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Confluence of Cultures A Publication of Lindenwood University Press Spring/Summer 2016 Vol. 7, No. 2 Twelve Dollars ®® Special Symposium Issue Confluence of Cultures Spring/Summer 2016 | The Confluence | 1 COVER IMAGE George Caleb Bingham, Watching the Cargo, 1849. While some considered Bingham’s paintings of antebellum Missouri to be sentimental, they represented a meaning far deeper, as Joan Stack argues in “Manifesting Anti-Expansionist Anxiety at New York’s American Art-Union: A Sociopolitical Interpretation of George Caleb Bingham’s 1845 Paintings, The Concealed Enemy and Fur Traders Descending the Missouri. (Image: State Historical Society of Missouri) A publication of Lindenwood University Press Spring/Summer 2016 Vol. 7, No. 2 CONTENTS 4 Manifesting Anti-Expansionist Anxiety at New York’s American Art-Union: A Sociopolitical Interpretation of George Caleb Bingham’s 1845 Paintings, The Concealed Enemy and Fur Traders Descending the Missouri By Joan Stack George Caleb Bingham was one of the few artists with a political career as well, serving in the Missouri legislature. In this article, Joan Stack interrogates a body of Bingham’s work in the context of the social and political atmosphere of antebellum Missouri. 34 “Our women and children cry for food, and we have no food to give them”: The Environmental Dimensions of Eastern Shoshone Dispossession By Adam Hodge The fur trade had a profound environmental impact on the West, Adam Hodge argues, as that impact was intentionally facilitated by the fur trade itself. 46 Consequences of Peaceful Actions: Political Decisions of the Illinois Indians, 1778–1832 By Gerald Rogers A series of political decisions led to the decimation of the Native American population in Illinois during its territorial and early statehood periods leading up to the final removal of tribes after Black Hawk’s War. 56 A New Era in Their History: Isaac McCoy’s Indian Canaan and the Baptist Triennial Convention By Daniel Williams One aspect of efforts to “civilize” Native Americans involved the role of missionaries. In this essay, Daniel Williams investigates the role of the Baptists and their objectives in preaching to native tribes. The Confluence is a regional studies journal published by Lindenwood University and dedicated to the diversity of ideas and disciplines of a liberal arts university. It is committed to the intersection of history, art and architecture, design, science, social science, and public policy. Its articles are diverse by design. Spring/Summer 2016 | The Confluence | 1 EDITORIAL BOARD STAFF FROM THE EDITOR Mark Abbott, Harris-Stowe State University Editor Jeffrey E. Smith, PhD Christopher Duggan, Lindenwood University Art Director Paul Huffman, Lindenwood University Beth Thompson Kehl Paige Mettler-Cherry, Lindenwood University Archivist Paul Huffman Scott Queen , Lindenwood University Publicity Assistant Robert Rubright, Independent Scholar Kimberly Elfrink Jeffrey E. Smith, Lindenwood University Kris Runberg Smith, Lindenwood University Mark Tranel, University of Missouri-St. Louis John Troy , Lindenwood University SUBSCRIPTIONS Pernell Witherspoon, Lindenwood University ISSN 2150-2633 The Confluence is a nonprofit semiannual publication of Lindenwood University, St. Charles, Missouri. All rights reserved. The Confluence and Lindenwood University are not responsible for statements of fact or ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS opinion expressed in signed contributions. Requests to reprint any part of An undertaking like The Confluence doesn’t happen without the help The Confluence should be sent to Editor, of many people, both within Lindenwood University and beyond. We The Confluence, c/o Lindenwood owe particular thanks to President Michael Shonrock, Provost Marilyn University, 209 S. Kingshighway, Abbott, and the Board of Directors at Lindenwood for supporting this St. Charles, Missouri 63301, or via e-mail venture. We’d like to take this opportunity to extend our gratitude to the to [email protected]. following people, institutions, and companies for their contributions to this issue of The Confluence; we could not have done it without you. © Lindenwood University 2016 Manuscripts. Any manuscripts should Brigham Young University Library of Congress be sent to Editor, The Confluence, Buffalo Bill Center Metropolitan Museum c/o Lindenwood University, 209 S. of the West of Art Kingshighway, St. Charles, Missouri 63301, Charles Hosmer Morse New-York Historical or via e-mail to confluence@lindenwood. Museum of American Art Society edu. Print submissions should be double- Thomas Curran Northern Illinois University spaced, but will not be returned. For Chris Duggan Archives submission guidelines, citation format, and Nancy Durbin Daniel Blake Smith other particulars, consult Explore Montana State Historical Society of Missouri http://www.lindenwood.edu/confluence. Joseph Galloy W.W. Norton and Company Steve Gietschier Wadsworth Antheneum Have you moved? Let us know if you have Paul Huffman Wyoming State Historical Society or will be changing your address so you don’t miss an issue of The Confluence. Subscription Rates. One year, $20. Individual copies, $12. Visit us on the web. Be sure to visit our website at http://www.lindenwood.edu/ confluence. 2 | The Confluence | Spring/Summer 2016 FROM THE EDITOR In October 2015, the History and Geography Department at Lindenwood University hosted a conference to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the treaties ending the War of 1812. Great Britain allied with a number of western tribes (since it had its hands full in Europe in the Napoleonic wars), so when Britain signed a peace accord with the United States in late 1814, the Americans had to reach peace agreements with Britain’s Native American allies as well. James Monroe, who was Secretary of both War and State in March of 1815, appointed a three-member commission to sign those treaties. It was headed by former explorer William Clark, now Indian Agent and Governor of the Missouri Territory, who had perhaps the best relationship with those tribal leaders of any American official. Fur trader Auguste Chouteau and Illinois territorial governor Ninian Edwards completed the team. Clark summoned tribal leaders to a council that summer in Portage des Sioux, along the Mississippi River in present-day St. Charles County. Monroe told Clark that these treaties were strictly political, ending warfare but were separate from any commercial agreements; those would come later. By the end of the summer, Clark signed treaties with 11 different tribes; by the end of his career he had signed more treaties with tribes than any other American official in history. These treaties formed the legal foundation for later removal of tribes farther west. At the conference, scholars from across the country gathered to hear and present papers on a wide array of topics surrounding the legacies of the Portage des Sioux treaties. Four of those papers with particular relevance to this region appear in this issue. I would be remiss without thanking the faculty in the History and Geography Department for its hard work in organizing this conference, and especially Dr. Steven Gietschier for taking on the mantle of organizing it. The conference was filled with interesting and insightful papers, and was executed beautifully, thanks to the efforts of Dr. Gietschier and the department. Jeffrey Smith, PhD Editor Spring/Summer 2016 | The Confluence | 3 Manifesting Anti-Expansionist Anxiety at New York’s American Art-Union: A Sociopolitical Interpretation of George Caleb Bingham’s 1845 Paintings, The Concealed Enemy and Fur Traders Descending the Missouri BY JOAN STACK 4 | The Confluence | Spring/Summer 2016 George Caleb Bingham, Fur Traders Descending the Missouri, 1845. (Image: Metropolitan Museum of Art, www. metmuseum.org) On December, 8, 1845, Missouri painter George Caleb After the Art-Union’s lottery, both disappeared into private Bingham sold The Concealed Enemy and Fur Traders hands for almost a century.3 Since there are no records of Descending the Missouri (originally titled French Trader AA-U visitor responses to the images, any understanding and Half-breed Son) to the American Art-Union in New of their short-lived public reception at the Art-Union York. Both pictures represented native peoples in the depends upon a study of culturally constructed habits of contested space of the American West. Thousands viewed interpretation. Art historian Michael Baxandall called such these paintings at the Art-Union’s free gallery during inquiries the study of the “Period Eye.”4 My examination their brief exhibition period in New York, which ended of the forces that shaped the 1845 “Period Eye” borrows on December 19, 1845. On that day, the paintings were freely from spectatorship theory, traditional Panofskian distributed by lottery to AA-U members during a gala iconography, and Barthian semiotics to explore politically event.1 charged associations viewers might have made between Scholars have traditionally interpreted these pictures Bingham’s paintings and popular rhetoric, canonical as nostalgic, idealized visions of Missouri’s bygone artworks, and political cartoons. Since such associations wilderness and/or pendant images contrasting doomed are related to reception rather than creation, this study of native savagery with the civilizing force of Euro- potential audience responses is not necessarily tied to the American settlement. By extension, proponents of the artist’s intentions.5 second interpretation often associate the paintings with This reception-based
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