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Handbook of Plant Nutrition

Allen V. Barker, David J. Pilbeam

Phosphorus

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.1201/b18458-6 Bryan G. Hopkins Published online on: 14 May 2015

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 3.2 3.1 CONTENTS References 3.10 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 Uptake of byUptake Phosphorus Plants Background Historical 3.10.6 3.10.5 3.10.4 3.10.3 3.10.2 3.10.1 Management Fertilizer Phosphorus 3.9.3 3.9.2 3.9.1 Soil Testing 3.8.3 3.8.2 3.8.1 Bioavailability and Concentrations, Soils of in Forms, Phosphorus Plants in Diagnosis of Status Phosphorus 3.6.4 3.6.3 3.6.2 3.6.1 Interactions Elements and of Other Ratios with Phosphorus Plants of in Concentrations Phosphorus 3.4.6 3.4.5 3.4.4 3.4.3 3.4.2 3.4.1 Acquisition and ofGenetics Need by Phosphorus Plants Physiological Responses of Phosphorus to Plants 3.2.3 3.2.2 3.2.1 3 ...... Environmental Issues Environmental Fertilization Impact Best Management Practices Placement and Timing Fertilizer Phosphorus Rate Phosphorus Sources Phosphorus Conservation and Importance Fertilizer Phosphorus of Soil TestingCustomization Soil Test Methods Benefits of Soil Testing Soil in Phosphorus Fate of Fertilizer Soil in Equilibrium Phosphorus Pools of Soil Phosphorus Three Species within and across Differences Management of Interactions Interactions Metal Phosphorus–Micronutrient Nutrients Other and Phosphorus between Interactions General Modification Genetic Potential Species within Differences Species Unique for across Uptake Differences Phosphorus Inefficient an Is Potato Responder Species across Differences Control Genetic of byAbsorption Phosphorus Shoots of byAbsorption Phosphorus Roots Uptake Impacting Interactions Soil–Plant Bryan G. Hopkins G. Bryan Phosphorus ...... 104 108 108 103 111 90 66 84 80 97 97 94 96 86 87 65 93 93 69 69 98 77 82 82 89 89 83 72 72 79 70 78 76 75 91 74 74 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 is atrivalent resonatingtetraoxyanionthatactsasalinkageorbindingsiteandistypicallyresis one ortwo protonsasHPO oxidized andhydrated stateasinorganic orthophosphate(PO its highreactivity, itnever isfoundnaturallyasafreeelementonEarth,but onlyinitsmaximally multivalent, pnictogen(nitrogenfamily), nonmetallic elementwiththeatomic number 15.Dueto nutritional role. ment tobediscovered—ranging fromitstoxicitiesanddangersinweaponryindustryto from themomentitwas born.” Emsley artfullyandaccuratelytellsthehistoryof13thele John Emsley (2000)states“…phosphoruswas greetedwithgreatacclaim,andyetitwas damned 3.1 66 fertilizer production industry. production fertilizer developments the of and plant nutrients essentiality the the in scientists early regarding other and P.ous application N and of both (1909) Hall provides excellent an review discoveries of the of these includingadvances promotion significant of simultane 1836—making in station experiment tural Frenchof Jean-Baptiste chemist the Boussingault (1802–1887), agricul first whothe established workLiebig upon the built abundance. supplied also in factoring are even for others growth, the if (1786–1859) deficient in any nutrient limit that the supply becomes of minimum”—stating “theory the He popularized (C), P, N, as especially carbon nutrients, hydrogen oxygen weremineral important and as (H), (O). Justus nutrient. von essential Liebig an as form (1803–1873)dized “other” the that maintained (1824–1897) soil. Ville Georges the the in oxi up P take that wasplants possiblyto state first the Lavoisier (1767–1845)from elements mineral absorb that specific plants chemistry—confirming in Emsley to According (2000), later. hewas decades largely until ignored He even suggested exploration fertilizers. should as applied be minerals. manures ofand P-bearing Gardening in wrote Darwin, of1799, Charles grandfather Darwin, Erasmus the in salts gunpowder, and ashes, manure, charcoal, poultry ments with Youngexperi possiblyfertilization century, first Arthur formal described the nineteenth early the Revolution Green discoveries eventually the to led that of Twentieth of important the Century. In which developments after Renaissance, late biology, in physics chemistry, and aseries in resulted plant nutrition was the to and meager prior science of fertility soil formal the amendments, soil and growth. plant impacting of apoint to significantly depleted most commonly is one minerals of Phosphorus the commodities. agricultural consuming apopulation more for intensive the must under sustaining replenished nutrients be systems required slow able native be to tend soils in sustain to modest plant ecosystems, to lost growth mineral fertility. soil Although declining to loss yield in is of attributed population This large England. the and mass land by small the necessitated cropping yields constant in the with decline the umenting inputs. chemical various yields crop or improving required maintaining observations that ments and ele discovery ofchemical the various with began styles cultivate to science of crops. The fertilization life hunter-gathererstheir first converted plant the residues, salts, etc.,manure, after shortly began ash, with continuously.crops not is generally sufficientraise process to of butart fertilizing this The fertilizers. Hanson, 1980). tant topolarizationandnucleophilicreaction,except inmetal–enzymecomplexes (Clarksonand Elemental phosphorus(P),discovered about1669, exists inwhiteorredmineralformsandisa About the same time, Theodore de Saussure (1767–1845) de Theodore time, same About the upon discoveries built by Antoine materials fertilizer other and manures to plant observed response commonly farmers Although century, doc fourteenth atOxfordEmsley University keeping the record (2000) discusses during down slowly, very makeup, break their in plant nutrients which contain minerals, soil Rocks and plant as consumed are Presently, Pcompounds produced vast of majority the commercially

HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDHISTORICAL that nitrogen (N) and P are plant nutrients taken up by roots and that compost, bone ash, ash, bone compost, that up by and roots taken plant nutrients Pare and nitrogen (N) that Liebig’s Minimum the of Law 4 2− orH 2 PO 4 − . The degree ofprotonationisafunctionpH.Phosphate , which actually originated with Carl Sprengel’s Carl with originated , which actually 4 3− ), ormoretypicallyassociatedwith The Philosophy of Agriculture and and Agriculture of Philosophy The Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook Annals of Agriculture of Annals . In . In ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 tion of mineral P in England. Although not as well documented or known, James Murray of Ireland of Ireland Murray James well not or known, as Although England. documented P in tion of mineral superphosphate. (SSP; single superphosphate was termed 16% P 20% to material powder. bone fertilizer untreated up by This than plants growing taken successfully acid (H sulfuric applied 1840 solubility In phosphate found Germany,poor compound calcium of in therein. Liebig the However, high. was especially application was soil to bones of not efficient pulverized the dueto bones in relatively concentration the that of contained Pand amounts high every thing living was problematic. wastes, that such organic manure, as It was than learned other sources ited Phosphorus to P fertilizer reached a plateau as a result of continued P fertilization and buildup in the soil. the buildup in and aresult aplateau of Pfertilization as continued reached P fertilizer to by massive response plants. scientistsThe Early collectively responses fertilizer to found a limit andcircumstances. soils all rate for itcorrect the that wasdiscusses not find possible to time at that apply to Hall sufficient,(1909) butamounts farmers of not fertilizer, extreme guiding in were vital yield up or until even plateaued rate atexcessivelyizer declined studies rate Although rates. high Pfertil yield increasing with responses apply. to amount curvilinear in resulted these general, In correct the determine to goal the with studies rate locations Pfertilizer conducted scientists at other production.crop Lawes and increased the need for address to scientifica global of use method the what began was become to at Rothamsted Lawes by others observed well farmers. and readily as top producers. the as RussiaMorocco, and recognized of P( source global primary the it century, and mid-twentieth remains the in increased rock production greatly 10-34-0 or 11-37-0) et al., 1999; today (Mortvedt commonly used Wagganman, 1969). Phosphate 11-52-0),(MAP; polyphosphate (APP; phosphate (DAP; ammonium 18-46-0), and diammonium (NH 1960s, ammonia the phate. In N-P (TSP; 0-45-0, superphosphate triple as phosphoric with acid (H replaced production. Eventually, major of phosphate the source fertilizer H Pbecame mineral time, depletion the same of about the world sources After Psources. guano mineral productionto from 1890, in heating elemental Pproduction bone-ash switched submerged-arc furnace from electric the powderbone largely was abandoned. of of applying processing or practice rock apatite phosphate, the acidified the in advances with and of costs recovery, bone associated the and of Because eventual time. scarcity that during P fertilizer for demand the provide in 1909)—actions that some context increase ductivity (Hall, for great the pro of skeletons ever-increasing countries various the feed to agricultural in for demand increased battlefields,izer, for Liebig England suchas robbing European lambasted Waterloo,and catacombs century. twentieth early the and century nineteenth of the half world the latter the up in around sprouted of fertilizer Manufacturers sources. (K) potassium and/or N-rich bat with guano were frequently mixed rials mate Pfertilizer early These of use production effective and widespread the phosphate fertilizers. launched These efforts at Rothamsted. minerals) and as bones were evaluated fertilizers acidified and manures (including animal materials station. Severalcontinuously phosphate-containing run 1843 in Station, established longest Experiment the and now Research renowned Rothamsted Lawes others, with collaboration the extensive conducted estate, ­patent. In at his efforts research butLawes Lawestime, the same filed Murray’sabout for patents purchased eventually He and developed had own version his Liebig to prior effective or Lawes. ofpurportedly an Pfertilizer Although the essentiality of P as a nutrient was known, the plant availability of lim plant availability Pfrom of was anutrient the Pas known, essentiality the Although Crop responses to P fertilization were widespread at experiment stations around the world the as around stations were atexperiment widespread Pfertilization to Crop responses Rockabout and phosphate used was following first introduction of the P 1850make fertilizer, to aPfertil create to bones discovery of acidifying formal the with Interestingly, credited although Lawes John Bennet (1814–1900) afterward, Shortly produc commercial and testing the began Figure 3.1 Figure ). Phosphate mines are on every continent, with the United States, China, China, UnitedStates, on the every with continent, are ). Phosphate mines 2 SO 4 ) to powdered) to was product more resulting showing bones, the that 3 PO 3 ) was reacted with H with ) was reacted 4 ) to create fertilizer with a higher concentration of concentration P, ahigher with fertilizer known create ) to 2 O 5 -K 2 O) or treble, double, superphos or concentrated 3 2 PO O 5 ), also known as normal or ordinary or ordinary normal ), as known also 4 to form monoammonium phosphate monoammonium form to 2 SO 4 was was 67 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 68 as an essential nutrient and its efficient and nutrient as a essential use an fertilizer. as of P understanding is chapter focused upon an of this remainder The resources. lossand of natural the environment to impact the minimizing fiber and forsevenwhile plus peoplebillion Earth on scientistssionals, toward working more efficient and the fuel,provideto use in order the of P food, profes industry issues have These reserves. farmers, depletion in about resulted the of Pmineral well as concerns are There fertilizers. and mostly of use to manures attributed been has water bodies of not did effect surface come without ofizer the its enrichment nutrient years, problems. recent In knowledge scientific use. and their to related Unfortunately, use widespread the of fertilizers fertil of especially, availability inexpensive advent widespread and, the the and of testing soil portation, trans communications, mechanization, breeding, crop irrigation, management, pest in advances plant nutritionandsoil–plantrelationshipsaremadebyKitchen (1948)andRussell(1961). 1894; HanlonandJohnson,1984;Morgan, 1941;Olsenetal.,1954; Truog, 1930). Earlyreviews of nostic determinationofaPconcentrationrelatedtoplant availability (BrayandKurtz, 1945;Dyer, developed withtheintenttoprovide areasonablecorrelationbetweenyieldparametersanddiag pounds in the soil and their variability in solubility and plant availability. Several soil tests were were reexamined. testing soil in for failures aneed apredictive Therefore, test. soil initial creating thus is convenience there planting, to Presponse. prior And of predict to able being used apply to fertilizer beforebe season the tissue in can early occur very often plants, P deficiencies, annual for especially were achieved developed tool be to continues for However, elements used. many This species. and and yield plant tissue and between correlations for range concentration Good species. each of acritical Macy (1936) need. (1905) notion fertilizer the plant atool analysis predict established to as proposed soils, but in it concentration relationship was was discovered soon the nottal predictive. that Hall elemen total the with Pfertilizer to plant response were correlate to efforts focused on attempts Initial of economics well fertilization. as the as responsive fertilizers to which which would soils in plants be of determining upon methods were concentrated then Efforts States. United Utah, 3.1FIGURE The Green Revolution Green The advancements, including of societal of was awide afunction variety Scientists studyingsoilphysical chemistrydiscovered thevarious mineralandorganic Pcom were needed. recommendations Pfertilizer customized that scientists understood and Farmers

The phosphate-rich minerals of the park formation at the Simplot Vernal Mine near Vernal, Vernal, near Simplot Vernal Mine the at formation park of the minerals phosphate-rich The Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 P, flow the the mass low because of in very is majorconcentration not a to contributor uptake poorly soluble are For plant to that roots. nutrients and soil, soil such in the as moving through flow. mass and combination diffusion, of interception, root of upsolution by a afunction as plants solution, taken in occur. to for Once are uptake nutrients elements such, as these must dissolved nutrients” and, be soil their the into havePlants “drink to on Puptake. impact alarge has section, alater in more detail soil. in Soil chemistry,in discussed is relatively Puptake Plant ­ due lessto poor with most efficientnutrients its other compared 3.2.1 3.2 Phosphorus acidic soil conditions, such as blueberry ( acidic conditions, soil such blueberry as benefits health for other pHplants, except has require that optimum Growing atan for species uptake. and plant Pavailability (pH maximize to 7) neutral soils, it pH soil near to is helpful raise to of case strongly including the by by acidic pH. and In management plants impacts, rhizosphere the absorption. in P flow,aiding mass with in ners interception androot diffusion, part are it exchange, mechanisms ligand via of available these all for making Again, plant uptake. minerals soil (and oxalate, Pfrom displace roots exuded and from can citrate microorganisms) also acids, suchas anyOrganic growing in season. one significantly pH soil not changing generally bulk the with localized, on pH soil are impacts These compounds. these surrounding immediately soil the in impact have can asimilar amendments soil and fertilizers soils. Acidifying calcareous and for releasing by Pbound (Ca) calcium important alkaline cially (Mg), in magnesium and especially espe be action can lower that acids This organic rhizosphere. exuding and protons the roots pH in is on pH, soil with impacts main of One nutrients. the other of availability Pand the affects then givesnisms aflawedview of uptake. nutrient two mecha these separating and diffusion with partner is avital interception root is that reality the (1980, Barber Although Puptake, to contributor small is avery 1995) interception root that claims supply the as quickly. of Pis exhausted easily solubilized any one decreases locale in of diffusion efficiency the and 2012;Marschner, only about 0.5 mm Sposito, diffuse 2008). can Phosphorus et al., expansion 1985; root (Kissel for is vital continual uptake nutrient Lindsay,is important, 2001; ity, andpathway tortuosity(Barber, 1977). impacted bycropspeciesandmany soilfactors, includingtemperature,water, Pbuffering capac provides ~92.5%ofPcompared withonlyabout2.5%formassflow. However, thispercentageis for P because mass flow contributions are minimal. Barber (1980, 1995) calculates that diffusion the movement ofnutrientstoward plantroots. This processofdiffusion isrelatively moreimportant concentration toward theareaoflow concentrationinordertoachieve equilibrium,thushastening sphere isnotchemicallystable,andasaresult,dissolved ionswillmove fromtheareaofhighsalt The gradientof high saltconcentrationinthe bulk soilcompared to thelower levels in the rhizo rhizospherezonenear plantroots. process createsazoneofnutrientsaltdepletioninthe0.2–1 mm Therefore, plantsactively selectandtake upmany ofthenutrientsthey need—includingP. This relations. Plants,however, needahigheramountofnutrientsthan issuppliedviathismechanism. macronutrient. primary for ofis quantities not intensive this large adequate need plants production, as crop flow apoplast.root the intoHowever, amount of minuscule P this that it is well documented 0.05 is less mg kg than commonly and solution.soil of solution, concentration Pin The even exceeds soils, rarely 1mg kg fertile in Hopkins et al. (2014) et al. Hopkins of modifications afunction for on as plant review Pavailability impacts the of which soil, exert they new aconsiderable encounter rhizosphere, areas on roots the As impact However, interception. root to 5% is attributed of of Puptake remaining P diffusion The although Mass flow is a passive process, with nutrients being carried into the plant as a function of water of water the stream in flowMass the dissolved simple is of process being carried nutrients UPTAKE OFPHOSPHORUS BY PLANTS S oil –P lant I nteraction s I m p acting −1 . This small amount of dissolved amount move small Pdoes . This mass via Vaccinium Vaccinium U p take spp . L.) ( azalea and Rhododendron solubility spp. L.). 69 −1 - - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 of irrigation (snowof irrigation low melt other and waters) reality soil, but EC the work acidify to constantly all sources pure precipitation and replacement ofthe (Ca, bases natural Mg, Hfrom with K) Na, and (NH (especially ammonium with fertilization microbes, bytons and plants exorbitantly CO the are and high required materials of acidifying rates water. the cases, these most irrigation in In and soils calcareous in as (CO of carbonate is asuperabundance when there especially most circumstances, in soils line et However, al., 2007). (Horneck pH of the alka materials modify to attempt to it is not practical possible issoil also addition of elemental the S, with H humus. in slightly exception to high the acidic soils, with whichneutral are of Chernozems, with P solubility have to known compared pH soils are limited strongly alkaline Similarly, most 70 (Fixen and Bruulsema, 2014). Bruulsema, and (Fixen (~99%)majority of unexplored, volume soil even density remains length root by high with species however, root; each cylinder around uptake nutrient of the diameter it vast is noteworthy the that the of extends and the uptake in mycorrhizae beneficial hairs presence The especially root of P. are and uptake nutrient water and facilitate Mycorrhizae rhizosphere. root the past several centimeters soil extend long-stranded the bodies into their and Robinson, cells root 1986). penetrate fungi These et al., 2014; (Hopkins fungi symbiotic mycorrhizal with association through plant species many in increased further be extremewhen Pdeficiency. can under grown area the surface addition, In However, (1987) et al. Clarkson reversed barley could be in ( trend found this that ( soil-grown in corn found Puptake that (1989) et al. Ernst roots. of the area effectively and cells absorptive surface the epidermal increase 2012a). existactively (White, extensions where hairs as root serve roots growing of Root the hairs cap) root of (hardened calyptra the region the just in behind is greatest uptake nutrient general, In a 3.2.2 reproductive to applied being tissue growth. plant resources in shift slows growth root and/or due tissues occurs a to vascular pathogen of as and infection season root notis recoverable. done and relatively become also deficiencies Phosphorus the late in can common relieve effectdamage can the but early-seasonimpacts, Pdeficiencyoften these multifaceted dueto (Gardner, 1984; Davis, and Lingle 1959; et al., 1960; et Locascio al., 1964). Lorenz temperature This simultaneously, and, explore matter roots organic of and soil new areas of minerals soil Pfrom quicken release and the increase microbes and of soil, roots, most rates in reactions the soil warms, the As is minimal. growth root cool and when season growing are soils the in early more common of P deficienciesDeficiency season. functionof time of a is is occurrence such,relativelyoften the occurs. condition soil acidic an and have direction other anegative the in far pH too on is Psolubility swung the impact if (Lindsay,applied usingsoil strongcan acids 2001). lowering the pH of of the alkaline Furthermore, are of fertilizer sources eventually may form even be traditional less after soluble formed those than cycles 1976), afew (Thien, long-term that the wetting–drying precipitates after pH and rebounds P-use efficiency(PUE). increased However, short-term result in can and band the pHsoil in the soil such H as strongly with acid band Pfertilizers, concentrated in a Fertilization rhizosphere. the Psolubilitymicrositesin is pH modification of soil enhance to lower pH. soil bulk the to attempting than (Zn)] pH, such zinc high rather soils as these to select to adapted species and by impacted similarly [along relativelyadd are that nutrients of other with Pfertilizer rates higher is soils to for alkaline management strategy Therefore, the preventing pH occurring. change from favor in lies balance of soils, the CO alkaline most in cases in is that Adjusting acidic soil pH is well studied and commonly performed. Adjusting pH of the Adjusting ­ performed. commonly acidic pH soil is well and studied The rate of many of these chemical, and all biological, reactions is impacted by temperature. As As biological, by temperature. all is impacted reactions and of chemical, of many rate these The approach another most circumstances, in is soil not practical loweringAlthough pH of the alkaline bsor p tion

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Zea mays Zea by R 3 2− oots buffers the pH against change. exudation pH of against The the pro buffers L.) was reduced as distance from the tip increased. increased. tip the from L.) distance as was reduced 2 SO 4 , and other strong acids and acid- and strong acids other , and 3 PO 4 , temporarily lowers microsite the , temporarily Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook 3 2− accumulating in soil and and soil in accumulating 4 + )-based materials), and )-based Hordeum vulgare Hordeum alkaline alkaline forming ­forming L.) L.) 3 2− - ) - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 membranes. This routeresults inthegreatestcontrolover whichatomsandmoleculesaretransported. route involves membranetransportbetweensomecellandorganelles, includingacrossthevacuole between connectedcellswithoutcrossingany additionalmembranes.However, thetransmembrane between cells(plasmodesmata).Onceaphosphateionisinsidethecell,itpossibletobetransported P crossingacellmembraneintothecytoplasm whereitmoves celltoviaconnective channels does notincludethecrossingofany cellularmembranes.Incontrast,thesymplasticroutebegins with particles fromenteringtheroots. The apoplasticrouteincludesmovement throughthesespaces,which cells andthe porous lattice network of cellwalls, which serve as a filter toprevent soil andotherlarge The apoplast is the free diffusional space outside the plasma membrane, consisting of gaps between vascular tissueforupward transport,namely, theapoplastic,symplastic,andtransmembraneroutes. Phosphorus the plasma membranes of epidermal, cortical, and endodermal cells contain various proton pumps proton pumps various contain cells endodermal and cortical, of plasma epidermal, membranes the (and exclude elements) other soil. To the atlevels in are active facilitate transport, much than higher some enable ­ to accumulate to plants is required energy)ing membranes root the across (at mg plant L is thousandfold cells in greater concentration least 50–500 cells. Forroot example, solution soil in Pconcentration 0.050 although is likely less mg than L in agradient for against accumulation salt of is required energy expenditure such, as an and plant, severdevelop system. membrane the temporarily and it developed as is not branches root fully apex is not root perfect, or when atthe seal lateral dermal stele. the reach to cells however, It should noted, be protoplasts endodermal of the endo this that and plasma membranes the apoplasm molecules must the Atoms through and pass from root. the apoplastic solute solvent and movement minimizes of that interior the into suberin with entrenched walls connecting with endodermis, cylinder of of the the strips Casparian by lipophilic the is halted stele. the Apoplastic movement layer surrounding cortex root inner the of is an in cells endodermis The endodermis. the through and to symplastically vast but cells, is transported majority the these by plant. the of utilized amuch being probability has higher orthophosphate apoplasm, the the in soluble, lowremaining apoplasm. ofdue acid concentration the to Once the organic high pH and itof a much probability environment, has higher protected this in dissociates then it so and If does apoplasm. enter the it membranes, will cell cross to phosphate large may ester too the be Although it plant notunless is resolubilized. enter the P will precipitated the occurs, reaction solution. this If soil bulk unprotected the in such phosphate, it aprecipitate, calcium if as of dissociates forming For example,transformations. aphosphate ion cleaved probability ahigh aphosphate has ester from for environment chemical conditions allow that aprotected apoplasm where the ing it is theorized some cases. membranes, althoughplantscanabsorbcertainsolubleorganic Pforms,suchasnucleicacids,in the onlysignificantformsofphosphateinasmallenoughmolecularformtobetransportedacross (Ratjen andGerendás,2009). The mono-anddiprotonatedphosphateions(HPO tal toplantsthatarealreadydeficientinphosphateasitisananaloginhibitsuptake Phosphite (PO sively initsmosthighly oxidizedformasphosphate. This formistaken upandutilized byplants. membranes viathesymplasticortransmembraneroutes.Phosphorusexists innaturealmostexclu 2012a). vacuole the across (White, rates membrane slower for ions other (e.g., than NH ( of exchange rate half-time The pathways endodermis. changing the before reaching atany time any combination, via even transported aphosphate be molecule and can connected routes are t {1/2} Once Pencounterstheexterior rootsurface, itcanfollow threepathways initsjourney totheroot In nonsaline soils, the mineral ion salt concentration in the soil water soil is much the ion in lower concentration salt the in mineral than soils, the nonsaline In by utilized are cells cortical and Some outer epidermal phosphate root ion the molecules entering However, plant by the into enter journey the begin slightly can phosphate larger compounds Water andlow-molecular-weight solutesaretypicallytheonlycompoundstransportedacross these of transport, mechanisms separate and distinct as of these convenientAlthough think to ) between external ions and the cytoplasm is between 23 and 115 min cytoplasm 23 is and between ions the for and external ) phosphate,between which is 3 3− ), amorereduced oxide ofP, also can betaken upbyplants,but itcanbedetrimen 4 + is 7–14 min), lower but of exchange is orders magnitude than −1 ). (requir Active transport 4 2− andH 2 PO nutrients nutrients 4 −1 − ) are , the , the 71 - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 a 3.2.3 plants. in of form uptake dominant is the system of soil–root Ptransportation uses. This plant for the essential throughout able transported be to are they point, xylem At this parenchyma. xylem the into actively vessels loaded allow entrance or are xylem or tracheids the into the from system, where previously pits vascular encounter they that the to mechanisms described) same the root. the in proteins of P, uptake the transport nutrient increase these by stimulating selective on working ways are currently for proteins to are phosphate. Researchers transporter these gradients. Some including of concentration ions, specific large phosphate, against transport that 72 Summerhays et al., 2014). This darkening or purpling is due to the accumulation of photosynthates 2010a,b,c, 2011; Bennett,1993;Hecht-Buchholz, 1967;Hilletal.,2014a,b; Nicholsetal.,2012; ment ofdarkgreenorpurpling ofleaves andstemsisreportedfor P-deficientplants(Barbenetal., generally expressed intermsofdecreasedchlorophyll production(chlorosis).Rather, thedevelop every physiological plants. in process involvement widespread perspective, pH Phas buffers. From acellular cellular as serve virtually in also or organic, Phosphates, inorganic of Pstorage seeds. myoinositol in primary phosphate, is the hexaphosphate catalysis. the Phytic acid, ester enzymatic in ligand essential Pis an monoester form, component of nucleic acids, nucleotides, in phosphoproteins. When phospholipids, and coenzymes, is involved Bole, and division 1975). and (Dubetz signaling cell Pis astructural in Furthermore, and processes, metabolic in phosphorylation,activityregulates activates proteins, enzyme modifies P. require organisms living P addition, in reactions In energy-requiring tion Therefore, reactions. all respira (ADP in ATP) and and photosynthesis energy convert to in chemical to used light energy 2005; Young Westermann, et al., 2004; Stark et al., 1985). et al., 2001; 2010a,b,c,2005; Grant et al., 2008, Hopkins 2014; 2012; Marschner, 1980; Ozanne, 1993; yields crop (Bennett, management nutrient for Bundy in achieving maximum et al.,P is vital (S),[sulfur Mg, especially, P. as plants or equivalent and, in athigher Ca] concentrations often are macronutrients secondary always the concentrations, nutrient Kalmost and have mineral highest the N Although in plants. concentration deficient mosttheir commonly andbecause of not are they since N, P, such macronutrients, as designated are K, and out any substitute primary for The its functions. cycles life complete to plants by their with all and elements is one essential ofPhosphorus required the 3.3 occur. applications, soil can but Pabsorption than Pneeds supplying adequate sensitive with contact in be tissues. notTherefore,can leaf more efficient foliar P applications are in amount that of the salt to limit is aAlso, there efficientnot as occur,absorption. butroot with as are cuticle the of leaves. through or pass to actions stream These transpirational the against it diffuse to of therefore, Prequires foliar uptake and, stream of transpirational exiting process the via the is in easily or blown off leaves. have roots while Second, evolved water, in aplant water leaf in the take to for disadvantages of P. foliar absorption fundamental Pis washed are First, there that realize to tant previously described. phosphate transporters and mechanisms transport various the with complete transport, root to is similar internally. transport Foliar absorbed be onto plant can shoots for soil However, Pis washed the uptake. into root fertigated of the of Pdeposited amount asmall water (fertigation).irrigation a majority water small, is very applied of irrigation amount Unless the leaves to into foliar spray or injected adilute stems directly as applied and is sometimes Fertilizer Once past the endodermis, phosphate ions are further transported across stele across (through cells transported further phosphate ions are endodermis, the past Once The visualresponsewhenP isdeficient very different thanforother nutrients—whichare role bioenergetics, is in of plants P in central it as isThe a component phosphates adenosine of the is involvedPhosphorus horticulture, agronomy every and cell. In in living phase every in growth application plant.Phosphorus However, leaves to the in Paccumulation result in does it is impor PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OFPLANTS TO PHOSPHORUS bsor p tion

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by S hoots Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 Phosphorus sis of leaves. (Photograph bysis of A.V. leaves. (Photograph Barker.) 3.3 FIGURE McMurtrey, 1948; Wallace, 1961). Although notgenerallyeasilydiscernedfromavisualperspective, overall shootgrowth withsymptomsvarying with plant species(Bingham,1966;Hambridge,1941; red (Figure3.3).Buttheseleafcolorationdifferences arerare,andthemainvisualsymptomisless Most speciesaremorelikely toshow adarkgreencolorofleaves or shootsratherthanpurpleor a yieldresponsetoPfertilizerforcropswithoutany purplingorotherobvious visualsymptoms. especially forcorn(Figure3.2),asevidence ofPdeficiency; however, itis far morecommontohave but visualsymptomsaretheexception ratherthantherule. The shootpurplingisfrequentlycited, overcoming any development ofchlorosis(Hecht-Buchholz,1967). and Terry, 1989)withthecombinationofslow growth andaccumulationoftheseothercompounds not generallyoccuruntiladvanced stagesofdeficiency andconcentration,in fact, canincrease(Rao in theplant.Reductionamountofchlorophyll, commontomostothernutrientdeficiencies,does and anthocyanin, which arebeinginefficientlyutilizedduetoreducedsupplyofchemicalenergy by of A.V. leaves. necrosis (Photograph and Barker.) 3.2 FIGURE It would beconvenient ifobvious visualsymptomswerealways apparentwithplantPdeficiency,

(See color insert.) (See (See color insert.) (See Phosphorus-deficient cucumber ( cucumber Phosphorus-deficient Phosphorus-deficient corn ( corn Phosphorus-deficient Zea mays Zea Cucumis sativus L.) showing discoloration, chlorosis, L.) chlorosis, showing discoloration, L.) necro showing early 73 - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 decreased, but root growth continued due to P translocation to roots under P-deficient under roots to conditions. due Ptranslocation to continued but growth root decreased, stylo ( forage and legume Caribbean crop the in that 1991). Narayanan, and (Anuradha increase maycells actually (1990) et al. fact, Smith In found deficiency.of P signaling P-deficientan apparent in plants Additionally, the elongationroot rate of et al., 1989). (Fredeen ratio of shoot/root roots the the in in accumulate to increase Sucrose tends conductivity isdecreasedduetoadecreaseingenesencodingaquaporins(Clarksonetal.,2000). formation (BarryandMiller, 1989;BouldandParfitt, 1973;Rossiter, 1978). Also,root hydraulic sues alsoareimpactedbyPdeficiency duetodelaysinflower initiation, flower number, andseed 1991). The zoneofcelldivision isreducedincorn(Assueroetal.,2004).Reproductiveet al., tis P-deficient plants show suppressions in leaf expansion (Fredeen et al., 1989) and number (Lynch 74 that there is a general response with high concentration of sucrose in phloem, an action that results results action that an phloem, of concentration in sucrose high with response is ageneral there that asignal. It as is known acts phloem the in microRNA of and sucrose transport increased that and factor atranscription through low-P acomplex cascade that initiates regulatory status root theorized 2008). 2012a,b; It is Hammond, and (White, shoot P status and White root between interplay the by derived is signals controlled from response biochemical 2008). This Hammond, and (White ers of proton-coupled Ptransport genes encoding transcription the in increase an with is correlated and plants P is from withheld element. the after For example, increases obtain to capacity P uptake ability the and plant Prequirement greatly impact can that characteristics inherited tions of these varia genetically, controlled are of are plants there and properties uptake and needs various The acquisition for and of its Pto progeny need information its DNA. in necessary the A plant passes g 3.4.1 3.4 less sensitivepotato. Pdeficiency to than deficiencyin mild with resulting scenario more common 2011; 1993; Bennett, 2012; Marschner, Nichols et al., 2012). et al., 2010a,b,c, (Barben shoots therefore, stunted and, internodes only shortened and differences 2008). Westermann, However, and et al., 2003; Stark it is have to most common no evident color 1993; tissue (Bennett, leaf 2012; of the Marschner, greening Stark adark but as more commonly ( occur et al., 2014). (Hopkins some cases in slight stunting than deficiencyother visual do symptoms When canopy the in indications visual yields have apparent to more common no with readily restricted susceptiblevery P deficiency, to rarely plants, it other showsIn like fact, it symptoms. is muchvisual in a emergenceduration. area resulting is Evenafter thoughpotato 8 in first leaf 17%weeks increase maturity). Watson Dyson and the (1971) index during area leaf Pimpacted adequate that reported (set,plant parts), yield well quality as gravity, tuber number, as and size, specific synthesis, starch (2014) all growth of and size (leaf reviewedand of shoots Pdeficiency impacts roots the potato on 2014; P deficiencyand (FixenBruulsema, al., et 2014; Hopkins al.,Rosen et 2014). al. et Hopkins 1985), Kleinkopf, and 2005; Westermann situation. the exacerbating thus et al., 2005; Westermann, pathogens (Lambert tissue–damaging vascular and root to susceptibility or growth root deficiencywith P limited the is if enough to situation cause extreme magnified be slow-growing systems root effectively. soil unable expand to the into Ironically,situation can the cold when or water season growing of are soils logged the have and part early small, the mon in more soil effectively the mine enable to plants of these P(Hawkesford et al., 2012). for most common P-impoverished on clusters growing the plants some root species, are In and soils Root growth also can be restricted with Pdeficiency, with an restricted be in can resulting shoots, also butRootthan growth less so This situation, with extreme deficiency resulting in easily observable visual symptoms and the and situation, extreme with deficiency easily in symptoms observable visual This resulting ( Potato of interception dependent P, upon root are plants Because deficienciesrelatively are com more GENETICS OFPHOSPHORUS NEED AND ACQUISITION BY PLANTS Figure 3.2 Figure enetic Solanum tuberosum Solanum ), they appear as purpling in extreme circumstances (Barben et al., 2010a,b,c, (Barben extreme circumstances in 2011) purpling as ), appear they C ontrol L.) is arguably the crop species with the greatest susceptibility to to susceptibility greatest L.) the with species crop the is arguably Stylosanthes hamata Stylosanthes hidden hungerhidden Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook , is also true for crops other true , is also Taub.), shoot growth - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 1983).in genes root conductivity Pdeficiencyhydraulic duedecrease to a decreases Furthermore, solutions where Ptoxicity Psupply in Clarkson, (Cogliatti change resulting and dramatically, can consideration for off, nutrient butnisms in growing plants not immediately, important which is an on or off of PdeficiencyResupply mecha these P mechanisms. shutsresponse adequate of turning the regulates roots to translocation their and in shoots compounds microRNA duction of specific (2012b) White Puptake. regulate to back roots to pro that states also transported being shoots in et al., 1984; 2012a,b). White, Saker, and 1984; (Drew roots the in Drew than by controlled rather shoot Pconcentration Pand to (NO for nitrate expression the biomass upregulates root of and transporters genes encoding greater in Phosphorus their intense cultivation. intense their despite which provide rarely Pfertilization to aresponse turfgrasses, the are need of Pfertilization end spectrum of world other the At the Pnutrition needs. its unique very food and crop important an as below. discussed of emphasis its because importance are of apoint be special also will Potato but some differences known behave corn, key to crops other Many species. ofon this similarly the available data of research abundance sheer is moderately due the to responsive Pfertilization, to which well. focus is alarge as species on Pnutrition is to focused corn, There regard on these with UnitedStates. the in crop one irrigated number the being towns and and cities species) all all grownin across turfgrass being (combined with is significant, landscapes urban in Use aesthetics. and of fertilizers is use for land functionality predominant production, the for some food fertilizers use developing landscapes in sources urban Although main countries. the ( sava developed in cas crop with tuber countries, and root high-starch predominant is Potato the sugars. ( ( lowed ( by rapeseed developed in crop fol oil developed in leading Soybean countries, is the especially countries. feed, ( Merr.) Alfalfa feedstuffs. largely for used animal it soybean ( with UnitedStates, and the in grown species dominant is the Corn tries. ( developed rice consumption in and human countries for direct provide crops worldwide, most by calories the crop far leading grain the wheat with being Cereal 3.4.2 most with nativecompared species. of for study is higher degree these the and on them, of use fertilizer value the economic and their offocusfollowing, because examples with a few from primary the key are species. Crop species the in discussed briefly are differences These reserves. Pfertilizer mineral conserve production and genetic of increase to plants alteration and crop knowledge exploited be this can breeding the in interesting, but scientifically plant differences biomass. these Not total plant only and tissues are Rengel, and of systems root 1997), (Pearson well in as architecture Pconcentrations as and ogy efficiency, association microbial to generally tied be and can morphol root Differences exudates, pathways by signaling P-starvation triggered et al., (Rolland 2006). et al., 2006) (Lambers cies. Hawkesford (2012) et al. wide of range adaptive the discuss of Pdeficiency responses to plants spe within and across expressed differentially but are Puptake enhanced facilitate responses these of morphology, root acids. All organic release of and and phosphatases, protons, Pmetabolism, (Clarkson et al., 2000). aquaporins encoding Saccharum officinarum Elaeus Drew and Saker (1984) Saker Drew and (1984) Drew et al. and of excess mechanism P aregulatory proposed The vast majority of P fertilizer is applied on these species and, as such, most of the research such, as most research of and, the species on is applied these vast of majority The Pfertilizer significant. are species within acquisition and for and across differences Pneed Genetic biomassratio, shoot/root influences plant plant Pstatus that (2008) stated Hammond and White 3 − Manihot esculenta ), PO ), spp. and D ifferences 4 3− , sulfate (SO, sulfate Attalea maripa Attalea Brassica napus Brassica

acro L.) followed closely sweet ( and by potato potato L.) ( beet sugar and 4 ss 2− S ), NH ), p Mart.) are the leading oil crops in developing in crops oil leading Sugarcane the countries. Mart.) are ecies 4 + L.) sunflower and ( , K + , and iron (Fe iron , and Beta vulgarisBeta Medicago sativa 2+ Helianthus annuus , Fe , L.) are the dominant sources of refined of refined sources L.) dominant the are 3+ ), but there are fine controls specific controls specific fine ), are but there Oryza sativa Oryza L.) is also used widely as animal L.) widely used is animal also as Ipomoea batatas L.). palm Soybean and L.) developing in coun Glycine max Glycine Lam.) as 75 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 an enormous need for need supplemental by enormous achieve Pto society.an yields high required have these forAs seven such,plants fiber planet. people food, fuel, and than this for on more billion have demand most tremendous species grow to crop rapidly the contrast, bred meet to In been time. down slowly very break available become rock minerals as Pthat over mineralized of naturally low the with quantities surviving to adapted such, as are and, J. Forbes), not fertilized are typically ( fir such Cascade plants. as Natively areas, wildland in species grown and architecture. especially, and, morphology root interactions, biomass production, microbial total concentration, acquisition efficiencytissuein complexis a differences andbetween phenotypic interaction genetic 76 tributes up to 90% of total P uptake (Föhse et al., (Föhse 1991). P uptake of up 90% to total tributes a relatively has Potato length root total high Psupply soil due When alow to is low, of hairs. number root con of hairs reach expanded root the low avery low had more importantly, rates shoot to and, ratio root Pinflux 80%. carrot and Potato low very under grown cabbage to contrast Pcondition, ( in ( carrot and potato density for potato. wheat was than fourfold greater five other For the majorroot the example,compared. crop species than amount sity by asubstantial Tanaka (1990),and the having lowest potato with findings, den root Iwama and (2008) similar had more deeply. root crops most Tanner whereas other and (1976),top 25 cm, Lesczynski Yamaguchi the of in of length 90% soil, with root top 60 cm reside the in roots offound amajority potato that Tanner others. (1982)of et al. the all shallower and less be to dense, than less branched, roots potato 1990). Weaver density of and several found major and (1926) crops architecture root the studied Pursglove 1981; Sanders, and et al., 1990; Sattelmacher Tanner et al., 1982; Yamaguchi Tanaka and Porter, 1999; and 2005;et al., Opena et al., Pack Pan 1998; et al., 2006; Stockle, 2002; and Peralta (Asfary et al., 1983; Puptake to regard Tanner, and 1976; Lesczynski Love et al., 2003; Munoz 2001). Habte, and tion (Miyasaka ashallow, has Potato poorly effective with system, root especially an is considered be to potato corn, to contrast In 3.4.3 effective. be may also latter the although length, of unit root per Puptake increased than expansion rather soil root the in focused on be to increased ciency. ought Pefficiency corn in for most likely the for success increased that It breeding seems havingreason the relativelyhybrids rate corn for were Pinflux alesser to degree, highand, P effi low when ratio in grown the versus Pconditions. (1970) high et Baker al. depth found rooting that doubling some with genotypes when ratio root/shoot Pis limited, the by response increasing stress example of P-use-efficiental. amodestly high et Schenk plant. employs(1979)corn that a reported al.,(Föhse et highratio root/shoot and/or a have PUE 1988). high with P influx a high an is Corn available soil. Plants and/or applied the in total the with up byable compared plants Ptaken soil for example.corn, most noncrop is much native faster slower than while trees, trees, than for fruit rate these growth it newlyto day translocate per store to tissues. P and the Also, forming perennials of these ability eveninfrequently when Pis soil low due the to (Childers, 1966). lack of is partially response This of leaves have respond Pfertilizer to species that regrown year. each deciduous be to fruit Other ( apple example out. slow-growing is with Another pointed such adwarf been as already perennials, has corn for and well. as difference potato species crop The across differences large are there plants, In general, plants that grow slowly that plants general, In rapidlygrowing Pdeficient less likely become to than are and Pneed to regard with species within and across differences large are there that reason The In addition, potato has fewer root hairs than most other crops. Dechassa et al. (2003) et al. crops. Dechassa most other found fewer than that has potato addition, In hairs root or bioavail percentage the of which is fertilizer PUE, their of terms classifiedin be can Plants have generally crops natively with Although relatively compared grown needs Puptake high Malus domestica P otato I s Daucus carota Daucus

an I Borkh.), having arelatively low despite having Pdemand canopy alarge nefficient L.) yielded only 16% 4%, and respectively, when of maximum R esp on d er inefficient inefficient responder Brassica oleracea Brassica Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook when it comes Pfertiliza to Abies amabilis amabilis Abies var var capitata Douglas ex Douglas L.) at - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 K (Carpenter, 1963; et al., 1981; Kleinkopf 1947; Lorenz, et al., 1991; Roberts Soltanpour, 1969). cycle growing the is either in up Nor later than taken be to Pcontinues potato crops. Furthermore, other with compared season growing the of in P later proportion up a greater takes potato that 2014). Bruulsema, and (Fixen season growing the in earlier However, Jacob (1949) et al. observed Prelatively accumulate that species other many to contrast is in that aresponse is atits highest, (Yamaguchi, species crop 2002). for most other only about 21% comprising 30%–60% with hairs compared mass, root total of the 2001). Allen, and (Stalham However, forroot to reason Pefficiency its poor main is attributed the vegetables. However, rape oilseed wheat and winter density than length root it 50% less has total density, more P-efficient as ( same cotton about the Phosphorus applied only after initial establishment. Fortunately, its surface-feeding rooting efficiency Fortunately, rooting enables establishment. its surface-feeding initial onlyapplied after surface be Pcan is that perennials other many and challenge for The this harvest. crop through of years Premoval after low with soil when Plevels—especially in test soil grown moderate to hay over responsive is very harvested such,removed As the alfalfa time. Pfertilizers to through of Pare amounts large that in ment. is unique However, and aperennial as is grown species this thusdeficienciesby P impacted is and less at isefficientestablish very soil and feeding at surface common. are rings cambial thinner and As a result, yield deficiencies early-seasondueto deficiencies P the causeddevelopment by of fewer nutrient-rich the topsoil is left largely is that unexplored strategy growth for root severalthis weeks. water supply. adequate ensure to effort an several in weeks of negative growth The by-product of largely ataproot downward vastly sending species, most to different other for are ogy first the Nishomoto et al., 1977; Sanchez, 1990). extreme (Alt, not as generally although 1987;need, Greenwood et al., 1980; Barber, Itoh 1983; and relatively their in Fast-growing, P potato to high vegetable short-season similar often are crops 3.4.4 examined. be to need that species most other from genetic unique differences has potato except levels test which optimum potato, has of 61–200 mg kg (Bray 16 P1) between so forth, 50 and mg kg and upon texture soil depending at, et al., 2004). Similarly, University levels the optimum of Wisconsin recommends for P test soil 252 from for ranges rate 493 kg to potato P maximum the whereas is 134 kg rate P fertilizer recommended maximum the states, these In Pacific the Northwest in states. production occurs of majority alarge potato United States, For example, the requires. in potato of Pthat amount the about half require species crop most other shows recommendations that fertilizer Asurvey university ofenvironments. state research–based kg P 400 et al., 2014). than higher be can rates Fertilizer 2014; et al., 2014; Hopkins 1997; Speth, and Kelling et al., 1999; Lang et al., Moorhead 1998; Rosen cutofftest Bruulsema, levels and for (Fixen crops other globally much than higher for are potato efficiency,likelyimprovesalso which P uptake. water uptake due better to improved cultivars with resistance drought potato breed approach to (2011) et al. production. cite They Deguchi hair root systems increased root and using this already (2014) for improved could be more byextensive potato suggest breeding in it PUE that is likely that of systems, P. translocation negatively vascular and and root uptake the et al. Thornton impacting the may light of pathogens to degrade in its that susceptibility fordisadvantage especially potato, about 80 days emergence et al., 1998). after (Kelling after uptake tional situation is asignificant This N shows whereas season, any addi the if little throughout steadily progresses uptake Phosphorus Furthermore, the root system for potato tends to decline in the late season when P demand when season Pdemand late the in system root decline to the for tends potato Furthermore, Alfalfa is also a taprooted species, but it has more balanced growth early in its establishment its establishment in early growth but species, it more balanced has ataprooted is also Alfalfa morphol and architecture Its root Pnutrition beet. is to sugar regard with species A contrasting soil and recommendations possibly aresult and As of fertilizer these genetic other differences, U niq u e D ifferences

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acro 2 O 2 O −1 5 ss ha 5 (Laboski and 2012).Peters, and (Laboski Truly, ha S 2 −1 p O −1 ecies in long-season, in high-yielding 5 for corn (Brown for et al., 2010), corn ha L.), sugar beet, and many L.), and many beet, sugar −1 (Lang et al., 1999; (Lang Stark −1 −1 for crops various 77 - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 total P as a function of relatively afunction Pas total lower biomass yield. up less but take needs Pfertilization of their terms in approachcorn grains most other and rice and crop. Wheat corn of the directly, plant soybean remnants crop off of feed to allowing the the the to growers with not applying often corn, with any supplemental rotation grow Pfertilizer soybean in it to United States, P-rich is common the the topsoil. due soil In in of amajority to being in its roots relatively but crops, less most shallow it extensive other and and is efficient corn recovery atP than system Its root Puptake. is less thus, total and, corn biomass muchhas production than less total soil. the into not incorporated izer applications broadcast less of atPrecovery from adept fertil are species when approach other this 78 (Wagganman, 1969).(Wagganman, more explored. soil and deeper of longer the active The time growth, root the (Olsen half was et al., almost of 1954) growth duration root the “Atlantic” to for compared “Cara” development of and active 2001). time growth ferences the root Allen, in and (Stalham For example, Burbank.” “Russet or yield atalower maximum “Shepody” level reaching Russet” than “Premier and of Pfertilization efficientand root system. McCollum “Ranger Russet” findings (1978a,b)with similar reported due cultivated its to more extensive other varieties than muchwith Prequirement lower fertilizer even efficiency an cultivar has greater Alturas released recently The of PUE. terms in varieties widely cultivar. (2014) et al. Russet grown Burbank Thornton potato among differences report its to less being responsive contribute the which maturity, both earlier density Pthan to root and (2014) et al., et al. 2008). Thornton Shepody greater cultivar has the 2003; Thorton that report 1999; Ali, et al., Moorhead and 1998;Jenkins et al., 1967; Murphy et al., Sanderson 2002, Sanchez andEl-Hout,1995). lettuce ( ditions, themagnitudeofdifference was significant.Buso andBliss(71)showed differences across evaluated five corngenotypes,andalthoughallincreasedtheroot/shootratiounder P-deficientcon Differences inPefficiency arenotonlyobserved acrossspecies, but alsowithin.Schenketal.(1979) 3.4.5 well systems root established. are their and is reached is relatively establishment when maturity during than P need higher systems, the and situations have These without plants extensive performed. are sodding root and seeding frequent mowing). soil during exception The would fields newly fields be and where sports seeded/sodded the to returned (especially clippings if are for Pfertilization several without years supplementary longsuppression As bioavailable growth. as in Pis not extremely go low, often can turf established for without years many go yet often aweek, without and multiple in Pfertilization can they times most intensively the among are species removal cultivated with often plants, of mowing clippings over invasive of biomass for production, turfgrass any type managed not typically weeds. Although modestly with soil low in grown species P levels residual turfgrass have often acompetitive edge fact, In top for few need Pfertilization. little P-rich very of cm factors result in the topsoil. These of much lower terms in differ biomass the production. only Additionally, in root to tend turfgrasses available not readily or affordable indigenous to are populations. where fertilizers soil, which regions enables less fertile in in grown it successfully of thrive to be to its ability terms in fibrous to sorghum root system. dueCassava plants this to crop most other is than soil similar extremelyand fibrous extensive root system.effectivelyroots Sorghum explore a larger volume of bicolor Soybean is another major worldSoybean is another crop, Soybean but of it Pneed. is somewhat terms in unique Potato cultivars differ in total root length density and depth of soil penetration due mostly of penetration soil depth dif to density and length root total in cultivarsPotato differ et al., 1998; for yield (Freeman Varietal differences potato Phave to response measured been have also species and fibrous very efficient root turfgrass systems. sorghum, Like However, they ( sorghum biomass canopy architecture, in production and corn to similar Although Moench) relatively application, in due its to thrives less with soils fertilizer less fertile Lactuca sativa D ifferences

within L.)varieties, althoughothersfoundlittledifference (Nagata etal.,1992; S p ecies Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook Sorghum Sorghum - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 diseases, including common scab ( scab including common diseases, et al., 2014).Thornton potato severitythe severalof important deficiencyincrease Phosphorus can (Rosen et al., its to 2014; explanation Pneed respect the with of is unique species whypartly this have can susceptibility amajor on Pnutrition. impact disease in differences of move to versa. vice plants such, As and varietal shoots inability to in roots Pfrom P, plant of encounter to the ability result tissues the vascular infect pathogenstissue limit that and root degrade and et al., 2005). Pathogens attack that (Lambert plants in on Pstatus impact a large plant Iwama (1981) et al. clones weight 268 unselected 1.3 found in from a wide difference dry g root Phosphorus These native plantshave evolved underconditions oflow soilnutrientavailability andmay, ­ (2014)et al. advantage of native is take to South America. improve to germplasm potato from in PUE suggested by been has Thornton that approach One explored be soils avenue PUE. an as enhance to for genetic improvement the (Lynch, plants crop 1998). in of opportunity PUE cant al., et 2014). (Thornton growing improveseason the efficiency throughout P uptake is There signifi away as health root to impact control practices and of how resistance disease understanding better work to need together provide to will a pathologists, agronomists on Pnutrition. and Breeders, impact have have to also resistance potential large asecondary fold. disease Advances breeding in ( in­ (2001) Habte and transporters Miyasaka nisms. P the genes high-affinity identified for improved with PUE. associated characteristics or other improve to traits root used could be identify weight (Iwasa potato et al., on dry chromosome 5in 2011). root and length root approach same This with associated QTLs identified has resistance drought atimproving aimed research recent that state et al., 2002), such potato. species However, done work as but in little been has (2014) et al. Thornton ( millet severalin pearl identified such as species, been has Puptake enhanced with associated QTL for The complex such PUE. breeding as traits locus (QTL) marker-assisted selection and mapping tools haveto as useful facilitate identified been al. et Thornton (2014) potential. genetic is advanced modification trait quantitative both that state Revolution, improvements Green the to led next agricultural the revolution other and fertilization As g 3.4.6 even Puptake when Plevels soil impair sue high. can are tis or vascular root degrade that aplant more susceptible diseases make pathogen and to infection, Pdeficiency that may realize to it species, most with is important other susceptible compared potato improved with varieties. compared requirement Pfertilization high avery has Burbank,” but and it susceptible very is also disease to by susceptibility cultivar. cultivar mostgrown disease is “Russet commonly in The wide difference 1998; et al., 2014). Thornton is avery for there potato, true generally are principles these Although et al., (Pan high still are requirements rapidlynutrient and bulking are rapidly tubers tens while developments these development coincide when with disease all Furthermore, time. has at this deteriorate to begin actually roots fact, the in and, planting after development 60–90 days ceases relatively blight.late previously As occurs yet Puptake mentioned, for and late system root potato (1969) Carroll Herlihy and thickness, Herlihy (1970) and with infection tuber found P reduced that skin increase and levels or higher maturity of tuber stem tissue.nization optimal speed As of P can due symptoms wilt to rate, a close relationship Pfertilizer between and Arabidopsis Another difference common within species is related to pathogen to is related species susceptibility, have within which common can difference Another Lambers et al. (2011) et al. Lambers genetics suggest the of on native that severely growth species P-deficient mecha avenueacquisitioncellular P or other Another direct is genetic impacting modification by more relevant pathology nutrition are and between for interactions highly the these Although is systemFor that susceptible example, vascular pathogens, is highly and atrait root to potato Verticillium albo-atrum −1 to 2.8 g for early versus late maturing clones, gfor 2.8 to respectively. versus early maturing late enetic

thaliana M o Heynh.), atlow three Puptake by shown Pconcentrations almost increase to d ification ), blight late ( and P otential Streptomyces scabies Streptomyces Phytophthora infestans Pennisetum glaucum Pennisetum ), ( wilt Verticillium V. dahliae ). Davis (1994) et al. showed R. Br.), R. (Hash rice and corn, , and pathogen colo, and Verticillium dahliae arabidopsis therefore, therefore, 79 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 at 0.1%–1% Cl than other micronutrients, The each. at~2%–5%generally followed each of concentrations P, by similar S, Mg, (Cl Ca, chloride and weight 10% up less K than of dry make Nand of with generally aplant, the nutrients Mineral 3.5 native germplasmshouldbeexplored forpotential crosses,whichmayresultinimproved varieties. evidence ofhaving reducednutrient-useefficiency comparedwiththenative group.Nevertheless, the concluded thattheadvanced grouphadhigheryieldpotentialunderbothscenarios,andshowed no native clonesand9advanced cultivars underconditionsoflow andhighsoilnutrient­ have moreefficientand extensive rootsystems. However, Sattlemacheretal.(1990) evaluated 27 80 signs of toxicity at4% shoot P. tively, very-fast-growing the while ( mulla mulla green Millsp.) ( black and gram of levels to tolerance wide variety the of P, toxicity with in pigeon ( identified pea (Hawkesford et al.,circumstances 2012; et al., Shane 2004). Hawkesford (2012) et al. out point when Plevels et al., (Dong 1999). high are P transporters However, unique toxicities in do occur atlevelsP toxicity increases above their downregulate 1%, plants because is rare this although of chance less. some evolving plants The of order magnitude an soils may contain on P-limiting coleusin ( very-slow-growing,the with low native fir very P Cascade levelshigh levelsthe tissuesin to its of P 4%as (Hawkesford et al., 2012). Typical P levels shown Table plant in tissue are in 3.1, from ranging have slightly lower levels down levels sometimes to roots with of high 0.04% as but some reports in 0.08% from ranging 1.3%, to offor aboveground awide variety plant parts it although is possible to Jones and (1996) Mills lower macronutrients. tude the have Pconcentrations than published typical Source: Sugar beet( Soybean ( Sorghum ( Rice ( Rapeseed ( Corn ( Cotton ( Coleus ( Cascade fir( Apple ( Alfalfa ( Species ConcentrationsAverage Plant Tissue Phosphorus TABLE 3.1 Lambers et al. (2010) is 0.3%–0.5% et al. but growth that forLambers optimal Prequirement the that stated CONCENTRATIONS OFPHOSPHORUS IN PLANTS O. sativa Z. mays M. domestica

G. hirsutum Plectranthus M. sativa Coleus Based upon Mills, H.A. and Jones, J.B., GA, 1996. G. max Sorghum vulgare B. napus B. vulgaris A. amabilis L.) L.) Merr.) spp. Lour. now largely L.) L.) L.) Borkh.) spp.) L.) Doug. ex J.Forbes) Moench) Vigna mungo Hepper) at levels low as 0.3% as 0.6% and shoot P, respec Plectranthus Mature new leaves Mature new leaves Third leafbelow head Third leafbelow head Mature new leaves Whole tops Mature new leaves Leaves, 5thfromtop Ear leaves Leaves below whorl Whole tops Petioles Petioles Mature new leaves Terminal cuttings Mature new leaves Whole tops Plant Analysis Handbook II Plant Part − , are at concentrations several of atconcentrations orders magni , are spp. L’Hér). spp. Ptilotus polystachyus Ptilotus 80 days afterplanting Prior topodset Grain indoughstage Bloom 37–56 days afterplanting 23–39 days afterplanting Maximum tillering Rosette topod Initial silk Prior totasseling <30 cm tall Full bloom First squarestoinitialbloom Mature plants Summer Summer Prior toflowering , MicroMacro Publishing Inc., Athens, Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook Timing F. Muell.) shows no availability and Cajanus cajan Cajanus 0.45–1.1 0.25–0.50 0.15–0.25 0.23–0.35 0.13–0.25 0.30–0.60 0.10–0.18 0.28–0.69 0.25–0.50 0.25–0.45 0.30–0.50 0.25–0.45 0.30–0.50 0.09–0.16 0.09–0.40 0.26–0.70 1.1–1.3 P, % − - ) -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 Phosphorus to fertilization. to ized 3.5 FIGURE Pand mobilize Plants progresses. season newertissue to reproductive the and as organs growth senescing from much with plant, of the it cannibalized mobile being is highly within Phosphorus just afew in sorghum shown weeks, and as for corn, cotton, in olderother tissues. Even dramatically drop nonwoody in will P concentration tissues, the crop roots. in Pbeing total of the amount only asmall in results 0.10 from ranging ratios with 0.3. to combination of The lower biomass lower and P concentration However, or reported. sured we biomass shoot root biomass, much is generally know that less than mea rarely of P is uptake root soil. Therefore, aplant in growing from total roots of the all gather it addition, to tissue.quantitatively root is In difficult in ~25%–200% than are shoots higher tions in Young shows Brigham Lab of atthe species P concentra that University Analytical Environmental wide a across variety measured concentrations P In general, literature. scientific the in reported are rarelyand commercially are not measured generally roots in concentrations result, P As a difficult. is soil from roots comprehensive tissues. root Separating of in P concentrations listing not asimilar 3.4 FIGURE Succulent new tissues (either roots or shoots) tend to be higher in P than in lignified stems and Succulent stems new (either tissues lignified in or shoots) Pthan roots in higher be to tend Bieleski 3.4. shown (1973) as Figure is in fractions There the plant contains atypical that states ⚫ and fertilized fertilized and

Fractions of phosphorus occurring in plants. in occurring of phosphorus Fractions Average seasonal potato ( Average potato seasonal ♦ (150 kg P Phosphorus, % 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Inorganic P, 0 40 0.130% 2 O 5 ha −1 50 ) plots with Olsen bicarbonate P concentration of 23 mgkg Pconcentration bicarbonate Olsen ) plots with S. tuberosum DNA, 0.004% Days afteremergence 60 L.) petiole phosphorus concentrations for unfertil concentrations L.) phosphorus petiole 0.040% RNA, 70 Lipid P, 0.030% Table 3.1 Table Ester P,0.020% 80 and for potato in Figure 3.5. Figure for in and potato 90 −1 prior prior 81 - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 82 1980; Leikam et al.,1980; 1983; Leikam et al., Murphy 1978). likelyoccur are formore to benefits observed These of (Bundy et alteration al., plant metabolism 2005; and Engelstad Teramn, and growth, root and Psolubility, shoot due increased to nutrients of both plant increased uptake the enhance to appears actively to ability up nutrients. reduced pathogen and take infection, increased growth, root reduced deficiency any nutrient with includeactions degradation overallin toxicityor plant health resulting inter general active of such Other K. nutrients, as lack uptake of supply energy limited result in can However, of unit shoot growth. per contact root dueshoots greater to extreme P deficiency, under a of in accumulation nutrients an to lead result can This or is even same the increased. remains often growth root Pdeficiencygrowth, whereas of restriction shoot in For nutrients. results instance, other physiological the general, In effects of impact Pon plants important. and widespread Pare with 2001; (Fageria, ratios ent and concentrations Foy et al., 1978; 2002). Reichman, Nutrient interactions yield, nutri plant and health, impact can media growth soil or other in nutrients among Interactions g 3.6.1 3.6 excess excessive harvest to with soils Pfrom it or, cases, appropriate being other in needed levels. are much rates cases solely many higher mendations in as values on is not these recommended factors when developing recom for plan basing fertilizer asustainable production, although crop important depletion yield are rates managing removal. onand actual based Understanding higher conditions. Removal optimal for would rates nutrients proportionally days be otherwise degree and averagenational Columbia the Washington Oregon in Basin and of in due number alarge growing to average the yieldsapproximately double yields threefold higher shown, than potato are the and higher. wheat Pacific yields the Northwest For substantially have in example, are rates irrigated (Table soil the from 3.2). removedof P is quantity a significant next harvested, the cycle are tissues these When of growth. reproductive other provide to tissues and ample nutrition for tubers, seeds, to nutrients some other Crop Yields at Average Crop Removal and for Phosphorus Uptake Biomass into Aboveground TABLE 3.2 Source: Winter Wheat ( Sugar beet( Soybean ( Sorghum ( Rice ( Potato ( Silage Corn ( Alfalfa ( A beneficial interaction occurs if P is applied in conjunctionin NH if P is applied with occurs interaction A beneficial valuesIt Table is in noteworthy the that only 3.2 removal averages the some cases, are in and, RATIOS OFPHOSPHORUS WITH OTHER ELEMENTS AND INTERACTIONS O. sativa Z. mays

S. tuberosum Triticum aestivum M. sativa Based onMills,H.A.andJones,J.B.Jr., www.usda.gov/nass/PUBS/TODAYRPT/crop1014.pdf. Inc., 1996; USDA, Crop production 2013 summary. G. max eneral S. vulgare B. vulgaris L.),grain L.) Merr.) L.) I Moench),grain L.) nteraction L.) L.)spring s

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- - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 tive antagonism is sparse and conflicting, andit. seem tofield do not support data conflicting, and tive is sparse antagonism such NO as no effect of Cl evenuptake K where 448 kg K helps avoid problem (Berger et this al., 1961), (1997) et al. Panique although P in saw no decrease et al., 1961; Hang, 1993; Zhong, 1993). et al., 2000; Kalifa Cl Reducing the causing Psupply issues. excess, nutrient any other shoot-to-root more so ratios than decreased result in can N availability bioavailable Teramn, and P(Engelstad 1980). minimal with soil in growing plants However, excess Phosphorus several species (Barben et al., 2010a,b;several (Barben species Polle, Ducic and 2007; et al., 1998; Gunes 1977; Mare, Le 1962; et James al., 1995; Safaya, 1976). in have interactions reported Mn been and Phosphorus et al., well 2011; Pas with (Barben interact Fe, Cu and Mn, as et al., Beer 1972; Brown Tiffin, and Jackson, and 1981;Christensen Soltanpour, 1969). 1972; suggested (Christensen, as available by high with potato others shoot Zn Pin reduced support excessive solution Prelative solution deficient to or optimal Mn regardless level.P, of findings These 1963;Leggett, 1987), Marschner, and at 1964; was Boawn shoot reduced Zn Leggett, and Cakmak (2011) study, but et al., inconsistent 2010a,b; some with previous (Barben studies and Bingham 1972; Jackson, and (Christensen, 1981; Christensen Soltanpour, 1969). et al. Barben the in Apparent 1964;Leggett, et al., 1979; Loneragan Webb 1988) Loneragan, and aP-induced deficiency or in Zn excessivein al., deficiency et 2010a,b; Zn (Barben under Puptake 1963;Bingham, andBoawn result can that and studied and commonly observed been has P that and Zn between interaction antagonistic an of findings other mostly support data Their of Cu. concentrations Fe and impact show P, between data astrong three-way interaction levels Their Cu. Mn and can Zn, also that 1978; (Leece, research Singh etsuggested other al., 1988; in Terman et al., 1972). was as roots, in action was binding likely due aP–Zn to This 2007). Khurana, and 1964; Chatterjee et al., 2010a; (Barben studies other observations to in Boawn Leggett, and is similar that occurrence effect of excessive solution and potato. This Pin root was by exacerbated Zn optimal solution P, an icity. (2011) et al. Barben increased shoot Pand available reduced generally found increasing Zn that effect yields, due higher to (5) (6) plant tissues, and in reduction of solubility mobility Zn Ptox and colonization, (4) soil, (2)ity in mycorrhizal (3) growth, root arbuscular dilution reduced reduced including plants, to applied (1) are of solubil of Zn Pfertilizer when rates high interaction decrease (2012) offer of and several P–Zn interaction possible the discuss explanations antagonistic for this quent 1964; works Leggett, 1976; (Boawn and Jackson Carter, and Soltanpour, 1969). Broadley et al. in subselevels. deficiencyantagonism documented was resulthighas a The P–Zn P of fertilization well and Boawn known. most documented (1963) is the et al. interaction P–Zn The Zn reported 3.6.2 interactions. studied and soils, is one more well-known of and plants the in which occurs metals, various the Pand between Fe. interaction and The Mn with P. with ­solution, precipitate occurs can reaction Al Asimilar element this atabout of solubilizes pH case 5.5 Al, below.conditions. the and In soil in Once strongly under acidic precipitate to known Fe phosphates and are conditions, Mn, but Al, alkaline under form (Mn), (Cu) can copper precipitates Fe, and soil. These Zn, Pin with precipitate can (Al),ment soil. with allows Similarly, for than aluminum manganese solubilization more readily plant acidic biological tissues, but other the and roots environ within occur also can precipitates P, with bonding soils. These cal not soluble, for very are alkaline which precipitates in especially Chloride in close proximity with phosphate also has been shown to restrict P uptake (Berger Puptake shown been restrict to has phosphate close with also in proximity Chloride Although the P–Zn interaction is studied most commonly, such is studied interaction micronutrients cationic P–Zn other the Although (2011) et al. Barben reviewed thoroughly complex the P, between interactions Fe, and Mn, Zn, However, soil Mgdue chemi to in and Ca with interaction antagonistic a well-documented P has P ho 3 − , SO , sp − on P uptake. There is also speculation of competitive antagonism with other anions, of anions, speculation competitive other is also with antagonism There on Puptake. hor 4 2− us , borate (BO , borate – M icron 2 O as KClO as ha u 3 3− trient ), molybdate and (MoO M −1 was banded near the row. the near was banded (1970) et James al. noted also etal I nteraction 4 2− s ), although the evidence), the for although competi − content of band-applied 83 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 in plants do not result only from increasing available Zn, but are also strongly influenced Zn stronglyby Px available influenced also but do not plants increasing result are Zn, onlyin from transport and show effects of on Fe studies Zn the uptake that Other uptake. Cu total affects also 1981). 1944; Mandal, and Allison, Halder and Safaya (1976) interaction astrong PxZn that reported sive available solution Mn. either to deficient solution compared or Mn atoptimal shoots, exces in especially was depressed, (2010c)et al. plant Pconsistently varied, was Mn found when availability held as Zn that constant (Galvez Mn of increasing with sorghum roots et and al., shoots 1989). in Pwas seen in rise Barben ( tomato in 1987; Arora, and et were al.,Sharma Zhu 2002). Mn observed plant Reductions increasing Pwith in et al., 1989;Marsh Neilsen et al., 1992; et al., 1981; Rhue et al., Nogueira 2004; et al., 2004; Sarkar 84 in field research. More importantly, no strong research fieldimportantly,evidence showsresearch in no More strong research. between correlation a good event growers’ in this anomaly, that is an occur fields but couldand argue suchOne many instances Obviously, Pconcentrations. more normal in resulting and yield.izer not wide did ratio impact the 17.5 Mg ha P,for and Zn were respectively, yields treatment The of Zn. this more Pthan of aratio times 348 of concentrations 21 leaf mg kg in 7200 resulted and rates extremely the Pfertilizer high one trial, is violated. ratio For ideal example, supposed where in average this trials yields of many these in data) unpublished shows (Hopkins, above- trials survey of Zn dozens of P and unresponsive corn much However, as Zn. Pas 50 250 to times from be to assumed P:Zn could be ratio ideal informal an respectively. would ranges Zn, the acceptable, these be widest within ratios the P and Assuming mg kg 20–60 and 2500–5000 are ranges concentration stage, the silk initial atthe for corn and sufficiency For Jones range example, the to suggested studied. Mills and by according (1996) well earlier, been which documented has outlined interaction Zn for Pand tempting the especially be might approach This nutrient. of ratio any other Pwith achieve to acertain fertilize to attempt an it amanagement tool is interesting, in as should used not be information plant this tissues. Although such conclusively proven for ratio element. any other Pwith et al., 2007b). conditions (Na)-affected (Hopkins However, sodium values managing in is no there water analysis, which have irrigation field shownand and been by applicationbe useful research to (SAR) ratio exceptions absorption sodium are such the of with as course, There forresearch. soil by generally fieldbe to is logical, not tionsupported efficiency. appearing approach, while This produc achieveto ratio ideal is an maximum there imply ratios that orthese not, intended Whether reports. on ratios these various printing laboratories many with for management purposes, analyzed aflagevidence of cautionbe raises approach. cropsto and uncommon It is this not for soils for However, nutrients. on of ratios other P with based nutrients may manage to seem empirical the next plant tissues. in The logical step and soil the in occur interactions nutrient that It is apparent m 3.6.3 such,as is areasonable explanation. (Clemens 1998; et al., Fox 1999), et al., 2002; Guerinot, transport and Grusak transmembrane and in mechanisms other and for proton pumps via energy mobilization nutrient necessary vide the phosphoenolpyruvate and phosphatase, carboxylase), pro to ATPases, required alkaline which are shoot to due root unavailable to from involved compounds (e.g., Pmetabolism transport in ATP, availablehigh P. At low available P, however, given. explanation little been nutrient has Reduced Singh et al., 1988; Terman et al., 1972) (2011) et al. of results likely Barben explains the and with (Alvarez-Tinault roots within binding P–Fe Mn-induced et al., 1980; et al., 1977). Cumbus in with reductionssomeFe suggesting studies influence also interactions root Fewith translocation, interference Mn shoot Fe from results reduced that et al., most agree 2003). studies (Hamblin While Table 3.3 of PO micronutrient-bound roots in Precipitation Cu levels depressed Pinfluences on plant Cu, as impact (Forsee alarger has well Zn Although Solanum lycopersicum Solanum −1 anagement , which is nearly double the national average and similar to the others with less with Pfertil others the to , which double is nearly average national the similar and shows the approximate ratio of all of the essential elements, as compared with P, with elements, essential of compared shows as the of ratio all approximate in the

of I nteraction L.; et al., 1998) Gunes et al., (Sarkar 2004), a whereas potato and s 4 3− is indicated by several studies (Leece, 1978; by several (Leece, is indicated studies Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook −1 for for −1 - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 Phosphorus United States) shows fields in withabove-average that yields, yields these to were notcorrelated (Servi-Tech United States Midwestern the in corporation crop-consulting Inc., Dodge City, Kansas, files of a large the survey from informal fact, an In such found be aclaim. support to can dence but not on some fictitiousratio. ideal (Westermann, 1992), minerals concentration on Ca of based modified be to needs recommendation by Rather, bioavailable Pshould managed be the some practical. cases, be in and Pconcentration, by would ratio some ideal what soil. supposed not as Managing is found the in proportions same dothey not follow circumstances, the these levels Ca in plants that in higher itAlthough is true are Pratio. to Ca high soils, avery giving calcareous and saturation base high Pin fold than higher is many Ca ratios, closemost comparing are equivalent to plant species for When nutrients. these yet soil, and actively Pin plants exclude up Pand much than higher take levels some so that Ca in sion of elements. many Just one example P. and is Ca is found atconcentrations typically Calcium widely. vary soil elements of ratios other Pto exist, the in of trends general gypsum).centrations these Although or bioavailabletotal P, exceptions many are (such con there although high with asoil Sin the as or, to for equal most, much typically lower are earlier levels. than listed those than other Nutrients soil, but have Pin generally than lower concentrations haveFe typically total higher bioavailable (Si), silicon Pinclude Mg, O, C, Na. Ca, N, than soil Aluminum, H, and K, in concentrations and have bioavailable and typically Elementstissue concentrations. much that total elemental higher bioavailable plant with and of much compared total more widely as ratios Soils vary terms in ratios. on these based fertilizer recommend to services tissue-testing yield. fact, ittissue P:Zn and ratios is somewhat Despite this for commonplace and field managers Another example would would ofAnother P:Zn, but that aratio be possibly no strong evi important be forget who ratios test soil ideal promote Those largely exclu plants and that self-regulate uptake ratios. on soil test some ideal based made recommendations Even fertilizer are more common Average Ratio on a Mass Basis of Nutrients Relative ofAverage Nutrients Basis to Phosphorus Ratio aMass on TABLE 3.3 Note: Micronutrients Secondary macronutrients Primary macronutrients

Based oncompilationofawidevariety ofmostlycropplantsfromdataattheBrigham Young University Environmental Analytical LabandHopkinsresearchdatasets. Nickel Molybdenum Boron Copper Zinc Manganese Iron Chloride Magnesium Sulfur Calcium Potassium Nitrogen Hydrogen Oxygen Carbon Nonmineral Mineral Mn Fe Cl Mg S Ca K N H O C Ni Mo B Cu Zn Plant Shoots 0.025 0.25 0.5 0.75 0.75 4.5 10 15 25 210 210 0.00025 0.0001 0.0025 0.0025 0.015 85 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 3.6.4 levelstration of ratios to one another. to not according and concen individual on their levels managed are exceptionally nutrients orversa. vice These high are Fe, or Mn, Cu Zn, test soil the just asoil to should because added not be words,other Pfertilizer without levels excess. added appropriate with In need, of on crop fertilizer derived information values experimentally test soil and individual their to according managed be to need micronutrients levels. test soil not on high existing and Therefore, Pfertilizer Pand on added based ies were all deficiencies These viceandstud micronutrient induce can versa. of P fertilizer rates high very that is earlier cited have research only P:Zn ratio. facts test soil that P–Zn shownthe The the been in 86 yield parameters. and ratio optimum some ideal between supposed no with strong correlation nutrients, of essential publicationsone,ratios fieldthe but andresearch shows in asurvey of results farm wide a variety example yields. high is just P:K This is some ideal achieved obtain there be to to order ratio in it that is unlikely shown, ofshowing ratio K, Pto along the with wide illustrate to avery range level). above critical values established are the are for fields Kconcentrations also these The widely yet petiole of and vary (note these the Pconcentrations all that obtained, yieldshigh are result of the above-average with management, and show fertility good had yields. data that These P. with the fieldsand fields ofvariety,the same the fertilized selected had those with All pared com yields sugar quality and similar had treatments unfertilized where Idaho, the in trials beet conditions. For example, environmental on and soil Table 3.4 shows of results sugar selected the based genotype the same differences even phenotypic within significant be can there that note to hybrids were previously. but discussed it important is also not surprising, are differences These varieties/cultivars/ across differences of and season agrowing course the through occur that ences widelyvary species. across P:Ca in 1996). of ratio about 1:1 difference This 1:5 and for corn shows for can ratios alfalfa that P, as range same havingthe at1.8%–3.0% Ca typically Jones, but and alfalfa its (Mills shoots in in having concentrations Ca corn with atabout 0.25%–0.6%, different, alfalfa but is drastically Ca and for corn widely similar For species. for vary across ratios concentrations example, Pare typical Table 3.3 Within species, differences are also significant. The temporal nutrient concentration differ concentration nutrient temporal The significant. also are differences species, Within D shows of these aratio average that understand to plant It tissue concentrations. is vital ifferences 11 10 Field ( Beet in Sugar Ratios K:P and Potassium and Concentration of Phosphorus TABLE 3.4 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

acro ss

an d B. vulgaris B.

within 0.49 0.46 0.56 1.07 0.98 0.54 0.87 0.56 0.67 0.55 0.45 P, % P, S L.) Leaves 11 from Field Samples p ecies K, % 3.2 4.3 5.7 2.5 4.7 5.2 4.1 2.1 6.0 4.3 3.6 Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook 10.0 K:P 6.4 9.3 2.3 4.8 9.7 4.7 3.7 8.9 7.8 8.0 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 mum economic yield). economic mum for 98% most and crops or 100%maximum for higher-value of principle maxi on the (based crops 3.6 3.7). plant tissue (Figures and in levelconcentration critical the or 95% is set at90% Often, of by yields plotting relative P(yield having =100%) determined plants to adequate cally P against (Macy, values sufficiencyranges and of critical a function typi are 1936).ranges acceptable These is sufficient P there whether analysistissueavailablepossible is to as plants through Determining 3.7 Phosphorus D.J. Pilbeam, (eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2007, (eds.), pp. 51–90.) FL, D.J. Raton, Pilbeam, Boca CRC Press, sativus 3.7 FIGURE Nutrition ( 3.6 FIGURE Cichorium endivia endivia Cichorium L.) leaves. (From Sanchez, C.A., Phosphorus, in L.) C.A., Phosphorus, leaves. Sanchez, (From DIAGNOSIS OFPHOSPHORUS STATUS IN PLANTS , Barker, A.V. D.J. 2007, (eds.), pp. 51–90.) FL, Pilbeam, and Raton, Boca CRC Press,

Critical concentration using a linear and plateau model of phosphorus in radish ( radish in of model phosphorus plateau and alinear using concentration Critical Critical concentration using a curvilinear model of phosphorus in midribs of endive midribs in of model phosphorus acurvilinear using concentration Critical L.) at the eight-leaf stage. (From Sanchez, C.A., Phosphorus, in C.A., Phosphorus, L.) Sanchez, eight-leaf (From stage. the at Relative yield, % of maximum Relative yield, % 100 100 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 0.36 Y = 2 –91.4+792.15X 0.40 R 2 = 0.57 Ti Ti ssue Pconcentration, 0.44 ssue Pconcentration, 345 – 822.4Χ Handbook of Plant Nutrition Plant of Handbook 0.48 2 R CL 2 = = 0.88 0.45% % % 0.52 98 0.56 Handbook of Plant Plant of Handbook , A.V. and Barker Raphanus 87 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 correlated to 1gsoluble to correlated Pkg gPkg 2.2 than greater contained shoots where the initiation of tuber time the leavesconnecting stems. to petiole tissue analyzing and by sampling for status nutrient in-season managed are commonly that examples of are plants potato and beet, tissue. sugar of Cotton, pipeline vascular the which contains have sample tissue to best is that researchers found the that it. instances, Therefore, many in require having adeficientalso level that transactions of soluble the chemical for that is needed phosphate so it compounds, is possiblelular have to arelatively overall tissue, the while in Pconcentration high of cel many structure the into is incorporated of Phosphorus Puptake. status current the ascertain 88 CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2007, pp. 51–90.) FL, Raton, Boca CRC Press, in C.A., Phosphorus, Sanchez, (From 3.8 FIGURE Pconcentration. total than extraction rather using this managed are P. total species than rather Other soluble phosphateof is analyzed lettuce, acid–extractable acetic case the It season. growing in is noteworthy the that, through timings at various for sampled lettuce actively managed also 3.8 tissue analysis. with Figure are species showsother yield curves response canopy senescence. However, until initiation of tuber time the on aweekly crop basis during the for most most with production top species, growers global than of crop the sampling commercial in definitive. showedin WorkIdaho a sufficiency level of>2.2 gP kg work although by (2003) et al. Sanderson (2008) Rosen Bierman and was and lessat 75–85 mm, 4.5–5.7 gPkg work (1998) et al. by Freeman Plevels petiole total suggested of critical for “Russet Burbank” sufficiency at “ (1993)Muniz the which defined they in concentrations nutrient of published a compendium potato sufficient” level for various plant parts at different stages of growth, with midseason midseason leaf-bladewith ­sufficient” differentlevelgrowth, stages at of parts forplant various As P is mobile in plants, sampling and analysis of new growth usually are recommended to to recommended are analysis of usually and new Pis sampling growth mobile plants, As in Potato tissue analysis has been studied more and is used more commonly as amanagement tool as more commonly is used more and studied been tissue analysisPotato has (1985) Kleinkopf and Westermann yield of number days found potato the to is related from that

Relative yield Relative yield 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 −1 Critical acetic acid–extractable phosphorus at four growth stages of lettuce ( of lettuce stages growth four at phosphorus acid–extractable acetic Critical ≥ 0 1 0 1 when tuber length is 5–10 mm, length when tuber 3.5–4.7 gPkg 2.6–4.7 gPkg 2.6–4.7 1000 Midrib 2000 −1 PO −1 and midseason petiole Psufficiency midseason and of in the fourth petiole from the top of the plant. top Walworth of petiole the the from and fourth the in 4 -P Handbook of Plant Nutrition Plant of Handbook , mgkg 3000 10 leaf He –1 ading 4000 1000 Midrib −1 , Barker, A.V. D.J. (eds.), Pilbeam, and at 35–45 mm, and 2.1–2.6 and at35–45 mm, gPkg 2000 −1 (Stark et al., 2003). PO Pre-har Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook 4 -P ≥ , mgkg 3000 1.5–3.1 gPkg vest Fo –1 −1 lding

dry mass, which which mass, dry 4000 L. sativa L. −1 . Recent Recent . L.). L.). −1 -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 3.8 fertilizer decisions. pling protocolsandtakingtissuefrompartsthatarehighlycorrelatedtoPstatusrelate in theirlaboratories. The key istosampleeachspeciesuniquelybyfollowing establishedsam able, by survey range or average basedon nutrient concentrations foundthrough routine analysis identified bysufficiency rangesasdeterminedbyresearch or, ifinsufficientinformationis avail and MillsJones(1996)provide alistingofplanttissueconcentrationsforhundredsspecies bean, pecan( Phosphorus season. The majority of P supplied to plants comes from desorption of precipitated mineral deposits. mineral of precipitated of majority desorption Psupplied comes from plants to The season. any one growing up in P, take plants Pthat of the little very represents amount butstructural this down slowly very break Minerals release over can and time important. is also minerals release from amore solubleP in et plant-available al., 2004). (Little results mixed has form of formation slow-release the stimulate However, Pforms. organic of use cover living keep to crops (Guppy soils (2012) tropical et al. various et al., 2005). Malik can Psources organic suggested that (Iyamuremye soils P-sorption in capacity Dick, 1996) and increase but can certain in P sorption (2014)Bruulsema have some studies that state shown soluble inhibit that can compounds organic developed manure plant-available compost with higher and amended desorbable and P. Fixen and 2001; et al., Nagarajah 1970; et al., Sharpley 2003; Sposito, 2008). (2002) et al. Erich found soils that Sieling, 1953; Davenport et al., 2005; Holford Mattingly, and 1975; et al., Kissel 1985; Lindsay complexed (Alva, organically 1992; P materials or similar Bradley and manure with amended (Lindsay, compounds organic and 2001; cations, minerals, Sposito,various 2008). of presence by the pH soil and primarily low, dictated usually as soils across are is variability there >1000 to 200 the with mg kg solution soil is 0.05 low; the very in P concentration mg is typically Pkg median the solution soil in (Young solid than phase the much in higher are et al., 1985). Bioavailable dissolved phosphate (HPO ated or diproton mono- converted to Therefore, chemically solid must and liquid converted to forms be Feder, 1973). ing byenzymaticcleavage viaphosphatases(Alexander, 1977; Anderson, 1975;Cosgrove, 1977; fied complex compounds. Soilmicrobesdegrade otherorganisms andreleaseorganic P, includ of componentsliving organisms andtheirdegradation products,withmany ofthemunidenti and Wild, 1970;Steward and Tate, 1971). There aremany otherorganic Pcompounds,consisting fraction of soils (Anderson, 1967; Halstead and McKercher, 1975; Ko and Hora, 1970; Omotoso along withthemorestableinositolpolyphosphates(upto60%),whicharepartofhumus easily degraded phospholipids (~1%)andnucleicacids(5%–10%)theirdegradation products, Holford Mattingly, and 1975). oxides hydrous Al and Fe oxides and CaCO and Pon amorphous combinations but ratios, of be to tend sorbed/precipitated not found any typical in are soil in forms mineral Inorganic rock particles. and soil on other forms precipitated present as rock phosphate, fluorapatite present as [Ca such as of minerals, soil of a wide variety structure of the solid part exists form as in Phosphorus t 3.8.1 Similar informationisavailable forawidevariety of otherspeciesforP, suchasforcorn,soy Much of the P taken up by plants is provided by the mineralization of organic materials, but of materials, organic up byMuch is provided plants P taken of by mineralization the the Some have soils solution high unusually Plevels, have that highly very those been typically solid ( phase the from solution the not directly from and absorb nutrients phase Plants The organic fractionisalsoanimportantpoolofsolidPinsoils,existing predominatelyasthe

FORMS, CONCENTRATIONS, AND BIOAVAILABILITY AND CONCENTRATIONS, FORMS, OF PHOSPHORUS IN SOILS hree Carya illinoinensis P ool s 4

2− of or H or S oil −1 2 PO total P typical in soils (Young soils in Ptypical et total al., 1985). solution Although Plevels P 4 ho K.Koch), tomato,andlettuce(Sanchez,2007).Sanchez(2007) − ) before plants can obtain P.) before obtain can plants Unfortunately, P concentrations total sp hor us 5 (PO 4 ) 3 3 2− F] or hydroxyapatiteF] [Ca (Cole et al., 1953;1973;and Jurinak, Griffin 5 (PO 4 ) 3 OH]. It is also −1 Figure 3.9 Figure compared compared 89 ). ). ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 90 impacts P uptake due to reduced volume of soil from which P can diffuse; it has a more tortuous volume it a more tortuous due has reduced to diffuse; P uptake of which P can from soil impacts conditions. anaerobic under Low water soil conditions health negatively root due poor to saturated 1972), 1979; Patrick, to and for not P uptake crops adapted Ponnamperuma, reduced in results solubility Davey, of phosphates and (Bacon Fe-bound enhanced in resulting although 1982; Holford levelsoptimum at about field(Watanabeal., et capacity 1960).above optimum, this Saturation dissolution reactionsmaybe too slow tofullymeet thePdemandforplantsgrowing insome soils. these sorption–desorptionreactionsoccurandhelpmaintain Pavailable forplantuse,therateof solution ofsolid-phasePwilloccuruntilequilibriumconditions aresatisfiedonceagain. Although being removed fromsoilsolution. As plantstake upP, astateofnonequilibriumiscreated, and dis into soil solution. The rate of this reaction accelerates when nonequilibrium conditions exist due to P reaction (solubilizationofprecipitatesanddesorptionlabile P)alsooccurs,withPcomingback highly solubleNaClisvery high,but itisvery low forthe poorly solublePcompounds). The reverse finite amountofdissolved P(withanotabledifference beingthattheequilibrium concentrationfor the amountoftablesalt(NaCl)thatcanbedissolved inwater, thesoilsolutionwillallow onlya Precipitation/adsorption ofPoccursrapidlyduetoequilibrium chemistry. Justas thereisalimitto 3.8.2 cleavage and of P.mineralization P, nonlabile is the which P, is strongly sorbed to resistant forms organic and insoluble Pminerals, P. P, organic pool mineral poorly other easily mineralizable sorbed and soluble The Pminerals, soluble readily Pin is the (termed form the complex. bioavailable The solution soil Pis the P(often the termed soluble back quickly precipitate out such, as of can solution soil and, Pcycling as occurs. However,poorly are the phosphate molecules inefficient very is generally because process this 3.9FIGURE Soil water levels will have an impact on the equilibrium levelsSoil water levels of plant haveequilibrium availability P, and on the impact will an with system of pools availability, is much actual more the three although Pexists soil in summary, In P ho

sp Phosphorus soil cycle. soil Phosphorus hor us E q Fe addition P lossto u surface wa r ilibri tilizer te r u

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in S oil quantity Pr P uptakeby plan micro mineral solution P insoil ec ipitat ts and be s s ed factor). includes typically labile fraction This soil surfa So re Organi sidue intensity rb Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook ed c to s ce s portion). labile P The - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 Phosphorus combines with Ca and Mg, which are typically at high concentrations in alkaline soils. alkaline in concentrations athigh Mg, typically and Ca combines with whichPhosphorus are (Sharpley et al., 1989). precipitation of minerals the solution soil increases Ca–P Pas and surfaces et al., 1985;(Kissel 1992). Westermann, Excessive CaCO of presence excessive the in (CaCO decreased lime conditions. soil Solubility is further alkaline considerably reduced strongly in acidic or are pH and range slightlyest atthe acidic neutral to Jones, and (Gardner activity 1973;microbial Sutton, 1969). and kinetics reaction chemical of increased afunction as Psolubility availability and impacts also topsoil (Hanway lower Olson, the with in 1980). and compared as concentrations Soil temperature lower water drawing from profile soil roots of conditions result P is in where the often portions dry 1980). (Barber, path the in pathway interfering Additionally, salts of concentration other higher with Phosphorus tilizer causes the concentration (activity) concentration the causes tilizer of solution Pin solubility exceed to the of product mineral (Hegney et al., 2000). yields achieve to maximum required of Pfertilizer amount the determining factor in important is an P-sorption of capacity shown soils the has that research Australian solid of particles. these surfaces reversibleThese rapidly. occur reactions includes slow also the Sorption of P below penetration the oxides Al or CaCO and 2011; such Fe of as Sposito, particles, soil surface of the Pto 2008). refers adsorption Sorption the to et al., 1985; (Kissel interactions precipitation, or organic sorption, et as broadly al., McLaughlin very described be of reactions can soils to Papplied that state They fertilizer. from P availability (2014) Bruulsema Fixen and give excellent an explanation of principles physical of the chemistry f 3.8.3 et al., 1985;tions (Kissel Lindsay, 2001; Sposito, 2008). by geologicreac Pfixation via processes more crystalline and less amorphous increasingly become slowly formed declines Pcompounds the as Solubility years. time Pminerals with of these future P is in available remaining for the uptake application, after first year by the in plants is not utilized explore to tend roots 1% P that less than of fertilizer of portion Since alarge atany soil one time. fact the of and soil solubility mobility Pin phenomenon poor very and 2008). the to is related This et al., 1985; event (Randall afertilization most Pfrom of Syers the able utilize to et are al.,plants before years many it lost although may plant to uptake, take permanently not all offorms Pare adsorbed and precipitates these fixation, term Despitethe with what is implied minerals. soil to the of precipitationsolid-phaseadsorption by as compounds or P formation strong formed defined N of atmospheric (which of clay minerals removesstructure NH Kand forrefers processes N, different very to P, fixation of K the Unlike K. and Fixation production agriculture. science soil in publicationsin commonly used but be to continues P fixed Pfertilizers. applicationbroadcast of traditional atypical with Such Papplied. case up took just of is the two potato 5% varieties that fertilizer of the Syers et al., lower 2008), (1950) the with Jacob Dean more common. range and end of this found ~ about 1%. than greater levels are that of matter organic of most pH afunction with soils in as Pstability changes in are as important not as are reactions conditions. However, (2012) et George al. offer asomewhat view, different P inorganic that stating of formation poorly the with low soluble under Fe, Mn, but Al, and with pH phosphate minerals acidic soils, in poorly occurs reaction soluble phosphates are Ca–Mg pH.These Asimilar athigh 35%) of fertilizer P in the first year after application (Jacob and Dean, 1950; Randall et al., et application 35%)Dean, after and(Jacob 1950; 1985; Randall first year the Pin of fertilizer The P concentration of the soil solution at equilibrium and, thus, plant P availability are high are plant Pavailability thus, and, solution soil of Pconcentration the The atequilibrium Fixen and Bruulsema (2014) addition of when aPfer the Bruulsema Fixen precipitation and occurs that stated further out of precipitated by solution and plants as to referred is often Pnot utilized remaining The (from 0% to portion near only asmall issues, utilize plants physical–chemical ofBecause these . Fixation is an unfortunate and confusing term. As such, As it is no longer term. reference in confusing P to used and unfortunate is. Fixation an ate

of F 2 gas by N-fixing microbes microbes by gas the bioavailable N-fixing to N (whichadds pool), fixation is P ertilizer 3 2− , often replacing water, often or hydroxyl (OH P ho sp hor us

in S oil 4 + from the bioavailable the from pool) Nfixation and 3 in the soil increases P sorption on these on these Psorption increases soil the in − ) ions through ligand exchange. ligand ) ions through + and NH and 4 + into the lattice lattice the into 91 3 ) - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 soils and Ca phosphates are most stable in alkaline conditions. However, most stable alkaline phosphates in Ca are and soils Bruulsema Fixen and of soluble Pfrom is acascade there less to forming. soluble minerals grow. less phases soluble the as precipitates them passes, in mineral So, time as Pcontained The dissolving. begin then minerals same those more and soluble the into due minerals, incorporation to grow. to solution soil Pin the mineral With declines time, cause the place and take ation sites will collisions nucle with that more chance ions solution faster. in are agreater are and reactions There the because most first precipitate soluble soil, to the added are minerals solubleWhen fertilizers relationships believed occur. to thermodynamic of the chemistry accepted generally the still are of classic Lindsay (1979) The reactions. solubility diagrams dominant the are earlier tions described Black and (Bell phases 1970; Lindsay et al., 1962). reac Below sorption the concentrations, these 92 products is several orders of magnitude less. Cultural practices, as well as soil and environmental environmental well as and soil as practices, less. is several Cultural ofproducts orders magnitude solubility but final the of high, is very the Pfertilizer solubility place. original of The the taking are soil and massive Psolubility, fertilizer in between reactions decline these while which occurs follows:addition as soil to soils. Fe oxideswhile have found active be to been of alkaline Pin sorbers have moderately inacidic Forsoils, been minerals identified example, phosphate calcium significant phases. solutions soil somewhat in could create messy that mineral reactants potential numerous by Lindsay (1979), stated behaving as the and kinetics reaction influence likely due factors to that (2014) show Pis soil not always techniques that spectroscopic using direct studies recent that state Fixen and Bruulsema (2014) Bruulsema Fixen and of is the reactions cascade component of this acritical that stated (2014) Bruulsema Fixen of and sequence events the P(as following MAP) fertilizer summarize Lindsay (1979) most stable the soluble) (least Fe phosphates and are Al that states acidic in forms 2. 4. 3. 1. the solubility relationships described by solubility Lindsay (1979).the relationships described considering surprising been evidence, spectroscopic has direct soils, verified by alkaline of Fe oxides these in importance for found, The logs persisting extended periods. are often such OCP, as minerals, dissolve,Ca–P by CaCO Pis sorbed and well. as Eventually, but occurring analogs forms, apatite more soluble with common the phosphateat 35 days (OCP; octacalcium with Ca analogs. apatite In as remain they have dissolved largely, by much hydrous Pis and sorbed of the oxides or of Al Fe and will (various analogs apatite phosphates). calcium minerals these about 180 days, After (FePO strengite are about 35 days. after formed examples are Common precipitate Fe, or Ca Al, containing als subsequent largely pH soil then moderately reactions: dictates The In fertilizer. original the (Ca phosphate dihydrate dicalcium as soils, Pprecipitates temperate solve all nearly in and, NH the As precipitation. this forces behind driving the soluble, very still but less soluble MAP. solution other pH than and in Changes factors are phosphate, NH since PleavesAs much of granule, of it several forms the as NH quickly different precipitates for months. residues remain can of days, amatter butin crandallite et al., phosphate 2004). (Lombi Most Pleaves of the granule aCa–Al–OH the crandallite, mineral precipitationin the results of flowgranule some the soils the in into exists that evidence Spectroscopic granule. of the P from diffusion the impact can granule the into NH fluid with action is much less important This out granule. of the Pis diffusing time same atthe occurs process along Ca it. with and This Al, Fe, flowbegins—bringing granule the intoUponof addition soil,to capillary water 2 HPO 4 · 2H 4 + diffuses away from the reaction site or nitrifies, the NH the away site reaction or nitrifies, the diffuses from 2 O), which is asomewhat soluble much although less Pform, soluble than 4 · 2H 4 + is also diffusing from the granule. These new NH These granule. the from diffusing is also 2 O), (Fe vivianite alkaline 3 soils, P minerals containing Ca are dominant dominant are Ca containing soils, Pminerals (PO 4 4 ) + 8 2 phosphate forms, such phosphate APP. forms, as flow The H · 8H 2 (PO 2 O), variscite (AlPO O), variscite 4 ) 6 · 5H 3 Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook or Fe oxides. Apatite ana 2 O) one most of being the acidic 4 + 4 phosphates dis phosphates + phosphates are phosphates are soils, Pminer 4 · 2H 2 O), and 4 + - - -

- - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 b 3.9.1 3.9 yield. crop attainable the for required the P and provide croproots can soil the betweenbulk the gap what fill Pto fertilizer et al., (McBeath soil 2011). bulk 70% the is derivedthat from or more of Puptake crop We apply employing soil. research indicated For has Pisotopes example, bulk the Australian from coming vast P of majority the soil, with the bulk the from Pabsorbed the and zones fertilized cepting up by inter roots agiven Ptaken of sum in the is the season growing Puptake crop that stated soil. further They in Pminerals of formation of these the timing the impact conditions, greatly Phosphorus Plant Nutrition Plant ( celery 3.10FIGURE recommendation ratechartasafunctionofsoiltestforcelery, lettuce,sweetcorn,andsnapbeans. mental conditions. Histosol soils,illustratingthedevelopment ofacriticallevel uniquetothecrop,soil,andenviron the correlationbetweenyieldresponsesandsoiltestPlevels forceleryat18sitesinFloridawith order toachieve fullyield potentialassoiltestPapproachesthecriticallevel. Responses toPfertilizerarelarge atvery low soiltest Plevels, withdecreasingamountsneededin expected (Kisseletal., 1985; Lindsay, 2001;Marschner, 2012;Sposito, 2008; Young etal.,1985). cal level, whichisdefined astheconcentrationabove whichnoresponse toaddedPisreasonably ( after planting. Typically, thereisacurvilinearrelationshipbetweensoiltestPandyieldresponse soil testingandfieldrecordssothatthisfertilizercanbeincorporatedintopriorto,at,orshortly water limitations. and heat soil from relatively which are roots, butP is unavailable more surface-feeding subject all to interferences to only move generally face will afew once soil it in solid to liquid converts this phase. from Thus, mm action is logical sur soil given when the to fertigation. Papplied via applied fact This that the than yield response better in resulted planting to prior soil the into incorporated and Papplied fertilizer (2010a,b) et al. management tool. Hopkins even an testing soil more important making found that mobile such N. nutrients, as Unfortunately, category of soil mobile notthis Pdoes fitintonutrients, coupled be to testing. soil Tissue helpful with for solubleneeds analysis is especially highly and it needs, fertilizer plant tissue analysis yieldsAlthough is tool agood in-season for and predicting Figure 3.10 Therefore, it is vital for managers to be able to predict P fertilizer needs prior to planting through Therefore, itisvitalformanagerstobeablepredictPfertilizerneedspriorplantingthrough

SOIL TESTING SOIL Apium graveolens Apium enefits ). The likelihood of response diminishes as the soil test P level approaches the criti

, Barker, A.V. D.J. 2007, (eds.), pp. 51–90.) FL, Pilbeam, and Raton, Boca CRC Press, Critical soil-test phosphorus levels (by water extraction) for production of large, harvest-size levels harvest-size of extraction) phosphorus water large, for (by production soil-test Critical

of Figure 3.11 Relative yield large size s, % S oil 100 20 40 60 80 Pers.) on Florida Histosols. (From Sanchez, C.A., Phosphorus, in C.A., Phosphorus, Sanchez, (From Pers.) Histosols. on Florida 0 T 0 es ting shows theresultofcompiledfertilizerstudiesresultinginaP 5 Soil testP,gm 10 Y Critical le = 96.8(1 15 –3

r 2 = – vel 0.59 1.49e 20 –0.32X ) 25 Figure 3.10 Handbook of Handbook shows 93 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 94 soils (Hanlon et al., 1984). soils (Hanlon (1984) Mehlich acid solution. a buffered developed from extractant an of for awide variety one with procedure soil from nutrients essential of amajority extract the were developed, such, extractants as universal and which were chemicals, to designed and labor pH movement soils. soil-testing Later, neutral well the acid and in cost for sought the reduce to soils, it worked for also yield. and well intended related calcareous Although plant with Puptake (HCO using bicarbonate method low false giving results, values. such, As Olsen (1954) et al. developed extractionsalt a neutral P, the acid extract to a weak CO soil but the 1978).(Mehlich, on problem Bray for reason the was P1 this that The relies primarily method regions semiarid and arid in common soils not did work method calcareous well the this in that crops. However, other many and moved concept of testing soil the as westward, it was discovered (1945)by Bray Kurtz yield and corn and in response plant with Puptake was well and correlated for bioavailability. Bray UnitedStates The Midwestern P1 was the developed in method originally indexes are tests of Bray these the All P1, are United States III. Mehlich and Olsen bicarbonate, the Pin for tests most estimating common overhave three last century, the introduced the been of modes several action. Although Sanchez reviews methods (2007) their and Ptests soil various 3.9.2 plant to uptake. correlated be can P that were developed methods soil-testing soluble other most reason, readily the extract to ofthis forms For season. the up during plant takes what to the comparison in solution is minute atany one time low bioavailable previously soil versa. vice also in As and amount concentrations the mentioned, but Pconcentration very total having soils many with high plants, to Pavailability relation actual to cor poor andhad includedanalysis P testing at soil previouslytotal of attempts first the mentioned, of plant availability. of terms in asoil valuable Pstatus As the are for extractions these predicting Pkg quantity, only 0.04 mg 1645 mg P kg had Lab available. Analytical For BYU example, atthe Environmental aTimpanogos extracted loam of solutionquantity of plant Pplus labile solid none fully Pforms, soil of avariety which are a soil includes small very from of the P extracted amount the contrast, In interpretation. tion and NO the quantitative. For are example, that tests other to contrast is in testing index values. are This ity and of bioavailabil estimates yieldto are combinations. tests soil crop for Phosphorus and soil various 2007, pp. 51–90.) FL, Raton, Boca Press, in C.A., Phosphorus, Sanchez, (From 3.11FIGURE Soil testing is not a perfect tool, but several methods are available and are moderately ­ available tool, are but are is not and several aperfect Soil testing methods 3 –N test is designed to extract all of this form of N from soil for analytical determina of form for soil Nfrom of analytical this all is extract to designed test –N S oil

T Recommendations for phosphorus fertilization for selected crops on Everglades Histosols. onEverglades Histosols. crops for selected fertilization for phosphorus Recommendations es t M −1 of total P (including all mineral and organic components soil). of organic the and this Of mineral P (including of all total

etho P fertilizer recommendation, kg ha–1 150 250 300 100 200 50 ds 0 −1 was soluble Neither plant uptake. of available and for immediate 2468 Handbook of Plant Nutrition Plant of Handbook 3 − ) designed to be utilized in calcareous soils. This method cor method soils. This calcareous in utilized be to ) designed S oil test 3 2− 10 effectively neutralizes the acid and alters the the alters acid effectively and the neutralizes P, 12 mgdm 14 , Barker, A.V. D.J. (eds.), Pilbeam, and CRC –3 16 Snap Sw Lettuce Celer 18 ee Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook t corn y be 20 ans 22 correlated correlated - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 done legitimately because all of NO done all legitimately because is process This units. proper converting the to sample soil of and the by soil depth the the tion in of Navailable aquantity to concentration on akg plants ha to is preciselyof available Pthat of case NO the for In plant uptake. amount an to directly related be values cannot analytical the Also, recommendations. P fertilizer for testing. soil used be routine isotopicand dilution), intensive labor yield too with or are data to but lack to tend they calibration available tests other (such are P fractionation, adoption.widespread There P-sorption isotherms, as have lack they Pnutrition, to developed, wellextractants been correlated are but many although most well under conditions. soil plants soil-P Pnutrition in with Many other correlated test This Phosphorus a high probability of response. In this case, a6 kg case, Pha of this response. probability In a high develop yield in the curve response to extraction used same it the If was from meaningless. value is impossibly again, this and, high is awater-extractable this value, If recommendation. less due a lack to of for correlation fertilizer impossibly would an Panalysis, soil be value this low result was of meaning the atotal and number at6mg Pkg response a fertilizer level, test soil to response suchrelate is fertilizer shown as in rate. fertilizer determine way appropriate to is not an problem this The is that may is correct. one which lead ask to method however, see, can One applied. be to rate gives result methods and of each different avery the that in column up or removed of look Ptaken amount then up byThey the acrop, such what last as is shown the in P 95 kg and Pha would results 20, 42 kg the 38, be and P. equivalent case, the of be to what to fertilizer assume they convert concentrations to this these In is agronomists by respectively.extractions, commonly growers their is made and that mistake The were tests 10,ability 19, 21 and mg Pkg the results The bioavail fieldof calibration. requires index of that an P availability extractants, is plant available, that bioavailable of amount precisely case the represents but the the rather, in solution, of heat the of etc. shaking, Obviously, time added, of chemicals none extracts of these strengths and types of the afunction as soil same the from extracted Pconcentrations different in P, organic P,determine Ca-bound P, Fe-bound P, Al-bound resulted extractions of these etc. All to methods of fractionation well earlier, as avariety as described methods common of the three dissolve labile chemicals of P, the the of aportion time, period but not all. for shaken aset then and soil the to is added not Pextractant asoil quantitative. are When P tests used commonly should done the not process since be using abioavailability This index method. extracted are that nutrients for employ erroneously other mathematics Pand agronomists same the plant available. itis not lost or by processes, is all leaching other via However, growers many and (Bishop etal., 1967; Fixen andGroove, 1990; Hooker etal.,1980;Kamprathand Watson, 1980; it Pfertilization. to response crop to set calibrating data oped on its own based devel independently have extractant each interpreted be to from data is that here on field Pbased showing calibration responsiveness applyto pointlevel. fertilizer this at main The therefore, and avalue high, of as about 20 kg twice be to tend Pha high results. For example, varying Pha with avalue of 20 kg only achieve about yield 65% without fertilizer. of maximum It is important to realize that the results of these bioavailability must of usable results converted to tests be these the that realize to It is important Rather, the values from these extracts should be interpreted based on fertilizer trials used to cor to used trials on fertilizer based should interpreted be extracts values these Rather, from the all with example was extracted also For preceding example, the Timpanogos in cited soil the Some researchers have attemptedtomake directcomparisons betweenthecommonly usedtests its curve result own response in unique will extractant soil each that understand to It is important for most crops and no fertilizer would be recommended, but the Bray P1 and Mehlich III tests tests Bray but the P1 III would Mehlich and recommended, be for no fertilizer most and crops Table 3.2 Table 2 O 5 ha −1 , and then subtract the amount from their calculation to determine the fertilizer fertilizer the determine to calculation their from amount the subtract then , and for Bray Olsen bicarbonate, the P1, respectively. extractions, III Mehlich and −1 ? The answer is dependent on which? The was test employed. this If Figure 3.10 Figure 3 –N is extracted quantitatively from the soil and, assuming it assuming quantitatively and, soil is extracted the –N from −1 for Bray Olsen bicarbonate, the P1, III Mehlich and −1 or, in terms of fertilizer amounts, would 45, amounts, be 86, of fertilizer or, terms in , then we can legitimately interpret the data to show to data the we legitimately, then interpret can −1 value we would that would mean probably −1 for the Olsen bicarbonate test would test for Olsen bicarbonate be the Figure 3.10 Figure −1 basis by multiplying concentra the −1 3 –N, it–N, is possible convert to the may trigger a recommendation arecommendation may trigger . What is the likelihood of likelihood is the . What 95 - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 the reality is that there are large gaps in the data due to time and budget constraints of the scientific of the budget and constraints due time to data the gaps large in are there is that reality the of P is amount extracted when the to P response fertilization asignificant of with interest yield crop extractable Pand parameters combination soil possible, relationshipand between showing results adequate the with atleast an there arecalibrateddataforvalid comparisons. is justoneexample, but othercomparisonsexist. Itisadvisabletouseasoiltestmethodforwhich tively. The otherextractants evaluated didnotcorrelatewellundertheconditionsoftheirstudy. This critical values were17and26mgkg 1973). Maieretal.(1989b)comparedeightextractants at33locationsanddeterminedthatthepotato Kuo et al.,1996;Maieret1989b;Mallarino,1997;SmithandSheard,1957; Thomas andPeaslee, 96 P and high in pH and antagonistic (for antagonistic pH (CaCO and in micronutrients) high many carbonate P and Pand calcium having low very bioavailable Plevels. plant-available and low Subsoil matter organic is typically in with hilltops subsoilexposed fields in witheroded true is especially P availability. occurrence This deficient of are afield the inP that when areas field average or isadequate showing evenexcessive haveto uncommon It is types. not conditions.and conditionsofsoil Most a fieldsvariety contain Precommendations. future making in were soil type adjusted for then this interpretations soil test The plant needs. late-season was soil below provide Pto of desorb to average its for ability particular terms in this but rather not did fail, testing soil The none was that needed. indicating interpretation test soil despite the field, amounts ofPmodest showing this fertilizer yieldwith in increases significant trial strip izer afertil conducted agronomist his and farmer The season. of the part later low the trended during field Field season. previously this showed the in grown in crops later records also other cuttings that fieldcontentthe P unusually hay revealed that this low, from was the harvested ofin the especially a fieldhad in Idaho for fields. individual recommendations alfalfa For an example, fertilizer customize to order tions in recommenda fertilizer future of fine-tune to long-term tissue analysis and records Ptrends soil with response. yield with may adjustments improve that other and correlations soil test these examine to is needed research et al., Additional 2000). (Khiari have analysis adjust to ers Al use to P recommendations begun et al., 1992). 1999; Westermann, of et (Lang al.,prediction Presponse 2004; Stark research Other improved significantly soil accurate the in lime of concentration free on the based recommendations on testing. soil For based example,ommendations it was Pfertilizer discovered adjusting the that rec P fertilizer fine-tune to is needed having any assessment Additional of research P soil status. notHowever, than better is aproven it testing soil even and is certainly method, not perfect, if c 3.9.3 leave might results value one the varying doubting of testing. soil These 10 54 mg kg and levelcal was test mg at25 kg Olsen bicarbonate the for with potato et al.,Sanderson 2003). work criti the the of In Johnston(1986), et al. determined researchers these et al., 1998; et al., 2002),Redulla cultivar (Freeman and et al., Maier 1989a; et al., 1967; Murphy 1967; GirouxDermott, al., et al., 1984;et 1978; and Kalkafi Speth, 1997; Kelling al., et Maier 1989b; (Johnston et et al., al., (Birch 1986), 1967; texture and type soil Bishop et al., 1967; Boyd and levels For is awide of environments. by range example, critical and there time potato, in varying soils across differences cultivars or with between change differences with even aspecies within is likely to curve response cultivars may have The untested condition, and requirements. unique environmental every under and soil tested Not been every communities. has crop agricultural and Another important factor to consider when soil testing is the spatial variability of soils and other other of and soils variability factor spatial consider to is the when testing soil important Another along field with should combined yield be of records data test soil performance Furthermore, for crop each trials research response fertilizer with fully vetted Ideally, been has extractant asoil us tomization −1 between years. Similar findings have discovered findings been as crops well.for other Similar years. between medium–high

of S oil T soil test of 15 kg P ha of soil test 15 kg low es −1 ting . There are plenty of are examples. There but results, of such research fortheBrayP1andOlsenbicarbonateextractants, respec −1 (Olsen bicarbonate). However, analysis −1 , but this value varied between between value varied , but this Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook 3 ), ), ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 need with none applied where the Plevels none with where applied the need high. are field the in are than average. that fertile areas the to Technology to applyexists variably fertilizer less likely be to areas unique from samples should taken employed, be be can but ataminimum, fields within Various for variability account to spatial methods interpretation. and sampling poor problem fact, the when, with in shaken lies testing soil in growers faith in having resulted their has levels below where yieldssuppressed fertility cases in average. are the situation this years, Over the above-average ofremoval continual afunction as rates yields. nutrient greater productive in andresult especially are of fields that opposite areas the situation in develop can also for differences plants. to antagonist in Spatial is aknown Pavailability particular (MgCO carbonate magnesium Phosphorus be depleted, with some arguing that we will run out of rock phosphate resources and fossil out and of fuels rock phosphate resources run we that will some with depleted, arguing be might resources study on when is much and these worthyof speculation There conservation. are all and finite, are Some resources of these of Nfertilizers. manufacture the in used gas natural as H (elemental H create to Sused Sminerals Pand include mined used resources The form. mineral is in used of majority P fertilizer eventually The be exhausted. addition of fertilizers. the through or down naturally colossally breaking the slow of through replenished rock minerals be process removed soil, must they eventually are the from words,nor destroyed. other when In minerals neither created be including matter, of can plant as of applies nutrients, conservation insofar mass depletes centers population fertility. to soil law The transport and harvest removal through their levelupon ahigh and of self-sufficiency nutrients, production.crop to contain Cropsregard with seven developing people in mustthan Achieving billion ignored. not be prosperity nations hinges provides fiber food, fuel, and currently for more that developed in earth good perity nations, the for hopes pros continued it.” repeat to condemned humankind If are past the remember cannot examples Santayana George (1863–1952) (Pointing, 2007). who “Those saying that the coined as Empire, Incan the and Empire, Roman the Crescent, Fertile of the demise the to contributed have loss civilizations due many the to of failed or soil productivity.soil Furthermore, Such losses next for Such case on impoverished providing world. nations meal. of of their is many the the the not focused are efforts and time of majority etc., their the because transportation, engineering, education, communication, inexpensive in advances and pursue to plentiful with free food is then productivity. largely built on afoundation are of Apopulace agricultural civilizations Successful 3.10.1 3.10 tests. soil tional conven with of compared Pavailability predictors or less satisfactory better are resins the whether to regard with mixed are results exudates. root Research other acid and organic proton and with interaction is alack of there rhizosphere Furthermore, not operating. are mechanisms interception flow occur, mass androot can toward resin the diffusion although And, horizons. along deeper with topsoil fertile expand the into roots soil, whereas the one place in only in located be can resins the true, is partially filtering) and shaking, chemicals, by asoil (as adding extracting with compared of uptake nutrient mechanisms the to system is more true this that claim the Although analyzed. and extracted place. are capsule is nutrients removed resin Later, the the and soil from taking absorption nutrient with resin, the with solution soil experience. The interacts will then plant roots those to conditions undergoes similar and soil the in lies resin the bag aporous containing is that here cept 3 PO If only one representative sample is taken per field,the field per onlyof onewill representativehaveportions If likely that sample is taken it is The manufacture of fertilizer, however, of fertilizer, manufacture The is not without some cost of of which resources, may of use ion is the exchange testing soil approachto Another (Jones resins et al., 2013). con The

4 from rock phosphate) and fossil fuels for heating during the manufacturing process, as well as process, rock phosphate) from manufacturing the fossil and for fuels during heating PHOSPHORUS FERTILIZER MANAGEMENT P ho sp hor us F ertilizer 3 ), gypsum (CaSO), gypsum I m p ortance

an 4 ), or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO ), bicarbonate or sodium d C on s ervation 2 SO 4 , which is then used to create create to used , which is then 3 ). in Calcium 97 - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 lake and ocean sediments is not realistic with current technologies. Ideally, current with wastes should is not these be realistic sediments ocean and lake should avoided of water to be bodies crops. Loss muchtilization as possible, as Precovery from as fer via generated products wastes, wastes well from as other as animal other and human soils into of point collapse. the to resources natural their squandered failure, their to prior centuries many who, beginning inhabitants generations. Wevation Island future to Easter do not infamous want of actions duplicate to the the Regardless, we for owe centuries. phosphate many of rock for efforts conser best fertilization our recovery technology, Earth’s provide and the improvement that will vast mean resources mining in (Van Kauwenbergh et al., 2013). undeveloped along known with and sources, resources Current (Cordell 2012). decades Marschner, et al., 2009; within However, extreme too far are estimates these 98 is not likely to change in the future. This labeling is unfortunate because, although Pis expressed although because, is unfortunate labeling This future. is not the likely change to in PO P is actually of 45% P aminimum claiming are found ittion, or as (as is typically phosphate) For example, most Pfertilizer. in sellers of 0-45-0 the P as laws, of fertilizer Pis expressed on acontainer fertilizer of creation of the the time atthe materials compositions chemical of the fertilizer tions regarding of order N–P the in macronutrients analysis primary of the guaranteed a must contain sold any product afertilizer that as require lawslabeling. The countries many in fertilizer understand to andconsiderations, Before important it P is sources discussing specific 3.10.2 et al., 2014). (Hopkins PUE increase will contact root–soil enhance factors addition, that In (4) right soluble are conducive have that using and sources product, release patterns for plant uptake. volume is alarge atlocations soil where there the in of nutrients roots; and ment, concentrating uptake; (3) of greatest time atthe availability nutrient place right peak ensuring (2) right timing, conditions; environmental various under on experimentation based rate applying correct rate, the the adopted has industry fertilizer the wise use so indefinitely.the resources, of in to an remain lead effort In will and harvest crop through much as it goal as action should the is reasonably be but possible this do to so. avenues of precipitationvia loss. runoff) It is not reasonable loss stop to the of water Pto completely, (such sewage from facilities) as treatment (such nonpoint source and erosion soil as Ptransport and source point through occurs process This oceans. and lakes, streams, in sediment ends up as tually Pcycle. water systemthe even inevitably surface and the enters waste stream the Some Pin of the Pis never of nature 100%inefficiencyrecovery of fertilizer efficient. theThe other leaky is to due previously, over words, other less forming soluble of In increasing time. cascade the with Pminerals described due reactions soil to oversolubility partially of Recycling P decreases time. P is thwarted and system was the possible, iscame leaky because would demand there enough the not be meet to conditions. current under food recycled productionwaste in costs products would back soils, increases but into result in this exhaust. Alternatively, the with derived from produced, should locally crops be that propose many pollution well as the as of use of fossil the would because that fuels required, be again argument an is wastes, there pay. to these not willing is currently society transport to Even was society willing if comes atacost that which came they from crops of the of point back origin the to manures animal production Transporting centers. animal the near accumulation of production and crop areas the in movement locale. This that largely depletion in in results wastes land to applied are the tions and popula human production and conditions. of Typically, centers to animal transported are crops policies and current under is notact practical but which came, they this from land the to applied Therefore, mineral fertilizers continue to be an important resource to replenish nutrients lost replenish to nutrients resource important an be to continue fertilizers Therefore, mineral which they waste from soil applying back from Even the to nutrients of ideal directly the if atleast two avenues are There of Philosophically, conservation. should recycling society be back P ho sp hor 4 3− and not P and us S o u rces 2 O 5 , but the laws and tradition have institutionalized this labeling. It this laws, but have the tradition and institutionalized 2 O 5 4 Rs of fertilizer stewardship of 4 Rs , which is 45 kg P 2 O 5 for a 100 kg unit. The oxidized state of state for oxidized The a100 kg unit. 2 O 5 rather than its elemental composi than rather , which are choosing the (1) choosing the , which are right Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook 2 O 5 –K 2 O. misconcep to Due ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 desirable, P fertilizer should water atleast 60% soluble be desirable, slow Pfertilizer and or materials controlled-release slow is predictable. Unless that aslowtual is or rate controlled-release or pattern controlled-release water of be to soluble case P, the needs In or at least should have material material. the the even an fertilizer. of this elemental Pin P multiplying by is accomplished rate elemental fertilizer Pto Converting from Pnutrition data. with dealing which expressed is form being when understand to therefore it and confusion, causes is important (eitherform P oxide the expressed being in sometimes waste materials, soils, plants, and in quantities tions and P consistently as Phosphorus to be combined with cations (such with combined be to NH as nutrients. accompanying and ity, choice one ofavailability, the of price, becomes use to which source convenience of application, solubil have DAP, a similar soluble.and 90% fertilizers such MAP than as compared If greater are sources, of water Most season. agrowing soluble course traditional the similarly be to need within dependent. Unlike soluble Pefficiency Unlike dependent. more depend such N, nutrients, as problems fertilizer with However, season. growing the in early is not temperature that have mechanism others atime-release complexed problem same organically having as the controlled, P is temperature also products these Logan, and 1970;al., et McLean 2002; al., et (Hanafi Yanai release In from1997).some cases, of P effective way recycle to nutrients. other Pand by-products application. of loads from these Nevertheless, due heavy to axle is an utilization proper compaction of and soil odor, of cost presence toxins, of imbalances, nutrient transportation, seeds, downsides, potential including many of presence weed are of there nutrients, source good avery as water-soluble serve immediately can or biosolid well. present as material manure Although Pare possibly delayed in resulting amounts of early-season release and Pdeficiencyadequate unless decay, microbial upon temperature-driven depend materials yet, and these is critical, season the andcontrol. previouslyAs predict to in difficult early mentioned, of P is sometimes availability which advantage, coincides plant atimely long with need, Pis fashion supplied as in that the as able. complexed is organically But slowly. released portion and alarge slow an be This release can 1989; Powell etal.,2001). Gale etal.,2000;Gracey, 1984;LaboskiandLamb,2003;Meeketal.,1979;Motavalli etal., subsequent yearsaswell(Abbottand Tucker, 1973;Curlessetal.,2005;Elias-Azar1980; P fertilizers,withreleaseoccurringmostlyinthefirstyearafterapplication but extending into manure is estimated at between approximately half to nearly the same as compared with mineral down thecomplexed Pmoleculesintoplant-available phosphate.Plantavailability ofPfrom cally dependentuponthemineralizationoforganic materials,aprocessthateventually breaks fish meal. Immediate water solubility of these materials is not relevant as the release of P is typi biosolid waste, compostedmanures,andotherwastes, recycled cropresidues,bloodmeal,and KH available well, as such monopotassium phosphate as (MKP; fertilizers mineral other are use. There its in have nuances adecline in resulted industry fertilizer soils, and certain in Pavailability with NH between TSP synergy of was recognition the but popular, the blend the of is effective and plants, crops. Historically, Nneed of supplying the in aportion Pand by Generally, is needed dehydration N also ammoniating. to prior through phosphate ions created APP.and (phosphate ion) DAP. and Orthophosphate is found MAP polymerized in contains APP phosphates, such MAP, DAP, ammoniated globally are ity. used vast of majority The Pfertilizers Phosphorus fertilizer materials generally are blended with other nutrients. A PO nutrients. blended other with are generally materials fertilizer Phosphorus is effectiveness first The source. severalof considerations are when choosingThere afertilizer Manufactured slow- and controlled-release fertilizers are engineered to release to Pover engineered time are slow-Manufactured fertilizers controlled-release and plant avail such, as is immediately and, orthophosphate is present as Much manure Pin of the There arealsoawidevariety oforganically complexed Pproducts,suchasraw manure,treated 2 PO 4 ; 0-52-34), quantities. small in utilized are but these 2 O 2 O 5 2 by 43.7%. of 45 kg For P the 5 O or PO or 5 for fertilizer, there is alack of there consistency for how in fertilizer, Pis expressed for concentra 4 ) and sometimes in the elemental form (P). This variability frequently frequently variability elemental (P). form the in This sometimes ) and 4 + , H 2 O + 5 , K in the preceding example, there would be 20 kg example, would 20 kg there be preceding the in + , Ca 2+ , Mg , 2+ ) to maintain electrical neutral electrical maintain ) to 4 + –N and P, and –N perceived problems 4 3− anion has has anion 99 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 The latter is an organic compound, which is defined as a molecule containing C covalently C as a bonded molecule whichcontaining is defined compound, organic is an latter The term The 2007). Hirnyck, and (Hopkins produce certified for organically required and home gardeners result. potential the as PUE increased with moisture, and of over temperature afunction alevel as high atas spike gradually Pis time released the and soil solution the as phosphate not offormation compounds does P concentration these the minimize may Aslow forcing precipitation ofconstants, phosphate or Pfertilizer controlled-release minerals. solution soil in atlevels Pconcentration increase equilibrium exceed chemical that a temporary et al.,Kissel 1985; 1970). Logan, and McLean in results soluble immediately Adding Pfertilizer al., et 2002; system loss the or gaseous (Hanafi from on leaching on complexation than soil the in 100 ferences. They speculatedthatthese differences likely wereduetopHor micronutrientinteractions. traditional fertilizer Psourcesintermsofimpact oncrops,althoughsome studiesshow minordif alkaline reaction pH. Young et al. (1985) stated that, in general, there are no major differences across the banded application with the APP, which has an acidic reaction pH, as opposed to DAP with an with DAP onsoilswithpHofaboutfive. Theeffect was likely duetothefurther reductioninpH (1981) found that APP resulted in reduced P uptake and potato tuber yield and quality compared also have aneffect onpH,mostcommonlyanacidifyingeffect when nitrificationoccurs.Rhueet al. in reactionpHamongsources (Young etal.,1985).Other fertilizers in theband,particularly N, can does notremainacidicforlong,andtheuptake ofPisnotimpactedmuchbecausethedifference TSP =1.5,and APP =6.2; Young etal.,1985).However, thepHinmicrositearound fertilizer probability. uptake affecting as may important be that differences other are there long However, as root. solution soil it as the the enters or manure, then rock, bones, and from came of regardless it whether atom same of Pis an the Again, used. of regardless plant sources response of soluble rates show but most equal sources, data same across that approximately Presult the in such as terms, related and organic surrounding by a whole, as much terminology of are, the misinformed consumers Modern organisms. these kill to treated biosolids are they and unless pathogens found manures in and possible insects, such the nematodes, as sources, of presence these seeds, weed comparing considerations when important other are There them. consuming ditions for or for plants animals NH of the manufacture the use notthe of MAP,eligiblewith to do fuelshas in are fossil APP for and certification organic that For reason the example, DAP, fertilizers. traditional and possible certified organically between differences other are There every in respect. same is the and any better, food taste notdoes make It source. is not any other safer, Pfrom from indistinguishable way chemically their aplant into are phosphate reserves. rock finite of use awasteful the represents view this since aphilosophical from solubility also and view of practical choice P is apoor the for from commonly use, applying of it fertilizer asource as advocated are meals, bone such some untreated as materials, similar and this acidic soil. Although of insoluble is very but plant-available such, source highly as is apoor and, material anything Pin be effective can products These P sources. conditions of the certification. meets manufacturer their if certified become can products and other organically.manure Composted certified automatically not are such raw complexed as manure, organically many and fertilizers, Traditional Pfertilizers Act UnitedStates). Production (in the Foods Organic of the approveducts authority the under prod denote to ecological term productionduction management system alabeling an as as and [CO(NH fertilizer (not atoms such C, urea other to as including salt-forming containing ionic compounds One difference betweenfertilizersisthereactionpHvalues (MAP=3.5,UAP and DAP =8.0, Engelstad Teramn and (1980) differences reviewed are There effectiveness the of Pfertilizers. anyfinding Patoms that is fertilizers certified organically regarding made be to point Another This rock phosphate. untreated is Pfertilizer examplecertified One inefficient of an organically many with popular that is another avenue is of P fertilization fertilizer certified Organically organic 2 ) 2 ], CO ], here should not be confused with with should here confused not be 2 , and CO , and natural 4 + , but there is no evidence that these sources of P result in unhealthy con of unhealthy Presult in sources is no evidence, but these there that 3 2− as used in foodstuffs. in used as ). In contrast, Hopkins and Hirnyck (2007a) Hirnyck and pro Hopkins organic ). contrast, describe In organically complexed organically complexed Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook P referred to previously. to P referred - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 MAP. This costbecomescommerciallyunmanageableiftransportingmorethanafew miles. composted manure with 1% P has transportation costs more than 50 times greater per unit of P than to ahighanalysisofwater-soluble P, whichresultsinlow perunittransportationcosts.Incontrast,a is avoided toprevent toxicitytothesesmall-seeded species. The popularityofMAPandDAP isdue Meisinger etal.,1978). When growing vegetables onvery alkalinesoilandwithhighratesofP, DAP emergence, reducedstand,and negatively affected yields(Chuetal.,1984;Fixen et al., 1979–1981; ( more damagingtoseedsandseedlingswhenindirectcontact(Armstrong,1999).Highapplications or accumulationofnitrite(NO Phosphorus approach is shortsighted. Instead, urban landscapes need to be fertilized similarly to how farmers how to farmers similarly fertilized be to need landscapes urban Instead, isapproach shortsighted. et al., 2013). (Hopkins bans have fertilizer communities use, many This instituted P fertilizer issues surrounding environmental and aresult As of Papplicationwasted this is substantial. of therefore, amount and the United States, the in crop Turfgrass one irrigated number is the mixture. apply wastefully convenience managers P duescape the to of a fertilizer purchasing land yet and for most urban homeowners homeowners show and Pis needed, no additional that Lab Analytical BYU atthe Environmental of 90% samples soil processed than Greater uptake. efficient at P particularly are landscapes grossly, urban to common especially, and turfgrasses (20% N, 10% P or blends, such a20-10-15 as solid mixtures outlets are available retail in materials Most fertilizer market. fertilizer urban the in may wastefully.results applied common be waste is especially This even an into blended material. solidifying then and nutrients the mixing by and liquefying for solid fertilizers eliminated be can problem problem. this Also, this using awell-mixed blend liquid Again, a long eliminates distance. material the throwing when using spreaders broadcast problem true applications. is especially This size, density, uneven result in of can differing and shape and prills due segregation to of fertilizer problematic be can mixtures These amore complete mixture. make to micronutrients and nutrients macro secondary the Kand/or with commonly is mixed fertilizer Phosphorus product. fertilizer 1983; convenience and on pricing factors (MacLean, based source Rosen Bierman, 2008). and choose to a it is recommended differences, no source reporting voluted researchers other and results 1968). Doll, and (Christenson Michigan in APP yields or TSP higher Given had than con MAP these (Sanderson et al., 2003) TSP MAP and (Giroux et al., 1984). than well better as being as However, However, Florida. in soil et al.,sand (Rhue 1981), APP with yields DAP higher compared in resulted DAP with or TSP on aslightly APP with than acidic higher (1990)Rhue yields 20%–40% reported soil. and Locasio Idaho a calcareous in grown potato phosphate in acid–urea with than APP applied (1989) Ojala yield and results. Stark differing result in yields 9%–15% reported band- with higher water-soluble for all is true soil. This of forms P. aphosphate ionbetween MAP, from DAP, the identical once entering Pis chemically the as or APP not likely distinguish it aplant root, will from distance same of atthe Pis applied amount same equipment logistics. of and safety But terms the in if dealer advantages forsolids, fertilizer and the of for ease combination of applicationsuptake, pesticides, liquid fertigation, ease with no caking their in aid to of micronutrients application,geneity sequestering of blends uniform in resulting homo are for somecited circumstances in reasons using over liquids Legitimate solid P fertilizers for available plant uptake. are once immediately hydrolyzed and soil orthophosphate the to in turn less quickly plant available phosphate are phosphate chains molecules the APP as in polymerized DAP. and lower although liquids, most with MAP other pared the than that It myth is acommon its Panalysis is relatively because is APP com water high fertilizer liquid weight. most popular The ≥ 270 kg P Another difference thatcanbeimportantisDAP canresultingreatervolatilization ofNH A potential drawback of these blends is that a nutrient that is not needed based on soil-testing based drawback is not needed blends of that anutrient A potential these is that up ofa several make to nutrients mixing of the practice common issue is the source Another have sources shown potato, in been to of forms solid various Pfertilizer with liquid Comparing due costs lower to have to tend extra analysis also from transportation higher Liquid fertilizers 2 O 5 ha 2 O −1 ) ofDAP orUAP placednear( 5 , and 15%, and K 2 − ) thanMAPduetothisshort-lived reactionpHand,thus,maybe 2 O). However, have overfertilized landscapes been urban many ≤ 5 cm) orincontactwithpotatoseedpiecedelayed 101 - - - - - 3

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 result is particularly true for the poorly mobile P fertilizers, and as such, the turfgrass and specialty specialty and turfgrass such, as the and for poorly mobile the Pfertilizers, true result is particularly dose, a large receiving but a few those awaycm prill the This nutrient. any of if the little accessing may afew result in around right plants turfgrass to applied overnutrient prill Alarge landscape. the coverage for sizes more uniform of prill small systems root plant. require But small with plants wide of circle of issue the is not exploration soil because an For this crops, most by agronomic each of exploration soil have diameter that plants other by narrow for avery rot and roots plant. each foreseeable the future. in no with Pneeded fertilizer, sulfate ammonium and a metcombination with of be urea can landscape urban for a typical needs fertilizer of the all analysestissuerevealthat and soil not, than approach. a“one-size-fits-all” More often than rather applying and custom on testing soil blends recommendations do business by basing fertilizer 102 (Grierson, 1992; et al., 1997), help acids Zhang organic it to various and is well that documented substances. humic in high naturally are that soils in mightapplication benefit additional from not substances of Plants organic confirmation. research provide who reliablebuyers from can independent companies should are work that products with may products reliable. not be and Thus, largely sales, is unregulated, fertilizer unlike substances, bioavailability earlier. of the However,promotes drawbacks Pwithout listed the of sale humic the P solubility. a prolonged in may improve practice increase through PUE this Doing so theoretically that stated (2007) et al. Andrade Pfertilizers. with acid additives organic fulvic, or other directly humic, concentrated by adding effect potentially biosolids. is accomplished or other This manures acids, but combination organic without with in applied having apply to massive the of quantities Psolubility in when (Sharpley increase the et al., 2003). have harness to efforts There many been or biosolid have of that soils heavy manure applications in commonly ahistory is observed and Sieling, 1953; Holford Mattingly, and 1975; et al., Nagarajah 1970). last for effect can decades This and (Bradley used are when rates high dramatically P solubility plant uptake shown and increase to been has biosolids, compost, waste such materials or manure, other products as in acids organic not likely provide will any benefit. enhancements Pfertilizer other soil, AVAIL the Pin or residual of Pfertilizer rates Pdue high to adequate has or any plant already (2013) AVAIL that states was words, effective a other if In of Pwas rate only when reduced. the when fact it in effective Hopkins is an is not needed, need. whenproduct on soils in used MAP that would soils Ptesting aconclusion to lead on high trials analysis for MAP Asimilar analysis suspect. the most fact makes soils were that the Ptesting done studies, analysis of on on high many these P. test soil one site high with low with other the (2014) and et al. Chien Although ameta- conducted (2011)Puurveen at two no observed response field also grownin siteswith slightlyacidic wheat soil, and Patonly 2of 8sites. Karamanos starter to responded Pand test soil high erately very to high Binford and (2012)McGrath found AVAIL to no response sites mod of had their but all corn, in of would Presponse probability unlikely. Pwhere test soil the be high to medium For example, (2014) by et cited al. nonresponsive Chien of many the was that reports on with soils occurred conclusion One yields review were or results were mixed. this not instances, impacted from other in whereas have yield some of cases, crops. reported, In increases on avariety been studies reported 2014).ies showed Hopkins, (Stark responses and mixed (2013) Hopkins reviews informally other Stevens, and stud two potato and 2008) published were for (Dunn responses and observed rice (2014) on chemistry. Psoil et al. impact Chien effectiveness rebut the of AVAIL. However, positive cations. reviews He also on AVAIL work interfering the sequesters polymer performed that its and Kansas). (2013) Hopkins reviews of mode action for proposed the AVAIL, density charge ahigh widelyvery sold, but controversial, is product AVAIL is relatively high. available, cost are the although that size prill have small industries very with products fertilizer crop Fertilizer prill size is another important source consideration, especially for turfgrasses and car and for consideration, turfgrasses especially source important is another size prill Fertilizer Plants deficientPlants havein P the soil root into shownbeen acids exudation to upregulate of organic Pefficiencysolubility.increase to is enhancing approachto the to bound Another Phosphorus One efficiency additives enhanced fertilizers. and are sources fertilizer to related aspects Other ® (Specialty Fertilizer Products, Leawood, Products, (Specialty Fertilizer Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 acids, which is in contrast to the simple mixing of P fertilizer with an organic acid product prior to to acid prior product organic an with of Pfertilizer simple the to mixing contrast acids, which is in 2014) organic with chemically is product bonded data). unpublished this for Pin The (Hopkins Carbond fertilizer, P aunique with have reported been Pfertilizer with opments combined of acids use with organic yield. and devel More recent quality tuber increased in resulting plant Puptake, acid increased use (2014a,b) on of acids Pnutrition. reviewed organic impact potential the Amberger,and 1998) Tan plant P demands. valuable et al. meeting is (2003)potentially in Hill and tion (Grossl 1991) Inskeep, and even and improve to solubility of poorly soluble phosphates (Singh effective P(Hoffland, precipita P reduce to 1992;al., atmobilizing Oburger ability et 2009). Their and most oxalate, common the and malate, citrate, poorly with nutrients solublemobilize mineral Phosphorus et al., 1998; Johnston et al., 1986). highly have Some correlated researchers be found to testing soil (Bishop inefficient other responders al., P and problematicet potato with 1967;particularly Freeman efficiency is less. uptake the applications and soil-incorporated than higher tions are shown responsive. been be to has However, applica for costs in-season the these it that is common crop the if and aneed applications tissue analysis indicates should if applied Additional in-season be on test. soil based soil the into incorporated and preplant plants Pto of fertilizer rate correct the is efficient notcrop, as butuptake. in-season in be shouldEvery employed corn effort its to apply established an responsiveon be to seems efficient. not as Alfalfa to P are fertilization crops other 2005), the canopy (Westermann, once closesroots amount of dueuse surface-feeding aprolific to is somewhat problem. dueited some to potato unforeseen Although efficient in-season for fertilizer obviously removed be preplant-applied lim being yields situations fertilizer where cannot in the are fields,problematic. are and costthe efficiency Furthermore, but for ofspreader uptake nonirrigated or field airplane via fertilizer done by could approach be applying dry asimilar course, Of a need. system indicates petiole if tissue sampling irrigation the by made applying be ment Pthrough can ity previously However, discussed. (2010a,b) et al. Hopkins adjust in-season found for that an potato, for adjustment whole the is efficiently not as needed This season. done the lackfor P dueto of mobil amount easily cut forecasted to back made the to In the be or add of adjustments case N, can in-season circumstances. other in approachis taken for yield Asimilar in increment each potential. ofupward fertilizer rate in adjustmentments. an with For (2004) example, et al. provided Precommendation abase Stark field, ofincluding the yield history adjustsystem history,to help rate the be used and predict can is relatively P rate optimum it system the is likelyvascular that diseases, low. Evaluation soil of the or or root fertility soil such poor is as not Puptake, to related yield limitation this that Assuming yields. limit conditions drastically factor is yield environmental Someanother and soil potential. system. by plant–soil the integrated are that parameters many are There is only somewhat rate of show soils optimum predictable. the avariety in that grown crops many conducted on propositionstudies rate Thousands of though. is a difficult rate right the tion. Getting sec soil-testing eluded the in been to apply P to already has of fertilizer rate correct the Choosing 3.10.3 on acids Pchemistry. soil organic due plant to physiological but of it suggested the impacts, that is impacts more to likely related Pis not effect likely of found effect the Carbond when also that OM soil and was high diminished apparent soil, but an for results moderate-OM data) unpublished found similar (Hopkins research work is focused on This low-OM UnitedStates. western the in soils, but practice recent common (2003), for Stark work and earlier the is arelatively of as Hopkins and application was as reported In the case of potato grown in calcareous soil, Hopkins and Stark (2003) reported that humic humic that (2003) Stark and reported soil, Hopkins calcareous in grown of case potato the In Although soil testing is a valuable tool, it is not a perfect predictor of P fertilizer need. This case is case This need. is avaluable testing soil ofAlthough tool, it Pfertilizer predictor is not aperfect easily. predicted on be yield pest-related many conditions impacts and cannot Environmental previously. discussed been has as rate, factor impacting However, important Residual Pis soil an P ho sp hor ® P (Land View et al., 2014a,b; Idaho) Inc., P(Land Rupert, (Hill Summerhays et al., us R ate 103 ------Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 is not advisable because the rate needed is generally greater than removal when levels soil test rate than greater is generally needed rate is not advisable the because on removal based alone rate fertilizing approach. It that should noted prohibit be this or guidelines it even to not building also levels.P and higher However, regulations environmental some cases, in of yield risk of the soil loss reduces approach the bank withoutdepleting significantly This high. are is apply to Premovalinces ( 50 100% to rate predicted of the prov and by states many recommended crop, value amethod high potato of the the and results these is sufficient(Bundyal., crops et 2005).for most agronomic al. Rosen et (2014) dueto that, stated levels test Patsoil what et al.,Sanderson 2003). than higher fertilizer to responds Regardless, potato levelstest (Bishop et al., 1967; et al., 1992; Kelling Liegel et al., 1981; Nelson 1947; Hawkins, and were results less the studies, conclusivebut other in soil athigh responses for yield quality tuber and (Bishop plantto response et al., 1967; et al., 1984; 2005), Giroux Westermann, et al., 2004; Stark 104 the season. the P is available long as issue P management, adequate throughout P application as in is not acritical et al., 1958; (Grunes beet sugar Wright, and Lingle 1964). Young (1985) et al. of timing that stated 1987; Sanchez et al., 1990). made findings were for muskmelon ( Similar supply in (Burns, applying with without interruptions ample losses and Ppreplant crop compared in waiting applyto of case resulted lettuce, the P in-season potato. In for “Russet Burbank” fertilizers (2014) et al. Stark and P spring-applied Forbetween instance, fall- difference no significant reported is not Pavailability tremendous. in difference application, versus the afall spring when comparing application afew in-season an with apreplant (Lindsay, weeksfrom later 2001; Sposito, 2008). Even availability is not much when there of comparing is that adifference reality effect, the is areal time inefficiency the the and soil of Althoughapplications.loss of P offoliar solubilitywith Pthrough flawedthe lack due logical,to of practice seem are inthey mobility these Although soil interactions. leaves to application applications directly of avoid to in-season encourage Por to recommend reason holdthat not for hold Nwill for P. such, as constraints it lorenot same is for and, common well the growers understood that assume to is principle N, of havingThis from none P isdifferent very loss of these mechanisms. chemistry the losses gaseous ofand NH 2014;et al., 2008, for of(Hopkins NO leaching Nresult et in al., 2004). mechanisms Loss Stark applications soil broadcast water, foliar or dry or as irrigation with controlled-release sources, section. below discussed cons this and pros in has ofEach these liquid volume water, small rows, foliar sprays. and irrigation with or applied broadcast in-season between or injected surface the to season the either during applied bands concentrated seed, the or near with applied bands soil, concentrated into system) tillage (no or incorporated or minimum placement and choices exist, including surface Several either left broadcast preplant on the timing 3.10.4 levels test soil moderate. are removal when near amounts rates typical with soybean, and corn to similar are crops agronomic P-inefficient other and bycrops. potato Most other required those one-half to one-sixth are rates et al., 1991; et yields al., 1997; economic (Mallarino Randall maximum Webb et al., 1992). These (16–20 range removalP atcrop medium when Pwere test soil the rates in mg kg showed Iowa soybean in applying and that Minnesota corn with and studies crops. Long-term other clearly for well for are Prates most above potato economical required those that stated and rates lowerwith potato. value than approach may justified not of be crops economics for this less the likely and are responses although more efficient be to known response,in P low. are for that are crops used be other approachcan This Also, there is a common thought process that the cascading loss of Psolubility cascading over the that is a thought process is acommon time there Also, slow- it apply to through is a good management practice P in-season With or N fertilization, Rosen (2014) et al. excellent provided an available review information for confounding of P the P ho sp hor us F ertilizer 3 and nitrous oxide nitrous (N and T iming

an d P 2 O) via volatilization and denitrification. However,O) denitrification. and volatilization via lacement Table 3.2 Table Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook ); even Plevels test soil then, Cucumis melo −1 Bray P1) achieved L.) and 3 − - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 the root zone (Fallah, 1979; 2008). Westermann, and et zone (Fallah, al., root 2003; Stark the Stark application enters knife the if fertilization apreplant with compared as plants growing to P fertilizer benefit could offset the of applying pruning root from damage soil, but the the into knifed aband as deposition problem surface The possibly overcome could be P applications applied in-season with erosion.of the chance greater the Pis fixed, that (Sharpley surface the to et al., 2003), nearer the and water surface into is soil erosional transport from Ploss mechanism primary the because concern environmental biomass an may is soil also low be is soil dry. of surface concentration and Pin High applications may top few Pdeposition in-season result in the of in where soil root mm irrigated layer surface the where it in is poorly P mayapplied available remain Broadcast plant to and roots. (Lindsay, soil Pis not nutrients, mobile the other in many 2001;and Sposito, 2008), therefore and Phosphorus increases in yield, even at the highest P rate. A similar response occurred for total yield, for although total occurred response yield, in even Asimilar Prate. highest increases atthe further application in resulted in-season the and increase, rate with steadily P preplant increased to Plevels preplant atall studyyield (0, the in increase 112, 336 kg 224, and P P was underappliedpriortoplanting(Hopkinsetal.,2010a,b,c; Westermann, 2005). into the soil is the best option, “rescue” in-season P applications have some merit with potato when significant increases over theunfertilizedcontrol.Further work showed that,althoughincorporation increase, thein-seasonandsplit(50%preplant50% in-season)applicationsdidnotresultin P fertilizationresultedinsignificantimprovements inyield. Althoughthereweretrendsfor yield applications andonlyiftissueanalysisshows aneed.Hopkins etal.(2010a)showed thatpreplant (2014) suggested that in-season applications should only be supplementary to soil-incorporated P only whentissueanalysisindicatesaPdeficiency (Westermann andKleinkopf, 1985).Rosenetal. 1958; (Barber, crops Peterson et al., 1981; Welch et al., 1966). agronomic and other wheat, winter made findings were corn, for Similar athigh. equivalent status at low atlow versus about with athreefold results, increase Ptest soil P, soil high but approaching etable (Sanchez crops et al., 1990, 1991). efficiency The is greater broadcast versus muchof banding et al., 1980a,b; (Anghinoni plant with roots contact et al., 2010a,b; Hopkins Sleight et al., 1984). better in and soil effective not the as in Papplications are whenin-season as Pis preplant mixed of surface-feeding roots after the canopy closes and completely covers the soil. However, these and Pothersolutesfollow thestemstobedepositedatbaseofplant)andanabundance 2008; Westermann, 2005),likely duetoanuprightcanopy architecture(highpercentage ofwater shown thatmidseasonPapplicationscanbeeffective (Starketal.,2003;Starkand Westermann, surface soilwhenPfertilizerapplicationsconcentrateitinthiszone.Inthecaseofpotato,hasbeen P uptake throughrootsclosetothesoilsurface, many otherspeciesarevery pooratPuptake from major factor. Although somespecies,especiallyperennialssuchasalfalfa andgrasses,areadeptat of the anticipatedP fertilizer required prior to planting in the rooting zone since timing is not a ficient (Lucasand Vittum, 1976;RandallandHoeft,1988).Itmakes theoreticalsensetoapplyall was not significant. pruning root if and soil the into effective incorporated as generally application also if preseason as and Speth season. the Kelling (1997)in applicationin-season early notthat significant of P was found wouldmethod but was likely have development root damage, root area in resulted affected the into emergence. to prior application Alater this via immediately process cultivation the hilling and through soil the into application was control in-season when incorporated the untreated an with compared yieldand P uptake (2008)for potato splitin Bierman application showedas increase asignificant (MacKay et al., 1988;necessary 1984; Westermann, 1985). Kleinkopf, and Westermann Rosen and is not completely practice planting, this ineffective is sometimes or after to soon and prior soil the As discussed previously, discussed As N applicationunlike inefficient ofbecause, in-season Pis inherently an Hopkins et al. (2010b) et al. Hopkins Papplication gave found in-season that aslight, consistent U.S. No. 1 In-season Papplicationprobablyshouldbeviewed asameans oflastresortorrescueandused was found 50% for be versus to of applications broadcast banded veg Pfertilization to rate The However, in-seasonapplicationsthatdonotincludeplacementintothesoilarerelatively inef into application of in-season fact Pis lessDespite that incorporated efficient the when P is than 2 O 5 ha −1 ). The response ). response The 105 - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 tricalcium phosphates (Lauer, 1988;tricalcium O’Neill et al., et al., 1979; 1965). Stanberry Bar-Yosef et al. phosphoricphosphate, acid movingand urea downward more effectively and or di- APP than phosphate, monocalcium with MAP, water haveapplication of reported, irrigation Pwith been et al., 1955). (Stanberry movement of irrigation rate Psource high very in Differences through Reuss, a receiving and 1976) asand aloamy (Hergert sand 18 cm through 45 cm to through and flow. rapid with soils macropore in soil, especially in moved Phosphorus distances ofdepth to a were results mixed. the fertigation, although 2014). (1984) Westermann supplemental with P yields and increased generally found Puptake that et al., yields longer with Oregon higher (Hopkins thus, in conditions season and, trials separate in Pleveled preplant to response the rate of applied first results off atthe P. found Horneck similar 106 in soluble P, particularly during the critical early-season growth period. Kovar Barber (1987) period. soluble and early-seasonin growth critical the P, during particularly but allows bathe to plant roots is temporary increase soil. This bulk the in is broadcast amount same when with the compared band bioavailable the of center in afertilizer a 60-fold the Pin increase solublesoil, providing ahighly (2014) et al. for pool Hopkins plant uptake. showed is about there that the in zone in a small these effects amplifies injection or point greatly band fertilizer A concentrated Plevel solution soil in et al., equilibrium increase 1985; (Kissel an Lindsay, 2001; Sposito, 2008). of Psupply avenue means other plants. to The this is through impacts greatly Broadcast fertilization uptake. soluble P. of and encounter aroot or precipitated adsorbed likelihood the site Each increases atleast two readily with more microsites avenues. through are Pavailability there impact First, relatively applications. or ground surface canopy more efficientthan is soil the into application, but incorporation factor for is not acritical Pfertilizer timing summary, Hanway,and 1976; et al., 1982a,b; Harder Boswell, and Parker 1980; et al., 1977). Robertson In delays no or negative and maturity in Wardlaw,resulted and yield (Batten responses 1987; Garcia S, etc.) foliar K, application (N, cases, of many nutrients Palong other In with orthophosphate. often with than tetrapolyphosphate and soybean were tri- yields with and toxicity higher that of and corn without causing leaf orthophosphate than up threefoldto greater at rates applied could be fertilizers However, Black Barel and (1979a,b) found several phosphate polyphosphate some that other and low toxicity as in Pconcentrations with resulted 0.16%. some as compounds and were minimal very acidthe most vegetable was effectivethat orthophosphoric responses the but source, finding crops, Wittwer soil application. and (1951) Silberstein P foliar sprays inorganic on and evaluated organic afoliar spraytion as incorporated applied was P was much an supplied as less all effective if than Upadhyay was plants not (1988) increased. the et al. Pin total and unaffected found Pfertiliza that yields but that at12% were need, total of plant parts the harvested in sprays Pabsorption in resulted negative are no or there Teubner responses. are there cases, (1962) et al. found multiple that foliar many in and fashion but demand, delivered not be enough high this of meet to in Pcan amount field was tested. foliar Pnutrition to atany of nolocations response there three nutrition, et al., 2001; Rosen et al., 2014). Koller and (1987) Hiller Although foliar foundto responses general showed studies foliar applicationsyield alone. Other no than benefit of foliar-applied P (Allison applicationsoil P of 404 kg sprays of just 11 kg P zone. root the or in near placed and is used Psource proper the water and movementif is soil adequate through 1989). Mikklelsen, effective be can 2000; Application Hochmuth, of and irrigation Pwith (Carrijo zone root the to or near in form placement the to of aconcentrated related Pin likely are broadcast Pis more effective where irrigation-applied for than tomato. Instances incorporation preplant than water was more effective irrigation (2000) in found Papplied Hochmuth that and sand. Carrijo (1995) Pfor on grown sweet corn drip-injected and broadcast found between no differences Although movement of soil P is very minimal in most cases, soluble fertilizer P can move Pcan most soluble cases, in movement longAlthough fertilizer of minimal Pis soil very Nutrient placement can increase PUE (Kissel et al., 1985; (Kissel PUE Nutrient placement increase can can Stevens et Fertilization al., 2007). alimited general, crops. In of other applications awide variety Foliar have in studied been (1962) potato. Laughlin in studied foliar application been of also Phas Direct found 18 that foliar 2 O 5 ha −1 2 O gave potato, butin notyieldwith combined when asignificant increase 5 ha −1 . However, greater asignificantly application soil in resulted the Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 row or beyond (1961, for potato. Hammes 1962) applied for fertilizer found banded Puptake little Porter, 1999). Moorby (1978) adjacent the fur in applied labeled fertilizer from found no Puptake Tanner, and 1976; systems root (Lesczynski for small with species and especially uptake, Opena 2014). Stephens, 2008, and or no system P root little in results main the from Placement far too above 7–8 from or below (Hopkins piece ranging awider ofwith range depth seed acceptable the away placementfor although slightly at7–8 cm, is generally most further is Potato species. similar, for bywhich grow to tend seed interception diagonally roots, early down the from side 5 cm and the to at5 cm placement species, most is recommended generally other and Forcongregated. corn P-fixing soils high low with (Kovartest P in andsoil especially Barber, 1987). about 5% contacts volume, soil of Pbanding the if likely increase show to modeling will used PUE Phosphorus When soil test values are high, it is generally not recommended to apply to P(Stark it abroadcast et al., not high, is generally recommended values test soil are When low with soils Pto levels test soil banded medium to apply and broadcast both (Stark et al., 2004). photosynthates; with consequently, root back the to then and shoots the to it to is best transported inefficiency theP because another. would This is to haveroot efficiently be distant to from one zone. Pis it mobile plants, Although in may rooting translocated not be entire the throughout developing early low the in Pnear pH by soils 2005). system root concentrating Eliason, (Rosen and 1989),Ojala, solution akey being beneficial pH factor. fertilizer of been the has with the also Banding (Stark soil and calcareous in Psource with effectiveness shown been vary to Pfor has of banded potato application Papplications even (Stark no additional et al., 2004). The recommends test soil when the have that such applications those as over received heavy may manure plants respond aband to time, extractable P ofOlsen 8–18 bicarbonate mg kg (2%–12% soil calcareous Pfor in grown conjunction potato broadcast-incorporated with CaCO optimum. of “catch-up” are length conditions season growing sometimes and the if do not always bands can plants end due to as of concentrated to yieldboosts season equate increases, petiole P, yield in quality. and gains being However, consequence the with early-season growth of concentrations potato higher and of early-season growths rates root shoot and increased result in 2012). systemroot (Marschner, (2014) et al. Hopkins often bands concentrated these that stated apoorly developed and due low to when is most temperatures soil Pavailability limiting growth Soltanpour, 1969b; et al., for 1992). Sparrow early-season especially P uptake, Pincreases Banding 1976;Jackson Carter, 1997; and Speth, and Kelling Jones, and 1980; Kingston Liegel 1981; et al., over yield quality tuber asingle and 1954; application potato broadcast (Hawkins, in increases tional addi in results P, often band a replacement for aconcentrated fertilizer in soil Pto broadcast adding application. abroadcast not with always Although side compared 2 cmthe seed) and down the from P, (1971) Steenberg and Baerug showed (5 cm band adoubling of aconcentrated Precovery from to Widdowson, and Mattingly 1958; et al., 1985; Randall Syers et al., 2008). Using radioactively labeled 1%–10% with ery) compared et al., 2014; (Hopkins applied Pis broadcast the if et al., Kissel 1985; 2014). Stephens, 2008, and P solubility(Hopkins benefit increased the of realize to intact of band Premains concentrated the that It is crucial avoid to depth is soil disturbed. whenplanting atplanting the band of the disruption the than deeper and piece side the to seed of placed be the band concentrated the it that is essential case, this when applied In Poften rows for formed. common the with potato, cation are is especially atplanting. applied However,are appli application Preplant preplant. is the applied some cases, in bands most Usually, effectively band. fertilizer concentrated these fertilizer apply aconcentrated Stevens2006; al., et andEllsworth, 2007). first (Hopkins few growth of weeks the in dominant taproot the intercept to order below in placement seed should directly the beet, be 5 cm piece.the below side seed to Forthe sugar of mostoccurred efficient 30 cm the that and uptake For maximum effect, the fertilizer needs to be placed in an area where roots are likely to be likely be to are where roots area an in placed be to needs fertilizer effect, the For maximum Despite the benefits of applying P in a concentrated band, all plant roots require adequate P adequate require roots plant all band, benefits Despite the of applyingconcentrated in a P Pwas in applied fertilizer show results additive banded research if an response Recently reported efficiency Puptake 25%–35%to increase bands recov fertilizer Appropriately placed (firstyear to order in species of individual architecture morphology root and understand to It is important −1 (Hopkins et al., 2014). (Hopkins soils, testing moderately high In 3 ) with with ) 107 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 minating seeds and seedlings. Fertilizer can be applied in direct seed contact as long as the rate is long rate as contact the as seed direct in applied be can Fertilizer seedlings. and seeds minating extremely becomes osmotic soil negative, for potential the desiccate plant if tissues ger particularly found However, form. salt in are nutrients all and water uptake, regulate to order in excessive salts salts need Plants seeds. with contact direct in applied show species are rates toxicityOther high if (1999) pieces. seed potato with found contact negative direct Pwas in applied when results banded have for on that soils Pfixation. potential banded ahigh Pbe of the all that essential soil. Rosen (2014) etadvantage al. for textured application band on amore coarse it that is stated (1981)an find did they effective on soils, twoalthough as be to sand found banding broadcasting as 2014; Stephens, 2008, and Hopkins 2006; Ellsworth, Rosen and et al., 2014).(Hopkins Liegel et al. P residual 2004). high soils with However, P in incidents of banded to responses reported are there 108 these simple organisms are fertilized with nutrient-rich pollution, theiryieldsincrease similarly to nutrients. Inmost freshwater systems,Pisthe primary limitingfactor foralgal growth. When Sharpley etal., 1999). Algae andother aquatic organisms arelike land plants, needing P and other treat. and massiveto identify difficult very are contributions nonpoint and source sources, removed. not been has However, P typically hazards, P evenwas of removed the all point if from water Even bodies. remove to surface into when wastes dumped treated other being pathogens and Ryden et al., industrial 1973). P-rich and from municipal primarily Point pollution source occurs et al., 1973; (Romkens nonpoint sources and point problem from tion. The water to is related quality P pollu with impaired are water bodies of all Agency one-third (EPA) more than that declared has et al., 2014). (Ruark Protection contaminant Environmental the UnitedStates, environmental the In positive many Despite the roles of P, it that is an known its use, it widespread not long became after e 3.10.6 important. isof also nutrients water and Ample, conservation. but not resource excessive and quality environmental improving availability with productivity simultaneously crop sustain to BMPs for Pfertilization of growing and plants the management of asociety, plants. As Pnutrition in the help guiding tools follow we to greatly in need conditions. growing and Tissue species analysis soil across observed and widesoil, with differences from it in obtaining difficulty their role and its plants essential in understand to It is vital centuries. Puptake. enhance system, root greatly which can ahealthier promote to toxicities herbicides, pathogen or other avoidto damage, and salt, insect due tillage, to damage root is important that is especially OneBMP practices. for specific call circumstances tions, but specific condi and (BMPs). crops across applied management practices best be BMPs can these general, In (2007a) et al. Hopkins and (2007) Hopkins reviewed and plant more to Pforthe Miller absorption. should expose growth root Pis poorly increases As soil, any factor soluble that the in immobile and b 3.10.5 seeds. large with species than or seedling seed the close to by in salts proximity impacted more readily be to tend species seeded small plants. to Furthermore, damage salt likely result to in relatively conditions soil are dry more status, of moisture soil is afunction damage salt because that conditions. Note environmental and soil and for is acceptable species applied rate the the that ing show without contact soluble research seed To salts. direct should in applied be safe, be no fertilizer relatively often seed to applied cations are accompanying although nutrients, more other safely than directly more soluble be is less Pcan on concentration salt than Thus, K. such Nand nutrients, as impact solid into such, As forms. is its quickly majority precipitated direct the because is minimal its effect salt is component, asalt but when it afertilizer Orthophosphate as is applied high. not too It should be noted, however,It should noted, be Hegney bad. McPharlin be and can much too of that thing agood The problemwithPentering surface water isrelatedtonutrientenrichment(Ruarketal.,2014; last two the in success amajor societal to contributor been has plants Pnutrition in summary, In nvironmental es t M anagement I ssu P es ractices I m p act F ertilization Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 bacterial bloomsaswellandcanresultinpoorpalatabilityofthewater fordrinkingandlivestock industries andrecreationalactivities. Inadditiontoalgal growth, eutrophicationcanresultincyano causing unsightlyandodoriferousproblems,aswellnegative impactsonfishingandotherrelated can resultinthebroadscaledeathoffishandotheraquaticorganisms, whichalsorequireO deplete itofO including O the deathofalgae. The microbesresponsiblefordecomposingthealgae alsorequirenutrients, fere withrecreationandaquatic-basedindustries.However, themostseriousproblemoccursupon blooms occur. Bythemselves, thepopulationofalgae canbeunsightlyandodoriferousinter come (Correll,1998;Schinder, 1977). Therefore, whenadequatesunlightandheatarepresent,algal what happenswithmorecomplex landplantswhenthemostlimitingfactor forgrowth isover Phosphorus desorption–sorption anddissolution–precipitation reactionsthatcause P toexist insoilsolution which istransported tosurface water. The quantity of Ptransportedasdissolved Pisafunctionof face and, assuch,precipitationevents thatresult in overland flow of water tendtopickupsoluble P, drainage. tile suchas drainage ofby presence artificial the movement subsurface by that preferential flowstated of Pis dominated exacerbated macropores via with soils lowporous andorganic macropores; well-defined capacities).with P-sorption alsoThey (e.g., soils landscapes fine-textured pathway certain soil; in sandy well-structured, important an be water, to land flow from subsurface pathway can dominant byconsidered the which Pis transported 1994). Sims, and 2003; Mozaffari (2014) et al. Ruark is historically runoff surface while that stated et al., 1996; Eghball et al., (Brye et al., 2002; et al., 1999; Hansen systems drains Kleinman and water movement enter subsurface where in soil action results Pcan the This high. through atypically are concentrations equilibrium the that soil in so high become can Pconcentration not common, wastes. nutrient with oversupplied become to tends facilities animal concentrated these surrounding immediately land the instead, So, consumed. fuel cost of food of and the the pay to apart as society, is unwilling point, this to which costs, transportation due back high to where to came they not transported but land are the back applied to wastes are generally manure These wastes accumulating. their with animals, the fed to are feedstuffs These operations. animal concentrated to transported and area geographical awide- from harvested are crops et is al., that 1964). scenario (Hannapel sources typical The inorganic nonpoint major of Pis much problems. the the source more mobile than soil Organic in water of into contributor bodies. Ploading nonpoint source Ploading. result in However, that Psources, the largest ofas anthropogenic is identified agriculture systems,as as a well variety natural are andprevent. There muchto identify of more difficult Pare Pfor out precipitate to the removal, prohibitive. of costs be doing although so can Nonpoint sources cause eutrophication(Correll,1998;Sawyer, 1947;Sharpley etal.,1999; USEPA, 1996). are generallysmallcomparedwiththetotalPinsoil,concentrationsaslow as0.02mgPL for totalPinflowing waters (Ruarketal.,2014). AlthoughthetotalPlossesfromagriculturalfields lished a critical maximum for P, such as 0.05 mg total P L has adoptedthissameguidelineforfreshwater systems(Danieletal.,1998).Otherstateshave estab the criterionof0.001mgtotalPL that noofficialU.S.standardhasbeensetforPloadingtofreshwaters; however, USEPA established els insurface waters andforpracticestoreducePloadingofwater bodies.Ruarketal.(2014)stated et al.,2001;Ryden1973;Sharpley etal.,1993;Shi2011; Withers andJarvie,2008). examining lossesdueto Ppollution(Buczko andKuchenbuch, 2007;Chienetal.,2011;McDowell and human healthhazards(Kotak et al., 1993; Lawton and Codd, 1991). There are many reviews However, mostof thePtransportisasurface phenomenon. Ptendstoaccumulateatthesoilsur (Sharpley movesPhosphorus et al., mechanisms 1994). water to various via land from Although are mostly, and, application Pfertilizers from soils of traditional manure Phosphorus-enriched known andthe solubilityof P using easily principles identified cleaned for soils are Point sources This increasingprobleminrecentyearshaspromptedregulations andguidelinesregarding Plev 2 . Insomecases,theirpopulationexceeds thecarryingcapacityofwater bodyasthey 2 and createahypoxic condition(Correll,1998; Danieletal.,1998). This condition −1 formarineandestuarywater (Parry, 1998). The stateofFlorida −1 in streams that enter lakes and 0.1 mg L ranging ­ranging 2 , again −1 can can 109 −1 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 along with high precipitation rates. Steep slopes nonvegetated Steep precipitation rates. along and more offsite proneto high with are soils dissolved Ploss, due precipitation erosion to (Good et al., spring with 2012). maximum than Ploss wasgreater five times particulate annual maximum losses the were similar, dissolved P andsediment-bound annual the median of fieldsthat, whereas toring in Wisconsin Pmovement. year-roundaverage found moni during particulate Researchers to of 86% attributed water erosions. and (2014) solids et wind al. via Ruark mineral show that several cited an sources residue cover). is afunction of thefactors that cause surface runoff to occur(e.g.,slope, surface roughness, and (Sharpley etal.,1993,1994).Ruarkal.(2014)statedthattransportofdissolved Pmovement 110 risk factors, along with bioavailable P concentration in soil. It is recommended that soils in close factors, along in soils bioavailable with risk that soil. It in is Pconcentration recommended P pollution (Sharpley et al., 2003). Pindexes aforementioned soil-loss The the factor to tend in et al., 2001;Kimmell McDowell et al., 2001; et al., Sharpley 2001)]. Hudson, et al., 1995; 2004; Hart (Gburek et al., 2000; of intensity, duration rainfall and and timing, focus [e.g., water, practices, conservation surface to management, crop slope, distance type, soil primary of control to the erosion soil waters, efforts are of contamination source main P is the slope water close to steep (Sharpley and proximity et al., 1992; et al., Sims particulate As 2000). easily, waterConditionsphication of bodies. must nearby especially exist where Pis transported issue inlocaleswithanabundance offarm manure(Gintingetal.,1998;Shepard,2000; Sims,1998). also reflectsthistrend,withsomelocalesdecreasinginsoil test P. However, soilPisespeciallyan through thelate1990s,but thenstabilized. The InternationalPlantNutritionInstitute(IPNI, 2011) in decline. The BrayP However, BundyandSturgul (2001) statedthat,althoughexcessive applicationcontinues, thetrendis A survey of1928farms in Wisconsin revealed that80%applied excessive Ptocorn(Shepard,2000). due to P applications in excess of crop need (Bundy and Sturgul, 2001; Sharpley et al., 1994, 2001). 2004;Sharpley,et al., 1995). There hasbeenatrendforincreasinglevels ofsoilPinsomelocales of P loss, although the relationship is not perfect (Cox and Hendricks, 2000; Daniel et al., 1993; Hart Andraski andBundy(2003)concludedthattraditionalsoilPtestsareeffective forpredictingtherisk water (AndraskiandBundy, 2003;CoxandHendricks,2000;Poteetal.,1996,1999;Sims,1998). employed be can that avoid to of soils. accumulation Pin the strategy is another transport although long distances, manure is paying transport to than agreeable is Idaho. more Movinglocales financially in other to income operations of agricultural source main the as potato haveproductionsrecently and cattle fields. surpassed farm from For example,dairy have for capacity ahigh precipitation Pfixation, is awaylow,further be tendto and bodies water soils thewhere States of into United states operations western dairy of influx an been has there that is prevent to ment strategies Ppollution. agriculture example One of impacted action has how this incentives growersto imple financial (NRCS)to offered various has Service Conservation Resource Natural applications. The fertilizer even and and for manure to homeowners regard with farmers isegy avoid to have laws excessive Many areas passed the fertilizers. and application of manures et al., et al., 1998; 1998; Ginting et al., 2000; et Eghball al., Sharpley 1994). most obvious The strat Plevels,test (3) of and (2) Papplied, implementation manner of and and BMPs rate (Daniel rate et al., 1994). (2014) et al. Ruark relative management include concerns source to that (1) stated soil reduction of movement management) of et al., awater Pto (transport 2014; body (Ruark Sharpley away. further applied close asoil to Papplied if awater to much water body than deposited in more likely be to fertilizer afactor, or water to is also manure with Proximity P movement transport. soil water and through Another mechanism of P movement to surface water is due to transport of P adsorbed to soil and and soil to of of Padsorbed Pmovement mechanism water is dueAnother transport to surface to There have been significant efforts in the United States to developto the States in United have indexesefforts There significant P been to help prevent (2014) et al. Ruark for test having is soil not ahigh enough that Pin cause eutro aloneto stated Several studies show a positive correlation between concentrations of P in soil tests and in runoff reduction of Pavailable the control to Plosses target forPractices loss (source management) and area land unit per of have have to animals tend water bodies that abundance P-enriched an Areas 1 soiltestconcentrationsincreasedfrom34to51mgkg Handbook of Plant Nutrition of Plant Handbook −1 between about 1970 betweenabout1970 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 10:31 01 Oct 2021; For: 9781439881989, chapter3, 10.1201/b18458-6 relative transport risk (surface runoff, erosion, and/or subsurface flow). (surface erosion, risk subsurface runoff, and/or relativetesthigh transport P or soil If a site has coincident high with are Pand or test soil Padditions high with is, those factors, that transport and forces the of to soil exposure of erosion. bare due to risk in of concentration P, increase surface the reduce can soil is atemporary the but there into P Incorporating runoff. in and P water soil to capture be used fields can and bodies water farm when is soil voidmore likely occur to Similarly, of plant growth. between vegetated buffer strips erosion soil as is much of Ptransport risk the place. decreases vegetated asoil Keeping greatly takes Papplications without incorporation much of if loss, risk especially or fertilizer manure accept judiciously. and should carefully applied be have Pfertilizer Soils that that and low Pcan test soil slopes, on steep should not applications are receive that water, to those manure proximity especially Phosphorus Andrade, F.V., E.S.Mendonca,I.R. Silva, andR.F. Mateus.2007.Dry-matter productionandphosphorusaccu Anderson, G.1975.Otherorganic phosphoruscompounds.In Anderson, G.1967.Nucleicacids, derivatives, andorganic phosphorus.In Alvarez-Tinault, M.C., A. Leal,andL.Recalde-Martinez. 1980. Alva, A.K. 1992.Differential leaching ofnutrientsfromsolublevs.controlled-releasefertilizers. Alt, D.1987.InfluenceofP-andK-fertilization onyieldofdifferent vegetable species. Allison, M.F., J.H.Fowler, andE.J. Allen. 2001.Effects ofsoil-andfoliar-applied phosphorusfertilizers onthe Alexander, M.1977. Abbott, J.L.and T.C. Tucker. 1973.Persistenceofmanurephosphorusavailability incalcareoussoil. REFERENCES Ppollution to regard with atic risk. problem is very water close to bodies in proximity areas high-rainfall production in potato is that line bottom as The suggested here.great may as risks be not the that fieldsandpollution potato from water erosion of soil. However, on P research (2014) et al. Ruark is minimal there that stated also slow very bywith and wind give early-season growth, extremely Ptransport to susceptibility high along exposure soil over that, bare result four in operations soil. of These complete the turning near involve all operations harvesting and planting, hilling, the then conducivesoil and growth, tuber to friable create to order in spring or early fall the in receives soil tillage crops. The most deep other for relatively bare for remaining soil than longer the of production in results time potato periods typical Papplications. Furthermore, require levels test soil may with high still very are areas that even and tion athigh exceptionally levels. test soil high high-rainfall in grown potato some cases, In respond Pfertiliza to to continues species, other most all Essentially, unlike potato, issue is that the (2014),et al. who give excellent an review problems of unique potato. with Ppollution the and previously discussed problem is been reviewed The species. has and potato by thoroughly Ruark unique is our exception rule The this to well of below Ptransport. risk is of ahigh where that there level for is for is considered production optimum of and P is needed Pthat which test soil no added et al., 1998; (Daniel cumstances et al., Sharpley 1994, 2001; et al., Sims For 2000). most the crops, levels of P, test soil for risk Ploss low. is also for risk Plossthe water to is much less. afield Likewise, but if has low next is to a located stream or stream, alake but near is not located or fertilizer of manure addition nutrient from amounts high Fortunately, reasonable be solutionsto seem there avoid to problems of P pollution most cir in (2014) et al. 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