DOCSLIB.ORG

Value in Commons-Based Peer Production

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Value in Commons-Based Peer Production P2Pvalue Value in commons-based peer production P2Pvalue research package theoretical findings summary P2Pvalue Techno-social platform for sustainable models and value generation in commons-based peer production in the Future Internet 1 P2Pvalue P2Pvalue FP7-ICT-2013-10 Project: 610961 Techno-social platform for sustainable models and value generation in commons-based peer production in the Future Internet http://www.p2pvalue.eu/ D1.2 Theoretical synthesis – Executive summaries WP1 Theoretical findings. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Lead beneficiary: IGOPnet.cc Autonomous University of Barcelona Authorship: Fuster Morell, M. (Deliverable and WP coordinator); ; Salcedo , J.L.; De Filippi, P.; Dulong de Rosnay, M.; Musiani, F.; Capdevila , I.; Berlinguer, M..; Tebbens, W.; Arvidsson, A.; Caliandro, A.; Gandini, A.; and Rozas, D. (2015). Release research report: Value in commons- based peer production. P2Pvalue research package theoretical findings summary. P2Pvalue project. FP7-ICT-2013-10 Project: 610961 Research team: P2Pvalue Consortium IGOPnet.cc team (WP coordinator: Mayo Fuster Morell) Contact: [email protected] P2Pvalue Consortium: University of Surrey (Coordinator), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Stichting Peer to Peer Alternatives (P2P Foundation), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and Università Degli Studi di Milano. 2 P2Pvalue Contents Executive Summary of research developed and findings ............................................................... 5 Criteria of delimitation and typification of commons-based peer production ......................... 23 EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES RESEARCH TASKS ......................................................................................... 44 Executive Summary Task 1.1 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................... 44 Research questions ........................................................................................................................... 44 CBPP, a “unified” third mode of production ............................................................................ 44 CBPP value ...................................................................................................................................... 45 Factors that explain value creation in CBPP ................................................................................ 46 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 47 Summary of main results ................................................................................................................. 47 1. Value ............................................................................................................................................ 48 2. Basic community features ...................................................................................................... 52 3. Collaborative production ......................................................................................................... 53 4. Governance ................................................................................................................................ 55 5. Sustainability .............................................................................................................................. 70 6. Internal Systems of Recognition and Reward of Contributions ..................................... 73 7. Correlations between variables ............................................................................................. 74 References .......................................................................................................................................... 77 Executive summary Task 1.2 Techno legal analysis ......................................................................... 3 1. Technical regulation ..................................................................................................................... 3 2. Community governance ............................................................................................................. 7 3. Regulation by law ........................................................................................................................ 9 4. Commons-based Peer Production ......................................................................................... 12 References .......................................................................................................................................... 15 Executive summary Task 1.3 Digital ethnography ............................................................................ 6 1. Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 6 2. Results ............................................................................................................................................ 7 3. References ..................................................................................................................................... 9 Executive summary Task 1.4 Survey ................................................................................................. 11 1. CBPP beyond virtual communities ........................................................................................ 11 2. Value creation and value capture (and its alignment) ..................................................... 12 3. References .................................................................................................................................. 15 Annexes .................................................................................................................................................. 18 Task 1.1 Stastistical Analisis ........................................................................................................ 18 Task 1.4 Survey .............................................................................................................................. 22 3 P2Pvalue Executive Summary of research developed and findings P2Pvalue research package theoretical synthesis (Associated to Deliverable 1.3) Mayo Fuster Morell (UAB) As part of P2Pvalue project Work Package 1 on the theoretical and empirical foundations of the project, we have deployed several methodological schemes to approach our research questions: • What characterises CBPP? What are the delimitation and typification criteria of CBPP? What is the structure of CBPP communities? How does value creation function in CBPP? Which types of value are created? How is this value captured (who benefits from the created value and how)? • Do (and how) factors of productivity explain the capacity of a community to generate value (or particular types of value)? In concrete terms, do community attributes and structure, type of collaboration, governance, infrastructure, sustainability, and internal systems of recognition and reward shape value creation? • To what extent can CBPP be considered a “unified” third model of production? Which diverse typologies of areas of CBPP can be identified? To what extent can communities other than virtual be identified as CBPP communities? • What are the regulatory schemes that apply to CBPP? How do the emerging decentralized infrastructure modalities of CBPP challenge them? Mixed Methods combination 4 P2Pvalue The first step addresses the following questions: What characterises CBPP? What are the delimitation and typification criteria of CBPP? This also help us to define the unit of analysis (and target of the P2Pvalue platform) in Commons Based Peer Production (CBPP) cases. A review of the literature on previous characterizations of CBPP was completed; we then designed a questionnaire on the criteria of delimitation and typification of CBPP. The questionnaire was responded to by all CBPP members; this was a crucial exercise in developing a common framework of understanding of CBPP among project contributors. We have also consulted experts in the area of CBPP and Board members. The result of this work is presented briefly in the “Criteria of delimitation and typification of CBPP” section of this deliverable and more extensively in the section “Report of criteria of delimitation and typification of CBPP” (available upon request). Through building the CBPP P2Pvalue directory, we also define and map areas of activities in CBPP (directory.p2pvalue.eu). With a common framework of analysis and a better understanding of the phenomenon we are investigating, we then deployed several methodological schemes in order to investigate CBPP practices and address the other research questions. As part of Task 1.1, we developed a statistical analysis of 302 cases to ascertain the frequencies and types of performance factors affecting productivity (governance, sustainability, systems of value metrics and rewards, and type/area of collaboration), and addressed the questions of how diverse factors of productivity might explain the capacity for a particular CBPP platform or community to generate value (mainly from a community process perspective). Mapping the diverse areas of activity of CBPP provided insights to rethink to what extent CBPP could be considered a “unified” third model of production. The statistical analysis data was based on four data sources:
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A NEW VISION of the KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY Brian Chi-Ang Lin National Chengchi University
    A NEW VISION OF THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY Brian Chi-ang Lin National Chengchi University Abstract. To date, more than half of the output in the major OECD countries has been knowledge based. This paper argues, however, that the current growth- oriented exposition of the knowledge economy rooted in the conventional concept of free competition is insufficient for promoting the long-term development of human societies. Although we now live in a knowledge economy, most countries have been concurrently characterized by serious phenomena such as environmental degradation and growing economic inequality. The prospect of meeting global commitments, for instance, to reducing inequality, as outlined in the 1995 World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen and endorsed in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, is bleak and the global society as a whole has become less and less sustainable. Indeed, the world is better seen as composed of numerous (but finite) knowledge economies. To take up the challenge of sustainable development of human societies, we have to develop a pluralistic perspective of the knowledge economy and fully acknowledge the characteristics of each unique knowledge system (such as indigenous knowledge possessed by a small tribe). Once we can help each individual knowledge system develop into a specific set of economic institutions that freely exchange concepts and beliefs with each other in a global environment, we will be able to develop a global economy that embodies a value-committed basis that assures a sustainable path of development on earth. Keywords. Economic inequality; Growth; Indigenous knowledge; Sustainable development; The knowledge economy There are changes in other spheres too which we must expect to come.
    [Show full text]
  • The Realized Benefits from Bioprospecting in the Wake of the Convention on Biological Diversity
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Washington University St. Louis: Open Scholarship Washington University Journal of Law & Policy Volume 47 Intellectual Property: From Biodiversity to Technical Standards 2015 The Realized Benefits from Bioprospecting in the Wake of the Convention on Biological Diversity James S. Miller Missouri Botanical Garden Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_journal_law_policy Part of the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Commons, Environmental Law Commons, and the Plant Sciences Commons Recommended Citation James S. Miller, The Realized Benefits from Bioprospecting in the Wake of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 47 WASH. U. J. L. & POL’Y 051 (2015), https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/law_journal_law_policy/vol47/iss1/10 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law School at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Washington University Journal of Law & Policy by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Realized Benefits from Bioprospecting in the Wake of the Convention on Biological Diversity James S. Miller MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN In the mid-1980s, the convergence of several technological advances led to a serious resurgence of interest in surveying plant species for drug development. The emergence of methods to miniaturize in-vitro bioassays (a test used to quantify the biological effect of a chemical compound or extract against a specific disease target) run the bioassays with robotic equipment, and isolate and identify active compounds with a speed and precision never before possible.
    [Show full text]
  • When Is Open Access Not Open Access?
    Editorial When Is Open Access Not Open Access? Catriona J. MacCallum ince 2003, when PLoS Biology Box 1. The Bethesda Statement on Open-Access Publishing was launched, there has been This is taken from http:⁄⁄www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/bethesda.htm. a spectacular growth in “open- S 1 access” journals. The Directory of An Open Access Publication is one that meets the following two conditions: Open Access Journals (http:⁄⁄www. 1. The author(s) and copyright holder(s) grant(s) to all users a free, irrevocable, doaj.org/), hosted by Lund University worldwide, perpetual right of access to, and a license to copy, use, distribute, transmit Libraries, lists 2,816 open-access and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital journals as this article goes to press medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship2, as (and probably more by the time you well as the right to make small numbers of printed copies for their personal use. read this). Authors also have various 2. A complete version of the work and all supplemental materials, including a copy of “open-access” options within existing the permission as stated above, in a suitable standard electronic format is deposited subscription journals offered by immediately upon initial publication in at least one online repository that is supported traditional publishers (e.g., Blackwell, by an academic institution, scholarly society, government agency, or other well- Springer, Oxford University Press, and established organization that seeks to enable open access, unrestricted distribution, many others). In return for a fee to interoperability, and long-term archiving (for the biomedical sciences, PubMed Central the publisher, an author’s individual is such a repository).
    [Show full text]
  • From Coalition to Commons: Plan S and the Future of Scholarly Communication
    University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Copyright, Fair Use, Scholarly Communication, etc. Libraries at University of Nebraska-Lincoln 2019 From Coalition to Commons: Plan S and the Future of Scholarly Communication Rob Johnson Research Consulting Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/scholcom Part of the Intellectual Property Law Commons, Scholarly Communication Commons, and the Scholarly Publishing Commons Johnson, Rob, "From Coalition to Commons: Plan S and the Future of Scholarly Communication" (2019). Copyright, Fair Use, Scholarly Communication, etc.. 157. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/scholcom/157 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Libraries at University of Nebraska-Lincoln at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Copyright, Fair Use, Scholarly Communication, etc. by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Insights – 32, 2019 Plan S and the future of scholarly communication | Rob Johnson From coalition to commons: Plan S and the future of scholarly communication The announcement of Plan S in September 2018 triggered a wide-ranging debate over how best to accelerate the shift to open access. The Plan’s ten principles represent a call for the creation of an intellectual commons, to be brought into being through collective action by funders and managed through regulated market mechanisms. As it gathers both momentum and critics, the coalition must grapple with questions of equity, efficiency and sustainability. The work of Elinor Ostrom has shown that successful management of the commons frequently relies on polycentricity and adaptive governance. The Plan S principles must therefore function as an overarching framework within which local actors retain some autonomy, and should remain open to amendment as the scholarly communication landscape evolves.
    [Show full text]
  • Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development, Selected Essays of Herman Daly ADVANCES in ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS Series Editor:Jeroen C.J.M
    Ecological Economics and Sustainable Development, Selected Essays of Herman Daly ADVANCES IN ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS Series Editor:Jeroen C.J.M. van den Bergh, ICREA Professor, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain and Professor of Environmental and Resource Economics, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Founding Editor:Robert Costanza, Director, University of Maryland Institute for Ecological Economics and Professor, Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies and Zoology Department, USA This important series makes a significant contribution to the development of the principles and practices of ecological economics, a field which has expanded dra- matically in recent years. The series provides an invaluable forum for the publica- tion of high quality work and shows how ecological economic analysis can make a contribution to understanding and resolving important problems. The main emphasis of the series is on the development and application of new original ideas in ecological economics. International in its approach, it includes some of the best theoretical and empirical work in the field with contributions to funda- mental principles, rigorous evaluations of existing concepts, historical surveys and future visions. It seeks to address some of the most important theoretical questions and gives policy solutions for the ecological problems confronting the global village as we move into the twenty-first century. Titles in the series include: Economic Growth, Material Flows and the Environment New Applications of Structural Decomposition Analysis and Physical Input–Output Tables Rutger Hoekstra Joint Production and Responsibility in Ecological Economics On the Foundations of Environmental Policy Stefan Baumgärtner, Malte Faber and Johannes Schiller Frontiers in Ecological Economic Theory and Application Edited by Jon D.
    [Show full text]
  • A Critique of John Stuart Mill Chris Daly
    Southern Illinois University Carbondale OpenSIUC Honors Theses University Honors Program 5-2002 The Boundaries of Liberalism in a Global Era: A Critique of John Stuart Mill Chris Daly Follow this and additional works at: http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/uhp_theses Recommended Citation Daly, Chris, "The Boundaries of Liberalism in a Global Era: A Critique of John Stuart Mill" (2002). Honors Theses. Paper 131. This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the University Honors Program at OpenSIUC. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of OpenSIUC. For more information, please contact [email protected]. r The Boundaries of Liberalism in a Global Era: A Critique of John Stuart Mill Chris Daly May 8, 2002 r ABSTRACT The following study exanunes three works of John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, Utilitarianism, and Three Essays on Religion, and their subsequent effects on liberalism. Comparing the notion on individual freedom espoused in On Liberty to the notion of the social welfare in Utilitarianism, this analysis posits that it is impossible for a political philosophy to have two ultimate ends. Thus, Mill's liberalism is inherently flawed. As this philosophy was the foundation of Mill's progressive vision for humanity that he discusses in his Three Essays on Religion, this vision becomes paradoxical as well. Contending that the neo-liberalist global economic order is the contemporary parallel for Mill's religion of humanity, this work further demonstrates how these philosophical flaws have spread to infect the core of globalization in the 21 st century as well as their implications for future international relations.
    [Show full text]
  • Open Access Publishing
    Open Access The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Suber, Peter. 2012. Open access. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. [Updates and Supplements: http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/hoap/ Open_Access_(the_book)] Published Version http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/open-access Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:10752204 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA OPEN ACCESS The MIT Press Essential Knowledge Series Information and the Modern Corporation, James Cortada Intellectual Property Strategy, John Palfrey Open Access, Peter Suber OPEN ACCESS PETER SUBER TheMIT Press | Cambridge, Massachusetts | London, England © 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology This work is licensed under the Creative Commons licenses noted below. To view a copy of these licenses, visit creativecommons.org. Other than as provided by these licenses, no part of this book may be reproduced, transmitted, or displayed by any electronic or mechanical means without permission from the publisher or as permitted by law. This book incorporates certain materials previously published under a CC-BY license and copyright in those underlying materials is owned by SPARC. Those materials remain under the CC-BY license. Effective June 15, 2013, this book will be subject to a CC-BY-NC license. MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promotional use.
    [Show full text]
  • Will Sci-Hub Kill the Open Access Citation Advantage and (At Least for Now) Save Toll Access Journals?
    Will Sci-Hub Kill the Open Access Citation Advantage and (at least for now) Save Toll Access Journals? David W. Lewis October 2016 © 2016 David W. Lewis. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Introduction It is a generally accepted fact that open access journal articles enjoy a citation advantage.1 This citation advantage results from the fact that open access journal articles are available to everyone in the word with an Internet collection. Thus, anyone with an interest in the work can find it and use it easily with no out-of-pocket cost. This use leads to citations. Articles in toll access journals on the other hand, are locked behind paywalls and are only available to those associated with institutions who can afford the subscription costs, or who are willing and able to purchase individual articles for $30 or more. There has always been some slippage in the toll access journal system because of informal sharing of articles. Authors will usually send copies of their work to those who ask and sometime post them on their websites even when this is not allowable under publisher’s agreements. Stevan Harnad and his colleagues proposed making this type of author sharing a standard semi-automated feature for closed articles in institutional repositories.2 The hashtag #ICanHazPDF can be used to broadcast a request for an article that an individual does not have access to.3 Increasingly, toll access articles are required by funder mandates to be made publically available, though usually after an embargo period.
    [Show full text]
  • A Topological Space for Design, Participation and Production. Tracking Spaces of Transformation
    The Journal of Peer Production New perspectives on the implications of peer production for social change Journal of Peer Production Issue 13: OPEN http://peerproduction.net — ISSN 2213-5316 A TOPOLOGICAL SPACE FOR DESIGN, PARTICIPATION AND PRODUCTION. TRACKING SPACES OF TRANSFORMATION Sandra Álvaro Sánchez ‘Space of transformation’ is a concept borrowed from Serres’ communication theory and here redefined after the evolution of the post-digital milieu and the materialistic critique of the same. Hackerspaces, fablabs, medialabs and other shared machines shops are defined here as spaces of transformation, places for the encounter between humans and non-humans, where disciplines are bridged together, hitherto severed, giving place to collective practices related to education, production and society. Shared machine shops are sited locally but also connected globally. Online, they share innovative forms of production, education and collective organization, giving place to a complex ecosystem. This article presents an analysis of the topology of this ecosystem conducted by means of tracking and visualizing the online interactions between the hackerspaces listed at the platform Hackerspaces.org. The application of network analysis is aimed to answer the research questions: First, how shared machine shops are locally and globally connected? Second, what links hackerspaces among them and these with new social issues? The concept of shared machine shops as spaces of transformation and the study of their mutual relations allows for an understanding of the transformative capacity of these spaces and how they are producing a new space for social innovation through its mutual interchange of information. Keywords: hackerspaces, network analysis, design, social innovation, space of transformation development of new organizational forms related to By Sandra Álvaro Sánchez peer-production, and the prototyping of new material products, linked to entrepreneurship and Download as PDF innovation, as well as, of new educational projects.
    [Show full text]
  • Knowledge Commons
    Working Paper No. 2018-39 December 2018 Knowledge Commons Forthcoming in Hudson, Blake, Rosenbloom, Jonathan, and Cole, Dan eds. Routledge Handbook of the Study of the Commons, Abingdon, UK: Routledge Michael J. Madison University of Pittsburgh – School of Law Katherine J. Strandburg New York University – School of Law Brett M. Frischmann Villanova University Charles Widger School of Law University of Pittsburgh School of Law 3900 Forbes Avenue Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260-6900 Michael J. Madison Brett M. Frischmann Katherine J. Strandburg Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] This paper can be downloaded without charge from the Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection: http://ssrn.com/abstract=3300348 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3300348 Knowledge Commons Michael J. Madison,* Brett M. Frischmann,** and Katherine J. Strandburg*** Forthcoming in Hudson, Blake, Rosenbloom, Jonathan, and Cole, Dan eds. Routledge Handbook of the Study of the Commons Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Draft of 31 August 2017 Abstract This chapter provides an introduction to and overview of the knowledge commons research framework. Knowledge commons refers to an institutional approach (commons) to governing the production, use, management, and/or preservation of a particular type of resource (knowledge). The research framework supplies a template for interrogating the details of knowledge commons institutions on a case study basis, generating qualitative data that may be used to support comparative analysis. I. Introduction This chapter provides an introduction to and overview of the knowledge commons research framework. Knowledge commons refers to an institutional approach (commons) to governing the production, use, management, and/or preservation of a particular type of resource (knowledge).
    [Show full text]
  • A Framework for Analyzing the Knowledge Commons : a Chapter from Understanding Knowledge As a Commons: from Theory to Practice
    Syracuse University SURFACE Libraries' and Librarians' Publications Libraries 2005 A Framework for Analyzing the Knowledge Commons : a chapter from Understanding Knowledge as a Commons: from Theory to Practice. Charlotte Hess Syracuse University Elinor Ostrom Indiana University Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/sul Part of the Communication Commons, and the Library and Information Science Commons Recommended Citation Hess, Charlotte and Ostrom, Elinor, "A Framework for Analyzing the Knowledge Commons : a chapter from Understanding Knowledge as a Commons: from Theory to Practice." (2005). Libraries' and Librarians' Publications. 21. https://surface.syr.edu/sul/21 This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the Libraries at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Libraries' and Librarians' Publications by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A Framework for Analyzing the Knowledge Commons (Draft 12-2005) Chapter for the forthcoming book Understanding Knowledge as a Commons: From Theory to Practice (The authors’ names are reversed in the published version) Charlotte Hess and Elinor Ostrom Who hasn’t heard of the six blind men of Indostan encircled around an elephant?1 The six—one a political scientist, one a librarian, one an economist, one a law professor, one a computer scientist, and one an anthropologist—discover, based on their own investigations, that the object before them is a wall, spear, a snake, a tree, a fan, and a rope. The story fits well with the question that propelled this chapter: how can an interdisciplinary group of scholars best analyze a highly complex, rapidly evolving, elephantine resource such as knowledge? Trying to get one’s hands around knowledge as a shared resource is even more challenging when we factor in the economic, legal, technological, political, social and psychological components—each complex in their own right—that make up this global commons.
    [Show full text]
  • Peer-Production Online Communities Infrastructures Melanie Dulong De Rosnay
    Peer-production online communities infrastructures Melanie Dulong de Rosnay To cite this version: Melanie Dulong de Rosnay. Peer-production online communities infrastructures. First Conference on Internet Science, Apr 2013, Brussels, Belgium. pp.65-68. hal-00833476 HAL Id: hal-00833476 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00833476 Submitted on 12 Jun 2013 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Peer-production online communities infrastructures Melanie Dulong de Rosnay CNRS Institute for Communication Sciences 20 rue Berbier-du-Mets 75013 Paris, France [email protected] Abstract—This article analyses peer-production online copyright law, encryption technologies or contracts to restrict communities according to their technical and governance access and control reuse. The market approach reestablishes architectures level of centralization and decentralization. Peer- artificial scarcity and excludability by controlling access and production online communities can be defined as projects or reproduction, leading to a “second
    [Show full text]