Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsase

Current situation and needs in man-made and natech risks management using Earth Observation techniques

Sabina Di Franco n, Rosamaria Salvatori

IIA – CNR, Rome, Italy article info abstract

Article history: Received 23 March 2015 The Earth Observation (EO) techniques are becoming increasingly important in risk man- Received in revised form agement activities not only for natural and natural monitoring but also to 9 June 2015 ride out industrial and natech accidents. The latest developments in the aerospace industry Accepted 10 June 2015 Available online 29 July 2015 such as sensors miniaturization and high spatial and temporal resolution missions, devoted to monitoring areas of specific interest, have made the use of EO techniques more efficiently and Keywords: arevreadytobeusedinnearrealtimeconditions.Thispapersummarizethecurrentstateof Natech knowledge on how EO data can be useful in managing all the phases of the Industrial/natech Man-made hazards disaster, and from the environmental conditions before the accident strikes to the post Industrial accident accident relief, from the scenario setting and planning stage to the damage assessment. Preparedness & 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Recovery Small satellite UAV

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 73 2. State of the art of the use of EO for industrial and natech risk management ...... 74 2.1. Explosions...... 76 2.2. Fire...... 76 2.3. Nuclear accidents...... 78 2.4. Oilspills...... 80 3. Future development ...... 80 3.1. Small satellites...... 81 3.2. UAV...... 81 4. Conclusions ...... 82 References...... 82

n Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Di Franco). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2015.06.004 2352-9385/& 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 73

1. Introduction Moreover, the crisis events are often characterized by rapid evolutionary dynamics, with scenarios that can often Risk management is a complex activity that requires a change significantly in a very short time. Therefore, better multidisciplinary approach. When a disaster occurs, every necessarily passes through the minute is crucial to save lives, protect people, property and quality and quantity of observations and information, as the environment and to react in a coordinated and con- well as the speed at which the information can be trans- scious way which makes the real difference between a ferred and made clear and usable by decision makers. successful emergency management and failure. The events The industrial risk, from a risk classification point of caused by are somehow repetitive and form a view, can be considered as a part of the wide category of cycle that can be divided in four phases: mitigation and man-made hazards. The man-made hazards, with some fi preparedness (before the catastrophe strikes); response variations depending on different classi cations, include: and recovery – reconstruction included – that occur after technological hazards, nuclear risk, transport risk and the disaster. The mitigation phase consists of all actions other anthropic activities such as business, infrastructure needed to reduce the impact of future disasters (Menoni and technological networks management, that can be a source of danger to humans and the environment (AA. VV., et al., 2012). These can be divided in structural (technical 2006); in the man-made hazards perspective the envir- and structural solutions) and non-structural measures onmental risk is related to the probability of an event such as land use-planning, legislation measure and eva- caused by unexpected alteration of physical and chemical cuation planning (Galderisi et al., 2008). Preparedness parameters in the environment (water, air and/or soil), phase comprises the actions taken to reduce the impacts that have immediate or short-term effects on the health of when the disaster is forecast or imminent. Response per- the resident population. Another definition, used in tech- tains to actions taken during and immediately after the nical papers, highlights the difference between “human- disaster, with the main aim to save and safeguard human made disaster” that are caused directly by human activities lives. The term recovery refers to the process of restoring and “human-induced disaster”, that are services and repairing damage after the disaster has struck accelerated/aggravated by human influence (Van Westen, (Alexander, 2002). 2002). Keeping in mind this cycle the contribution of the sci- In this heterogeneous framework of hazards, risks and fi enti c community and the use of innovative technologies events, some significant industrial accidents are known to such as those related to Earth Observation are of strategic be caused or triggered by natural disasters. In the inter- importance during all the phases of the emergency man- national literature, this type of accident is defined as agement (Joyce et al., 2009). The emergency management natech or "Natural-Technological" event. One of the natech planning can be considered similar to an urban or regional definitions recite as follows: "Technological accidents, like planning process; both require that the local conditions fires, explosions and toxic releases that may occur in and geographic characteristic of the place are properly industrial complexes and along the distribution network considered, especially in term of hazardousness (Alex- as a result of natural disasters of natural matrix" (Clerc and ander, 2006). Le Claire, 1994; Lindell and Perry, 1996; Cruz et al., 2004).

Fig. 1. Number of events and Industry (2002–2012). eMARS JRC – European Commission, Major Accident Hazards Bureau. 74 S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84

The natech scenarios are emerging scenarios and they accidents with leakage of toxic gases). In case of release of are considered to become more frequent due to the effects toxic substances in the air, rescue teams must quickly of climate change (Krausmann et al., 2011, Salzano et al., evacuate residents from the area considered at risk whose 2013). National authorities have to identify those areas size must be defined, from the location of the source of that may be affected by such events (European Commis- emission, the direction and velocity of the wind and from sion - Joint Research Centre, 2004). Currently, identifica- other meteorological conditions at the time of the acci- tion and mapping of these hazards is not very common dent. It must be taken into account the location of the and the Joint Research Centre (JRC – European Commis- emergency areas relatively to geographical characteristics, sion) is developing a tool for mapping and rapid assess- the roads network and the presence of important infra- ment of this type of emergency, RAPID-N, which operates structures (dams, bridges, stations, public buildings). at a global scale (Girgin and Krausmann, 2013). These considerations are to be performed effectively and To investigate, monitor and analyse the industrial quickly getting each time a precise and effective feedback accident in Europe, the European Commission JRC (Joint of data collected on-site. Research Centre) was established in 1982 by the EU's As reported to the Major Accident Reporting System, in Seveso Directive 82/501/EEC, the Major Accident Reporting recent years (2000–2012) industrial accidents in Europe System (MARS and later renamed eMARS). The purpose of were about 490:201 releases of toxic substances, 153 fires, the eMARS is to facilitate the exchange of lessons learned 132 explosions and 5 accidents occurred during goods from accidents and near misses involving dangerous sub- transportation (eMARS) (Fig. 2). stances in order to improve chemical accident prevention and mitigation of potential consequences. “MARS contains reports of chemical accidents and near misses provided to the Major Accident and Hazards Bureau (MAHB) of the 2. State of the art of the use of EO for industrial and European Commission's Joint Research Centre from EU, natech risk management OECD and UNECE countries (under the TEIA Convention) (Fig.1). Reporting an event into eMARS is compulsory for Within the emergency management framework, Earth EU Member States when a Seveso establishment is Observation (EO) systems could play a key role, giving involved and the event meets the criteria of a “major timely and accurate information not only on the extension accident” as defined by Annex VI of the Seveso III Directive and degree of damages, but also on post event emergency (2012/18/EU, Major Accident Reporting System https:// activities. emars.jrc.ec.europa.eu/). Nowadays the satellites orbiting around our planet are In many cases the work of rescue may be delayed equipped with active and passive sensors that operate over because the rescuers cannot reach the affected areas dur- the entire spectral range of wavelengths from ultraviolet to ing the incident nor immediately after the incident, but microwave; due to this reason in many emergency situa- only after they have assessed the conditions to operate tions; it is possible to suppose that most of the earth in conditions (accident in a central nuclear or surface can be monitored from space at different times.

Fig. 2. Number of events per type of industrial accident reported from 2000 to 2012 as reported in eMARS JRC – European Commission. S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 75

Space missions currently operating are versatile and multi-purpose; moreover the sensors are dedicated to specific themes (e.g. Observation of polar ice, vegetation, water quality, etc.). The new sensors data are ideally con- nected to data taken by the first Earth Observation mis- sions from the seventies; this allows to have consistent datasets comparable with each other. These data allow to perform multi-temporal analyses that until some time ago were impossible to perform (e.g. urban sprawl or extent of the polar caps). Missions of ESA (European Space Agency), EUMETSAT (European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteor- ological Satellites), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Fig. 3. Field of EO data application for revisit time VS GSD. Modified from Administration), DLR (Deutschen Zentrum für Luft- und Sandau (2010). Raumfahrt), together with those of ASI (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana), (Cosmo-SkyMed) provide a very wide variety of permitting a close and accurate examination of areas that observational systems, which will be further enriched by need a higher scale to be monitored. the Sentinels missions, under the new European program Table 1 shows the optical (family, resolution and foot- Copernicus, just officially started with the launch of Sen- print) and radar sensors that can be used in the case of tinel-1 in April 2014. (European Commission, Copernicus natural events or industrial accidents (Kucera et al., 2012). Emergency Management Service-www.emergency.coper In this response to disaster management needs, the nicus.eu) optimal spatial resolution, as well the extension of the Most of the European space programs have focused on region of the earth surface needed, vary in accordance emergency management, not only from a technical-sci- with the type of disaster. Sometimes more than a scene is entific point of view but also with the investment of sig- necessary to analyse affected zones in detail and more nificant resources by industrial companies. For example in images with the right spectral resolution must be chosen the GMES (Global Monitoring for Environment and to cover the area. Security) Program, now renamed Copernicus, emergency Within the GEOSS project, currently available satellite management immediately gained a crucial role. This issue, sensors have been successfully used for monitoring the in fact, is among the first Fast Track services provided and damage caused by natural disasters (, floods, funded by the program and currently one of the six core forest fires, etc.) and, in some cases, they are also widely services which is set to become operational in the next used for prevention activities. Industrial accidents are seven years. In 2008 the group Earth Observation of the more complex to analyze remotely as the area of origin of European Commission has launched the Global Earth these accidents may be very small but when a long time Observation System of Systems (GEOSS); in 2008 European span is considered, the damaged area can actually be much Union's Space Council always reiterated the need for rapid extended. implementation of the Global Monitoring for Environment The following diagram (Fig. 3 modified from Sandau, and Security (GMES) (Aschbacher and Milango-Perez, 2010) on the x-axis shows different values of Ground 2012). The program now provides data on demand: from Sampling Distance (GSD-resolution) and on the y-axis, the 2012, the service has provided maps OT as a result of about satellite revisit time (h) and underlines the characteristics 100 requests for activation, mainly relating to natural of the images useful in different field of EO data applica- disasters such as hydro-meteorological and fire emergency tion, such as mapping, geology, meteorology and disaster (European Commission. Copernicus Emergency Manage- monitoring. ment Service www.emergency.copernicus.eu). To analysis of the territory affected by the calamitous Satellite images are useful not only as sources of real- event with EO data is therefore necessary to make an time, or near real-time data to handle hazards, but also as informed choice in the type of data to be used, especially technologies that can help “to prevent or mitigate the with regard to their spatial and spectral resolution. For effects of those hazards” (Showalter and Ramspott, 1999). example multispectral high resolution images can be used Industrial accidents, both caused directly by human to obtain land-use maps necessary to derive multi- activities or triggered by natural hazards (natech) take map, (Sengupta, 2007) and also to analyze the impact of place, with the exception of oil spills, in previously known man made disaster on impervious regions (Rout et al., industrial and urban areas. In comparison with natural 2005). Different information can be derived by infrared hazards, industrial risks and man-made hazards are less images (both in near and thermal infrared). “spatially unpredictable” because they can occur only in Major accidents in industrial plants which result in the areas that are dedicated to industrial activities (Marzo release of hazardous chemicals occur suddenly and could et al., 2015). At the same time natural hazards are less cause a domino effect, with serious consequences and a predictable but usually take place at much larger scale wide range of damage (Antonioni et al., 2009); it follows than industrial risk and man made hazards that are related that remote data cannot be used as an activity of "pre- to single plants or industrial zones. In the last years diction". Remotely sensed data, if collected promptly, satellite images resolution has greatly increased thus however, can be an instrument of great importance during 76 S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 the first intervention phases, helping to formulate an on the risk scenarios assumed (explosion, release, fire) to intervention strategy and to implement the "first aid" define the damage areas, and to verify the exposure activities. These data are undoubtedly relevant for the (Ehrlich and Tenerelli, 2013) of buildings, critical infra- assessment of damage to built areas so much as to the structure (bridges, dams, roads, power plants, etc.) and environment (air, water, and soil). people potentially affected. After the accident, the map- A rapid, accurate and effective assessment of the ping allows an initial damage assessment, supports the situation after the incident is definitely the most impor- emergency management and helps the immediate ver- tant part of both rescue and recovery operations (Galderisi ification of the entity of the event. et al., 2008). Summing up the effects of an industrial accident can be 2.2. Fire divided into three main types: fire, explosion and release of toxic and harmful substances (e.g. oil spills, or nuclear The existing satellite sensors have been equipped with accidents) (El Hajji et al., 2013). The following sub- channels in the mid-infrared (3–4 μm), AVHRR (Advanced paragraphs describe the main scenario, the EO techniques Very High Resolution Radiometer)/NOAA, MODIS (Moder- useful to deal with different type of accident, along with ate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)/AQUA TERRA some real cases of natech events. that are used to provide data on active fires. The data collected by these channels have limited spatial resolution 2.1. Explosions (about 1 to 4 km) and may have problems of saturation already at low temperatures (with the exception of Major accidents involving hazardous chemicals, in MODIS). The radiometric values registered in this channel, addition to the release of pollutants in different environ- in addition, also include the contribution of the solar mental matrices in the form of emissions, can lead to cri- radiation reflected by the earth's surface; it follows that, in tical events such as explosions or collapses that easily some cases, the high signal recorded in this channel does degenerate into a series of chain reactions (Antonioni et al., not correspond to an active fire and that generates false 2007, 2009). The accidents produce fumes and damage to alarms and prevents a quantitative characterization of structures related to the high temperatures involved, large fires. The multi-spectral sensors as Thematic Mapper causing casualties and huge economic losses. All of these (TM) or Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) or Operational accidents are characterized by an unexpected suddenness Land Imager (OLI), and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS), often with release of a large amount of toxic substances of on board of Landsat and sensor on board of ASTER/EARTH, different types (gases, "smoke", powders, liquids) that can with higher spatial resolution, do not have a channel at 3– spread in the neighboring areas, both natural and urban, 4 μm, essential for identifying diurnal fire: their channels altering significantly different environmental matrices are less sensitive to smoldering fires and are more influ- (Marzo et al., 2012). The damaged area can cover tens or enced by the effects of solar reflection. The saturation even hundreds of square kilometers and rescue operations problems can be solved by using infrared sensors in the have a different complexity in relation to restoration solid state and developing procedures for the acquisition activities and remediation of environmental damage. and processing of the signal in real time, making the Two relevant examples of natech triggered explosion digital signal possible to calibrate dynamically. This tech- accidents are: the -triggered explosions in the nology is used in the construction of some small satellites storage tank farm of Chiba (Japan) refinery, during the dedicated to monitoring of fires like the IR images sensor Great East Japan earthquake in 2011 (Krausmann and Cruz, BIRD (Bi-spectral InfraRed Detection) of DLR designed to 2013), and the explosion caused by lightning in a cereal identify areas where fire is active (Briess et al., 2002). processing factory, at Huesca-Spain-in 2005 (French Min- Fires caused by natural and man-made events have a istry of Ecology 2014 ARIA -analysis, research and infor- huge impact on the environment, in the framework of mation on accidents – database). remote sensing activities considerable efforts are made to Keeping this situation, it becomes extremely important develop algorithms that allow for early detection of plumes to have a "remote" technology to obtain timely informa- in the images, whether they are of natural or anthropogenic tion on the incident, both at macroscopic scale (regional origin (Chrysoulakis et al., 2007; Chung, 2002). classification of the area where the accident occurred) and A large amount of smoke is emitted by fire each year. at extremely detailed scale (level of industrial plant) in This release of smoke into the atmosphere greatly affects order to monitor the evolution of the phenomenon, the quality of air at regional scale and can also have especially during particular environmental and meteor- impacts on climate change (Cahoon et al. 1994). The smoke ological conditions. Given the most common accident plumes travel in the atmosphere for long distances, even scenarios, the current state of the art related to the EO is thousands of kilometres, and, in some cases of particular mainly focused to support the mapping services, including atmospheric condition, the smoke can even reach the near-real time maps, detailed maps, pre and post emer- stratosphere. During a major accident is crucial to detect gency maps and also maps that can allow to quantify the column of smoke from the first moments to quanti- physical exposure, one of the variables required in disaster tatively evaluate its chemical and physical composition. risk assessments (Ehrlich and Tenerelli 2013, Dyke et al., The analysis of smoke composition with the aid of satellite 2010). Particularly in the pre-emergency these tools of data has an high degree of complexity since the smoke remote sensing can be used to plan, locate industries at does not have a unique spectral reflectance; the physical– risk, and as expected in the emergency plans, depending chemical composition of smoke can greatly change S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 77

depending on combustion conditions and combusted soulakis and Cartalis, 2003a; Chrysoulakis et al., 2005), and materials. Usually smoke is characterized by the presence multi-threshold algorithms based on neural networks (Li of suspended and dissolved substances that have both a et al., 2001) and methods based on the textural char- direct radiative impact, that absorbs and disperse short acteristics of the image (Christopher et al., 1996). wave radiation (Penner et al., 1992) and an indirect Image processing realized with MODIS and MERIS radiative impact. The smoke particles could act as con- (Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) techniques densation nuclei of clouds and modify the optical and are also used to detect and monitor smoke plumes and, microphysical properties of clouds themselves (Kaufman due to their spatial and temporal resolution, have become and Nakajima, 1993; Rudich et al., 2003). important sources of data (Chu et al., 1998; Kaufman et al. Due to the difference in smoke caused by combustion 2003; Kaufman and Tanre, 1998; King et al., 1999, Stowe conditions and materials, fires that occur from industrial et al., 1997). accidents emit smoke that is very different from the forest Moreover air emissions that occur as "plumes" can be fires' smoke (Chrysoulakis and Opie, 2004); it is well monitored by their temperature difference with the sur- known that during the war of 1991, the fires in Kuwait rounding air (Chrysoulakis et al., 2005) and often emis- produced a high concentration of aerosols that had a wide sions coming from an industrial accident are composed by particle size distribution and a complex chemical compo- gases heavier than air that could lead to high concentra- sition (Ferek et al., 1992; Hobbs and Radke, 1992; Johnson tions of toxic substances at ground level. If the event has et al., 1991; Parungo et al., 1992). The remote sensing been caused by a structural failure in the facility the satellite systems are a source of useful data to analyze the quantity of toxic substances released and their con- plumes of smoke emitted: the location, timing (displace- centration will be extremely abundant and easily visible in ment and extension in time), the areal extension of the remote airborne images (Dandrieux et al., 2003). plume and, indirectly, an estimation of the amount of An accurate modelling of the dispersion and propaga- aerosols and trace gases (Kaufman et al., 1990; Penner tion of the plume after the accident, is crucial to assess the et al. 1992). Therefore, timely and accurate detection of damage and to predict the incident scenario development: plumes has become an increasingly important issue. The the application of an existing dispersion model (to be detection of the plume caused by technological accidents implemented before the accident) will help to manage the have been studied using different methods: AVHRR false emergency considering not only the effects in the proxi- colour images photo-interpretation (Chung and Le, 1984; mity of the installation, but also the impact in the neigh- Kaufman et al., 1990, Randriambelo et al., 1998, Chrysou- boring areas and hours or days after the accident. lakis and Cartalis 2003a, 2003b), optical thickness of Kaufman and Nakajima (1993) have shown that the aerosol plumes (Wong and Li, 2002), methods of multi- presence of smoke significantly reduces the size of the threshold spectral indices (Baum and Trepte, 1999; Chry- droplets in clouds, but decreases the reflectance of the

Table 1 Sensor family used for disaster management; highlights. Modifed from IPSC – Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen. JRC – European Commission (Kucera et al., 2012).

VHR¼Very High Resolution, HR¼High Resolution, MR¼Medium Resolution, SAR¼Synthetic Aperture Radar 78 S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84

Table 2 EO tools used in Fukushima accident. Modified from Kazuo et al. (2012) and Iwasaki et al. (2012).

Data acquisition Platform and sensor (Kazuo et al. 2012) Optical sensor (Iwasaki et al., 2012) SAR (Iwasaki et al., 2012)

12/03/2011 – ALOS/AVNIR-2 CosmoSkymed ALOS/PRISM TerraSAR-X FORMOSTAT-2 RADARSAT-2 RapidEye LANDSAT-7 IKONOS SPOT-5 WorldView-2 ASTER (TIR) THEOS 13/03/2011 SAR Imagery (Terra SAR-X) FORMOSTAT-2 ALOS/PALSAR RapidEye CosmoSkymed LANDSAT-5 TerraSAR-X GeoEye-1 RADARSAT-2 SPOT-5 Quickbird EO-1 14/03/2011 Optical Imagery (EROS-B) ALOS/AVNIR-2 ALOS/PALSAR RapidEye CosmoSkymed GeoEye-1 TerraSAR-X SPOT-5 WorldView-1.2 ASTER HJ KOMPSAT-2 CARTSAT-2 EROS-B 15/03/2011 – ALOS/AVNIR-2 ALOS/PALSAR FORMOSTAT-2 CosmoSkymed IKONOS TerraSAR-X SPOT-4 RADARSAT-2 WorldView-1.2 EROS-B 12/03/2011 Vertical photo (Airborne) –– 29/03/2011 Oblique photo (Helicopter) –– 05/04/2011 Mobile Mapping System (Vehicle) –– 17/03/2011 Laser Scanner (Vessel) –– cloud because of the absorption due to the presence of important parameter for modeling the spread of pollutants black carbon, while Kaufman and Fraser (1997) have released by the accident. shown that smoke particles increase the reflectance of thin or moderately thick clouds. This leads to considerable 2.3. Nuclear accidents complexity in identifying plumes in remote sensing ima- ges (Shukla and Pal, 2009). Many authors used remotely sensed data to evaluate Adaktylou and Cartalis (2005) have developed a soft- effects of industrial accidents and nuclear disasters on the ware to derive information from AVHRR images, about the environment in the medium and long term. In this context, fi plumes resulting from industrial accidents. They used as a the best indicator of contamination is de nitely the test event the explosion that took place in a factory of vegetation, whose spectral properties are strictly related to its physiological characteristics (state of development, fireworks in the city Enschede (Netherlands) in May 2000 health) and are therefore connected to the degree of pol- and the huge explosion in 1991 aboard the supertanker lution of the observed area. For instance the presence of VLCC Haven that occurred in the Gulf of Genoa. radionuclides in the soil influences the type of vegetation, In 2006 ESA funded the project SEVESEO (ESA, 2006 affects the natural development of the plant, or induces SEVESEO Project; Lefebre et al., 2006) that, in the case of genetic variation in the plant itself influencing the devel- industrial accident, had the goal of providing information opment of photosynthetic cells contained in the leaves on land use, topography, vegetation and atmospheric (Ben-Bolie et al., 2014). composition, by means of remote sensing. In this project The 1986 Chernobyl incident, now an historical event, the use of very high resolution data has been tested, like caused the contamination of a large area of Ukraine and Quickbird images, for detailed mapping of the accident site other European regions. Immediately after the disaster, as decision tool for emergency management. Land use using AVHRR thermal data it was possible to detect the expeditious maps were also produced with SPOT (Satellite nuclear plant on fire by the city of Kiev even if the spatial Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre) images. These data resolution of the images (1.1 km) were not exactly ade- were also used to determine the surface roughness and quate to the plant extension (Givri, 1995). In addition to S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 79 the long-lived radionuclides (137Cs, Sr 90, etc.) emitted the earthquake and the that occurred in Japan in into the atmosphere during the incident, a huge amount of March 2011, at the Fukushima plant. The accident occurred heavy metals (Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Pb, Zn, Th, V, Mu, YB) were when the nuclear facilities were hit by a tsunami triggered released into the environment, and their distribution in by the magnitude 9.0 Tōhoku earthquake. On the 12nd of soil can be deduced by analyzing the vegetation, in parti- March, radioactive material was released from the reac- cular the state of vegetation health. Already in the 80s tors, causing the largest nuclear incident since the Chang and Collins (1983) and Goetz et al. (1983) had Chernobyl disaster in April 1986. highlighted the shift in the blue (blue shift) of the red edge To analyze the territorial conditions immediately after in the reflectance spectra of conifers due to contamination the disaster and make a quick field measures to restore with heavy metals content in deposits of sulphides. Same "normal" conditions, large number of images, were taken methodology was adopted by Lyalko et al. (1996) to with different carriers including satellites, aircraft, heli- investigate the presence of 137Cs in the soil after the copters, vehicles – land and naval (Yoshikawa et al., 2012, Chernobyl accident, analyzing agricultural and forest Iwasaki et al., 2012). vegetation of a large area in the industrial region of wes- TerraSAR-X Satellite imagery (March 13 to April 4) were tern Doubas (Ukraine). In this study field data, airborne used for the first analysis of the area affected by the tsu- spectrometric data (spectrometer QUARTZ- 150 m alti- nami and then they were integrated with oblique images tude) and multispectral images taken with a KATE 200 of the damaged area taken by a helicopter. High resolution camera (4 bands, vis-nearIR, 30 m spatial resolution) and optical images were effectively used to detect damaged MK-4 camera (3 bands, spatial resolution 20 m, satellite areas; the nuclear power plant was monitored every day Resource F2) were used. using a constellation system of optical sensors, acquiring Considering recent natech events, the largest and most images even when the cloud cover percentage was high. well-known is indubitably the nuclear accident following Considering ta some days were necessary to acquire aerial

Table 3 Remote sensing bands and related instruments used for oil spill detection (Adapted from Jha 2008).

Band Wavelength Type of Instruments

Radar 1–30 cm SLAR/SAR Passive microwave 2–8 mm Radiometers Thermal infrared (TIR) 8–14 mm Video cameras and line scanners Mid-band infrared (MIR) 3–5 mm Video cameras and line scanners Near infrared 13 mm Film and video cameras Visual 350–750 nm Film, video cameras and line scanners Ultraviolet 250–350 nm Film, video cameras and line scanners

Fig. 4. Time-table small satellite missions (Sandau and Briess, 2010). 80 S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 photo of the damaged areas, satellite data, although at a the slick of lighter oil (characterized by time of persistence lower resolution were extremely useful in the first days on the surface of the order of a day) also detecting the during and after the accident, before the aerial photo set differences between biogenic oil and mineral oil slick was gathered (Iwasaki et al., 2012). (Skrunes et al. 2014). Where possible, moreover, Mobile Mapping systems Following the DeepWater Horizon oil disaster in 2010, (land and naval means) were used to evaluate the extent of EO techniques were used to identify the oil spill extent, damage in detail (Yoshikawa et al., 2012)(Table 2). both optical, SAR and thermal. The results suggest that in case of spills, SAR data may be used to identify oil emul- 2.4. Oil spills sions to help make management decisions (Garcia-Pineda et al., 2013). Natech events include oil spills; in fact, in addition to oil However, the identification of the oil spill can often be spills occurring during navigation due to carelessness of oil difficult because many natural phenomena show an elec- tankers or due to “human errors”-flaws, washing tanks, tan- tromagnetic response very similar to that of the oil spill. ker collisions, shipwrecks, platform accidents (Schmidt-Etkin, For this reason, new optical multispectral images, with 2011) oil spills may occur from refineries located near the high spatial resolution, are merged with SAR data in order coast, and can be caused by natural accidents such as earth- to monitor oil spill phenomena (Jha et al., 2008). quakes (Steinberg and Cruz, 2003)andfloods (Leifer et al., 2012). To search for oil spills CleanSeaNet, a European detection service, was created. The CleanSeaNet service is 3. Future development based on radar satellite images, that cover all European sea areas, when an oil spill is detected, an alert message is Considering the previous paragraphs, between the Earth delivered to the relevant country (EMSA-European Maritime Observation services, small satellite missions can be the Safety Agency. CleanSeaNet). Another sea and ocean mon- most useful, in case of industrial accidents when sudden itored by Earth Observation (EO) project, is the SEAGOSS. This information are needed (Kucera et al., 2012). Currently project proposes advanced pattern recognition techniques to available satellite data cannot simultaneously meet the process remote sensing data to model sea state and oil slick needs of high spatial and temporal resolution that is detection (de Martino et al., 2014). necessary to respond quickly in case of assisting or evalu- The extent of damage due to spillage depends on the ating damages related to industrial accidents. The small type of oil, but in any case oil spill can be detected with satellite missions, on the other hand, could meet these optical data acquired in near real time by sensors that are requirements, especially considering that they can be aboard of meteorological satellites (Grimaldi et al., 2011), designed by focusing on a single topic-e.g. monitoring risk even if SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) is the most effec- areas industrial-(Sandau 2010) using technologies already tive sensor for this purpose. In fact the oil density is lower available (off-the-shelf technologies). It is also possible to than that of seawater, for this reason oil tends to remain on create a small satellite system (bus and payload) or makes a the surface forming a thin film whose thickness depends bet on the engineering of the system and then on the on the water temperature, the composition and the nature miniaturization of the sensor component (development of of the oil. After that the spilled oil undergoes a series of micro-technologies for sensors). Both approaches can help physical and chemical processes (Jha et al., 2008).Such as in providing relevant information in case of industrial in evaporation, oil leaves the surface, while others, such as accidents. In particular, "small missions" (with off-the-shelf the generation of the water–oil emulsion, the oil persists technologies) do not require excessive budget and could on the surface (Brekke and Solberg, 2005). Which of the combine the interests of both the scientific world and two types of processes prevail, depends on the specific industry (Sweeting 1996, 2002; Neeck and Hammer 2008). gravity of the oil spilled. Lighter oils tend to evaporate and In the case of pre and post accident monitoring the to dissolve rapidly (in a few hours) and most of the time do possibility of using data acquired from specially dedicated not require cleaning. Crude oil, however, breaks down and sensors have the advantage of a significant involvement of dissipates much more slowly (in a few days) requiring a small and medium industries, as well as a greater variety cleaning operation. of missions and a huge availability of application data For this reason with remote sensing data on oil spills resulting in greater diversification of potential users. can be identified observing the sea surface roughness and In accordance with technological evolution, traditional this observation is commonly done with active sensor in EO systems will be able to manage huge amount of data as the wavelength range of microwaves (Jha et al., 2008) the cost of collection and storage decrease. Images will (Table 3). have increasing spectral and radiometric resolution, as Due to its high spatial resolution, the use of SAR sensors Landsat 8 images that have now a resolution of 16-bit pixel for the detection of small patches is essential (Ferraro values (Landsat 8. http://landsat.usgs.gov/landsat8.php). et al., 2010), moreover satellite radar images provide day Moreover the cost of hardware and imagery will decrease. and night coverage independent of fog and cloud cover Images will be processed to give information rather than (Brekke and Solberg, 2005). Such images offer the con- raw data. Information will be refined to the point of being siderable advantage of having revisiting time of one day, directly useful to risk management. allowing to continuously monitor the area where the But in the near future the main effort will be made spillage has been detected. The need for multi-temporal toward producing single instrument small sats (constella- images is crucial especially to monitor the movement of tions) to be used in specific application fields. S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 81

3.1. Small satellites geographic positioning even if with an error sometimes of several meters" , Department IUAV for Research, 2011, Generally, small satellites are equipped with spectro- Various Authors. radiometers in Vis–nearIR. The data are processed in the The data acquired with UAVs will be increasingly in ground station in a short time and are available after a day; demand especially for monitoring disasters both of nat- in the future, it is expected the processing capacity on ural, anthropogenic or natech origin. Drones, in fact, can board will increase and data will be sent to end users carry on board simultaneously both cameras and instru- already processed with the corrections system (Sandau, ments dedicated to acquire specific information about the 2006). event to analyse. In the case of fires resulting from In the next years the development of missions with industrial accidents, for example, in which the type of small satellites will also be favored by the appearance on pollutants released is previously known, the sensors on the market of new dedicated launch systems (use of the UAV can be designed ad hoc to sample the atmospheric modified military carrier), by the need to "test" the particulate matter. equipment prior to organize it in a larger mission, by the The possibility to use a drone would quantify the development of an interconnected system of small magnitude of the catastrophic event and would help to receiving stations (ground station) at affordable cost and, predict the area affected by the damage; it could also last but not the least, by the demand for real-time data for provide information on the extent of the area on which events with rapid evolution, such as industrial accidents or smoke and ash can fall back, with obvious advantages in natural disasters (Sandau, 2010, Ball, 2013). organizing the procedures of intervention on the territory. Small satellites are easily arranged in constellations UAVs have the prerogative to be used in high-risk areas through which it is possible, for example, to perform 3D such as those affected by major accidents of hazardous interferometry that can be extremely useful in monitoring chemicals. In the case of accidents with leakage of toxic changes in land use, including studying of the topographic and noxious gases mini-UAV may be equipped with an urban-industrial deformations and estimating the dama- automatic platform for air monitoring to detect the con- ges derived from the industrial accidents (Sandau and centration of toxic substances and to collect samples to be Briess, 2010)(Fig. 4). analysed in the laboratory (Wang et al. 2013). With optical or infrared cameras it will be possible to monitor in real 3.2. UAV time damages to the buildings. This can be of great support in the classification of risk areas and evacuation routes. In the future the demand will increase for optical data Using these automatic vectors, appropriately designed for with increasing resolution to be integrated with the data the temperatures involved and for the substances to be acquired by the sensors operating in the microwave range analysed, allow monitoring of the areas at highest risk and with the data taken from sensors mounted on aircrafts where it is impossible to access. (Lewis, 2011, Sandau and Briess, 2008) or drones: In the case of accidents where a chain reaction (explo- "… UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle stands for aircraft sions, fires and collapses) is expected, the use of these means without human presence on board, piloted remotely from is particularly effective. In fact, in this kind of accidents an a ground station) and in particular the micro-UAVs accurate collection of information on the dynamic evolution (weighing less than 2 kg) represent the last frontier for of the event is of fundamental importance for the formula- Earth Observation at local high-resolution and low-alti- tion of a Search and Rescue plan and for the prevention of tude. Various sensors can be installed on micro-UAVs that domino effect itself. The mini-UAV must necessarily be make them employable in activities for land monitoring in equipped with a device for detection of the temperature urban and natural areas….Different types of aircrafts (air- (thermal infrared) to operate within the accident scene (e.g. planes, helicopters, blimps) and innovative aircraft like site in which the reactor is placed, unexploded tanks, inter- helicopters multi-rotors (quadcopter and octocopter) mediate tanks and pipelines). If the incident is not reaching defined as “automatic DRONS“ belong to UAV category…. high temperatures, a UAV could also be provided with "life The experimentation has highlighted the possibility of not detectors" to locate survivors, flying over areas inaccessible jeopardizing human. Recently, micro-UAVs have had a to ground vehicles, supporting significantly the activities of remarkable development following the increased relia- the technical staff in charge of the rescue. bility and reduced costs in the production of sensors based There are still many problems to be solved to use the on nano-technologies "(IUAV Department for Research, UAV in case of industrial accidents, including that of the 2011, various authors). resistance to high temperatures and battery duration. With UAVs, it is also possible to observe the Earth's During accidents in plant containing hazardous che- surface with nadiral and prospective views, excellent for micals, can be produced highly flammable gases, which assessing damage due to industrial accidents. The UAVs generate explosions. These explosions cause sudden play a key role also in rapid mapping. For example, in the movements of air masses and very high temperatures. The simulation of a collapse of a school, during a trial in a small-unmanned aerial vehicles are often not able to cope project related to smart cities, the images taken by a drone with these high temperatures; they cannot even maintain "… have produced layers of information shared on the web sufficient stability to minimize deformations in images. platform geoSDI in very short time (in the order of ten The balance, stability and control of the aircraft during minutes) that are definitely definable as-layers valuable- flight could be further improved (IUAV Department for in an emergency with a very high resolution and a correct Research, 2011, various authors). 82 S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84

UAVs balance the lack of satellite images acquired with Alexander, D., 2002. From civil defence to civil protection and back again. optical sensors since they are able to flyunderthecloud Disaster Prev. Manag. 11 (3), 209–213. Alexander, D., 2006. Crisis intervention and risk reduction RISK 21-coping cover and are, in a certain manner, cheaper than the remote with Risks due to Natural Hazards in the 21st Century. In: Ammann, sensing monitoring system. Furthermore, the costs of W.J., Dannenmann. S., Vulliet, L. (Eds.). management and maintenance are significantly lower than Antonioni, G., Spadoni, G., Cozzani, V., 2007. A methodology for the those of a aircraft monitoring system that need a crew. quantitative risk assessment of major accidents triggered by seismic events. J. Hazard. Mater. 147 (1–2), 48–59. Antonioni, G., Bonvicini, S., Spadoni, G., Cozzani, V., 2009. Development of a framework for the risk assessment of Na-Tech accidental events. – 4. Conclusions Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 94 (9), 1442 1450. Aschbacher, J., Milagro-Pérez, M.P., 2012. The European Earth monitoring (GMES) programme: status and perspectives. Remote Sens. Environ. It is well known that Earth Observation data are 120, 3–8. extremely useful to analyse the effect of industrial and Ball, M., 2013. The Small Satellite Revolution: More Earth Observations at a Lower Cost-Sensors and Systems. 〈https://www.sensorsandsystems. natech accidents. In the last few years, it has been com/article/features/31581-the-small-satellite-revolution-more- demonstrated that integrating and comparing images earth-observations-at-a-lower-cost.html#sthash.4bHb04Og.dpuf〉. taken from different remote sensing platforms (satellites, Baum, B.A., Trepte, Q., 1999. A grouped threshold approach for scene identification in AVHRR imagery. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 16, aeroplanes and helicopters, drones) result in useful infor- 793–800. mation to rescuers and the disaster management. More- Ben-Bolie, G.H., Abiama, P. E., Ateba, P.O., 2014. Impact of plant Growth in over the elaboration of EO data constitutes a knowledge waste-contaminated areas. In: Kumar Gupta, Walther (Eds.). Radio- nuclide Contamination and Remediation Through Plants. Springster, base that helps to create accident scenarios, to single out pp. 139–160. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07665-2_7. risk areas and to plan action for prevention, emergency Brekke, C., Solberg, A.H.S., 2005. Oil spill detection by satellite remote management, reconstruction and in post accident analysis. sensing. Remote Sens. Environ. 95, 1–13. This overall view clearly shows how the EO data are a Briess, K., Lorenz, E., Oertel, D., Skrbek, W., Zhukov, B., 2002. Special report on Fire Recognition Potential of Bi-spectral InfraRed Detection source of crucial information, both in a natech or Industrial (BIRD). DLR doc. n. TN-Bird-2000-WP/120. accident, all along the “Disaster cycle” from preparedness Cahoon Jr., D.R., Stocks, B.J., Levine, J.S., III, Cofer, W.R., Pierson, J.M., 1994. fi phase, to the emergency management, from the recon- Satellite analysis of the severe 1987 forest res in northern China and southeastern Siberia. J. Geophys. Res. 99, 18627–18638. struction back to the preparedness again in a continuous Chang, S., N., Collins, W., 1983. Confirmation of airborne biophysical improvement cycle. mineral exploration technique using laboratory methods. Econ. Geol. Different spatial and spectral resolution data far from 78, 723–736. Christopher, S.A., Kliche, D.V., Joyce, C., Welch, R.M., 1996. First estimates being only a problem have prove themselves of being a of the radiative forcing of aerosols generated from biomass burning “richness” in environmental analysis, especially when using satellite data. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (D6), 21265–21273. merging procedures are well harmonized. One of the Chrysoulakis, N., Cartalis, C., 2003a. A new algorithm for the detection of plumes caused by industrial accidents, on the basis of NOAA/AVHRR crucial challenges to be faced in the next years will be the imagery. Int. J. Remote Sens. 24, 3353–3367. small satellites missions planning, so as to maximise their Chrysoulakis, N., Cartalis, C., 2003b. TAD—A new satellite images analysis use in the observation of potential risk areas to improve software tool for the detection of major fires caused by technological – risk assessment and management, and better understand accidents. Int. J. Remote Sens. 24, 1259 1271. Chrysoulakis, N., Opie, C., 2004. Using NOAA and FY imagery to track toxic causality and connections between natural and man-made plumes caused by the 2003 bombing of Baghdad. Int. J. Remote Sens. hazards. 25, 5247–5254. Drones appear especially useful during the operational Chrysoulakis, N., Adaktylou, N., Cartalis, C., 2005. Detecting and mon- itoring plumes caused by major industrial accidents with JPLUME, a activities in the emergency phase, particularly if they will new software tool for low resolution image analysis. Environ. Model. be equipped with dedicated instrumentation such as Softw. 10, 1486–1494. sensors for the detection of toxic substances, visible and IR Chrysoulakis, N., Herlin, I., Prastacos, P., Yahia, H., Grazzini, J., Cartalis, C., 2007. An improved algorithm for the detection of plumes caused by imaging systems according to the different types of acci- natural or technological hazards using AVHRR imagery. Remote Sens. dent. Drones added value consists in the possibility to Environ. 108, 393–406. collect data simultaneously with different tools and merge Chu, D.A., Kaufman, Y.J., Remer, L.A., Holben, B.N., 1998. Remote sensing them according to event scenarios. of smoke from MODIS airborne simulator during the SCAR-B experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 103, 31979–31988. keeping in mind the temporal and spatial evolution of Chung, Y.S., 2002. Satellite observations of smoke plumes from forest fires natech and man-made hazards, one of the main goals in Canada. Int. J. Remote Sens. 23, 2341–2343. fi seems to be prepared for a quick and efficient data Chung, Y.S., Le, H.V., 1984. Detection of forest- re smoke plumes by satellite imagery. Atmos. Environ. 18 (10), 2143–2151. acquisition, processing and transfer. This will be the future Clerc, A., Le Claire, G., 1994. The environmental impacts of natural and challenge for spatial agencies, space industries and technological (Na-tech) disasters. Background Discussion Paper for research institutions. The World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, Japan, 23–27 May. Cruz, A.M., Steinberg, L.J, Vetere Arellano, L., Nordvik, J.P., Pisano, F., 2004. State of the Art in natech Risk Management (NATECH: Natural Hazard References Triggering a Technological Disaster). EUR 21292 EN, © European Communities. Dandrieux, A., Dusserre, G., Thomas, O., 2003. The DVS model: a new AA. VV., 2006. The Contribution of the Surveying Profession to Disaster concept for heavy gas dispersion by water curtain. Environ. Model. Risk Management. FIG Publication n. 38. A publication of FIG Working Soft. 18, 253–259. Group 8.4., International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), Copenhagen, de Martino, M., Dellepiane, S., Gemme, L., Moser, G., Serpico, S.B., Denmark. Toma, M., Degano, C., Loiaconi, A., Mainenti, I., Cusati, L.A., Pedroncini, Adaktylou, N., Cartalis, C., 2005. Detecting and monitoring plumes caused A., 2014. In: Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), by major industrial accidents with JPLUME, a new software tool for IEEE International. pp. 4454–4457. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/IGARSS. low-resolution image analysis. Environ. Model. Softw. 20, 1486–1494. 2014.6947480. S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84 83

Dyke, G., Gill, S., Davies, R., Betorz, F., Andalsvik, Y., Cackler, J., Dos Santos, King, M.D., Kaufman, Y.J., Tanre, D., Nakajima, T., 1999. Remote sensing of W., Dunlop, K., Ferreira, I., Kebe, F., Lamboglia, E., Matsubara, Y., tropospheric aerosols from space: Past, present, and future. Bulletin Nikolaidis, V., Ostoja-Starzewski, S., Sakita, M., Verstappen, N., 2010. of the American Meteorological Society, 11, pp. 22292259. Dream project: Applications of Earth Observations to disaster risk Krausmann, E., Cozzani, V., Salzano, E., Renni, E., 2011. Industrial acci- management. Acta Astronaut. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. dents triggered by natural hazards: an emerging risk issue. Nat. actaastro.2010.06.018. Hazard. Earth Syst. Sci. 11, 921–929, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/ El Hajji, C., Piatyszek, E., Laforest, V., 2013. Development of generic sce- nhess-11-921-2011. nario of industrial accidents triggered by floods: a first step toward Krausmann, E., Cruz, A.M., 2013. Impact of the 11 March 2011, Great East decreasing the vulnerability of industrial facilities. Risk analysis VIII, Japan earthquake and tsunami on the chemical industry. Nat. Hazard. in: Brebbia, C.A. (Ed), Risk analysis VIII, Witt press. 67, 811–828, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0607-0. Ehrlich, D., Tenerelli, P., 2013. Optical satellite imagery for quantifying Kucera, J., Lemoine, G., Kemper, T., 2012. Post-Disaster Needs Assessment: spatio-temporal dimension of physical exposure in disaster risk the role of remote sensing and geospatial information. Vienna. IPSC- assessments. Nat. Hazard. 68, 1271–1289, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen. JRC- European s11069-012-0372-5. Commission (17 February 2012, PDNA Training). ESA-European Space Agency. SEVESEO Project2006. 〈http://www.seve Lefebre, F., Meuleman, K., Sterckx, S., Gontier, E., Paganini, M., 2006. seo.eu/product/Pages/default.aspx〉. SEVESEO Industrial Disaster Management from Space. ESA funded European Commission-Joint Research Centre (JRC), 2004. Analysis of European project. natech (Natural Hazard Triggering Technological Disasters) Disaster Leifer, I., Lehr, W.J., Simecek-Beatty, D., Bradley, E., Clark, R., Dennison, P., Management. In: Vetere Arellano, A.L., Cruz, A.M., Nordvik, J., Pisano, Hu, Y., Matheson, S., Jones, C.E., Holt, B., Reif, M., Roberts, D.A., Svej- F., NEDIES Workshop Proceedings Ispra, Italy, 20–21 October 2003. kovsky, J., Swayze, G., Wozencraft, J., 2012. State of the art satellite Ferek, R.J., Hobbs, P.V., Herring, J.A., Larsen, K.A., Weiss, R.A., 1992. Che- and airborne marine oil spill remote sensing: application to the BP – mical composition of emissions from Kuwait oil fires. J. Geophys. Res. Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Remote Sens. Environ. 124, 185 209, 97 (D13), 14483–14489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.03.024. Ferraro, G., Baschek, B., de Montpellier, G., Njoten, O., Perkovic, M., Vespe, Lewis, P.E., 2011. The Evolution of Airborne Chemical and Radiological M., 2010. On the SAR derived alert in the detection of oil spills Remote Sensing For Emergency and Natural . National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)-USA. SPIE 2011 according to the analysis of the EGEMP. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 60, 91–102. 〈 French Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy. Town Remote Sensing PlenaryTalk; http://spie.org/Documents/AboutSPIE/ 〉 planning, pollution and risk prevention Department. Appendix PDF/ERS11-plenary-Lewis.pdf . Li, Z., Khananian, A., Fraser, R.H., Cihlar, J., 2001. Automatic detection of 2_foreign accidents. ARIA (analysis, research and information on fire smoke using artificial neural networks and threshold approaches accidents) database. applied to AVHRR imagery. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 39, Galderisi, A., Ceudech, A., Pistucc, M., 2008. A method for Na-tech risk 1859–1870. assessment as supporting tool for land use planning mitigation Lindell, M.K., Perry, R.W., 1996. Identifying and managing conjoint strategies. Nat. Hazard. 46 (2), 221–241. 10.1007/s11069-008-9224-8. threats: earthquake-induced hazardous materials releases. Garcia-Pineda, O., MacDonald, I., Hu, C., Svejkovsky, J., Hess, M., US J. Hazard. Mater. 50, 31–46. Dukhovskoy, D., Morey, S.L., 2013. Detection of floating oil anomalies Lyalko, V.I., Djary, V.Y., Sakhatsky, A.I., Hodorovsky, A.J., Woolfson, L.D., from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill with synthetic aperture radar. Shportjuk, Z.B., Sibirtseva, O.N., 1996. Estimation of heavy metal and Oceanography 26 (2), 124–137. radionuclide contamination of soils and vegetation within the Cher- Girgin, S., Krausmann, E., 2013. RAPID-N: Rapid natech risk assessment nobyl danger zone using remote sensing data. Int. Arch. Photogramm. and mapping framework. J. Loss Prev. Process Industries 26, 949–960, Remote Sens., XXXI; . http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2013.10.004. Marzo, E., Busini, V., Rota, R., 2012. Definition of a shortcut methodology Givri, J.R., 1995. Satellite remote sensing data on industrial hazards. Adv. for assessing flood-related Na-Tech risk. Nat. Hazard. Earth Syst. Sci. Space Res Vol. 15 (Issue 11), 87–90, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ 12, 3241–3253, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-3241-2012. 0273-1177(95)00078-S. Marzo, E., Busini, V., Rota, R., 2015. Definition of a short-cut methodology Goetz, A.F., Book, B.N., Rowan, L.C., 1983. Remote sensing for exploration. for assessing the vulnerability of a territory in natural-technological – Econ. Geol. 78, 573 590. risk estimation. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 134, 92–97. Grimaldi, C.S.L., Casciello, D., Coviello, I., Lacava, T., Pergola, N., Tramutoli, V., Menoni, S., Parker, D., Ballio, F., Tapsell, S., 2012. Assessing multifaceted 2011. An improved RST approach for timely alert and Near Real Time vulnerability and resilience in order to design risk-mitigation stra- monitoring of oil spill disasters by using AVHRR data. Nat. Hazards Earth tegies. Nat. Hazard. 64, 2057–2082, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ – Syst. Sci. 11, 1281 1291. s11069-012-0134-4. Hobbs, P.V., Radke, L.F., 1992. Airborne studies of the smoke from the Neeck, S.P., Hammer, T.F., 2008. Nasa Earth Observation Programs and fi – Kuwait oil res. Science 256, 987 991. small satellites. Small Satellites for Earth Observation. Iwasaki, A., Miyatami, S., Nakasuka, S., 2012. Satellite contributions to disaster Parungo, F., Kopcewicz, B., Nagamoto, C., Schnell, R., Sheridan, P., Zhu, C., monitoring- Japanese Earthquake and Tsunami Case in 2011. In: 26th 1992. Aerosol particles in the Kuwait oil fire plumes—Their mor- Annual AIAA/ASU Conference on Small Satellites, SSC12-XII-1. phology, size distribution, chemical composition, transport, and Jha, M.N., Levy, J., Gao, Y., 2008. Advances in remote sensing for oil spill potential effect on climate. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 15867–15882. disaster management: State-of-the-art sensors technology for oil spill Penner, J.E., Dickinson, R.E., O'Neill, C.A., 1992. Effects of aerosol from surveillance. Sensors 8, 236–255. biomass burning on the global radiation budget. Science 256, Johnson, D.W., Kilsby, C.G., Mc Kenna, D.S., Saunders, R.W., Jenkins, G.L., 1432–1434. Smith, F.B., 1991. Airborne observations of the physical and chemical Randriambelo, T., Baldy, S., Bessafi, M., Petit, M., Despinoy, M., 1998. An characteristics of the Kuwait oil smoke plume. Nature 353, 617–621. improved detection and characterization of active fires and smoke Joyce, K.E., Wright, K.C., Samsonov, S.V., Ambrosia, V.G., 2009. Remote plumes in south-eastern Africa and Madagascar. Int. J. Remote Sens. sensing and the disaster management cycle. In: Gary Jedlovec (Ed.), 19, 2623–2638. InTech, ISBN: 978-953-307-005-6 http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/8341. Rout, D.K., Parida, P.K., Behera, G., 2005. Man-made disaster a case study Kaufman, Y.J., Tucker, C.J., Fung, I., 1990. Remote sensing of biomass of Nalco ash-pond in the Angul district, Orissa, using remote sensing burning in the tropics. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 9927–9939. and gis technique. Photonirvachak. Joumal of the Indian Society of Kaufman, Y.J., Nakajima, T., 1993. Effect of Amazon smoke on cloud Remote Sensing 33 (2). microphysics and albedo – Analysis from satellite imagery. J. Appl. Rudich, Y., Sagi, A., Rosenfeld, D., 2003. Influence of the Kuwait oil fires Meteorol. 32, 729–744. plume (1991) on the microphysical development of clouds. J. Geo- Kaufman, Y.J., Fraser, R.S., 1997. The effect of smoke particles on clouds, phys. Res. 108, 4478, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003JD00347. and climate forcing. Science 277, 1636–1639. Salzano, E., Basco, A., Busini, V., Cozzani, V., Marzo, E., Rota, R., Spadoni, G., Kaufman, Y.J., Tanre, D., 1998. Algorithm for remote sensing of tropo- 2013. Public awareness promoting new or emerging risks: Industrial spheric aerosol from MODIS: Algorithm theoretical basis document. accidents triggered by natural hazards (NaTech). J. Risk Res. 16 (3–4), Greenbelt, Md. NASA Goddard Space Flight Cent.Greenbelt, Md. 469–485, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2012.729529. Kaufman, Y.J., Ichoku, C., Giglio, J., Korontzi, S., Chu, D.A., Hao, W.M., 2003. International Study on Cost-Effective Earth Observation Missions. In: Fire and smoke observed from the Earth Observing System MODIS Sandau, R. (Ed.), 160. , Balkema A.A. Publishers, Taylor & Francis instrument—Products, validation, and operational use. Int. J. Remote Group, Leiden, The Netherlands. ISBN10:0-415-39136-9, isbn13:9-78- Sens. 24, 1765–1781. 0-415-39136-8. 84 S. Di Franco, R. Salvatori / Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment 1 (2015) 72–84

Sandau, R., Briess, K., 2008. Potential for advancements in remote sensing Steinberg, L.J., Cruz, A.M., 2003. When Natural and Technological Dis- using small satellites. The International Archives of the Photo- asters Collide: Emergency Management Lessons From the Turkey grammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Earthquake of August 17, 1999. Nat. Hazard. Rev. 5 (3), 121–130. XXXVII. Stowe, L.L., Kaufman, Y.J., Herman, M., Matoo, S., 1997. Remote sensing of Sandau, R., Briess, K., 2010. The role of small satellite mission in global aerosol properties over oceans using the MODIS/EOS spectral – change studies- Advances. In: Chuvieco, E., Li, J., Yang, X. (Eds.), radiances. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 16971 16988. Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 298. Sweeting, M.N., 1996. Why satellites are scaling down, Space Technology – Sandau, R., 2010. Status and trends of small satellite missions for Earth International. p. 55 59, in: Sandau, R. (Ed.), International Study on Observation. Acta Astronaut. 66, 1–12. Cost-Effective Earth Observation Missions, Balkema, A.A. Publishers, a Schmidt Etkin, D., 2011. Spill Occurrences: A World Overview. Chapter 2. member of Taylor & Francis Group plc, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2006, p. 160. ISBN 10: 0-415-39136-9, ISBN 13: 9-78-0-415-39136-8. Oil spill science and technology: prevention, response, and cleanup. Sweeting, M.N., 2002. Micro/Nanosatellite-the new World. In: Reycroft, In: Fingas, M. (Ed.), Elsevier, pp. 7–48, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978- M., Crosby, N. (Eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 1-85617-943-0.10002-4. pp. 1–19. Sengupta, A., 2007. Industrial hazard, vulnerability and Risk Assessment Van Westen, C.J., 2002. Remote sensing and geographic information for land use Planning: A case study old Haldia, west Bengal, India. systems for natural disaster management. In: Skidmore, Andrew (Ed.), Thesis submitted to the International Institute for Geo-information Taylor and Francis. 〈 Science and Earth Observation (ITC). http://www.itc.nl/library/ Wang, L., Zhou, W., Zhao, S., 2013. Application of Mini-UAV in Emergency papers_2007/msc/iirs/sengupta.pdf〉. Rescue of Major Accidents of Hazardous Chemicals. In: International Showalter, P.S., Ramspott, M., 1999. The use of remote sensing in Conference on Remote Sensing. Environment and Transportation detecting and analyzing natural hazards and disaster, 1972–1998. A Engineering (RSETE 2013). partially annotated Bibliography. Published by the J.M. Lovell Center Wong, J., Li, Z., 2002. Retrieval of optical depth for heavy smoke aerosol for Environmental Geography and Hazards Research, Southwest plumes: Uncertainties and sensitivities to the optical properties. Texas State University. Paper N.1. J. Atmos. Sci. 59, 250–261. Shukla, B.P., Pal, P.K., 2009. Automatic smoke detection using satellite Yoshikawa, K., Okajima, Y., Takagishi, S., 2012. Disaster Monitoring using imagery: preparatory to smoke detection from Insat-3D. Int. remote sensing for the Great East Japan Earthquake. TS03K - Special J. Remote Sens. 30 (1), 9–22. Session on Catastrophic Disaster of East Japan Earthquake and Tsu- Skrunes, S., Brekke, C., Eltoft, T., 2014. Characterization of marine surface nami. FIG Working Week 2012. Knowing to manage the territory, slicks by radarsat-2 multipolarization features. IEEE Trans. Geosci. protect the environment, evaluate the cultural heritage, Rome, Italy, – Remote Sens. 52 (9), 5302–5319, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ 6 10 May 2012-1/8. TGRS.2013.2287916.