidentiel, ielle – adj. royalties – n. f. pl. secrétariat – n. m. rallye – n. m. résilience – n. f. rubéfaction – n. f. sectoriel, ielle – adj. RAM – n. f. inv. résilient, iente – adj. ruflette – n. f. sécurité – n. f. rami – n. m. résine – n. f. rugby – n. m. sédimentologie – n. f. ranch – n. m. résistivité – n. f. rugbyman – n. m. seersucker – n. m. rand – n. m. respectabilité – n. f. rugissant, ante – adj. segmental, ale, aux – randomisation – n. f. responsabilité – n. f. runabout – n. m. adj. randomiser – v. tr. responsable – adj. et n. rush – n. m. ségrégué, ée – adj. ranger – n. m restauration – n. f. rye – n. m. séjour – n. m. raout – n. m. restaurer – v. tr. sélect, ecte – adj.

154 sélecter – v. tr. silicose – n. f. souverain, aine – adj. stayer – n. m. sélectif, ive – adj. silurien, ienne – adj. et n. steak – n. m. sélection – n. f. simaruba – n. m. spallation – n. f. steamer – n. m. self – n. f. simoun – n. m. spardeck – n. m. steeple – n. m. self – n. m. sinécure – n. f. sparring-partner – n. steeple-chase – n. m. self- single – n. m. m. stencil – n. m. self-control – n. m. singleton – n. m. spartéine – n. f. steppage – n. m. self-government – n. sirli – n. m. speakeasy – n. m. steppeur – n. m. m. sistership – n. m. speaker – n. m. stéradian – n. m. self-induction – n. f. sit-in – n. m. inv. speakerine – n. f. stéréoscope – n. m. self-made-man – n. m. skate-board – n. m. spéciation – n. f. stérique – adj. self-service – n. m. skating – n. m. spectre – n. m. sterling – adj. inv. semaine – n. f. sketch – n. m. speech – n. m. sterne – n. f. sémantique – n. f. et ski-bob – n. m. speed – n. m. et adj. stetson – n. m. adj. skif – n. m. speedé, ée – adj. steward – n. m. sémème – n. m. skinhead – n. speed-sail – n. m. stick – n. m. semi-chenillé, ée – adj. skipper – n. m. spencer – n. m. stick – n. m. sémiotique – n. f. et skye-terrier – n. m. spider – n. m. stilton – n. m. adj. sleeping – n. m. spin – n. m. stock – n. m. senior – n. et adj. slice – n. m. spinnaker – n. m. stock-car – n. m. séniorité – n. f. slicer – v. tr. spirite – adj. et n. STOL – n. m. senseur – n. m. slip – n. m. spleen – n. m. stop – interj. et n. m. sensible – adj. slip – n. m. spoiler – n. m. stop-over – n. m. inv. sentier – n. m. slogan – n. m. sponsor – n. m. stopper – v. sentimental, ale, aux – slow – n. m. sponsoring – n. m. stoppeur – n. m. adj. smart – adj. inv. sponsorisation – n. f. story-board – n. m. septique – adj. smash – n. m. sponsoriser – v. tr. stout – n. m. ou f. séquelle – n. f. smasher – v. intr. sport – n. m. stress – n. m. séquenceur – n. m. smocks – n. m. pl. sportwear – n. m. stressant, ante – adj. séquentiel, ielle – adj. smog – n. m. spot – n. m. et adj. inv. stresser – v. tr. sérotonine – n. f. smoking – n. m. spoule – n. m. stretch – n. m. sérumalbumine – n. f. smolt – n. m. sprat – n. m. stretching – n. m. session – n. f. smurf – n. m. spray – n. m. string – n. m. set – n. m. snack-bar – n. m. springer – n. m. stripage – n. m. setter – n. m. snif – interj. sprint – n. m. stripper – n. m. sévère – adj. snifer – v. tr. sprinter – v. intr. stripper – v. tr. sex-appeal – n. m. snob – n. et adj. sprinteur – n. m. stripping – n. m. sex-ratio – n. f. snow-boot – n. m. sprue – n. f. strip-tease – n. m. sex-shop – n. m. ou f. soap-opéra – n. m. square – n. m. strontium – n. m. sex-symbol – n. m. socialisme – n. m. squash – n. m. structure – n. f. sexy – adj. inv. société – n. f. squat – n. m. stud-book – n. m. shaker – n. m. sociodrame – n. m. squatter – v. tr. studio – n. m. shampoing – n. m. sociolinguistique – n. squatteur – n. m. styliste – n. shérif – n. m. f. et adj. squaw – n. f. stylographe – n. m. sherry – n. m. sociométrie – n. f. squeezer – v. tr. suave – adj. shilling – n. m. socquette – n. f. stabile – n. m. subaquatique – adj. shimmy – n. m. soda – n. m. stade – n. m. subrogé, ée – adj. shipchandler – n. m. sodium – n. m. staff – n. m. subsidence – n. f. shit – n. m. software – n. m. stagflation – n. f. subsidiarité – n. f. shocking – adj. inv. soja – n. m. stalagmomètre – n. m. sucré, ée – adj. shoot – n. m. sol – n. m. stand – n. m. sud – n. m. shooter – v. solderie – n. f. standard – n. m. et adj. suédois, oise – adj. et shopping – n. m. solifluxion – n. f. inv. n. short – n. m. sombre – adj. standard – n. m. suffragette – n. f. show – n. m. somite – n. m. standardisation – n. f. suggestif, ive – adj. show-business – n. m. sommet – n. m. standardiser – v. tr. suite – n. f. inv. sonar – n. m. stand-by – n. inv. et sulky – n. m. show-room – n. m. sophistication – n. f. adj. inv. sunlight – n. m. shrapnel – n. m. sophistiqué, ée – adj. standing – n. m. supérette – n. f. shunt – n. m. sororité – n. f. star – n. f. superman – n. m. shunter – v. tr. souchong – n. m. starking – n. f. supermarché – n. m. si – adv. soucoupe – n. f. starlette – n. f. supernova – n. f. sida – n. m. soul – adj. inv. et n. m. star-système – n. m. superproduction – n. f. side-car – n. m. souris – n. f. starter – n. m. superstar – n. f. signaliser – v. tr. sous-développé, ée – starting-block – n. m. supertanker – n. m. silentbloc – n. m. adj. starting-gate – n. m. superviser – v. tr. silicium – n. m. station-service – n. f. superviseur – n. m.

155 supervision – n. f. technologie – n. f. tory – n. m. truisme – n. m. supporter – v. tr. technostructure – n. f. tosser – v. intr. trust – n. m. supporter – n. m. teddy-bear – n. m. totem – n. m. tub – n. m. supramoléculaire – tee – n. m. totémisme – n. m. tudesque – adj. adj. teenager – n. touche – n. f. tumbling – n. m. suprasegmental, ale, tee-shirt – n. m. toupie – n. f. tuner – n. m. aux – adj. téflon – n. m. tourisme – n. m. tunnel – n. m. suprématie – n. f. téléachat – n. m. touriste – n. turf – n. m. surbooking – n. m. téléonomie – n. f. tourne-pierre – n. m. turnep – n. m. surdose – n. f. télépathie – n. f. tourner – v. turn-over – n. m. surf – n. m. téléphérage – n. m. tour-opérateur – n. m. tussah – n. m. surfer – v. intr. télescoper – v. tr. township – n. f. ou m. tussor – n. m. surfeur, euse – n. télescopique – adj. toxoplasmose – n. f. tweed – n. m. surimposer – v. tr. télesthésie – n. f. tract – n. m. tweeter – n. m. surmultiplication – n. télétex – n. m. trader – n. m. twill – n. m. f. télétype – n. m. trade-union – n. f. twin-set – n. m. surprise-partie – n. f. télex – n. m. trafic – n. m. twist – n. m. suspens – adj. m. et n. telson – n. m. training – n. m. type – n. m. m. temps – n. m. tramping – n. m. suspense – n. m. tender – n. m. trampoline – n. m. ufologie – n. f. swahili, ie – n. m. et tennis – n. m. et f. tramway – n. m. ultramicroscopique – adj. tennis-elbow – n. m. tranquillisant, ante – adj. swap – n. m. tennisman – n. m. adj. et n. m. underground – adj. sweater – n. m. tenseur – n. m. et adj. transaction – n. f. inv. et n. m. sweat-shirt – n. m. m. transactionnel, elle – union – n. f. sweepstake – n. m. termaillage – n. m. adj. unitarien, ienne – n. swing – n. m. terminal, aux – n. m. transcriptase – n. f. unitarisme – n. m. sympatrique – adj. terminus – n. m. transducteur – n. m. upérisation – n. f. symposium – n. m. termite – n. m. transe – n. f. uppercut – n. m. synapse – n. f. terpinol – n. m. transept – n. m. upwelling – n. m. synclinal, ale, aux – n. test – n. m. transférentiel, ielle – uronique – adj. m. et adj. tête – n. f. adj. usine – n. f. synopsis – n. f. et m. tette – n. f. transferrine – n. f. utilitaire – adj. et n. m. syntactique – n. f. thallium – n. m. transfert – n. m. syntone – adj. thane – n. m. transistor – n. m. valable – adj. systémique – adj. et n. théisme – n. m. transitionnel, elle – vamp – n. f. f. théiste – n. et adj. adj. vamper – v. tr. thermodynamique – n. translocation – n. f. van – n. m. table – n. f. f. et adj. transnational, ale, aux vanity-case – n. m. tabloïd – n. m. thésaurus – n. m. – adj. variétal, ale, aux – adj. tabou, e – n. m. et adj. thréonine – n. f. transpondeur – n. m. vaseline – n. f. tacle – n. m. thriller – n. m. transsexualisme – n. vasopresseur – n. m. tag – n. m. thyrotrophine – n. f. m. vecteur – adj. et n. m. take-off – n. m. inv. thyroxine – n. f. transsexuel, elle – adj. vectoriel, ielle – adj. talkie-walkie – n. m. ticket – n. m. et n. végétarien, ienne – talk-show – n. m. tie-break – n. m. transvestisme – n. m. adj. et n. tallipot – n. m. tilbury – n. m. trappeur – n. m. végétarisme – n. m. tam-tam – n. m. inv. tilt – n. m. travailliste – n. et adj. véloski – n. m. tandem – n. m. timing – n. m. traveller's chèque – n. velvet – n. m. tandouri – adj. et n. m. tipi – n. m. m. ventilateur – n. m. tangerine – n. f. tique – n. f. travelling – n. m. véranda – n. f. tango – n. m. toast – n. m. trekking – n. m. verdict – n. m. tank – n. m. toasteur – n. m. trenail – n. m. version – n. f. tanker – n. m. toffee – n. m. trench-coat – n. m. versus – prép. tansad – n. m. tomawak – n. m. trial – n. m. et f. viaduc – n. m. tarmac – n. m. tombolo – n. m. tribal, ale, aux – adj. vibord – n. m. tarpon – n. m. tommy – n. m. trick – n. m. victoria – n. f. tartan – n. m. tom-pouce – n. m. inv. tridimensionnel, elle – vidéo – adj. inv. et n. tasse – n. f. tong – n. f. adj. f. T.A.T. – n. m. tonic – n. m. triforium – n. m. vidéoclub – n. m. tatouer – v. tr. tonnage – n. m. trimaran – n. m. vidéodisque – n. m. taxi-girl – n. f. tonus – n. m. trimmer – n. m. vidéotex – n. m. taxiway – n. m. top trip – n. m. vintage – n. m. taxol – n. m. topologie – n. f. trivial, iale, iaux – adj. V.I.P. – n. m. inv. taylorisme – n. m. tornade – n. f. trolley – n. m. virginal – n. m. technicolor – n. m. torpédo – n. f. trop – adv. et nominal visualiser – v. tr. technocratie – n. f. torpille – n. f. truc – n. m. vitamine – n. f.

156 vobulateur – n. m. yiddish – n. m. inv. vocodeur – n. m. yorkshire-terrier – n. vol – n. m. m. volapuk – n. m. youpi – interj. volcanologie – n. f. yuppie – n. volley-ball – n. m. volleyer – v. intr. zapper – v. intr. volleyeur, euse – n. zapping – n. m. vote – n. m. zidovudine – n. f. voter – v. zip – n. m. voyage – n. m. zonage – n. m. vulcanisation – n. f. zoom – n. m. vulcaniser – v. tr. zoosémiotique – n. f. vulgarisme – n. m. vumètre – n. m. wading – n. m. wagon – n. m. walkman – n. m. walk-over – n. m. inv. wallaby – n. m. wapiti – n. m. wargame – n. m. warning – n. m. warrant – n. m. wasp – n. et adj. water-ballast – n. m. water-polo – n. m. waterproof – adj. inv. et n. m. wattman – n. m. W.-C. – n. m. pl. week-end – n. m. welter – n. m. western – n. m. wharf – n. m. whig – n. whipcord – n. m. whisky – n. m. whist – n. m. white-spirit – n. m. wigwam – n. m. winch – n. m. winchester – n. f. wintergreen – n. m. wishbone – n. m. wombat – n. m. woofer – n. m. xénon – n. m. yacht-club – n. m. yachting – n. m. yachtman – n. m. yack – n. m. yankee – n. et adj. yard – n. m. yearling – n. m. yeoman – n. m. yéyé – n.

157 c. Lo ZINGARELLI – “ingl” in complete text (3109) + “amer” in complete text (55) [3126]

abolizionismo anteprandiale baby-doll beeper abolizionista antiblocco baby killer beguine abscissione antidumping baby pusher begum abstract antilope baby-sitter behaviorismo accettore antiquarium baby-sitting bending account antiracket bacitracina benefit account executive antiskating backgammon benzofenone acculturazione appeal background bermuda ace appeasement backstage bermudiana acid music appendicite back-to-back †bernacla acro (2) approccio backup best seller acting out aquaplaning bacon betatrone action painting area manager badge BeV adattivo area test badminton bicicletta addendum aridocoltura baia (2) biciclo addisoniano armonica ballast bid bond adsorbire armoricano balloon big advertisement array banana split big bang advertising art director banconota big match advisor ASA band biker aerodina Asdic bandana billing aerodinamica aspettuale bandeggio binder affidabile assenteismo bang bingo affluent society assertivo banjo biologismo africander asset bantam biomedicale afrikander assist bar (1) bionica afrikaner associazionismo barbecue bip after hours assolutismo barber hauler bip bip after-shave assolutista barile bird watcher agenzia assortativo bario bird watching agnosticismo astensionista barmaid birmano agnostico astrobussola barman bisex agreement atollo barn bistecca agribusiness atomizzare barometro bit aids ATP baronetto bitter airbag attinicità bas-bleu black-bottom airbus attuariale baseball black comedy Airedale terrier audience baseline black-jack air-terminal audiometrista Basic black music alchemico audit basic English black-out alieno Auditel basico black power allibratore auditing basket blazer alligatore auditor basket-ball blimp all right austerity basset hound blind trust alta fedeltà authority bass reflex blinker altoparlante autocarro batch blister AM autocross batch processing blitz ambientalismo autofocus batisfera blizzard ambientalista autogrill® baud blob amerindiano autoimmunità bazooka bloc-notes amerindio autoinduzione beach volley blondin amlira automazione beagle bloom amoerro autoreverse bear blouse ampicillina autospeaker beat (1) blow-up amplidinamo autostop beat (2) blue chip anastatico avionica beatnik blue-jeans anatra avventista beauty blue movie anchorman azeotropico beauty-case blues anecoico azzonamento beauty center bluff anglicanesimo beauty farm board anglicano baby bebè boat people anglo-normanno baby boom be-bop bob

158 bobtail brucite candid camera cheek to cheek bocciare brum canguro cheeseburger body brunch canister chemio- body art bruxismo cannibalizzare chemiotassi body building budget cantabrigiano chèque body copy budino canter cherry-brandy boicottare buffer cantilever chetone (2) boiler bug canvassing cheviot bolina bulge canyon chewing-gum bomber bull cap chi è? bomber jacket bulldog capital gain chintz bond bulldozer caravan chip bonderizzazione bullionismo caravanning chippendale bonobo bungalow carborundum® chopper (1) bonus bungee jumping card chopper (2) boogie bunker (1) cardigan chow chow boogie-woogie bunker (2) cardinalità chromakey bookmaker burberry® cardioversione cibernetica boom burlesque career woman cicca (1) boomerang bus (1) cargo (2) ciclizzazione booster bus (2) carol ciclo (2) bootleg bushel car pool ciclocross bop business carrageen ciclone borderline business class carronata cicloparaffina boss business game carter ciclostile boston businessman cartismo ciclotrone bounty killer business school cartonista cincin bourbon busker cartoon cinebox bowling buy-back cartoonist cineforum bow-window buyer carving cinemascope box buy-out cash cinetoscopio boxe bye-bye cash and carry cip (2) boxer by night cash dispenser circadiale boxeur by-pass cash flow circadiano box office byte cashmere circonferenziale boy cast citizens' band boy-friend cab casting citosina boy-scout cabina casual city brain-storming cablogramma catboat city bike brain trust cache catch city car brand image cachi (1) catcher clacson brand manager caddie catering clan brandy café-society caterpillar® clap break (1) caimano catgut clearance break (2) cairn caucus clearing break dance cajeput cavallo vapore clergyman breakdown cajun CD cliccare break even cake CD-ROM click breakfast cake-walk cefalosporina client breaking calcocite celluloide clinch breakpoint caleidoscopio cement-gun cline breeding call cent clinker brent call-girl centrattacco clip (1) bric (1) callistenia centravanti clip (2) bridge callistenico centriolo clipper brief calorizzazione chairman cloromicetina briefing calutrone challenge clown brik calypso challenger cloze bristol® camber chamberless club British thermal unit cambrì charleston clubhouse broadcast camcorder charter club-sandwich broker camera (2) chat line cluster brokerage cameraman cheap coach Browning® camp check-in cobbler brown sugar camper checklist Cobol browser camping check panel cocker Bruce campus check-up cockney

159 cocktail contattologia crown delicious cocktail-party contenitore cruciale delivery order coffee break contoide cruise demo (2) coffee grinder contraccettivo cruiser demodulare coherer contraccezione crup denim coil contraddanza cult denotatum coke contrastivo cult book deodorante cold type controller cultivar deodorizzare collassare conurbazione cult movie deplezione collasso convention culto (1) depoliticizzare college convenzione cunningham depressione collider conversazionale curling depressurizzare collie coolie curry deprivare colloquiale cool jazz curtain wall deprivazione colloquialismo copy cutter deragliare colomba (2) copyright cutting derby colonizzare copywriter cyber- derealizzazione colonizzazione cordless cyberpunk deregolamentare colored core (3) cyberspazio deregolamentazione colossal core business cyborg deregolare coloured coreferente deregulation colt coreferenza daiquiri derivare (2) columnist corner dalton derrick combinazione (2) corn-flakes daltonismo derustizzazione combo cornico dammar design comedian coroner damping designatum comfort corporate image dance music designer comic corporation dancing desk comitativo corretto dandy desktop comitato (1) costing Danforth desktop publishing commando (1) costituzionale dark detective commercial costituzionalismo darts detector commercial paper cotesto (2) darwinismo deterrente commodity cotidale data (2) deterrenza commodoro cottage database detossicazione commoner counselling data entry detrusore compact count down data processing deuce compact disc counterpurchase -day deuterio compact-stereo countertrade day after devocalizzazione compattatore country day-hospital devon compilation cover girl daylight devoniano complementazione cover story D-day diacolor comportamentismo cow-boy deadline diasistema compost CQR deaggettivale dicarbossilico compostare crack dealer dicco (2) compound cracker deb dielettrico comptometer® cracking debugging difenilchetone computazionale craniopago decadico diffusionale computer crash deck diffusionismo computer animation crash test declassificare digitale (3) computer art crawl decoder digitalico computer crime credit card decommissioning dik dik computer game credit manager decriptare diluviale (2) computer graphics credito dedendum diminutivale computer music credit officer dee-jay dimmer condor crest de-escalation dinamizzazione conformismo cricket deetimologizzazione dinghy conformista criogenico default diplomatizzare confortabile criterium deferrizzazione directory conforto (2) cromlech deflazione (1) direttività congeniale croquet defogliante dirt-track connection cross (1) degu dirty tones consigliori cross (2) deionizzare disambiguare consumatorismo cross-country deionizzazione disambiguazione consumer benefit crossing over deissi disappunto consumerismo crossover delay disc-jockey container crouch delezione disco-dance

160 disco-music ecstasy eugenico firmware discount ectipografia euroamericano first-lady disimpegno ecu eurobond fiscal drag disinsettazione editing eurocity fisherman disintegrare editor euronight fish eye dispensario editore (2) eutenica fissionabile dispenser editoriale (2) evergreen fissione display egotismo evitazione fitina disrupzione egotizzare executive fitness dissolvenza eiettabile exit poll fitotrone distale elaidinizzazione export fix distanziare (2) elettrete extended play fixing distribuzionale elettricità extra-large flag distruttività elettrocuzione extrastrong flanella dittafono® elettrodo eye-liner flangia dixieland elettroesecuzione flangiare DNA elettrolisi fabianismo flap dock elettrolitico fabiano flash docking elettrolito faccia a faccia flashback do-it-yourself elettronegatività factoring flashing dolby® elevatore factor flatting dollaro elevone fai da te flight-recorder dolly elfo fair play flint dominion elibus fairway flip-book doomwriting elicone falco flip-flop dopamina elio fall-out flipper dopare eliporto falotico flirt doping elson fan float doppiare (2) emagramma fan club floater dosimetrico e-mail fantascienza floating dot emergenza (2) fantasy flock Down emico fanzine flop draga endorsement farad floppy disk dragone (3) endurance faraday flow chart dragster enduro far west fluff drawback enfasi fashion fluidizzazione dreadnought engineering fasore fluoborato drenare entertainer fast food fluoborico dribblare entertainment fathom flussaggio dribbling environment fatticità flutter drink eocene fault fly and drive dripping eparina feedback flyby drive episcopalismo feeling flying dutchman drive-in epsomite fence flying junior driver eptano feniano FM drone equalizzare fenotipo focus group drop (1) equalizzatore †ferlino folclore drop (2) equalizzazione ferry-boat foliazione droplock equazionale festival folk dropout esaustivo fetch folklore drop shot escalation fiberglass folk music drugstore escapismo fibreglass folk-rock dry -ese (2) fiction folk-singer dugongo eskimo (1) fifo folk-song dulcimer eskimo (2) fifty-fifty follow-up dum-dum esonimo fighter fondamentalismo dumper espiantazione file fondamentalista dumping esploso (2) filetico fondazionale dune buggy espresso (2) filibustering fonemica duty free shop est filler fonemico establishment film fonologizzazione ebanite esternalità film-maker fonoscopio ecoide etico (3) film-strip football ecolabel etnocentrico final cut footing econometria etnocentrismo fine settimana forcing economizzatore eufuismo finish forfait (2) ecotono eugenetica finn forfaiting

161 forfeit genocidio greyhound high society formalina genotipo grill high-tech formattare gentiluomo grill-room high technology Fortran gentleman grinder hip forum gentleman driver grizzly hip-hop forward gentleman rider grog hippy fosbury gentlemen's agreement groggy hit fotonico geodimetro groom hit-parade foxhound georgiano (2) groupware HIV fox-terrier gerboa grover hobby fox-trot getter growl hockey frac getto (2) grunge holding frame geyser grunt holter franchisee ghinea (1) guar home banking franchising ghost writer guardrail home base franchisor giaconetta guest star home computer franklin (1) giainismo guidoslitta home page franklin (2) giannetta (3) guinness® home video freak gibberellina gulp homing free climber giddap guttaperca honing free climbing giga (2) gymkhana honky-tonky free jazz gigabyte hook free-lance gilbert hacker hooligan free rider gill haiku horror free shop Gillette® hair stylist horsepower freestyle gincana half-duplex hostess freezer gin-fizz halibut hot dog fringe benefit ginger hall (1) hotel frisbee® ginnare Hall (2) hot jazz full gin tonic hallo hot line full contact girl hamada hot money full immersion girlfriend hamburger hot pants full time giungla hammerless hot rodding funk giurì hamster house boat funky glamour handball house music fuorilegge glasnost handicap hovercraft furfurolo glicol handicapper hub fusion globe-trotter handling Hula-Hoop® future glossematica happening hully-gully fuzzy logic gluone happy end human relations glutammico hard humour gadget goal hard-boiled hunter gaelico gobbo (2) hard bop hurling gag go-kart hard copy huroniano gallone (2) gol hard-core husky game golden delicious hard-cover hutu gancio golden gol hard discount hydrobob gang golden share hard disk hydrofining gangster golf (1) hard rock hydroforming gap golf (2) hard top hydrospeed garden-party good-bye hardware gargoilismo goodwill Hare Krishna iceberg garnett gospel hascish ice-field gasolio gossip hazard icnologia -gate gourmet headline identikit gateway gps hearing idioletto gaviale grabber heavy metal idiotipo gay grader hello idrante gazebo graffito help idronimo geco grafofono henry idropulsore gel grammo-equivalente hesitation ietografo gelazione graphic design hickory igloo gelignite grattacielo hi-fi ignizione general manager gravitare highball illocutivo genetica gravitazione high fidelity illocutorio gennaker green high life image maker genoa green-keeper high school imagismo

162 imagista ipnologia kidnapper liberalizzazione impaccamento ipnotismo kidnapping liberiano (1) impatto (1) ipnotizzare kiefer liberoscambista impeachment iponimo killer liberty impedenza Irish coffee kilobyte lib-lab imperialismo irrelato kilocaloria libro-game imperialista isabella (2) kiloton lidar implantazione ISO kilt lie detector implementare isolazionismo king lifeboat import isolazionista king-size lifo import-export isosterico kit lift impressivo isotopico kiwi liftare imprinting istituzionalismo kleenex® lifting impulsare Italian style klystron light in (2) item (2) knickerbockers lignina incanto (1) IUD knock down lillipuziano inclusive tour iuta knockout lima (2) indantrone know how lime indessicale jab K.O. limerick indoor jack koala liminale industrial design Jacuzzi® konjak limonitizzazione industrial designer jamming krill linciare inflativo jam-session kumquat line inflazione jazz kung fu lingotto informante jazz-band K-way® link inincrocio jeans linkage inning jeep® laburismo linoleum in progress jersey laburista linotype® input jet lacrosse lipogrammatico insider jetlag ladar lipogrammatismo insider trading jet liner lady lipstick insight jet-set laghista lisolo instant-book jet-society lamb's wool lisozima instant movie jigger land art Lisp intelligence jingle Land Rover® listeria interamericano job lappare (2) litchi intercezione jobber lappatura live intercity job sharing laptop living interconsonantico jockey large living theatre intercooler jodhpurs laser loader interculturale jogger lasso (4) lob interfaccia jogging lateralizzazione lobbismo interferone joint-venture latimeria lobbista intergalattico jojoba latin lover lobby interlocale jolly latitudinarismo locomotiva intermediale joule lattarina locutivo intermetallico joystick laurenziano (2) lodge intermodale juke-box laurenzio loft internal auditing jumbo lawsonite log internal auditor jumbo jet lay-out logotipo Internet jump lazurite Lombard Interpol jungle style leader lompo inter-rail junk bond leadership long drink interrelato lealismo long play interrelazione kamala lealista long playing intersoggettività karaoke lease-back longseller intervista kart leasing look interzonale karting LED loop Intranet kashmir Lem looping intrattenitore kay-way lemming loran intrigare kazoo lettering lord invasivo kelvin leveraged buy-out love story investigativo ketch leveraggio LSD iole ketchup lewisite (1) luddismo ipermarket Kevlar® lewisite (2) lugger ipermercato keyword liberal lumpo ipertesto kick boxing liberalizzare lunch

163 luncheonette maxwell mix naia (1) lycra® mayday mixage naloxone lycra-stretch media (2) mixare nanofarad lyddite medium (1) mixer narco- (2) medium (2) mixeraggio narratage macadam medley mixing navaho macadamizzare meet moa navicert made in meeting mod naziskin made in Italy megabyte modern dance nebulizzare madison megaparsec modern style neck maelstrom megaton mohair neologistico magazine megatrend moicano neper magnetostrizione mel moire net magnetron melanismo money manager nettunio maharajah mellotron monitor network Mah-jong® melt-down monitore (3) neurina maiden melting pot monoparentale neurone mailing memorial Monopoli® new age mail order mercerizzare monotype new deal mainframe merchandiser montgomery new entry mainstream merchandising mood style New Jersey maizena merchant bank moog® new look major mercurocromo® Moon boot® news majorette mereologia morfallassi newsletter make-up merger morfolina newsmagazine malgascio mesofase mormone newton malto metaetica Morse new wave management metal motel night manager metaldetector motilità night-club manciù metallofono motocross nightglow Mandrake metanale motorcaravan nipplo manganina metateoria motorhome nitrosile mangostano meter motorsailer no comment mangrovia metodismo motorscooter no contest manismo metodista (1) moto-sidecar no frost manufacturing micanite® mountain bike nominalizzare manutenibilità microcalcolatore mouse nominalizzazione mappare microchip movie nomination Marconi microcomputer moviola nomologico marijuana microprocessore moxibustione nonconformista marine middle class mozione (2) non-metallo marker midi- mps non profit market midrange mullah non proliferazione marketer milady multiflash nonsense marketing miler multigrade non stop marketing-mix milonite multilateralismo nord marketing-oriented milord multimedia norite market leader mimeografo multimodale notebook market maker mimicry multiplatore novellizzazione markhor mine-detector multipletto nuclearizzare mark-up mini- multiplexer nuclearizzazione mascara (2) minicalcolatore multiplexing nucleazione mascon minicomputer multivisione nude-look maser minigolf muscovite numerologia masonite® minigonna musical nurse massimale minimal art music-hall nursery mass media minimale must nursing master minimalismo mustang nut Mastermind® minimal music muting nutella® mat minimarket mutone nylon® match minimizzare mystery match ball minimum tax oaks match point minoritario naftalene occorrenza (2) match winner miss naftalico off materialismo missaggio naftenato off materialista mister naftene office matetico mitosi nagana office automation

164 off-limits overlay pedigree play off-line overnight peeling playback offset oversize peep-show playboy off-shore overtime pellet player offside ovest pellettizzare playgirl ognitempo ovonica pemmican playmaker O.K. oxer penalità play-off okay oxford penalty play-out old fashion oxoniano pen computer plop ombudsman penepiano plot omnium pace car penice plotter omogenato pacemaker penny plug-in omosessuale pack pentecostale (2) plugo omosessualità package peptogeno plum-cake on packaging peptonizzazione plus onatura packfong performance plutocrate ondatra padda performativo plutocratico on-demand paddock performer plutocrazia one-step paletot peridurale pocket on line palettizzare perlocutorio pocket book on the road pallabase permafrost pointer on the rocks pallacanestro permagelo poker op art pallanuoto permalloy polarografo open pallet personal polemizzare open-ended palm top personal computer pole position open space pamphlet personalismo policeman operazionale pancake pervasivo polifosfato operazionismo pandemonio pesticida polinomiale operone pandiculazione peta- politicizzare opinion leader panel pettineo polluzione (2) opinion maker pangolino petting polo (2) op là panteismo Pfennig pomelo opossum panteista phillipsite ponderale optacon® Pantone® photo finish pony optical pants Photofit® Pony Express® optical art paperback photoflood pool optimist paperino picchiatello pop option pap-test pick-up pop art optional par picnic popcorn opzionale paraconsistente pidgin popeline orango paraflying pidgin-english pop-jazz orbiter paraldeide piedipiatti pop-music oribi parasailing piercing pop star orienteering paratormone pierre populazionista ormonale parboiled pigiama populismo ormone paria (1) pile populista orthicon parkerizzazione pilling pornoshop osteriggio Parkinson pin (1) pornoshow ostruzionismo parsec pin (2) pornostar ostruzionista partner ping-pong® porridge ottimizzare partnership pinnacolo (2) portfolio out partone pin-up portland outdoor part time pin-up girl posse outing party pipa (2) post output password pipeline Postcard® outrigger patchwork pitcher poster outsider paternalismo pitch pine Post-it® outsourcing pattern pit stop postmoderno over pauperismo pittografia powellite over- pauperizzazione pittorialismo pragmatica overbooking pay-off pixel pragmatismo overboost pay-out plaid pragmatista overcoat pay per view planning pram overdose pay-tv plantageneto prefabbricare overdrive peak time plasmalogeno prefabbricazione overfishing peck plasmodio preformismo overflow pecten platforming premier

165 preppy quad reflex round preprint quantificare reforming rover preraffaellita quantificazione reggae rovinografia presbiterianesimo quark regimental royalty presbiteriano quarterback reificazione rubber press-agent quartile relax rugby pressing quasar reliability rullo pressurizzare quasi-particella rem (1) rum price-earning quercitrone REM (2) rumble prime rate quiz remainder rumor prime time remake rupia (2) prione (2) racer rennina rush privacy rack reologia rutherford processare (2) racket replay processore racon reportage saggio (3) product manager rada reporter saggista profetismo radar reprint saheliano proibizionismo radical-chic reprocessing sahib proibizionista radicale reset sakè project manager radioattività residence sales engineer Prolog radioattivo residence house salesman promo radiochimica resistore sales manager promoter radome responsabilità salmonella promotion rafting responsività saloon promozionale raglan restyling saltrato® prompt ragtime retour match sampan pronominalizzare raid retrofit samurai propriocettore rajah revival sandwich propriocezione rally revivalismo sanforizzare prospettore rally cross revolver sanitizzare prospezione RAM rhythm and blues santuario prossemica rambismo riduzionale sari proteasi ranch riff sarong psichedelico rand riflettorizzare sartoriale psicotecnico random ring satanismo pub randomizzare ripper saturniano public company randomizzazione RISC saxhorn public relations range risciò scacchiere publishing ranger rivoltella scaloppa puddellare ranking RNA scalpo pudding rap road movie scanner puddinga Rapidograph® road show scanning puffino rapper roaming scat pull rash roast beef scattering pullman rastafarianismo rock scellino pullover rastafariano rockabilly sceriffo (1) pulp ratele rock and roll scespiriano pulpare rating rocker schettinare pulque rattan rock-jazz †schincherche pulsar rave rock'n roll schooner pulsogetto reacher rockstar sciamanismo pulsometro readership rolfing sciamano punch (1) reading roll-bar sciantung punch (2) ready roller science fiction punching-bag ready made Rollerblade® scientismo (2) punching-ball realizzare rollo scienza punk reception roll-on roll-off sciita punk-rock receptionist ROM (2) scissiparità puritanesimo recital romantico sciuscià puritano record rompighiaccio scooner pusher recordista rood scoop put recordman roof scooter putt recovery roof garden score putter redingote rotativa scotch puzzle reduttasi rotore scout reef rotta (3) scrambler quacchero refill rough scraper

166 scratch show slogan spencer screening showboat sloop spider screen saver show business slop spidometro scripofilia showdown slot spike scripofilo showgirl slot-machine spin script showman slow spinnaker scrollare (2) showroom slum spinning secretina ShowView® slurp spin off securitizzazione shrapnel smack spiritismo seduttivo shunt small spiritual seedling shuntare smart set spit segnapassi shuttle smash splash self-control sidecar smog splashdown self-government sievert smoking splatter self help sigh snack spleen self-made man silenziatore snack-bar split self-service silesia snap splitting semelfattivo siltite sniff spoiler semiosi siluriano sniffare sponsor semiotica silverplate snipe spoon sempreverde simmetrizzare snob sport sensore simposio snobbare sport-fisherman sensualizzare sinaitico snobismo sportsman sensuoso sincro- snort sportswear sepoy sincrotrone snowboard spot (1) sequel single soap opera spot (2) sequoia singleton socio- spratto serendipità sinopsi sociometria spray serial sintattica sodio spreadsheet serial killer sinterizzare soft spring servente sir softball sprinkler server sit-com soft-core sprint servizio sit-in soft drink sprinter sessualizzazione situation comedy software sprue set ska software house spy story set ball skate-board sol (2) square dance set point skating soling squash setter skeet solitone squaw sex appeal skeg solvato squirting sex-shop skeleton soma (3) staff sex symbol sketch sommativo stage sexy ski-bob sommazione stagnazione shake skiff sonar stallo (2) shaker ski-lift sonico stand shampoo skiman soprasegmentale stand alone shampooing skimmer sort standard shantung skinhead S.O.S. standardizzare share ski-pass sottocodice stand-by shareware skipper soul standing shea ski-roll soul jazz star shearling ski-stopper soul music stark delicious shed skunk sound starlet sheffield Skylab spacelab star system sherpa skylight space shuttle start sherry slam (1) spallazione starter shetland slam (2) spaniel station wagon shiftare slang sparring partner statore (2) shimmy slapstick sparteina status shock slat spazioporto status symbol shocking slebo speaker stayer shogunato sled dog special staziografo shopper sleeping-car speciazione stazione shopping slice specie-specificità steadicam® shopping center slide specie-specifico steamer short slinky specimen steeplechase shorts slip speedway stella short track sloca spelling stellina

167 sten surf teddy boy top stenografia surfactante tee top class steppare surf-boat teenager top gun sterlina surf-casting tee-shirt topless sterling surfer telebeam top management sterna surfing telecamera top manager steward surgelato telecopiatore top model stick surra telecopiatrice topping stilista (2) survival telecopiatura top rate stilografica survivalismo teleferica top secret stoccaggio suspense telemark top spin stock swahili telemarketing top ten stock-car swap Telepass® top-weight stokes sweater telepatia tornado stop swing teleprocessing torpedine (2) stopper switch teleschermo tory -story teletex totem story board tabloid teletext totemico stovaina® tabù telex totemismo stratigrafia (1) tabulazione telferaggio touch-down stratofortezza Tacan tell toupie streaking tackle tempest tour conductor streamer tagmema temple-block tour leader stress taguan tender tour operator stretch taicun tenderometro tower stretching takeaway tennis trackball stretch-pack take off tensore tracking (1) strike take-over teodolite tracking (2) strip (1) talent scout tepee trackpad strip (2) talk show terminal trade mark strip-tease tallolio termostabile trade-off striscia talonide terranova trade union strong Tampax® terrier traducianesimo strumentalismo tandem terrifico traduciano stub tangelo test tradunionismo studio tangram tester trailer stunt car tanica testimonial trainer stunt-man tank tetrafluoroetilene training styling tapa TeV tram Subbuteo® tap dance texture tramp subliminale tape monitor thermos trance sud tap-in thesaurus transazionale sudoriparo target thriller transcontainer suffragetta tartan thrilling transessuale suffragismo Tarzan thyratron® transetto suffragista task force tick transfer sufi Tasmanian® ticket transferasi sufismo tassema tie-break transferrina suggestivo tatuare tight transformer® sulky taurina tilbury transiente summit taxi tilt transistor sunnita taxi-girl time out transponder superbowl taylorismo timer transporter superdose tea time sharing tranvai supereterodina teach-in timing tranvia superette teak tindalizzazione trapper superman team tip top® traps supermarket team-teaching tiristore trasformazionale supersonico tea-room tiroxina trasforme superstar teaser toast trash supervisione tebaina toboga traslitterare supervisore Technicolor® toddy traslitterazione superwelter techno toiletries traveller's cheque supportare (2) tecnicalità tomahawk trawl supporter tecnocrate ton (2) trawler supremazia tecnocratico toner trawler-yacht surah tecnocrazia toni treatment

168 trekking unisex vudù yearling trench unitarianismo vulcanizzare yesman trench coat unitariano vulcanizzazione yiddish trend uppercut yorkshire trendy up-to-date wad Yorkshire terrier trial upwelling wafer yo-yo® tricloroetilene urochinasi wagon-lit yuppie tridimensionale utility wagon-restaurant trim walkie-cup zapping trip vagone walkie-talkie zenana triple-sec® vamp Walkman® zero coupon bonds tripletta van walk-over zip trolley vang wampum zippare trolleybus vapore wapiti zombie trotter varecchi war game zonazione truca varistore warrant zoning truck vaselina wash-and-wear zonizzare trudgen vasomotilità wash-board zoo truismo vegan wasp zoom trust vegetarianismo water zorilla TSH vegetariano water closet zumare T-shirt velocimetro waterloo tubeless velocross water polo tubing ventilatore waterproof tumbler venture capital watt tuner verbigerazione wawa tunnel verdetto (2) way of life turbogetto vermiculite weekend turf vernazione welfare †turfa versus welfare state turismo vessel wellerismo turista vestigiale welter turnaround Viacard® wesleyano turnover viadotto west tussah victoria West Coast tussor victoria regia western tutor video- whig tutsi video art whisky tv-movie videoclip whist tweed videofrequenza wigwam tweeter videogame wild card twill videomusic wilderness twin-set videotape winch twirling Videotex® winchester twist vidicon windsurf two-beat vigilante (2) windsurfer two step vinci windsurfing tycoon vip wine cooler typophone virginale (2) woofer virgin naphtha word processing †ubino visiting professor word processor udienza vistavision workshop UFO (2) visualizer work-song uligano visualizzare work-station ulna Viton® wow (1) ulster vocalist wow (2) ultraforming vocoder wrestling ultraleggero vocoide umore (2) volapük yacht umorismo (2) volley yacht broker under volley-ball yachting undercut vombato yachtsman underground †vomiturazione yak understatement vorticale yankee (1) unicamerale vorticismo yankee (2) unionismo voucher yard unionista vroom yawl

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C. ENGLISH WORDS ACCORDING TO MICROSOFT SPELL CHECK a. DUDEN – Deutsches Universalwörterbuch : English words, Microsoft ® Word, spell check [1809]

Aborigine Backslash Bodyguard Cab Abort Back-up Bodysuit Cable-Transfer Abstract Bacon Boiler Cache Acid Badminton Bombast CAD Acid House Ballyhoo Bond Caddie Action Band Bonus Caddy Action-Painting Bandit Booklet Cafeteria Adapter Bandleader Bookmark Calf Advantage Banjo Boom California Adventist Banker Booster Call-by-Call Aerobic Banking Boot CAM Agitation Baptist Boot Camcorder Agitator Bar Bootlegger Camp Agreement Barbecue Boss Camper Aids Bark Bossing Camping Airbag Barkeeper Bottleneck Campus Airbus ® Barrel Bowler Candle-Light-Dinner Airline Base Bowling Cannabis Airmail Baseball Bowls Canvassing Airport BASIC Box Cape Alderman Basketball Boxer Caravan Ale Basset Boy Cardigan ALGOL Batter Boyfriend care of Alien Bazooka Brainstorming Cargo Alligator Beagle Branding Carol American Way of Life Beam Brandy Carport Analyst Beat Break Carrier Anchorman Beatnik Break-even-Point Cartoon Anchorwoman Beauty Bridge Cartoonist Anode Bebop Briefing Carver Apartment Bed and Breakfast Broiler Carving Appeal Benchmark Broker cash Appeasement Benchmarking Browning Cash Approach Big Business Browser cash and carry Aquaplaning Bike Brunch Casting ASCII-Code Biker Budget Castle ASEAN Bilge Bug Castor ® Assembler Bingo Buggy Catch-as-catch-can Assembling Bit Bulldozer Catcher Assist Blackout Bullterrier Caterer Atoll Blank Bully Catering Attack Blazer Bungalow Caterpillar Austerity Blend Bunker Catwalk Automation Blind Date Bunny CB-Funk Average Blizzard Burger CD AWACS Blockbuster Burn-out CD-Player Bloody Mary Bus Cent Baby Blow-out Business Centre-Court Babysitter Blow-up business as usual Chairman Babysitting Blues Business-Class Chairwoman Bachelor Bluff Butler Champion back Board Butterfly Champions League Back Boarding-School Button Change Backgammon Bobby bye-bye Charleston Background Bobsleigh Bypass Chart Backhand Bobtail Byte Charter Backlash Bodybuilding Chasuble

170

Chat Constable Dealer Dumdum Check Consulting Debugging Dummy Check Container Decoder Dumping Checklist Contest Deep-Freezer Dunking Checkpoint Controller Deficit-Spending Duty-free-Shop Check-up Controlling Defroster DVD Cheeseburger Convenience-Foods Delicious DVD-Player Cherry-Brandy cool Demonstration Dynamo Chesterfield Cool Jazz Denomination Cheviot Coolness Denotation E Chief Cop Deodorant Eagle Chillies Copyright Department Earl Chill-out-Room Core Derby easy Chinatown Corned Beef Design Ecstasy Chintz Corned Pork Designer Edinburgh Chip Corner Desktop-Publishing Editor Chippendale Corporate Identity Desperado Editorial Choke Cottage Devon EFTA Chow-Chow Cotton Digest Egghead Christian Science Couch Digit Eire Chutney Count digital Electronic Cash CIA Countdown Dildo Electronic Commerce CIP Counter Dime Emitter City Counterpart Dimmer Emoticon Claim Countertenor Dingo Empire Clan Countess Dinner Emulation clean County Dip Emulator Clearing Court Direct Mailing Encoder Clerk Cover Discount Encoding clever Cover-up Disengagement Encounter Cleverness Cowboy Diskette Engineering Clinch Cowgirl Dispatcher English spoken Clip Cox' Orange Displaced Person Entertainer Clipper ® Crack Display Entertainment Clog Crack Dixieland Environment Cloth Cracker DNA environmental Clown Crash Dock Equipment Cluster Cream Docking ESA Coach Crew do it yourself! Esquire Coaching Crime Dolby-System Essay Coat cross Dollar Essential Cob Cross Dolly Establishment Cobbler Cross-over Domain Event COBOL Cruise-Missile Dope Evergreen Coca Cola ® Cruising Doping Everybody's Darling Cockney Cup Dover Exchange Cockpit Curling Dow-Jones Expander Cocktail curricular down Export c.o.d. Curriculum Download Express Code Cursor Drain Extended Coke Cut Dream-Team extra dry College Cutaway Dress Extruder Collie Cutter Dressing Eyeliner Colonel Cyberspace Dribbling Colt ® Drill Facility-Management Combo Daddy Drink Fact Comeback Daily Soap Drive Factoring Comedy Dame Drive-in-Kino Factory of the Future Comedy-Show Dancing Driver Factory-Outlet Coming-out Dandy Drop-out Fading Common Sense Darling Drops fair Commonwealth Darts Drugstore Fairness Compact Disc Dash Drum Fake Compiler Date Drummer Fallout Computer D-Day dry Fan Concept-Art Deadline Dual-Band-Handy Fantasy Connection Deal Duke FAQ

171

Farad Franchise Grand Old Lady Hip-Hop Farm Freak Grand Old Man Hippie Farmer Free Jazz Grapefruit Hipster Fashion Freestyle Grass Hit Fast Food Free TV Greenback Hitchhiker FBI Frisbee Greenhorn HIV Feature Full Dress Greyhound Hobby Feedback Full House Grill Hockey Feeling Full Service Grog Hole Fellow Full Speed groggy Holidays Fellowship Full-Time-Job Groove Holocaust Fender Fun Groupie Holster Festival Functional Food Grubber Homeland Fiche Funk Grunge Homepage Fieldwork G-String Honey Fight G-7-Staat Guide Honeymoon Fighter Gadget Guinea hooked File Gag Gully Hooligan Filibuster gaga Hootenanny Film Gagman Habit Hop Final Gallon Habituation Hop Finish Gang Hack Hornpipe Firewall Gangster Hacker Horror First Lady Gangway Hair-Stylist Horse Fisheye Gate Halloween Horsepower Fission GATT Ham and Eggs Host fit gay Hamburger Hostess Fitness Gecko Handicap Hotdog Fitting Geisha Handicapper Hot Jazz Fix Geld Handling Hotline Fixing Gentleman Handout, Hand-out House Fizz Gentleman's Hands Hovercraft Flame-out Agreement, Handy HTML Flap Gentlemen's ... Handyman Hula-Hoop Flash Gig Hang-over Human Counter Flashback Gig Happening Human Engineering Flashlight Gig happy Humbug Fleece Gigue Happy few Humorist Flip Gimmick Hardcopy Hundredweight Flipchart Gin Hardcore Hunter Flipper Ginger Hardcover Husky Float Gin Tonic Hardtop Hustle Floating Girl Hardware Hut Floor Girlie Havelock Hydrant Flop Give-away HD-Diskette Hydrofoil Floppy Disk Glamour Headline Hype Flotation Global Player Headliner Hyperlink Flower- Power Globetrotter Hearing Hypertext Flyer Goal heavy Flying Dutchman Goalie Held Icing Fog Go-go- Heliport Icon Folder Go-go-Boy Helium Image Folk Go-go-Girl Henry Impact Folklore Go-in hey Impeachment Folksong Golden Delicious Hickory Implementation Font Golden Goal high Import Foot Golden Twenties Highball Imprint Football Golf High Church in Forehand Golfer High End in Foreign Office Gong High Fidelity Incentive Form goodbye Highlife Inch FORTRAN Goodwill Highlight Incoming Forward Gorilla High Society in concert foul Go-slow Highway incorporated Foul Gospel Hijacker Independence Day Four-Letter-Word Graffito Hillbilly Indian Frame Grammy [Award] hip Industrial Design

172

Industrial Engineering Key-Account- Look Minimal Art informal Management Looping Minimal Music Ingot Keyboard Lord Mink Inlaid Kick Lordship mint Inlay Kick-and-rush Lore Miss Input Kick-down Lori Missile Insert Kid Loser Missing Link Insertion Kidnapper Lost Generation Mist Insider Kidnapping Lot Mister instant Killer Lotion Mixed Instrumental Kilt Louisiana Mixed Drink Interface King Lounge Mixed Media internal Kitchenette love Mixed Pickles international Kiwi Lover Mixer Internet Kiwi LP Mob Interpreter knock-out Lunch Mobile Interview Know-how mode Intranet Kraut made in ... Mode Intro Krill Magnum Model Investment Krypton Mailbox Modem Ion Ku-Klux-Klan Mailing Modern Jazz Ionisation Kumquat Mainliner modular Iridium Kung-Fu Mainlining Mogul Irish Coffee Mainstream Mohair Irish Stew Label Maisonette Moiré ISDN Labour Party Major Moleskin ISO Lacrosse Majorette Monarchist Isolationist Lady Make-up Monitor ladylike Mall Monopoly Jackpot Lag Management Monotype Jacuzzi Lambskin Management-Buy-out Monster Jamboree Laptop Manager Morphing Jazz Laser Manchester Motel Jeans Lasso Manchester Motion-Picture Jeep last, not least Mandrill Mount Jersey Late-Night-Show Mangrove Movie Jesus People Latin Lover Mann Muffin Jet Latino Manpower Mulch Jetlag Law and Order Manual Mull Jetliner Layout Marina Multimedia Jigger LCD Marker Multiplex Jingle Leader Marketing Multitasking Jingo Lean Management Mary Jane Mummy Jitterbug Lean Production Mascara Mumps Jive Learning by Doing Maser Musical Job Leasing Master Mustang Jobber Level Match Mystery Jogging Lifestyle Mediation Joint Lift medium Nabob Joint Venture Lift Medium NAFTA Jo-Jo Lifting Medium Namedropping Joker light Medley NASA Joystick Limerick Meeting NATO Jukebox Limit meets Navaho, Navajo Jump Link Melton Navel Junk-Art Linoleum Memorial Necking Junkie Linotype Memory Nelson Juror live Merchandising Neon Jury Lob Merlin Neptunium just in time Lobbyist Meson Net Jute Location Message Network Juxtaposition Loch metallic Neutron Loft Methodist New Age Keeper Log Microburst Newcomer keep smiling Loge midi New Look Ketchup Logger Military News Logo mini Newsgroup

173

Newsletter Outsourcing pink Publicity Newton Overall Pint Public Relations New Wave overdressed Pin-up-Girl Puck Nibble Overdrive Pipe Pudding Nobody Overflow Pipeline Pullover no future Overkill Pit Pulp no iron Pixel Pulsar Non-Book Pace Plaid Pumps Non-Essentials Pacemaker Plastics Punch North Dakota Pad Play-back Punk Notebook Paddock Playboy Puppet Notepad Pager Playgirl Purser Novel Food Palaver Playmate Push Nugget Palladium Play-off Pusher null PAL-System PLO Push-up-BH Nylon Pamphlet Plot Putt Panel Plotter Puzzle OAPEC Panorama Plutonium Puzzler OAU Pantry Pocketbook Pyjama Odds Panty Pogo OECD Paper Pointer Quark Off Paperback Point of Sale Quarter Offbeat Par Poker Quarterback Office Paragliding Political Correctness Quarterdeck off limits parboiled Poll Quasar offline Park Polo Queen offshore Parka Pony Quenching offside Park-and-ride-System Pool Quickie okay Parsec Pop Quilt Oldie Parser Pop-Art Quiz on Parsing Popcorn on call Partner Popper Rack One-Man-Show Party Porridge Racket One-Night-Stand Pass Port Radar online Patchwork Portable Radio on the road Pattern Porter Raft on the rocks Payback Post Rafting Op-Art Paying Guest Post Raglan OPEC Pay-per-View Poster Ragtime Open-Air-Festival Pay-TV Pot Rally open end Peak Pot RAM Opening Peanuts Pound Ramie Open Shop Pedigree Power Ranch Operating Peeling Premier Rancher Operator Peer premium Ranger Opossum Peerage Presenter Ranking Opposition Pellet Pressure-Group Rap Optical Art Penalty Preview Rating optional P.E.N.-Club, PEN- Primary Rattan Oral History Club Primetime Rave Orbit Penholder printed in ... Reader orbital Penny Printer Readymade Orbital Penthouse Printing-on-Demand Realignment Order Pep Prisoner of War Real-Time-System Oscar Percussion Producer Rebound out Performance Product-Placement Receiver Outback permanent press Professional Recital Outcast Permit Profiler Recycling Outdoor Petticoat Progressive Jazz Redingote Outfit Petting Prohibition Referee Outfitter Pica Proliferation Referent Outing Pick-up prominent Reformer Outlaw Pie Promoter Reggae out of area Pier Promotion registered Outplacement Piercing Propeller Rehabilitation Output Pilling Provider relaxed Outsider Pin Pub Relaxing

174

Release Science-Fiction Sightseeing Sonar Releaser Scientology Silk Song relevant Score Single Songwriter Relish Scotch Single sophisticated Remake Scout Sinn Sorter Remix Scrabble Sioux SOS REM-Phase scratch Sir Soul Rendezvous Scratching Sitcom Sound Report Screen Sit-in Soundtrack Reporter Screening Six Days South Dakota Reprint SDI Sixty-nine Spaniel Research SDP Skateboard Sparring Researcher Seal Skateboarder Speaker Reservation Sealskin Skater Special Retrieval SEATO Skeleton Speech Retriever Secret Service Sketch Speed Retrovirus Seersucker Skiff Spider Return Segregation Skinhead Spike Reverend Seller Skinner-Box Spillage Reverse Sensor Skipper Spin Review sentimental Skull Spinnaker Revival Separate Skunk Spin-off Revolution Separatist Skyjacker Spiritual Revolver Sequel Skylight Spiritual Song Rhythm and Blues Sequoia Skyline Spleen Rips Sergeant Slack Splendid Isolation RNA Serial Slacker Splitting Roadster Serve-and-Volley Slang Spoiler Robber Server Slapstick Sponsor Robinson Service Sleeper Sponsoring Rock Session Slice Sponsorship Rock and Roll Set Slick Sport Rocker Set Slip Sportswear Rodeo Setter Slipper Spot roger Sex Slogan Spotlight Roll-back Sex and Crime Sloop Spray ROM Sex-Appeal Slot Sprayer Rooming-in sexy slow Spread Rotary Club Shag Slum Spreading Rotor Shake small Sprinkler Routing Shaker Smalltalk Sprint Rowdy Shampoo smart Sprinter Royal Shanty Smash Spurt Rubber Share Smiley Squash Rubber Shareholder Smog Squaw Rugby Shareholder-Value Smoking Stagflation Rum Shareware SMS Stainless Steel Run Sheriff Snack Standard Runway Sherry Snail-Mail Stand-by Rye Shirt Sniff Standing Shit Sniffing Standing Ovations Sabbatical shocking Snob Stand-up Safe Shooting Snooker Star Safer Sex Shop Snow Stars and Stripes Sago Shopping Snowboard Start Saloon Shorts Snowboarder Starter Sample Short Story Snowboarding Start-up Sampler Shouting Soccer Statement Sandwich Show Social Costs Steak SAS Showdown Society Sterling Scaling Showman Sodium Stern Scanner Shredder soft Stetson Scanning Shrimp Softball Steward Scat Shuffle Softcopy Stewardess Scene Shuffleboard soften Stick Scheck Shuttle Softie Sticker Sideboard Software Stock

175 stoned T-Bone-Steak Transponder Video-on-Demand stop Teach-in Trap VIP Stop-over Teak Trapper Viper Story Team Trash Virus Straddle Teamwork Trawl Viscount straight Teaser Trawler vital Straps Teddy Treatment Vitamin Stretch Tee Trekking Voicemail Strip Teen Trend volley Stripper Teleprompter ® trendy Volley Striptease Television Trial Volleyball Strontium Telex Trick Voucher Stunt Tender tricky V. S. O. P. Stuntman Tennis Trifle Styling Terminal Trigger Wad Stylist Terrier Trip Wafer Sub Test Trolley Walkman Subwoofer thermal Tropical Wallaby Suffragette Thrill Trouble WAP Sulky Thriller Truck Wapiti Sunbelt Ticker Trucker Warm-up Super-G Ticket Trust Warp Supervision Tie-Break Trustee Warrant Supervisor Time-out Tube wash and wear Supreme Court Timer tubeless waterproof Surfboard Timesharing Tuner Waterproof Surfer Timing Tuning Watt Surfing Toast Tunnel WC Surprise-Party Toaster Turf Wedge Survey Toddy Turkey Wedgwood Swap Toffee Turn Weekend Swapper Token Turnaround Wellness Sweater Tomahawk Tutor Western Sweatshirt Tommy Tweed Westerner Sweepstake Toner Twill Whig Sweet Tonic Twist Whirlpool Sweetheart Tool Twist Whisky Swing top Tycoon Whist Swing Top Whistler Swinger Top Ulster WHO swinging topless UN Who's who Swinging Topspin Uncle Sam Wigwam Synchronisation Tory Underdog Wildcard Syncopated Music Totem underdressed Winder Synthetics Touch Underflow Windjammer tough Underground Window Tab Tourist Understatement Women's Lib Tabulator Tower UNESCO Workaholic Tachometer Township UNICEF Workout Tag Trace Union Jack Workshop Tag Track Unisex Workstation Take Trackball unplugged World Games Take-off Trademark Update World Wide Fund for Take-over Trading Upgrade Nature Talk Traditional Jazz up to date World Wide Web Talker Trailer URL Worst Case Tandem Trainee USA wow Tank Trainer USB Wrestling Tanker Training User Tape Training on the Job Yankee Tarot Tram Vamp Yard Tartan Tramp Van Yellow Press Task Tramway Ventilator Yips Taskforce Trance Veranda YMCA Tattoo Transfer Video Youngster Taxiway Transistor video-, Video- Yuppie Transmitter YWCA

176

Zapping Zoom Zebra Zimbabwe Zombie

177 b. Le Nouveau Petit Robert: English words, Microsoft ® Word, spell check [1316] abalone – n. m. banana split – n. m. boomerang – n. m. campus – n. m. aberration – n. f. inv. booster – n. m. canter – n. m. ablation – n. f. bang – interj. et n. m. bootlegger – n. m. cantilever – adj. inv. et A.B.S. – n. m. inv. boots – n. f. pl. n. m. accession – n. f. banjo – n. m. boss – n. m. capacitance – n. f. acculturation – n. f. bar – n. m. boulder – n. m. car – n. m. ace – n. m. barbecue – n. m. bourbon – n. m. cardigan – n. m. acquisition – n. f. barmaid – n. f. bowling – n. m. car-ferry – n. m. acre – n. f. barman – n. m. bow-window – n. m. cargo – n. m. actualisation – n. f. barn – n. m. box – n. m. cartoon – n. m. adaptation – n. f. barracuda – n. m. box – n. m. cash – adv. et n. m. admittance – n. f. bas-bleu – n. m. boxer-short – n. m. cash-flow – n. m. A.D.N. – n. m. base – n. f. box-office – n. m. casting – n. m. affidavit – n. m. base-ball – n. m. boy – n. m. catalpa – n. m. afro – adj. inv. basic – n. m. boycott – n. m. catalyse – n. f. after-shave – n. m. inv. basket – n. m. boy-scout – n. m. catamaran – n. m. airbag – n. m. bateau – n. m. brain drain – n. m. catch – n. m. albacore – n. m. battle-dress – n. m. brainstorming – n. m. catgut – n. m. ale – n. f. inv. brain-trust – n. m. cathode – n. f. alligator – n. m. bay-window – n. f. brandy – n. m. C.B. – n. f. alternative – n. f. bazooka – n. m. break – n. m. CD-ROM – n. m. inv. aluminium – n. m. beagle – n. m. break – n. m. cellular – n. m. a.m. – loc. adv. beat – adj. inv. breakfast – n. m. cent – n. m. et f. anaconda – n. m. beatnik – n. brick – n. m. challenge – n. m. anion – n. m. be-bop – n. m. bridge – n. m. challenger – n. m. antitrust – adj. because – conj. et bridge – n. m. chambray – n. m. apache – n. et adj. prép. briefer – v. tr. chapeau – n. m. aquaplaning – n. m. best-seller – n. m. briefing – n. m. charge – n. f. arc – n. m. inv. bicycle – n. m. broker – n. m. charter – n. m. argent – n. m. big-bang – n. m. brook – n. m. cheap – adj. inv. argon – n. m. bile – n. f. brunch – n. m. check-list – n. f. A.R.N. – n. m. bill – n. m. brushing – n. m. check-up – n. m. inv. arrow-root – n. m. bingo – n. m. budget – n. m. cheddar – n. m. artefact – n. m. bit – n. m. bug – n. m. cheeseburger – n. m. ASA – n. m. inv. bitter – n. m. buggy – n. m. cheese-cake – n. m. ASCII – n. m. black – n. et adj. bugle – n. m. cherry – n. m. ASIC – n. m. black-bass – n. m. inv. building – n. m. chewing-gum – n. m. aspartame – n. m. black-jack – n. m. bulldozer – n. m. chintz – n. m. atoll – n. m. black-out – n. m. inv. bull-finch – n. m. chip – n. m. attaché-case – n. m. black-rot – n. m. bull-terrier – n. m. chips – n. f. pl. attention – n. f. blazer – n. m. bun – n. m. chisel – n. m. attorney – n. m. blinder – v. bungalow – n. m. choke-bore – n. m. attraction – n. f. blister – n. m. bunker – n. m. chorus – n. m. auburn – adj. inv. blizzard – n. m. bus – n. m. chow-chow – n. m. audit – n. m. bloc – n. m. bush – n. m. chutney – n. m. automate – n. m. bloc-notes – n. m. business – n. m. C.I.F. – adj. ou adv. automation – n. f. bloomer – n. m. businessman – n. m. clam – n. m. auto-stop – n. m. blue-jean – n. m. bye-bye – interj. clamp – n. m. blues – n. m. by-pass – n. m. inv. clap – n. m. baby – n. m. bluff – n. m. byte – n. m. clash – n. m. baby-boom – n. m. blush – n. m. clean – adj. inv. baby-foot – n. m. inv. boat people – n. m. cab – n. m. clearing – n. m. baby-sitter – n. inv. cabin-cruiser – n. m. clergyman – n. m. baby-sitting – n. m. bob – n. m. caddie – n. m. climax – n. m. backgammon – n. m. bobsleigh – n. m. caddie – n. m. clip – n. m. background – n. m. bobtail – n. m. cake – n. m. clip – n. m. bacon – n. m. body – n. m. cake-walk – n. m. clipper – n. m. badge – n. m. bodybuilding – n. m. californium – n. m. clone – n. m. badlands – n. f. pl. bogie – n. m. call-girl – n. f. close-combat – n. m. badminton – n. m. bondage – n. m. calypso – n. m. clown – n. m. baffle – n. m. boogie-woogie – n. m. camp – n. m. club – n. m. ballast – n. m. bookmaker – n. m. camping – n. m. club – n. m. ball-trap – n. m. boom – n. m. camping-car – n. m. club-house – n. m.

178 cluster – n. m. cracking – n. m. drill – n. m. fluorescence – n. f. coach – n. m. crash – n. m. drink – n. m. flush – n. m. coalition – n. f. crasher (se) – v. pron. drive – n. m. F.O.B. – adj. inv. cob – n. m. crawl – n. m. drive-in – n. m. inv. foil – n. m. cocker – n. m. cricket – n. m. driver – n. m. folk – n. m. et adj. cockney – n. et adj. critique – n. et adj. driver – v. folklore – n. m. cockpit – n. m. cromlech – n. m. drone – n. m. football – n. m. cocktail – n. m. crooner – n. m. drop-goal – n. m. footing – n. m. code – n. m. croquet – n. m. drugstore – n. m. forcing – n. m. coke – n. m. cross-country – n. m. drummer – n. m. formalisation – n. f. cold-cream – n. m. crossing-over – n. m. drums – n. m. pl. formaliser – v. tr. colonisation – n. f. inv. dry – adj. inv. et n. m. format – n. m. coloniser – v. tr. croup – n. m. dry farming – n. m. forsythia – n. m. come-back – n. m. inv. crown-glass – n. m. duffel-coat – n. m. fox-hound – n. m. commando – n. m. inv. dumping – n. m. fox-terrier – n. m. commodore – n. m. cruiser – n. m. duplex – n. m. fox-trot – n. m. inv. commune – n. f. curling – n. m. dyke – n. m. freak – n. communication – n. f. curry – n. m. free-jazz – n. m. inv. compact, e – adj. et n. custom – n. m. ecstasy – n. f. free-lance – adj. inv. et m. cutter – n. m. engineering – n. m. n. compilation – n. f. cyan – n. m. EPROM – n. f. free-martin – n. m. compiler – v. tr. cycle – n. m. escalator – n. m. freezer – n. m. compost – n. m. cyclone – n. m. esquire – n. m. fuel – n. m. compound – adj. inv. establishment – n. m. full – n. m. et n. dada – n. m. excise – n. f. full-contact – n. m. compulsion – n. f. dancing – n. m. expertise – n. f. fun – n. m. concentration – n. f. dandy – n. m. exportation – n. f. concertina – n. m. dead-heat – n. m. exporter – v. tr. funk – n. m. et adj. condom – n. m. dealer – n. m. express – adj. et n. m. funky – n. m. et adj. condominium – n. m. dealer – v. tr. express – adj. et n. m. inv. consortium – n. m. delirium tremens – n. expression – n. f. fusel – n. m. constable – n. m. m. inv. extra-dry – adj. inv. contact – n. m. dengue – n. f. eye-liner – n. m. GABA – n. m. inv. container – n. m. denim – n. m. gadget – n. m. contraception – n. f. derby – n. m. factoring – n. m. gag – n. m. conurbation – n. f. derrick – n. m. fading – n. m. gagman – n. m. convent – n. m. design – n. m. fair-play – n. m. inv. gallon – n. m. convention – n. f. designer – n. fairway – n. m. gang – n. m. convertible – adj. et n. desk – n. m. fan – n. gangster – n. m. m. desperado – n. m. farce – n. f. gap – n. m. convict – n. m. destroyer – n. m. far west – n. m. inv. garden-party – n. f. cookie – n. m. digest – n. m. fast-food – n. m. gauche – adj. et n. cool – adj. inv. digit – n. m. fax – n. m. gay – adj. inv. coolie – n. m. dinghy – n. m. feed-back – n. m. inv. gentleman – n. m. copyright – n. m. dingo – n. m. feeder – n. m. gentleman-farmer – n. cordite – n. f. direction – n. f. feeling – n. m. m. corned-beef – n. m. disco – n. m. et adj. ferry-boat – n. m. gentlemen's agreement corner – n. m. discount – n. m. festival – n. m. – n. m. corn-flakes – n. m. pl. dispatcher – n. m. fiat – n. m. inv. gentry – n. f. coroner – n. m. dispatcher – v. tr. fifty-fifty – loc. adv. et geyser – n. m. corporation – n. f. dispatching – n. m. n. m. gift – n. m. corral – n. m. distribution – n. f. film – n. m. gigue – n. f. correct, e – adj. division – n. f. finish – n. m. gimmick – n. m. cortisone – n. f. dock – n. m. finitude – n. f. gin – n. m. cosy – adj. dodo – n. m. fish-eye – n. m. gin-rummy – n. m. cosy – n. m. dog-cart – n. m. fission – n. f. girl – n. f. cottage – n. m. dollar – n. m. flash – n. m. glamour – n. m. country – n. f. ou m. dominion – n. m. flash-back – n. m. glass – n. m. inv. dope – n. f. flasher – v. globe-trotter – n. court – n. m. doper – v. tr. flexion – n. f. goal – n. m. covenant – n. m. doping – n. m. flint-glass – n. m. inv. goal-average – n. m. cover-girl – n. f. drain – n. m. flipper – n. m. golden – n. f. cow-boy – n. m. drawback – n. m. flipper – v. intr. gold point – n. m. cow-pox – n. m. inv. dressing-room – n. m. flirt – n. m. golf – n. m. crack – n. m. dribble – n. m. flirter – v. intr. gospel – n. m. crack – n. m. drift – n. m. flock-book – n. m. grade – n. m. cracker – n. m. drifter – n. m. flop – interj. et n. m. grader – n. m.

179 gramophone – n. m. impeachment – n. m. ketch – n. m. lorry – n. m. granny smith – n. f. importation – n. f. ketchup – n. m. loser – n. m. inv. importer – v. tr. kick – n. m. lot – n. m. grapefruit – n. m. in – adj. inv. kidnapper – v. tr. lump – n. m. green – n. m. incorruptible – adj. kidnapping – n. m. lunch – n. m. grill – n. m. inductance – n. f. kilt – n. m. lyric – n. m. grog – n. m. inexhaustible – adj. kipper – n. m. groggy – adj. inv. inflation – n. f. kit – n. m. macadam – n. m. groom – n. m. influence – n. f. kitchenette – n. f. macho – n. m. groupie – n. information – n. f. kiwi – n. m. mackintosh – n. m. guidance – n. f. inlay – n. m. kiwi – n. m. made in – loc. adj. gutta-percha – n. f. inoculation – n. f. klaxon – n. m. magazine – n. m. input – n. m. knickerbockers – n. m. magenta – n. m. h – n. m. inv. insane – adj. pl. mail-coach – n. m. habituation – n. f. insert – n. m. knock-down – n. m. mailing – n. m. haddock – n. m. insertion – n. f. inv. maintenance – n. f. haggis – n. m. intelligence – n. f. knock-out – n. m. inv. majorette – n. f. half-track – n. m. interchangeable – adj. et adj. inv. malnutrition – n. f. hall – n. m. intercourse – n. f. know-how – n. m. inv. malocclusion – n. f. hamburger – n. m. interface – n. f. koala – n. m. malt – n. m. handicap – n. m. interlock – n. m. krypton – n. m. mambo – n. f. happening – n. m. interlope – n. m. et kumquat – n. m. management – n. m. happy end – n. m. ou f. adj. manager – n. m. happy few – n. m. pl. interlude – n. m. label – n. m. manager – v. tr. hard – adj. et n. m. interview – n. f. lad – n. m. mandrill – n. m. hardware – n. m. introspection – n. f. lady – n. f. mangrove – n. f. harmonica – n. m. ion – n. m. laser – n. m. manifold – n. m. has been – n. m. inv. ISBN – n. m. lasso – n. m. marijuana – n. f. hello – interj. ISO – n. m. inv. lasting – n. m. marina – n. f. herd-book – n. m. isooctane – n. m. LAV – n. m. inv. marine – n. m. hickory – n. m. isotope – n. m. lawrencium – n. m. marketing – n. m. hi-fi – n. f. inv. et adj. item – n. m. leader – n. m. marlin – n. m. inv. leadership – n. m. marshal – n. m. highlander – n. m. jack – n. m. leasing – n. m. marshmallow – n. m. high-tech – n. m. inv. jackpot – n. m. leghorn – n. f. martini – n. m. hip – interj. jamboree – n. m. lemon-grass – n. m. mascara – n. m. hippie – n. et adj. jam-session – n. f. inv. maser – n. m. hit-parade – n. m. jazz – n. m. lepton – n. m. mastiff – n. m. HIV – n. m. jazzman – n. m. liberty – n. m. inv. match – n. m. H.L.A. – adj. jazzy – adj. inv. lift – n. m. match-play – n. m. hobby – n. m. jean – n. m. lifter – v. tr. maul – n. m. hockey – n. m. jeep – n. f. lifting – n. m. meeting – n. m. holding – n. m. ou f. jenny – n. f. light – adj. inv. melting-pot – n. m. hold-up – n. m. inv. jerk – n. m. lime – n. f. merchandising – n. m. holster – n. m. jet – n. m. limerick – n. m. mess – n. m. home – n. m. jet-set – n. m. ou f. liner – n. m. message – n. m. homespun – n. m. jet-stream – n. m. linkage – n. m. micro-instruction – n. home-trainer – n. m. jigger – n. m. links – n. m. pl. f. hooligan – n. m. jingle – n. m. linotype – n. f. microphone – n. m. hormone – n. f. job – n. m. lion – n. m. mile – n. m. horse-ball – n. m. jockey – n. m. liqueur – n. f. milk-bar – n. m. horse-power – n. m. jodhpur – n. m. lisp – n. m. milk-shake – n. m. inv. jogger – v. intr. listing – n. m. milord – n. m. hot – adj. inv. jogging – n. m. live – adj. inv. MIRV – n. m. inv. et hot-dog – n. m. joint – n. m. living-room – n. m. adj. inv. house-boat – n. m. joint venture – n. f. loader – n. m. miss – n. f. hovercraft – n. m. joker – n. m. lob – n. m. missile – n. m. humour – n. m. juke-box – n. m. inv. lobby – n. m. mixer – v. tr. hurricane – n. m. jumping – n. m. loch – n. m. mobile – adj. et n. m. husky – n. m. jungle – n. f. lock-out – n. m. inv. mobile home – n. m. hydrofoil – n. m. junior – adj. et n. lock-outer – v. tr. modern style – n. m. junkie – n. et adj. loft – n. m. inv. ICBM – n. m. inv. jury – n. m. loge – n. f. mohair – n. m. iceberg – n. m. jute – n. m. look – n. m. monitoring – n. m. illumination – n. f. looping – n. m. motel – n. m. I.L.S. – n. m. karma – n. m. loran – n. m. motion – n. f. immature – adj. keepsake – n. m. lord – n. m. motor-home – n. m.

180 mot-valise – n. m. pair – n. m. pool – n. m. raid – n. m. mound – n. m. pal – n. m. pop – adj. inv. raider – n. m. muffin – n. m. palace – n. m. pop art – n. m. rail – n. m. mule-jenny – n. f. pale-ale – n. f. pop-corn – n. m. inv. RAM – n. f. inv. music-hall – n. m. palladium – n. m. population – n. f. ranch – n. m. must – n. m. pamphlet – n. m. porridge – n. m. randomisation – n. f. mustang – n. m. panel – n. m. portable – adj. randomiser – v. tr. mutant, ante – adj. et panorama – n. m. porter – n. m. ranger – n. m n. par – n. m. portfolio – n. m. rap – n. m. parka – n. f. ou m. poster – n. m. rash – n. m. napalm – n. m. parking – n. m. potassium – n. m. rating – n. m. navel – n. f. partition – n. f. potlatch – n. m. ratio – n. m. neck – n. m. passing-shot – n. m. practice – n. m. ray-grass – n. m. inv. nectarine – n. f. patch – n. m. praxis – n. f. ready-made – n. m. net – n. m. patchouli – n. m. press-book – n. m. inv. neutron – n. m. patchwork – n. m. pressing – n. m. record – n. m. new-look – n. m. inv. pattern – n. m. pressurisation – n. f. redingote – n. f. et adj. inv. pause – n. f. prime – n. f. reflex – adj. et n. m. newsmagazine – n. m. P.C. – n. m. prime time – n. m. reggae – n. m. et adj. night-club – n. m. pedigree – n. m. production – n. f. inv. noble – adj. et n. peeling – n. m. programmer – v. tr. relation – n. f. no man's land – n. m. peep-show – n. m. promotion – n. f. relax – adj. et n. inv. pellet – n. m. prorogation – n. f. relaxation – n. f. non-stop – adj. inv. et pemmican – n. m. prospect – n. m. remake – n. m. n. inv. penalty – n. m. proton – n. m. remix – n. m. non-violence – n. f. penny – n. m. providence – n. f. reporter – v. tr. NTSC – n. m. penthouse – n. m. pub – n. m. reporter – n. nuisance – n. f. pep – n. m. public-relations – n. f. reprint – n. m. nurse – n. f. peppermint – n. m. pl. reps – n. m. nursery – n. f. peptide – n. m. pudding – n. m. résumé – n. m. nylon – n. m. performance – n. f. puffin – n. m. retard – n. m. permafrost – n. m. pull-over – n. m. retriever – n. m. obsolescence – n. f. pesticide – n. m. et pulsar – n. m. revitalisation – n. f. obstruction – n. f. adj. punch – n. m. revival – n. m. occlusion – n. f. photo-finish – n. f. punch – n. m. revolver – n. m. occurrence – n. f. photon – n. m. punching-ball – n. m. revolving – adj. inv. off – adj. inv. et adv. piccalilli – n. m. punk – n. et adj. revue – n. f. office – n. m. pickles – n. m. pl. purée – n. f. rewriter – v. tr. offset – n. m. pickpocket – n. m. push-pull – n. m. inv. rewriter – n. m. offshore – adj. inv. et pick-up – n. m. inv. putt – n. m. rewriting – n. m. n. m. pidgin – n. m. putter – n. m. rifle – n. m. okapi – n. m. pilchard – n. m. puzzle – n. m. rift – n. m. one man show – loc. pin's – n. m. pyjama – n. m. rime – n. f. subst. m. pin up – n. f. inv. pyridoxine – n. f. ring – n. m. one-step – n. m. pipe – n. f. ripper – n. m. open – adj. inv. pipeline – n. m. Q.I. – n. m. inv. ripple-mark – n. f. opossum – n. m. piper-cub – n. m. qualification – n. f. R.N.I.S. – n. m. optimisation – n. f. pixel – n. m. quantification – n. f. roadster – n. m. optimiser – v. tr. placard – n. m. quantifier – v. tr. rob – n. m. out – adv. et adj. inv. placebo – n. m. quantum – n. m. rock – n. m. et adj. outlaw – n. m. plaid – n. m. quartile – n. m. inv. output – n. m. plan – n. m. quasar – n. m. rocking-chair – n. m. outrigger – n. m. planning – n. m. quick – n. m. roller – n. m. outsider – n. m. plantation – n. f. quinine – n. f. ROM – n. f. over arm stroke – n. plastic – n. m. quorum – n. m. rot – n. m. m. play-back – n. m. inv. quota – n. m. rotary – n. m. overdose – n. f. play-boy – n. m. QWERTY – adj. inv. rouge – adj. et n. overdrive – n. m. plum-cake – n. m. rough – n. m. oxford – n. m. plum-pudding – n. m. r – n. m. inv. round – n. m. p.m. – loc. adv. racer – n. m. routine – n. f. pacemaker – n. m. poinsettia – n. m. rack – n. m. royalties – n. f. pl. pack – n. m. point – n. m. racket – n. m. rugby – n. m. package – n. m. pointer – n. m. radar – n. m. runabout – n. m. packaging – n. m. poker – n. m. radian – n. m. rush – n. m. paddock – n. m. pole position – n. f. raft – n. m. rye – n. m. paddy – n. m. inv. policeman – n. m. rafting – n. m. pager – n. m. polo – n. m. ragtime – n. m. saccharine – n. f.

181 sachem – n. m. shrapnel – n. m. standardisation – n. f. tam-tam – n. m. inv. S.A.E. – adj. shunt – n. m. stand-by – n. inv. et tandem – n. m. saga – n. f. side-car – n. m. adj. inv. tangerine – n. f. saloon – n. m. single – n. m. standing – n. m. tango – n. m. sanatorium – n. m. singleton – n. m. star – n. f. tank – n. m. sandwich – n. m. sit-in – n. m. inv. starter – n. m. tanker – n. m. savoir-faire – n. m. skate-board – n. m. starting-block – n. m. tarmac – n. m. inv. skating – n. m. starting-gate – n. m. tarpon – n. m. scalp – n. m. sketch – n. m. station-service – n. f. tartan – n. m. scalper – v. tr. ski-bob – n. m. steak – n. m. T.A.T. – n. m. scanner – n. m. skinhead – n. steamer – n. m. taxi-girl – n. f. scanner – v. tr. skipper – n. m. steeple – n. m. taxiway – n. m. scat – n. m. sleeping – n. m. steeple-chase – n. m. teddy-bear – n. m. scenic railway – n. m. slice – n. m. stencil – n. m. tee – n. m. schooner – n. m. slip – n. m. sterling – adj. inv. teenager – n. science-fiction – n. f. slip – n. m. steward – n. m. tee-shirt – n. m. scone – n. m. slogan – n. m. stick – n. m. temps – n. m. scoop – n. m. slow – n. m. stick – n. m. tender – n. m. scooter – n. m. smart – adj. inv. stilton – n. m. tennis – n. m. et f. score – n. m. smash – n. m. stock – n. m. tennis-elbow – n. m. scotch – n. m. smocks – n. m. pl. stock-car – n. m. terminus – n. m. scotch – n. m. smog – n. m. STOL – n. m. termite – n. m. scotch-terrier – n. m. smoking – n. m. stop – interj. et n. m. test – n. m. scoured – n. m. snack-bar – n. m. stop-over – n. m. inv. thallium – n. m. scrabble – n. m. snob – n. et adj. stopper – v. thane – n. m. scraper – n. m. snow-boot – n. m. story-board – n. m. thriller – n. m. scratch – adj. inv. soda – n. m. stout – n. m. ou f. ticket – n. m. script – n. m. sodium – n. m. stress – n. m. tie-break – n. m. script – n. m. software – n. m. stretch – n. m. tilt – n. m. script-girl – n. f. sol – n. m. stretching – n. m. timing – n. m. scrub – n. m. sombre – adj. string – n. m. tipi – n. m. scull – n. m. sonar – n. m. stripper – n. m. toast – n. m. sea-line – n. m. sophistication – n. f. stripper – v. tr. toffee – n. m. seersucker – n. m. soul – adj. inv. et n. m. stripping – n. m. tong – n. f. self – n. f. sparring-partner – n. strip-tease – n. m. tonic – n. m. self – n. m. m. strontium – n. m. tonnage – n. m. self- speakeasy – n. m. structure – n. f. tonus – n. m. self-control – n. m. speaker – n. m. stud-book – n. m. top self-government – n. spectre – n. m. studio – n. m. totem – n. m. m. speech – n. m. suave – adj. township – n. f. ou m. self-induction – n. f. speed – n. m. et adj. subsidence – n. f. tract – n. m. self-made-man – n. m. speed-sail – n. m. suffragette – n. f. trader – n. m. self-service – n. m. spider – n. m. suite – n. f. trade-union – n. f. senior – n. et adj. spin – n. m. sulky – n. m. training – n. m. sensible – adj. spinnaker – n. m. sunlight – n. m. tramping – n. m. session – n. f. spleen – n. m. superman – n. m. trampoline – n. m. set – n. m. spoiler – n. m. supernova – n. f. tramway – n. m. setter – n. m. sponsor – n. m. superstar – n. f. transaction – n. f. sex-appeal – n. m. sponsoring – n. m. supervision – n. f. transept – n. m. sex-ratio – n. f. sport – n. m. supporter – v. tr. transistor – n. m. sex-shop – n. m. ou f. spot – n. m. et adj. inv. supporter – n. m. travelling – n. m. sex-symbol – n. m. sprat – n. m. surf – n. m. trekking – n. m. sexy – adj. inv. spray – n. m. surfer – v. intr. trench-coat – n. m. shaker – n. m. sprint – n. m. suspense – n. m. trial – n. m. et f. sherry – n. m. sprinter – v. intr. swap – n. m. trick – n. m. shilling – n. m. square – n. m. sweater – n. m. trimmer – n. m. shimmy – n. m. squash – n. m. sweat-shirt – n. m. trip – n. m. shit – n. m. squat – n. m. sweepstake – n. m. trolley – n. m. shocking – adj. inv. squatter – v. tr. swing – n. m. trop – adv. et nominal shoot – n. m. squaw – n. f. symposium – n. m. trust – n. m. shooter – v. stabile – n. m. synapse – n. f. tub – n. m. shopping – n. m. staff – n. m. synopsis – n. f. et m. tumbling – n. m. short – n. m. stagflation – n. f. tuner – n. m. show – n. m. stand – n. m. table – n. f. tunnel – n. m. show-business – n. m. standard – n. m. et adj. tag – n. m. turf – n. m. inv. inv. take-off – n. m. inv. turn-over – n. m. show-room – n. m. standard – n. m. talk-show – n. m. tussah – n. m.

182 tweed – n. m. tweeter – n. m. twill – n. m. twin-set – n. m. twist – n. m. type – n. m. underground – adj. inv. et n. m. union – n. f. uppercut – n. m. vamp – n. f. van – n. m. vanity-case – n. m. velvet – n. m. verdict – n. m. version – n. f. versus – prép. vintage – n. m. virginal – n. m. volley-ball – n. m. vote – n. m. voter – v. voyage – n. m. vulcanisation – n. f. wading – n. m. wagon – n. m. walkman – n. m. walk-over – n. m. inv. wallaby – n. m. wapiti – n. m. warning – n. m. warrant – n. m. wasp – n. et adj. water-ballast – n. m. water-polo – n. m. waterproof – adj. inv. et n. m. W.-C. – n. m. pl. week-end – n. m. welter – n. m. western – n. m. wharf – n. m. whipcord – n. m. whisky – n. m. whist – n. m. white-spirit – n. m. wigwam – n. m. winch – n. m. wintergreen – n. m. wishbone – n. m. wombat – n. m. woofer – n. m. yacht-club – n. m. yachting – n. m. yard – n. m. yearling – n. m. yeoman – n. m. yuppie – n. zapping – n. m. zip – n. m. zoom – n. m.

183 c. Lo ZINGARELLI – English words, Microsoft ® Word, spell check GB [1803] abstract banjo blow-up Bruce account bantam blue chip brunch account executive bar (1) blue-jeans budget ace barbecue blue movie buffer acid music barmaid blues bug acting out barman bluff bulge action painting barn board bull addendum bas-bleu boat people bulldog advertisement baseball bob bulldozer advertising baseline bobtail bungalow advisor Basic body bunker (1) affluent society basic English body art bunker (2) after hours basket body building burlesque after-shave basket-ball body copy bus (1) agreement basset hound boiler bus (2) agribusiness bass reflex bomber bushel aids batch bomber jacket business airbag batch processing bond business class airbus baud bonus business game Airedale terrier bazooka boogie businessman air-terminal beach volley boogie-woogie business school all right beagle bookmaker buy-back AM bear boom buyer anchorman beat (1) boomerang buy-out antidumping beat (2) booster bye-bye appeal beatnik bootleg by night appeasement beauty bop by-pass aquaplaning beauty-case borderline byte area manager beauty farm boss area test be-bop bounty killer cab array beeper bourbon cache art director bending bowling caddie ASA benefit bow-window café-society asset best seller box cairn assist bid bond boxer cake ATP big box office cake-walk audience big bang boy call audit big match boy-friend call-girl auditing biker boy-scout calypso auditor billing brain-storming camber austerity binder brain trust camcorder authority bingo brand image camera (2) bird watcher brand manager cameraman baby bird watching brandy camp baby boom bit break (1) camper baby-doll bitter break (2) camping baby killer black-bottom break dance campus baby pusher black comedy breakdown candid camera baby-sitter black-jack break even canister baby-sitting black music breakfast canter backgammon black-out breaking cantilever background black power breakpoint canvassing backstage blazer breeding canyon back-to-back blimp bridge cap backup blind trust brief capital gain bacon blinker briefing caravan badge blister British thermal unit card badminton blitz broadcast cardigan ballast blizzard broker career woman balloon blob brokerage cargo (2) banana split bloc-notes Browning® carol band bloom brown sugar car pool bang blouse browser cartoon 184 cartoonist cocktail crash test deuce carving cocktail-party crawl dimmer cash coffee break credit card dinghy cash and carry coffee grinder credit manager directory cash dispenser coil credit officer dirt-track cash flow coke crest dirty tones cashmere cold type cricket disc-jockey cast college cromlech disco-dance casting collie croquet disco-music casual colossal cross (1) discount catch coloured cross (2) dispenser catcher colt cross-country display catering columnist crossing over DNA caterpillar® combo crossover dock catgut comedian crouch docking caucus comfort crown do-it-yourself CD comic cruise dolly CD-ROM commando (1) cruiser dominion cement-gun commercial cult doping cent commercial paper cult book dot chairman commodity cult movie Down challenge commoner curling drawback challenger compact curry dreadnought charter compact disc curtain wall dribbling chat line compact-stereo cutter drink cheap compilation cutting dripping check-in compost cyber- drive checklist compound drive-in check panel computer daiquiri driver check-up computer animation damping drone cheek to cheek computer art dance music drop (1) cheeseburger computer crime dancing drop (2) cherry-brandy computer game dandy dropout cheviot computer graphics dark drop shot chewing-gum computer music darts drugstore chi è? condor * data (2) dry chintz connection database dulcimer chip consumer benefit data entry dumping chopper (1) container data processing dune buggy chopper (2) controller -day duty free shop citizens' band convention day after city coolie day-hospital ecstasy city bike cool jazz daylight editing city car copy D-day editor clan copyright deadline e-mail clap copywriter dealer endorsement clearance cordless debugging endurance clearing core (3) deck engineering clergyman core business decoder entertainer click corner decommissioning entertainment client corn-flakes de-escalation environment clinch coroner default escalation cline corporate image delay espresso (2) clinker corporation delicious establishment clip (1) costing delivery order eurobond clip (2) cottage demo (2) evergreen clipper counselling denim executive clown count down derby exit poll club country deregulation export clubhouse cover girl derrick extended play club-sandwich cover story design extra-large cluster cow-boy designer eye-liner coach CQR desk cobbler crack desktop factoring Cobol cracker desktop publishing factor cocker cracking detective fair play cockney crash detector fairway 185 fall-out folk-singer go-kart hi-fi fan folk-song golden delicious highball fan club follow-up golden share high fidelity fantasy football golf (1) high life farad footing golf (2) high school faraday forcing good-bye high society far west forfeit goodwill high-tech fashion Fortran gospel high technology fast food forum gossip hip fathom forward gourmet hip-hop fault foxhound grabber hit feedback fox-terrier grader hit-parade feeling fox-trot graffito HIV fence frame graphic design hobby ferry-boat franchisee green hockey festival franchising green-keeper holding fetch freak greyhound home banking fibreglass free climber grill home base fiction free climbing grill-room home computer fifty-fifty free jazz grinder home page fighter free-lance grizzly home video file free rider grog homing filibustering free shop groggy honing filler freestyle groom hook film freezer growl hooligan film-maker fringe benefit grunge horror film-strip full grunt horsepower final cut full contact guar hostess finish full immersion guest star hot dog firmware full time gulp hotel first-lady funk hot jazz fiscal drag funky hacker hot line fisherman fusion haiku hot money fish eye future hair stylist hot pants fitness fuzzy logic half-duplex house boat fix halibut house music fixing gadget hall (1) hovercraft flag gag Hall (2) hub flap game hamburger Hula-Hoop® flash gang hamster human relations flashback gangster handball humour flashing gap handicap hunter flatting garden-party handicapper hurling flight-recorder -gate handling husky flint gateway happening flip-book gay happy end iceberg flip-flop gazebo hard ice-field flipper gel hard-boiled igloo flirt general manager hard bop image maker float gentleman hard copy impeachment floater gentleman driver hard-core import floating gentleman rider hard-cover import-export flock gentlemen's agreement hard discount imprinting flop geyser hard disk in (2) floppy disk ghost writer hard rock inclusive tour flow chart gigabyte hard top indoor fluff gill hardware industrial design flutter Gillette® Hare Krishna industrial designer fly and drive gin-fizz hazard inning flyby ginger headline in progress flying junior gin tonic hearing input FM girl heavy metal insider focus group girlfriend hello insider trading folk glamour help insight folklore glasnost henry instant-book folk music globe-trotter hesitation instant movie folk-rock goal hickory intelligence 186 internal auditing kumquat maelstrom mine-detector internal auditor kung fu magazine mini- Internet K-way® magnetron minicomputer inter-rail maharajah minimal art Intranet lacrosse Mah-jong® minimal music Irish coffee lady maiden minimum tax ISO lamb's wool mailing miss Italian style land art mail order mister item (2) Land Rover® mainframe mix IUD laptop mainstream mixer large major mixing jab laser majorette mod jack lasso (4) make-up modern dance Jacuzzi® lay-out management modern style jamming leader manager mohair jam-session leadership Mandrake money manager jazz lease-back manufacturing monitor jazz-band leasing marijuana monotype jeans LED marine mood style jeep® lemming marker Moon boot® jersey lettering market Morse jet leveraged buy-out marketer motel jetlag liberal marketing mountain bike jet liner liberty marketing-mix mouse jet-set lib-lab marketing-oriented movie jet-society lie detector market leader mullah jigger lifeboat market maker multimedia jingle lift mark-up multiplexing job lifting mascara (2) muscovite jobber light maser musical job sharing lima (2) mass media music-hall jockey lime master must jodhpurs limerick Mastermind® mustang jogger line mat muting jogging link match mystery joint-venture linkage match ball jolly linoleum match point neck joule linotype® match winner net joystick lipstick mayday network juke-box Lisp media (2) neurone jumbo litchi medium (1) new age jumbo jet live medium (2) new deal jump living medley new entry jungle style living theatre meet New Jersey junk bond loader meeting new look lob megabyte news kazoo lobby megaton newsletter ketch lodge melt-down newsmagazine ketchup loft melting pot new wave keyword log memorial night kick boxing Lombard merchandiser night-club kidnapper long drink merchandising no comment kidnapping long play merchant bank no contest killer long playing merger no frost kilobyte look metal nomination kiloton loop meter non profit kilt looping microchip nonsense king loran microcomputer non stop king-size lord middle class notebook kit love story midi- nude-look kiwi LSD midrange nurse knickerbockers lunch milady nursery knock down luncheonette midrange nursing knockout milady nut know how macadam miler nylon® koala made in milord krill made in Italy mimicry oaks 187 off parboiled policeman raglan off Parkinson polo (2) ragtime office parsec pony raid office automation partner Pony Express® rajah off-limits partnership pool rally off-line part time pop rally cross offset party pop art RAM off-shore password popcorn ranch offside patchwork pop-jazz random okay pattern pop-music range old fashion pay-off pop star ranger ombudsman pay-out porridge ranking on pay per view portfolio rap on-demand peak time posse rash one-step peck post rating on line pedigree Postcard® rattan on the road peeling poster rave on the rocks peep-show Post-it® readership op art pellet pram reading open pemmican premier ready open-ended penalty preppy ready made open space pen computer press-agent reception opinion leader penny pressing receptionist opinion maker performance price-earning recital opossum performer prime rate record optical permafrost prime time recovery optical art personal privacy redingote optimist personal computer product manager reef option petting project manager refill optional photo finish promo reflex orienteering photoflood promoter reforming orthicon pick-up promotion reggae out picnic prompt regimental outdoor pidgin pub relax outing piercing public company reliability output pile public relations REM (2) outrigger pilling publishing remainder outsider pin (1) pudding remake outsourcing pin (2) pull replay over pin-up pullover reportage over- pin-up girl pulp reporter overbooking pipeline pulsar reprint overcoat pitcher punch (1) reprocessing overdose pitch pine punch (2) reset overdrive pit stop punching-bag residence overflow pixel punching-ball residence house overlay plaid punk retrofit overnight planning punk-rock revival oversize play pusher revolver overtime playback put rhythm and blues oxford playboy putt ring player putter ripper pace car playgirl puzzle RISC pacemaker playmaker RNA pack play-off quad road movie package play-out quark road show packaging plop quarterback roaming paddock plot quartile roast beef pallet plotter quasar rock palm top plug-in quiz rock and roll pamphlet plum-cake rocker pancake plus racer rock-jazz panel pocket rack roll-bar pants pocket book racket roller paperback pointer radar roll-on roll-off pap-test poker radical-chic ROM (2) par pole position rafting rood 188 roof shimmy snack stage roof garden shock snack-bar stand rough shocking snap stand alone round shopper sniff standard rover shopping snipe stand-by royalty short snob standing rubber shorts snort star rugby short track snowboard stark delicious rum show soap opera starlet rumble showboat soft star system rush show business softball start showdown soft-core starter sahib showgirl soft drink station wagon sales engineer showman software status salesman showroom software house status symbol sales manager shrapnel sol (2) steamer salmonella shunt soling steeplechase saloon shuttle soma (3) sterling sampan sidecar sonar sterna samurai sigh sort steward sandwich single soul stick sari singleton soul jazz stock sarong sir soul music stock-car scanner sit-com sound stokes scanning sit-in space shuttle stop scat situation comedy spaniel stopper scattering skate-board sparring partner -story schooner skating speaker story board science fiction skeet special streaking scoop skeleton specimen streamer scooter sketch speedway stress score ski-bob spelling stretch scotch skiff spider stretching scout ski-lift spike stretch-pack scrambler skimmer spin strike scraper skinhead spinnaker strip (1) scratch ski-pass spinning strip (2) screening skipper spin off strip-tease screen saver ski-roll spiritual strong script ski-stopper spit stub seedling skunk splash studio self-government skylight splashdown stunt car self help slam (1) splatter stunt-man self-made man slam (2) spleen styling self-service slang split sulky sequel slapstick splitting summit sequoia slat spoiler superman serial sled dog sponsor supermarket serial killer sleeping-car spoon superstar server slice sport supporter set slide sport-fisherman surf set ball slinky sportsman surf-boat set point slip sportswear surf-casting setter slogan spot (1) surfer sex appeal sloop spot (2) surfing sex-shop slop spray survival sex symbol slot spreadsheet suspense sexy slot-machine spring swap shake slow sprinkler sweater shaker slum sprint swing shampoo slurp sprinter switch shampooing smack spy story shantung small square dance tabloid share smart set squash tackle shareware smash squaw takeaway shed smog squirting take off sherry smoking staff take-over 189 talent scout top manager twin-set wilderness talk show top model twirling winch tandem topping twist windsurf tangelo top rate two-beat windsurfing tank top secret two step wine cooler tap dance top spin tycoon woofer tape monitor top ten word processing tap-in top-weight UFO (2) word processor target tornado ulna workshop tartan totem under work-song Tarzan touch-down undercut work-station task force tour conductor underground wow (1) Tasmanian® tour leader understatement wow (2) taxi tour operator unisex wrestling taxi-girl tower uppercut tea trackball up-to-date yacht teach-in tracking (1) utility yacht broker teak tracking (2) yachting team trade mark vamp yachtsman team-teaching trade-off van yak tea-room trade union venture capital yard teaser trailer vermiculite yawl Technicolor® trainer versus yearling teddy boy training vessel Yorkshire terrier tee tram video- yo-yo® teenager tramp video art yuppie tee-shirt trance videotape telemarketing transfer vigilante (2) zapping teleprocessing transformer® virgin naphtha zero coupon bonds telex transistor visiting professor zip tell transponder vocalist zombie tempest trapper volley zoning temple-block traps volley-ball zoo tender trash voucher zoom tennis traveller's cheque tepee trawl wad terminal trawler wafer terrier trawler-yacht wagon-lit test treatment wagon-restaurant tester trekking walkie-talkie testimonial trench Walkman® texture trench coat walk-over thermos trend wampum thesaurus trendy wapiti thriller trial war game thrilling trim warrant tick trip wash-and-wear ticket triple-sec® wash-board tie-break trolley wasp tight trotter water tilt truck water closet time out trust waterloo timer TSH water polo time sharing T-shirt waterproof timing tubeless watt tip top® tubing way of life toast tumbler weekend toddy tuner welfare toiletries tunnel welfare state tomahawk turf welter ton (2) turnaround west toner turnover West Coast top tussah western top class tutor whisky top gun tweed whist topless tweeter wigwam top management twill wild card 190

D. DIRECT LEXICAL BORROWINGS – English Internationalisms in DDUWB, LNPR, LOZ, LMADF, PS, WBÜA [765 words] acid house bobtail cent curling action painting body chairman curry aftershave body-building challenge cutter Aids boogie-woogie challenger dancing air bag boom charleston dandy Airbus booster charter dealer ale boss checklist denim Algol Bourbon, bourbon check-up Derby a.m., AM bowling cheeseburger design (aquaplaning) box cherry brandy designer audit boxer chewing gum (Devon) (auto-stop) boy chintz digest (autoreverse) boyfriend chip disco baby Boy Scout Chippendale discount baby boom brainstorming chow-chow Dixieland babysitter brain trust c.i.f. DNA babysitting brandy (cinemascope) dock backgammon break (cinerama) do-it-yourself background bridge city dolly bacon briefing clan doping badge broker clearing dragster badminton browning clip dribbling ballast browser clipper drink banjo brunch clown Drive bar budget club driver barbecue bug cluster drop-out baseball bulldozer coach drugstore BASIC, basic bull terrier COBOL drums basketball bungalow Coca-Cola drummer bazooka bunker cockney dry (beach volleyball) bus cocktail dumdum beagle business (cocooning) dumping beat businessman code duty-free shop beatnik bye-bye Coke ecstasy (bébé) bypass cold cream ecu bebop byte collie e-mail best-seller cab colt enduro big bang caddie combo engineering biker call-girl compact establishment bingo camp compact disc export, exportation bit camping computer eyeliner bitter campus container (factoring) blackout (canyoning) cool (fading) black power cardigan copyright fair play blazer cargo (corned beef) fallout blister cartoon corner fan blizzard cash cornflakes fanzine Bloody Mary cash and carry cottage farad blue-chip cash flow cover girl fast food (blue-jeans) casting cowboy feedback blues catch crack feeling bluff catcher cracker ferry, ferry boat boat people caterpillar crash festival bob CD cross fifty-fifty bobsleigh CD-ROM cross-country film 191

Finish happening jumbo, jumbo jet marker First Lady (happy end) jump marketing fitness (happy few) junkie (marketing mix) fixing hard rock (kart) mascara flash hard-top (karting) maser flashback hardware kelvin match flipper heavy metal ketchup medium flirt hickory kidnapper medley Flop hi-fi kidnapping meeting FM high life killer memorial folk high school kilt merchandising folklore high-tech kit (minimal art) folk music, folk hip kiwi Miss, miss song hip hop knickerpocker, Mister, mister football hippie knickerpockers mohair (forcing) hit knock-down motel Fortran hit parade knockout motocross (fosbury) HIV know-how mountain bike fox terrier hobby koala muffin freak hockey krill multimedia (free jazz) hooligan kumquat music hall freelance horsepower label mustang freezer hot dog lady navel frisbee (hot jazz) lambswool net full hovercraft (land art) network funk hula hoop (Land Rover) New Age gadget (hully-gully) laser new look gag man hunter lasso news gag husky (Latin lover) newton gang impeachment layout nightclub gangster import leader non-stop gap in leadership nurse (garden-party) input leasing nylon gay insert, insertion lias Off,. off gentleman Internet liberty office gentleman’s Irish coffee lift off-limits agreement ISBN (lifting) off-line getter ISO light offset gimmick item limerick offshore gin jackpot linoleum OK (Gin Tonic) Jacuzzi Linotype (one-man-show) girl jamboree live on-line glamour jam session lob on the rocks globe-trottter jazz lobby op art goal jeans loch open golf jeep loft opossum goodbye jersey (long drink) out gospel jet look output grapefruit (jet liner) looping outsider green jet set lord overdose greyhound jet stream loser overdrive grill jigger LSD oxer grog jingle lunch Oxford groggy job (made in) pacemaker groupie jockey mailing pack grunge (jogging) majorette paddock hacker joint make-up pager Hallowe’en (joint venture) management (paletot) hamburger joystick manager pamphlet handicap jukebox marine panel 192 paperback racket shocking sprint par radar shopping squash parka (rafting) shopping centre squaw party raglan show staff patchwork ragtime show business standard pattern RAM showroom standby pedigree ranch shuttle standing peeling rand single star peep-show ranger sir start pellet rap sitcom starter penalty rating sit-in sterling penny ready-made skateboard steward penthouse recital (skating) stick PEP, pep redingote skeleton stock peformance reggae sketch stop pick-up relax skinhead stopover Pidgin English remake skipper stress (piercing) remix skunk stretch ping-pong reporter (skylab) (stretching) Pin-up reprint slang stripper (pin-up girl) retriever slapstick striptease pipeline revival slice studio pixel revolver slip sulky plaid rhythm and blues slogan superstar (planning) riff sloop supporter playback RNA slow suspense playboy (road movie) slum Swahili (playgirl) roadster smart swap plum pudding rock smash sweater pointer rock and roll smog swing poker rock’n’roll smoking tag pole position rodeo snack take-off polo roller snack bar talk show pony ROM snob tandem pool round snowboard tank pop rugby soap opera tanker pop art rush soft tartan popcorn rye softball team porridge saloon soft drink tearoom porter sandwich software teaser poster scanner sol techno premier scat sonar teddy, teddy bear pre-print science fiction soul tee prime time scooter (spacelab) teenager promotion score sparring partner teletext pub Scotch, scotch speaker telex public relations scout speech tender pudding scratch spider tennis pullover script spin terminal pulp self-government spinnaker test pulsar (self-made man) spiritual thesaurus punch serial spleen thriller punching ball server spoiler ticket punk set sponsor tie-break putt setter sport time-sharing puzzle sex appeal sportsman timing quark (sex-shop) sportswear toast quasar sexy spot toffee quiz shaker spray Tommy rack sherry sprinkler top 193 topless trial understatement (wash and wear) top secret trip up to date waterproof topspin trolley vamp watt Tory trolleybus van weekend totem trust versus western township T-shirt video Whig trade mark tubeless video- whisky, whiskey trade union tuner VIP whist training tunnel volley wigwam tram turf volleyball wild card tramp turnover voucher wow tramway tweed walkie-talkie Yankee transistor tweeter Walkman yard trash twill wallaby Yorkshire terrier trekking twinset wapiti yuppie trench coat twist war game (zapping) trend underground warrant zoom

194

E. DIRECT LEXICAL BORROWINGS IN LMADF, PS AND WBÜA

Total number of words: 313 (=40,92% of the Internationalisms [765])

a. Les mots anglais du français (166 words = 53,03%)

acid house farad medley slapstick action painting First Lady (minmal art) sloop Aids fitness mister, Mister slum Airbus fixing motocross snack basketball folk music, folk mountain bike snowboard (beach volleyball) song multimedia soft biker (fosbury) network softball black power Gin Tonic New Age soft drink blue-chip goodbye news (spacelab) (blue-jeans) greyhound newton spiritual boxer grunge off-limits sportsman boyfriend hacker off-line sportswear browning hard rock on-line sprinkler browser hard-top on the rocks standing cash and carry heavy metal op art start catcher high life paperback team caterpillar high school party tearoom CD hip hop Pidgin English teaser chairman hit piercing techno charleston hot jazz pin-up girl teletext cherry brandy hula-hoop (playgirl) time-sharing (cinemascope) (hully gully) pony topless city hunter pre-print top secret clan import pulp topspin collie Internet quark trade mark colt jam session quiz tram combo jeans raglan tramp compact disc jersey rhythm and blues trash computer (jetliner) RNA trend cross joystick (road movie) trolleybus Dixieland jumbo, jumbo jet rock and roll T-shirt DNA jump rock’n’roll tubeless do-it-yourself killer serial understatement dolly krill server up to date dribbling land art shopping centre volley drop-out (Land Rover) shuttle voucher drugstore (Latin lover) sir walkie-talkie dumdum layout sitcom wash and wear duty-free shop (long drink) skeleton watt e-mail make-up skunk wild card export marker (skylab) wow fallout marketing mix slang

195 b. Parole Straniere (66 words = 21,09%)

ale (fading) loch rye Algol gag man loser skipper Bloody Mary gimmick muffin smart bull terrier gin navel speech (canyoning) grapefruit (one-man-show) stopover c.i.f. groupie pager stripper (cinerama) Hallowe’en parka tag Coca-Cola happy few penthouse tanker cocooning hippie PEP, pep teddy, teddy bear code insert, insertion plum pudding toffee cold cream jackpot porter Tommy collie jamboree pulsar township cool jet stream remix tramway corned beef joint reprint video digest junkie retriever wallaby drums label roadster drummer lias rodeo

c. Wörterbuch überflüssiger Anglizismen (81 words = 25,88%)

a.m., AM disco marine showroom audit ferry, ferry boat music hall skating (autoreverse) flirt nurse sol baby boom FM offset sparring partner badge forcing OK staff ballast freelance open stress bitter freezer overdose stretching blister full Oxford studio bob gap pack superstar body green (paletot) supporter booster hi-fi peep-show suspense Bourbon, bourbon hit parade Pin-up Swahili businessman ISBN planning thesaurus catch item punching ball trade union CD-ROM kelvin relax turnover challenge kit roller tweeter challenger knock-down round versus club koala rush wargame compact leadership scooter curry liberty script denim LSD sex-shop

196

F. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION

airbag COD /»¤:bag/ DDUWB /»¤:–b¤k/ LNPR /¤Äbag/ LOZ /er»b¤g/ or Engl. /»¤Ÿ¢Ãbëg/ beagle COD /»bi:g(Ÿ)l/ DDUWB /»bi:gŸl/ LNPR /bigl/ LOZ /»bÍigJ/ (Engl.) blizzard COD /»blÍzŸd/ DDUWB /»blÍz–t/ LNPR /blizaÄ/ LOZ /blÍzŸ¢d/ (Engl.) boom COD /»bu:m/ DDUWB /bu:m/ LNPR /bum/ LOZ /bum/ or Engl. /bäum/ broker COD /»brŸäkŸ/ DDUWB /»broäkŸ/ LNPR /bÄ‘kóÄ/ LOZ /»br‘ker/ or Engl. /»b¢oäkŸ¢/ business COD /»bÍznÍs/ DDUWB /»bÍznÍs/ LNPR /bizn¤s/ LOZ /»biznes/ or Engl. /bÍznŸs/ cardigan COD /»k—:dÍg(Ÿ)n/ DDUWB /»kardigan/ or Engl. /»k—:dÍgŸn/ LNPR /kaÄdigS/ LOZ /»kardigan/ or Engl. /»kh—:¢dÍgŸn/ charter COD /»tÉ—:tŸ/ DDUWB /»tÉartŸ/ or /ÉartŸ/ LNPR /ÉaÄt¤Ä/ LOZ /»tÉarter/ or Engl. /»tÉh—:¢tŸ¢/ container COD /kŸn»teÍnŸ/ DDUWB /k‘n»te:n–/ or Engl. /kŸn»teÍnŸ/ LNPR /kTt¤n¤Ä/ LOZ /kon»t¤iner/ or Engl. /kŸn»th¤ÍnŸ¢/

197

cross-country COD /kr“s»kåntri/ DDUWB /kr‘s»kantri/ LNPR /kÄ‘skuntÄi/ LOZ /»kh¢“sÃkånt¢i/ (Engl.) drive COD /dråÍv/ DDUWB /draif/ or Engl. /draÍv/ LNPR /dÄajv/ LOZ /draiv/ or Engl. /d¢aev/ establishment COD /Í»stabliÉm(Ÿ)nt/ DDUWB /Ís»t¤blÍÉmŸnt/ LNPR /¤stabliÉm¤nt/ LOZ /es»tabliÉment/ or Engl. /Í»stëblÍÉmŸnt/ flashback COD /»flaÉbak/ DDUWB /»flëÉbëk/ LNPR /flaÉbak/ LOZ /fl¤É»b¤k/ or Engl. /»flëÉÃbëk/ folk COD /fŸäk/ DDUWB /foäk/ LNPR /f‘lk/ LOZ /f‘lk/ or Engl. /foäk/ gadget COD /»gadíÍt/ DDUWB /»gëdíÍt/ LNPR /gadí¤t/ LOZ /»gadíet/ or Engl. /»gëdíÍt/ globe-trotter COD /»glŸäbtr“tŸ/ DDUWB /»glo:bŸtr‘t–/ or /»glo:ptr‘t–/ or Engl. /gloäbtr‘tŸ/ LNPR /gl‘btÄ‘tóÄ/ or /gl‘btÄ‘t¤Ä/ LOZ /glob»trotter/ or Engl. /»gloäbÃt¢“tŸ¢/ happening COD /»hap(Ÿ)nÍñ/ DDUWB /»h¤pŸnÍñ/ LNPR /»ap(Ÿ)niñ/ LOZ /»¤ppenin(g)/ or Engl. /»hëpnÍñ/ hooligan COD /»hu:lÍg(Ÿ)n/ DDUWB /»hu:lÍgn/ LNPR /»uligan/ or /»uligS/ LOZ /»uligan/ or Engl. /»häulÍgŸn/

198

impeachment COD /Ím»pi:tÉm(Ÿ)nt/ DDUWB /Ím»pi:tÉmŸnt/ LNPR /impitÉm¤nt/ LOZ /im»pitÉment/ or Engl. /Ím»phÍitÉmŸnt/

Irish coffee COD /»åÍrÍÉ»k“fÍ/ DDUWB /»aÍrÍÉ»k‘fÍ/ LNPR /ajÄiÉk‘fi/ LOZ /airiÉ»k‘ffi/ or Engl. /»aeŸ¢ÍÉ»kh“fi/ jigger COD /»díÍgŸ/ DDUWB /»díÍgŸ/ LNPR /(d)íigóÄ/ or /(d)íig¤Ä/ LOZ /»díÍgŸÅ/ (Engl.) jukebox COD /»díu:kb“ks/ DDUWB /»díu»kb‘ks/ LNPR /íykb‘ks/ or /díukb‘ks/ LOZ /díub»b‘ks/ or Engl. /»díäukÃb“ks/ ketchup COD /»k¤tÉŸp/ or /»k¤tÉåp/ DDUWB /»k¤tÉap/ LNPR /k¤tÉóp/ LOZ /»k¤tÉap/ or Engl. /»kh¤tÉŸp/ or Engl. /»kh¤tÉåp/ light COD /låÍt/ DDUWB /laÍt/ LNPR /lajt/ LOZ /laet/ (Engl.) management COD /»manÍdím(Ÿ)nt/ DDUWB /»mënÍdímŸnt/ LNPR /manaímS/ or /manadím¤nt/ LOZ /manadíment/ or Engl. /»mënÍdímŸnt/ new look COD /»nju:»läk/ DDUWB /»nju:»läk/ LNPR /njuluk/ LOZ /nju»läk/ or Engl. /»njäu»läk/ overdrive COD /»ŸävŸdråÍv/ DDUWB /»oävŸdraÍv/ LNPR /‘vóÄdÄajv/ LOZ /over»draiv/ or Engl. /»oävŸ¢Ãd¢aev/

199

performance COD /pŸ»f‘:m(Ÿ)ns/ DDUWB /pŸ»f‘:mŸns/ LNPR /p¤Äf‘ÄmSs/ LOZ /per»f‘rmans/ or Engl. /pŸ¢»f‘:¢mŸns/ pole position COD /»pŸälÃpŸ»zÍÉ(Ÿ)n/ DDUWB /»poälpŸ»zÍÉŸn/ LNPR /polpozisjT/ LOZ /polpo»ziÉÉon/ or Engl. /phoäJpŸÃzÍÉn/ poster COD /»pŸästŸ/ DDUWB /»poästŸ/ LNPR /p‘st¤Ä/ LOZ /»p‘ster/ or Engl. /»phoästŸ¢/ recital COD /rÍ»såÍt(Ÿ)l/ DDUWB /ri»saitl/ LNPR /Äesital/ LOZ /»r¤tÉital/ or /r¤tÉi»tal/ or Engl. /¢ÍsaetJ/ sandwich COD /»sanwÍdí/ or /»sanwÍtÉ/ DDUWB /»z¤ntvÍtÉ/ LNPR /sSdwi(t)É/ LOZ /»s¤ndwitÉ/ or Engl. /»sënwÍdí/ or Engl. /»saenwÍtÉ/ scanner COD /»skanŸ/ DDUWB /»sk¤n–/ LNPR /skan¤Ä/ LOZ /s»kanner/ or Engl. /»skënŸ¢/ science fiction COD /»såÍŸns»fÍkÉ(Ÿ)n/ DDUWB /»saÍŸns»fÍkÉŸn/ LNPR /sjSsfiksjT/ LOZ /»saeŸns»fÍkÉn/ (Engl.) shocking COD /»É“kÍñ/ DDUWB /»É‘kÍñ/

LNPR /É‘kiñ/ LOZ /*»É‘kkin(g)/ or Engl. /»É“kÍñ/

sweater COD /»sw¤tŸ/ DDUWB /»sve:t–/ LNPR /switóÄ/ or /sw¤tóÄ/ LOZ /»sw¤ter/ or Engl. /»sw¤tŸ¢/

200

take-off COD /»teÍk»“f/ DDUWB /»teÍk|‘f/ LNPR /t¤k‘f/ LOZ /tei»k‘f/ or Engl. /»th¤ÍkÃ“f/ thriller COD /»ôrÍlŸ/ DDUWB /»ôrÍlŸ/ LNPR /sÄilóÄ/ LOZ /»triller/ or Engl. /»ô¢ÍlŸ¢/ toast COD /tŸäst/ DDUWB /to:st/ LNPR /tost/ LOZ /t‘st/ or Engl. /thoäst/ tuner COD /»tju:nŸ/ DDUWB /»tju:nŸ/ LNPR /tyn¤Ä/ or /tynóÄ/ LOZ /»tjuner/ or Engl. /»thjäunŸ¢/ underground COD /»åndŸgraänd/ DDUWB /»åndŸgraänd/ LNPR /óndóÄgÄaund/ or /Xd¤ÄgÄ(a)und/ LOZ /ander»graund/ or Engl. /»åndŸ¢g¢aond/ warrant COD /»w“r(Ÿ)nt/ DDUWB /va»rant/ or /v‘rŸnt/ or Engl. /»w‘rŸnt/ LNPR /vaÄS/ LOZ /»w“:Ÿ¢nt/ (Engl.) weekend COD /wi:k»¤nd/ or /»wi:k¤nd/ DDUWB /»wi:k|¤nd/ LNPR /wik¤nd/ LOZ /wi»k¤nd/ or Engl. /»wÍkÃ¤nd/ yuppie COD /»jåpi/ DDUWB /»jäpi/ or Engl. /»jåpi/ LNPR /»jupi/ LOZ /»juppi/ or Engl. /»jåpi/ zoom COD /zu:m/ DDUWB /zu:m/ LNPR /zum/ LOZ /*dzum/ or Engl. /zäum/

201

G. QUESTIONNAIRES a. French

(1) Questionnaire (2) Survey results (3) Examples of Anglicisms b. German

(1) Questionnaire (2) Survey results (3) Examples of Anglicisms

202

(1) Questionnaire “FRENCH“

Au secours!!!Anglomanie!!! Je m'appelle Philippa Maurer-Stroh et je fais des études de la linguistique anglaise à l'université de Klagenfurt, Autriche. J'aimerais te demander du secours concernant ma diplôme. Il s'agit d'une enquête: "Les mots anglais dans la langue française" et ton opinion sur ce sujet. Ça ne durerait que 3 minutes à peu près. Alors, je te prie de prendre ton temps à répondre aux questions posées et de me renvoyer le questionnaire, s'il te plaît. Ce questionnaire est anonyme et les réponses ne servent qu'à l'exposé d'une statistique de l'emploi actuel de la langue française.

Marques d'une croix la réponse qui vale pour toi -> remplacer o par x (est possible de donner plusieurs réponses)

1. J'emploie des mots anglais o plutôt dans la vie professionnelle o plutôt dans la vie quotidienne

o par écrit o de vive voix

2. parce qu' o ils sont plus courts et plus précis – Exemple(s): o il n'y pas de mot français – Exemple(s): o ils sont en vogue – Exemple(s): o il y a des expressions internationalement fixées – Exemple(s): o pour éviter la répétition d'un mot – Exemple (s):

3. J'emploie aussi o des formes hybrides (mot anglais + mot français) (par exemple: marketing téléphonique)

4. Les mots anglais o enrichissent la langue française o sont la conséquence du rôle dominant des États-Unis dans plusieurs secteurs o pour moi signifient une forme de vantardise o passent inaperçus pour moi

5. Je remarque les mots anglais surtout dans les domaines o sport - exemple(s): o technique - exemple(s): o Internet - exemple(s): o la langue juvénile - exemple(s): o publicité - exemple(s): o économie - exemple(s): o sciences - exemple(s): o politique - exemple(s):

Âge : Sexe : Merci !!! 203

(2) Survey results "FRENCH"

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 working life x x x x x x x x x everyday life x x x x x x x x x x x in writing x x x x x x x x orally x x x x x x x x x x x x x x shorter and more precise x x x x x x x x x no equivalent x x x x x x "in" x x x x x x internationally fixed / used x x x x x x x x x x avoid repetition hybrid forms x x x x x x x x x x enrichment x x x x x x due to US dominance x x x x x x x x x snobbism / showing-off x not recognised any longer x x x x x x x x x x sports x x x x x x x x techniques & technology x x x x x x x x internet x x x x x x x x x x x youth language x x x x x advertising x x x business & economy x x x x science x politics x Age 22 27 20 29 55 53 37 40 37 28 31 34 38 53 27 Gender f m f m m f f m f f f f f f f

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 working life x x x x x x x x x x everyday life x x x x x x x x in writing x x x x x orally x x x x x x x x x x x x shorter and more precise x x x x x x no equivalent x x x x x x x "in" x x internationally fixed / used x x x x x avoid repetition x x hybrid forms x x x x x x x x x x enrichment x x x x x due to US dominance x x x x x x x snobbism / showing-off x x x not recognised any longer x x x x x x x x sports x x x x x x x x x x techniques & technology x x x x x x x x internet x x x x x x x x x x x x youth language x x x advertising x x x x x x business & economy x science x x politics x Age 45 34 35 21 45 17 45 31 25 32 37 21 25 30 19 Gender f m f f f f f f f f f m m m m

204

(3) Examples of Anglicisms “FRENCH”

shorter & more precise loader, week-end (au lieu de fin de semaine), bus (au lieu d’autobus), faire un backup, week-end, management, business, mail, e-mail, rollers, self control, looping, marketing, hub (plutôt qu’une plate-forme logistique), download, trash, week-end (pour fin de semaine), chewing-gum (pour gomme à macher), weekend, today (aujourd’hui), car (voiture), floppy (lecteur de disquette)

no equivalent bug (informatique), corner (sport), planing, être fair play, handball, football, week-end, cluster, club, footing, skate, hamburger, playstation, week-end, chewinggum, piercing, twist, management, marketing, webmaster, parking, planning, week-end, marketing, start-up, basket ball, football (même si ce n’est pas le même sport aux USA), roller, sandwich, planning, briefing, football

“in” parking, toaster, cool, surfer, merchandising, faire un come back, cool, fun, hit

internationally fixed/used marketing, manager, PC, jean (pantalon), web, stop, print service, mail, windows, week-end, sandwich, process, web, mail

avoid repetition soft (pour logiciel), hard (pour matériel informatique)

hybrid forms au Québéc on fait que ça, scanner des documents, être trop speed, surbooker, être full up, meeting politique

sports corner, penalty, coach, goal, football, handball, être fair play, handball, football, football, club de golf, goal, jet ski, water polo, smash, corner, match, KO, goal, football, corner, penalty, corner, lap, football, basketball, dunk, goal

technology beam, transceiver, IFR (instrument flight rules), VFR (visual flight rules), domaine informatique, bug, CD, cash-flow, turnover, zoning, process, travelling, switch, freeze, chiller, vocabulaire lié à l’industrie, dans l’informatique, en informatique, network, chipset, string, character

internet explorer, browser, e-mail, surfer, mail, reset, browser, connect, download, upload, tous les termes informatiques, e-mail, smiley, windows, enter, frame, e-mail, net, web, cookie, download, web, mail, chat, mail (courier), web (toile) , download (chargement), forward (renvoi), mail, web, mail, hacker, PC

youth language yo, what’s up?, c’est top, boom, speed, rave, move, les textes rap, skate, fun, hit advertising marketing, marketing, Siemens: Be inspired business & economy bull and bear, market maker, trader, net economy, revolving, reporting, business plan, marketing science politics meeting, soft-law

205

(1) Questionnaire „GERMAN“

Hilfe !!! Anglomanie !!! Mein Name ist Philippa Maurer-Stroh, ich studiere englische Sprachwissenschaft an der Universität Klagenfurt, Österreich, und würde für ca. 3 Minuten Deine Hilfe bezüglich meiner Diplomarbeit benötigen. Es handelt sich um die Umfrage: „Englische Fremdwörter in der deutschen Sprache“ und Deine Einstellung zu diesem Thema. Bitte nimm‘ Dir also kurz die Zeit, die Fragen zu beantworten und schick‘ mir die Antwort dann bitte zurück. Dieser Fragebogen ist anonym, die Antworten sollen allein der Erfassung einer aktuellen Statistik zum Sprachgebrauch dienen.

Bitte Zutreffendes ankreuzen -> o durch x ersetzen (Mehrfachnennungen sind möglich)

1. Ich verwende englische Fremdwörter o eher im Beruf o eher im Alltag

o meistens schriftlich o meistens mündlich

2. weil o sie oft kürzer und präziser sind – Beispiel(e): o es kein deutsches Wort gibt – Beispiel(e): o sie gerade modern und „trendy“ sind – Beispiel(e): o einige Begriffe international festgelegt sind – Beispiel(e): o um Wortwiederholungen zu vermeiden – Beispiel(e):

3. Ich verwende auch o Mischformen aus engl. und dt. Wörtern (z.B. Börsencrash, Last-minute-Reise)

4. Die englischen Fremdwörter o bereichern die deutsche Sprache o sind die Folge der amerikanischen Führungsrolle in vielen Bereichen o sind für mich ein Zeichen der Prahlerei o fallen mir gar nicht mehr auf

5. Englische Fremdwörter fallen mir besonders auf in den Bereichen o Sport - Beispiel(e): o Technik - Beispiel(e): o Internet - Beispiel(e): o Jugendsprache - Beispiel(e): o Werbung - Beispiel(e): o Wirtschaft - Beispiel(e): o Wissenschaft - Beispiel(e): o Politik - Beispiel(e):

Alter: Geschlecht: Danke !!! 206

(2) Survey results "GERMAN"

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 working life x x x x x x x x everyday life x x x x x x x x x x x x in writing x x x x x x orally x x x x x x x x x x x x x shorter and more precise x x x x x x x x no equivalent x x x x x x x "in" x x x x internationally fixed / used x x x x x x x x x x x avoid repetition hybrid forms x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x enrichment x x x x x x x x due to US dominance x x x x x x x x x x snobbism / showing-off x x not recognised any longer x x x x x x x x x x sports x x x x x x x x x x techniques & technology x x x x x x x x x internet x x x x x x x x x x x x x youth language x x x x x x x x x x x x advertising x x x x x x x x x business & economy x x x x x x x x x x x science x x x x politics x x Age 29 20 29 16 53 40 52 46 25 55 27 26 57 34 24 Gender m f m m m m f f f f m m m m m

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 working life x x x x x x x x x x x everyday life x x x x x x x x in writing x x x orally x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x shorter and more precise x x x x x x x x no equivalent x x x x x x x "in" x x x internationally fixed / used x x x x x x x x x x avoid repetition x x hybrid forms x x x x x x x x x x x enrichment x x x x x x x due to US dominance x x x x x x x x x snobbism / showing-off x not recognised any longer x x x x x x x x sports x x x x x x techniques & technology x x x x x x x x x internet x x x x x x x x x x x x x youth language x x x x x x x x x x advertising x x x x x business & economy x x x x x x x science x x politics Age 21 21 54 38 25 30 27 32 25 33 23 23 24 27 29 Gender m f m m m m m m m m m m f m m

207

(3) Examples of Anglicisms "GERMAN"

shorter & more precise check' das mal, handout (statt Tischvolrage), cu (Wir sehn uns), shit, mail, crab, jesus, fuck, joke, task, Internet, Email, Lobby, chat, Smalltalk, download, cd-rom, Callboy, docking, jetten, mobben, Mobbing, campen, Cape, Slum, catchen, Scanner, shit, EBIT, net income, interest bearing payables, Pilotensprache, top no equivalent Internet, router, switch, Mainboard, RAM, init, display, outfit, computer, software, hardware, carport, sehr viele Ausdrücke aus der Computerwelt, email, download, web, freefly, slider, exit, tracking, Birdie, Eagle (alle Golfausdrücke)

“in” correct, cool, amazing, cool, super, cool, lamer, cool internationally fixed/used download, disc, computer, DVD, stock, computer, gangway, first class, spray, bar, Computerbranche: account, domain, server, workstation, download, update, match, ok, computer, Computerterminologie, Fauchausdrücke in der Mathemathik und Physik, cleared for take off, email, UNO, NATO (englische Abkürzungen, die aber deutsch ausgesprochen werden), Roaming, WWW, Pilotensprache, in der Mode, neue Medien avoid repetition yes, Teenager, Carport, Dancefloor, Rack, Cartoon, Printer hybrid forms Webseite, Mailadressen, Download-Kapazität sports Finish, Match, Corner, Goal-y. Corner, Timeout, Poolposition, foul, goal, in, out, fair, grip, intermediate, handling, fairplay, freefly, superbike, Birdie, Eagle, Out, Team, Bodycheck technology Router, Switch, airbag, conditioner, Workstation, Server, Client, Workshop, Motherboard, harddisk, keyboard, CD-ROM, RAM, Hoovercraft (anstatt Luftkissenboot), ethernet, high tech, Overdrive, Handy, LCD Display, Supply Chain Management internet domaine, website, net, website, homepage, Browser, Provider, Homepage, Site, Download, browser, server, download, upload, link, Webcam, web, chat, Internet Solution, explorer, send, download, call by call, Email, download, webpage, email, cd-rom, server, internet, internet, WWW, connection, download, mailbox, world wide web youth language cool, DJ, o.k., Mega, Cool, Happy, Event, cool, cool, lamer, looser, cool, shopping, cool, cool, fuck you, sorry, cool, trendy, cool, cool, kids, k.o., cool advertising style, more than a bank, red bull, in, kids, crunchchips business & economy Management, Sale (statt Ausverkauf), Broker, Deal, Teamwork, Workshop, Public Relations, Marketing, Business Solution, cashflow, up, down, high or low (Börse), cash flow, Deal, net income, EBIT, cover, cash flow science die englische Sprache ist Standard für Forschungsarbeiten politics 208

(1) Questionnaire “ITALIAN“

Aiuto !!! Anglomania !!! Mi chiamo Philippa Maurer-Stroh e faccio gli studi della linguistica inglese all'università di Klagenfurt, Austria. Vorrei pregarti di tua assistenza per la mia tesi. Si tratta di un'inchiesta sulle parole inglesi nella lingua italiana e la tua opinione su quest'argomento. Allora, ti prega di sacrificare 3 minuti del tuo tempo per rispondere alle domande e di rimandarmi le risposte. Questo questionario è anonimo e serve soltanto dall'esposizione di una statistica sull'uso attuale della lingua italiana:

Segni con una croce quel che è giusto per te -> sostituire o con x (è possibile di dare più di una risposta)

1. Mi servo delle parole inglesi o sopratutto nella vita professionale o sopratutto nella vita quotidiana

o per lo più in iscritto o per lo più a voce

2. perché o sono più corte e più precise – esempio: o non c'è una parola italiana – esempio: o sono alla moda – esempio: o ci sono delle espressioni che sono fissate internazionalmente – esempio: o per evitare la ripetizione di una parola – esempio:

3. Mi servo anche o delle combinazioni (parola inglese + parola italiana) (p.e. aumento record, azienda leader, calciatore-manager)

4. Le parole inglesi o arricchiscono la lingua italiana o sono la conseguenza della posizione altolocata degli Stati Uniti in vari settori o per me significano una forma di millanteria o non ne me accorgo più

5. Le parole inglesi si usano di più nei settori di o sport - esempio: o tecnica - esempio: o internet - esempio: o lingua dei giovani - esempio: o pubblicità - esempio: o economia - esempio: o scienza - esempio: o politica - esempio: età: sesso: Grazie !!! 209

(2) Survey results "ITALIAN"

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 working life x x x x x x everyday life x x x x x x x x x in writing x x x x x x x orally x x x x x x shorter and more precise x x x x no equivalent x x x x x x x x x "in" x x x x internationally fixed / used x x x x x x x x avoid repetition hybrid forms x x x x x x x x x x x enrichment x x x x due to US dominance x x x x snobbism / showing-off not recognised any longer x x x x x x x x sports x x x x x x x techniques & technology x x x x internet x x x x x x x x x x youth language x x x x advertising x x x x x x x x business & economy x x x x x x science x x x x politics x x x x Age 42 26 53 28 22 30 41 32 33 48 37 36 26 54 42 Gender f m m m f f f f f m f f f m f

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 working life x x x x x x x x x x x everyday life x x x x x x x in writing x x x orally x x x x x x x x x x x x x x shorter and more precise x x x x x x x x x no equivalent x x x x x x x x x "in" x x internationally fixed / used x x x x x x x x x avoid repetition x hybrid forms x x x x x x x x x x enrichment x x x x x x x x due to US dominance x x x x x snobbism / showing-off x not recognised any longer x x x x x x x x x sports x x x x x x x x techniques & technology x x x x internet x x x x x x x x x x x x youth language x x x advertising x x x business & economy x x x x x x x science x x x politics x x x Age 42 40 29 35 35 46 32 26 30 32 26 26 26 36 30 Gender f m f f f f f f f f f f f f m

210

(3) Examples of Anglicisms "ITALIAN"

shorter & more precise week end, e-mail, hard disk, link, e-mail, leader, budget, pls, thks, asap, shirt, bug, task, top, e-mail, summit no equivalent floppy disk, plug-in, goal, sport, trading on line, future, benchmark, file, mouse, hardware, software, download, file, compact disc, tutor, manager, account, hardware, software, deliverable, craft, hobby, raster scanning, raster scanning, film (esiste la parola italiana ‘pellicola’ ma non si usa per indicare i film), deploy, implementation, run, bug

“in” week-end, software, hardware, ok, feeling, feeling, link, trend, target, know how, chat, internet, topten, shopping internationally fixed/used fare un backup, computer, hardware, software, update, meeting, hot-dog, world wide web, leader, weekend, record, business, e mail, e-mail, leader, manager, cooperative learning, stop, email, pop corn, manager, vip, fan avoid repetition target (scopo), range (gamma) hybrid forms sports basket, volley, basket (perchè non pallancanestro?), corner, goal, match-point, coach, personal trainer, set, match, beach volley, outside, performance, personal trainer, football, basket, hockey, ski-lift, rollerblades, tennis, skateboard, surf, windsurf, corner, beachvolley, starter, goal, corner, goal, quasi tutto il gergo del mondo del calcio

technology personal computer, standard, player, hardware, transistor

internet lynch, software, hardware, plug-in, default, account, provider, internet, web, e-mail, hosting, housing, e-mail, web, provider, download, browser, email, forward, reply, attach, load, download, shareware, freeware, provider, browser, download, e-mail, world wide web, provider, password

youth language week-end, ko, no problem, techno music, jeans, T-shirt, pullover, boxer, cover, cool

advertising spot, spot, film, spot, reclame, spot, advertising, spot, molti slogan sono in inglese

business & economy budget, business, trading on line, trust, budget, blue chips, business, capital gain, manager, leader, coordinator, job description, budget, knowhow, budget, marketing, insider trading, core business science peacemaker politics devolution, devolution, summit, golpe, breafing, staff, black bloc, devolution, privacy, welfare